Professional Documents
Culture Documents
com
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
www.rejinpaul.com
4 0 0 100
SYLLABUS
EC2151- ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRON DEVICES
(For ECE, CSE, IT and Biomedical Engg. Branches)
UNIT I
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
12
Kirchoffs current and voltage laws series and parallel connection of independent sources R, L and C
Network Theorems Thevenin, Superposition, Norton, Maximum power transfer and duality Star-delta
conversion.
UNIT II
TRANSIENT RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUITS
12
Basic RL, RC and RLC circuits and their responses to pulse and sinusoidal inputs frequency response
Parallel and series resonances Q factor single tuned and double tuned circuits.
UNIT III
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
12
Review of intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors Theory of PN junction diode Energy band structure
current equation space charge and diffusion capacitances effect of temperature and breakdown mechanism
Zener diode and its characteristics.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
UNIT IV
TRANSISTORS
12
Principle of operation of PNP and NPN transistors study of CE, CB and CC configurations and comparison
of their characteristics Breakdown in transistors operation and comparison of N-Channel and P-Channel
JFET drain current equation MOSFET Enhancement and depletion types structure and operation
comparison of BJT with MOSFET thermal effect on MOSFET.
UNIT V
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Joseph A. Edminister, Mahmood, Nahri, Electric Circuits Shaum series,Tata McGraw Hill,
(2001)
2. S. Salivahanan, N. Suresh kumar and A. Vallavanraj, Electronic Devices and Circuits,Tata McGraw
Hill, 2nd Edition, (2008).
3. David A. Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits, Oxford University Press, 5th Edition, (2008).
REFERENCES:
1. Robert T. Paynter, Introducing Electronics Devices and Circuits, Pearson Education, 7 th Education,
(2006).
2. William H. Hayt, J.V. Jack, E. Kemmebly and steven M. Durbin, Engineering Circuit Analysis,Tata
McGraw Hill, 6th Edition, 2002.
3. J. Millman & Halkins, Satyebranta Jit, Electronic Devices & Circuits,Tata McGraw Hill, 2 nd
Edition, 2008.
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT I
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRON DEVICES
1.
What is charge?
The charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists. The
unