Thin- Walled Structures 24 (1996) 335-352 Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Limited Printed in Great Britain.

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0263-8231(95)00042-9

Analysis of Failure Mechanisms Observed in Axial Collapse of Thin-Wailed Circular Fibreglass Composite Tubes

A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous & M. B. Ioannidis

Department of Mechanical Engineering,National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece (Received 20 June 1994; accepted 10 March 1995)

ABSTRACT Theoretical analysis of the failure mechanism of the stable mode of collapse of thin-walled fibreglass composite tubes under static axial compression, based on experimental observations and taking into account all possible energy absorbing mechanisms developed during the process, is reported. Crushing loads and the energy absorbed are theoretically predicted. The proposed theoretical model was experimentally verified for various composite materials and tube geometries and proved to be very efficient for theoretically predicting the energy absorbing capacity of the shell.

NOTATION bcr Fx G k L Lc ls n P P Angle of axial split Horizontal force component Fracture toughness Constant Axial length of tube Length of central crack Side length of wedge Number of splits Crushing load Mean post-crushing load 335

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A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. Ioannidis

ertla~ Peak load

D Di Do Rad
s

T
t

W
ct t~cr

0 #
t7

Mean diameter of tube Inside diameter of tube Outside diameter of tube Adhesive energy per unit area of layers Displacement Shear force Wall thickness Energy absorbed Angle of wedge Material parameter Semi-angle of wedge Friction coefficient Stress.

INTRODUCTION Extensive experimental work concerning the axial collapse of thin-walled composite shells of various geometries and material under various loading conditions demonstrated a high energy absorbing capability of these materials. 1-7 Failure modes based on experimental observations were developed. The mode of failure of thin-walled cylindrical composite tubes in axial collapse depends on a large number of material, structural and testing parameters, such as fibre arrangement, properties of the material constituents (matrix and fibres), geometrical dimensions of the tubes, strain rate etc.1-4 From the wide experimental treatment of axisymmetric tubes made from fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composite materials, the following main modes of failure were observed during their axial compression4 (i) progressive crushing with microfragmentation of the composite material, associated with large amount of crush energy (Mode I) (ii) brittle fracture of the component, resulting in catastrophic failure with little energy absorption (Mode II) (iii) progressive folding and hinging similar to the crushing behaviour of thin-walled metal and plastic tubes, showing a medium energy absorbing capacity (Mode III). Experimental interest was therefore focused on the progressive crushing Mode I, which constitutes the most efficient mode of energy absorption. Attention was directed towards the exploration of crushing mechanisms and their effect on the energy absorbed during the whole process, provid-

Analysis of failure mechanism

337

ing in this manner, a more considerable insight of the mechanical response of the tube. In the present paper we report on a theoretical analysis of the failure mechanism pertaining to the stable mode of collapse (Mode I) of thin-walled fibreglass composite tubes subjected to axial static compression. Microphenomena involving fracture and their contribution to the absorbed energy were taken into account. Crushing loads and the energy absorbed are predicted. The theoretical model was constructed based on experimental observations for various composite materials and tube geometry. Comparison between theory and experiments concerning crushing loads and energy absorption was good, providing, therefore, that the proposed theoretical model is efficient for predicting the energy absorbing capacity of the crushed tube.

F A I L U R E MECHANISM: E X P E R I M E N T A L OBSERVATIONS In order to obtain experimental evidence about the governing failure mechanism during the axial compression of thin-walled fibre-reinforced composite circular tubes, tests were performed between the parallel steel platens of an SMG 100 tonne hydraulic press fully equipped and computerised. All tests were carried out at a crosshead spread of 10 mm/min or a compression strain rate of 10-3/sec. Two different kinds of fibreglass composite material, designated as composite materials A and B respectively, were used for testing. Material A was a fibreglass composite material with individual fibre diameter of 9/~m chopped strand mat with random fibre orientation in the plane of the mat. The tubes were fabricated by rolling pieces of fibreglass cloth onto a rotating wooden mandrel of suitable circular section and impregnating it with a polyester resin, providing in this manner with a composite material of 72 wt% fibre content and 1-37 g/cm 3 density. Material B was a commercial fibre reinforced composite material. According to the manufacturer's specifications the laminate fibre lay-up was hand wrapped around a rigid foam core and plastic staples were used to hold the lay-up on the core during the resin transfer moulding process. Details on specimens geometry are given in Table 2 for both materials tested, whilst the properties for materials A and B and the lay-up for material B are presented in Table 1, see also Refs 4-7. Stress-strain curves as obtained from quasi-static tension test for both materials A and B are shown in Fig. 1. The specimens tested collapsed following the failure Mode I, associated with the progressive collapse of the shell and the formation of continuous fronds which spread radially outwards and inwards in the form of a

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A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. Ioannidis

TABLE 1 Material Properties

Material
A B

Rad (kJ/mm 2)
0.011 0.050

G (kJ/mm 2)
0.020 0.192

ao (kN/mm 2)
0.18 0.33

#l
0.30 0.33

#2
0.55 0.62

k
0.14 0.07

6or (mm)
1.6 1.2

Laminate, fibre and resin properties for material B Laminate thickness: 2-30 m m Laminate fibre lay up: [(90/O/2R~)/(2R~/O/90)/Rc.75] Laminate glass content: 33-9 vol.% Laminate material density: 1550 kg/m 3 Fibre materials (90/0/R~) = Biaxial glass fibre with 502 g/m 2 random chopped glass mat stiched together with polyester thread Thickness: 1.65 m m (dry, uncompressed form) Weight: 1-17 kg/m 2. Rc.75 = Random chopped strand mat Thickness: 0.41 m m (dry, uncompressed form) Weight: 0.25 kg/m 2. Resin formulation: Dow Derakane 411-C-50 (vinylester) MEKP 60-1.5% Conap (Cobalt) 64).3%
D M A - 0.2%

Viscosity: 100 cp Shrinkage: 10 vol.%.

'mushrooming' failure, see Fig. 2 and Table 2. Micrographs at various regions of the crush zone and for different deformations, over the tube circumference, were obtained by examining metallographic specimens cutoff from the damaged region of the compressed specimens on a UNIMET metallographic optical microscope equipped with photographic facilities, see Fig. 3. As deformation proceeds, the externally formed fronds curl downwards with the simultaneous development of a number of axial splits, see Fig. 2(b), due to the developed tension in the circumferential direction of the shell followed by splaying of material strips. They mainly depend on shell material and stacking conditions. The length of the splits probably derive the effective column length of the material strips undergoing loading. It was clearly observed that the formation of these strips was more distinct and the number of the splits was greater for the specimens of material B. Axial tears were not apparent in the internal fronds which were more continuous than their external counterparts for both materials. Typical load--displacement curves, for materials A and B, i.e. the varia-

Analysis of failure mechanism

0.40

339

E E
Z

0.30

..

90*

t;
ul U~ tUl (U -

Z
o. o
0.10

/)o

I--

0.01

0.02

0,03

Tensile strain
Fig. 1. Tensile stress-strain curves of composite materials tested.

tion of crushing load, P, with shortening of the shell, for the end-crushing Mode I are shown in Fig. 4. Initially the shell behaves elastically and the load rises at a steady rate to a peak value, Pm~x, which depends on shell geometry and material characteristics, and then drops abruptly. At this stage, a central intrawall crack of length Lc forms at the end of the shell adjacent to the loading area, see the experimentally obtained micrograph of the crush region in Fig. 3(a) and the schematic diagram in Fig. 3(b). Note, however, that the formation of additional longitudinal interply cracks, at both sides of the main central one, see Fig. 3(a), may be attributed to bending due to non-parallel alignment between the tube and the press platen. Due to the elastic deformation of the shell a bulge of the upper edge of the shell adjacent to the loading area is formed, see also Fig. 3(b). In the post-crushing regime the load increases with increasing deflection and then it starts oscillating about a mean post-crushing load, P; the formation of the first peak and drop of the load, see Fig. 4, may be associated with the formation of two equal lamina bundles bent inwards and outwards due to the flexural damage which occurs after the abrupt load drop at a distance from the contact surface equal to the wall thickness, t.

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A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. Ioannidis

/.,0 mmI I (a)

30 mmI (b)

Fig. 2. Terminal crushing modes for specimen 10 (see Table 2): (a) side view; and (b) top view.

At this stage, a triangular debris wedge of pulverised material starts to form; its formation may be attributed to the friction between the bent bundles and the platen, see Figs 3(c) and (d). Note that the wedge is completed when the crushing load starts oscillating and subsequently its size remains constant throughout the deformation process in the postcrushing regime, see Figs 3(e) and (f). As measured from the specimens tested, the wedge angle, 0t( = 20), is 100-110 . The behaviour of the reinforcing fibres depends upon their orientation. Axially aligned fibres bend inwards or outwards with or without fracturing according to their flexibility and the constraints induced by other fibres; their effective flexibility depends upon the fibres structure in the composite material. Fibres aligned in the hoop direction can only expand outwards by fracturing and inwards by either fracturing or buckling. Delamination occurs as a result of shear and tensile separation between plies. The axial laminae split into progressively thinner layers, forming, therefore, translaminar cracks normal to the fibres direction mainly due to fibre buckling finally resulting either in fibre fracture or in intralaminar shear cracking which splits the laminate into many thin layers without fibres fracture. Cracks propagate preferably through the weakest regions of the structure of the composite material, i.e. through resin-rich regions

Analysis of failure mechanism

341

q~

L~

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

[-

342

A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. loannidis

n crack
Lc

1 mm

(a)
Fig. 3. (a) Micrograph at section AA' of Fig. 2(a) showing microfailures of the crushed zone corresponding to point 1 of the load~tisplacement curve of Fig. 4 (sp. 10).

Analysis of failure mechanism

343

sl

~,///,//////////.~.'////// / / / / / J ~/////////////I////////////'.~

(1
(b)

Fig. 3. Contd. (b) Configuration of internal fracture mechanism in the crush zone of (a). or boundaries between hoop fibres resulting in their debonding or through the interface between hoop and axial plies causing delamination. The following principal sources of energy dissipation at microscopic scale, contributing to the overall energy absorption during collapse, may be listed: intrawall crack propagation fronds bending owing to delamination between plies axial splitting between fronds flexural damage of individual plies due to small radius of curvature at the delamination limits frictional resistance to axial sliding between adjacent laminae frictional resistance to the penetration of the annular debris wedge frictional resistance to fronds sliding across the platen. The values of initial peak load Pm~x, the energy absorbed W (obtained by measuring the area under the load~lisplacement curve) and the mean crushing load P, defined as the ratio of energy absorbed to the total shell shortening, are tabulated in Table 2.

FAILURE MECHANISM: THEORETICAL Consider the failure mechanism previously described in detail, Mode I. During the elastic deformation of the shell the load rises at a steady

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A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. Ioannidis

Debris wedge

Lc

Main crack

I-

t
(c)

-I

1 mm

Fig. 3. Contd. (c) Micrograph at section AA' of Fig. 2(a) showing microfailures of the crushed zone corresponding to point 2 of the load~lisplacement curve of Fig. 4 (sp. 10). rate to a peak value, Pm~x. At this stage a central intrawall crack of length Lc forms at the top end, see the micrograph o f Fig. 3(a) and the schematic diagram in Fig. 3(b); the related tube shortening is sl, see Fig. 4. If Rad is the fracture energy required to fracture a unit area o f the

Analysis of failure mechanism [//./////(',/,/////t/P////////////]

345

(d) Fig. 3. Contd. (d) Configuration of internal fracture mechanismin the crush zone of (c).

adhesive at the interface between two adjacent layers, the energy dissipated for the intrawall crack to propagate at length Lc can be calculated by applying fracture theory. 8 Note that this energy equals the external work as can be obtained by measuring the area under the load--displacement curve in the elastic regime, see Fig. 4. Therefore WLc = Rad" (lt-D- Lc) ----~ Pm~,ds (1)

where D = (Do + Di)/2, is the mean diameter of the tube; Do and Di are the outside and inside diameter, respectively. As mentioned above, with deformation progressing in the post-crushing regime, the load increases with increasing deflection associated with the formation of two equal lamina bundles bent inwa4"ds and outwards. The triangular debris wedge of pulverised material starts to form over the shell circumference and is completed when the crushing load starts oscillating with its size remaining constant throughout the deformation process in the post-crushing region; the related tube shortening corresponding to the completion of the wedge formation is s2. The energy required for this deformation mechanism regarding the formation of the crush zones, see Fig. 3(c) and (d), equals the external work absorbed by the deforming shell in this regime, i.e.

Wt~ = 2

ao.ls'(ls/2)dO

.rt.D =
i

Pds

(2)

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A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. loannidis

Debris wedge

External frond

Internal frond Lc
Main crack

L
I-

-------

1 mm

(e)
Fig. 3. Contd. (e) Micrograph at section AA' of Fig. 2(a) showing microfailures of the crushed zone corresponding to point 3 of the load/displacement curve of Fig. 4 (sp. 10). where, following the notation, ao is the normal stress applied by the wedge to fronds, ls the side length o f the wedge inscribed to the bent fronds and 0 ( = ~/2) the semi-angle o f the wedge. It is also assumed that the intrawall crack propagates with a constant speed equal to the speed o f the crosshead of the press, and, therefore, its length Lc remains constant. Also the length of the split of the crush zone

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347

I///((,'." ////,,

/f('c'c,/,~////jl

Pw

B I P~

_-- t/2=

_1_

(f)
Fig. 3. Contd. (f) Configuration of internal fracture mechanism in the crush zone of (e).

(AB) at the contact side with the steel platen approximates the wall thickness, t, see Fig. 3(e) and (f). As loading proceeds further, i.e. after the displacement s2, resulting in crushing with the subsequent formation of the internal and external fronds, normal stresses develop on the sides of the debris wedge followed by shear stresses along the same sides due to the friction at the interface between the wedge and the fronds. Note, also, that additional normal and shear stresses develop at the interface between the steel press platen and the deforming shell as the formed fronds slide along this interface. Static equilibrium at the interface yields P = (Pw + 2. P~). re. D (3)

where Pw is the normal force per unit length applied by the platen to the debris wedge and Pt is the normal force per unit length applied by the platen to the internal and external frond. The normal force applied by the platen to the debris is equilibrated by normal and frictional components at the uppermost frond surfaces, see Fig. 3(f); therefore Pw = 2- (P2" sin 0 + 7"2. cos 0) (4)

where P2 is the normal force per unit length applied to the sides of the

348

A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. loannidis

,.-:.,

Z (:n [...: i!

~5

ICL
aj

u~ Z

r~

'~0._

01

t...

C~ CO

c~

"V
0

( N>I )

'el

POOl

6u!qsnJ~)

.a

Analysis of failure mechanism

349

wedge and T2 the frictional force per unit length developed between wedge and fronds. Assuming that Coulomb friction prevails between the debris wedge and fronds, T2 = 122"P2, equation (4) becomes Pw = 2- P2 " ( s i n 0 + 122 " C O S
O)

(5)

where 122 is the coefficient of friction. It must be noted that

P2 = 0"o" ls

(6)
(7)

and
ao = k ' a o

where k is a constant and ~0 is the tensile fracture stress of composite material. From the shape of the wedge is
ls = t / ( 2 .

sin 0).

(8)

Substituting eqns (6)-(8), Pw is determined and hence P1 from eqn (5). The horizontal component of the force Fx applied by the wedge to the frond is
/7~ = P2 " ( c o s 0 - 122 " s i n

0).

(9)

Taking into account that 0 < tan -1 (1/122).

Fx > 0

(10)

For 122 less than unity, 0 can not be smaller than 45 . Note also that the maximum value of 0 depends on 122. The energy dissipated in frictional resistance for a crush distance s is Wi = 2.
(121 '

P1

+ 122 " P 2 ) "

n" D. s

(ll)

and the corresponding load

P i = 2 . (121 P1 + # 2 " P2) " n . D

(12)

where #1 is the coefficient of friction between frond and platen mainly depended on the platen material and the surface finish. For the experimental evaluation of coefficients #1 and 122 for the tested materials see Ref. 10. Energy is also dissipated due to bending of the fronds, see Fig. 3(e) and (f), and therefore, for a subsequent displacement s, it results in

350

A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. A. Demosthenous, M. B. 1oannidis

Wii=2"

P2"(ls/2) d 0 +
2

P2"0d

.rr.D.

(13)

The related crushing load is

eii = Wii/s.

(14)

The main central intrawall crack is assumed to continue to propagate at a constant speed equal to the crosshead of the press and, therefore, for a crush displacement s the energy dissipated is
Wiii : Rad" [(S -- SI) -'l- Lc]" ~z. D (15)

and the corresponding load

eiii : Wiii/S.

(16)

The energy absorbed by the external fronds for the axial splits formed due to developed tensile stresses in the hoop direction of the shell, as these fronds curl downward and the subsequent splaying of material strips, see Fig. 2(b), is Wiv = n - ( t / 2 ) . G - s where n is the number of splits and G is the fracture toughness. The corresponding force required is Piv = n. (t/2)- G. The number of axial splits n can be determined from the ratio
n = 2. n/bcr

(17)

(18)

(19)

when
bcr = 2 - c o s -1 [1 - 6cr/((Di/2) + t)]

(20)

where ber is the angle between two splits and 6or the critical distance which axial splitting occurs; see Fig. 2(b). From eqns (11), (13), (15) and (17) the total energy dissipated for the deformation of the shell is
Wtotal = Wi + Wii -{- Wiii -~- Wiv

(21)

whilst the total normal force applied by the platen to the tube can be calculated as P = Pi + Pii + Piii + Piv. (22)

Analysis of failure mechanism

35i

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Even though the transitional crushing phenomena, the formation and the growth of the collapse mechanism concerning the axial collapse of circular tubes of fibreglass composite materials are complicated and stochastic, the described failure mechanism was verified both theoretically and experimentally. In Table 2 experimental measurements and theoretical predictions of crushing load and energy dissipated are listed. Mean post-crushing load, P, and the energy absorbed, IV, are well predicted theoretically by the proposed analysis; see Table 2. Note that the proposed theoretical approach is valid for all fibreglass composite materials provided that the geometry and materials properties are known, but it gives better results for shells with an even number of layers, see also Table 2. However, in this approach fibre orientation is not taken into account. It is also evident from Table 2 that the mean post-crushing load and the energy absorbed are mainly affected by the crushing length, whilst the axial length of the tube has no significant effect on these crashworthy characteristics. The energy distribution of crashworthy phenomena pertaining to the axial collapse of composite multi-layered shells is governed by various parameters; in the proposed simplified theoretical approach the following parameters were encountered: friction between annular wedge and fronds and between fronds and platten fronds bending crack propagation axial splitting between fronds. From the theoretical calculations supported also by experimental observations, it is evident that the contribution of the frictional conditions between wedge/fronds and fronds/platen to the energy absorbing capability of the shells, is the most significant as compared to the other ones. This parameter, as discussed above, mainly depends upon the friction coefficients #1 and #2 which are affected by the surface conditions at the interfaces between composite material/punch and composite material/debris wedge, respectively. It was also observed that the energy absorbed due to bending of the fronds is greatly affected by the magnitude of the wedge's semi-angle, which varies between 45 and 0 = t a n -1 ( 1 / # 2 ) . The number of axial splits, which is affected by material properties, lay up and shell geometry, is greater for the tubes of material B. In general, from the energy absorbing capacity point of view, circular

352

A. G. Mamalis, D. E. Manolakos, G. .4. Demosthenous, M. B. loannidis

tubes o f material B seem to be more efficient as predicted both theoretically and experimentally.

REFERENCES 1. Hull, D., Energy absorption of composite materials under crash conditions. In Progress in Science and Engineering of Composites, ed. T. Hayashi, K. Kawata & S. Umekawa. Proc. ICCM-IV, Tokyo, 1982, p. 861. 2. Farley, G. L., Energy absorption of composite materials. J. Composite Mater., 17 (1983), 167. 3. Thornton, P. H., Energy absorption in composite structures. J. Composite Mater., 13 (1979), 247. 4. Mamalis, A. G., Manolakos, D. E. & Viegelahn, G. L., Crashworthy behaviour of thin-walled tubes of fibreglass composite materials subjected to axial loading. J. Composite Mater., 24 (1990), 72. 5. Mamalis, A. G., Manolakos, D. E., Viegelahn, G. L., Demosthenous, G. A. & Sin Min Yap, On the axial crumpling of fibre-reinforced composite thinwalled conical shells. Int. J. Vehicle Design, 12 (4) (1991), 450. 6. Mamalis, A. G., Manolakos, D. E., Viegelahn, G. L., Sin Min Yap & Demosthenous, G. A., Microscopic failure of thin-walled fibre-reinforced composite frusta under static axial collapse. Int. J. Vehicle Design, 12 (5/6) (1991), 557. 7. Mamalis, A. G., Manolakos, D. E., Demosthenous, G. A. & Ioannidis, M. B., Axial collapse of thin-walled fibreglass composite tubular components at elevated strain rates. Composites Engng, 4 (1994), 653. 8. Kendall, K., Interfacial cracking of a composite. J. Mater. Sci., 11 (1976), 638 and 1263. 9. Fairfull, A. H. & Hull, D., Energy absorption of polymer matrix composite structures: friction effects. International Symposium on Structural Failure, MIT, June, 1988. 10. Mamalis, A. G., Yuan, Y. B. & Viegelahn, G. L., Collapse of thin-wall composite sections subjected to high speed axial loading. J. Vehicle Design, 13(5/6) (1992), 564.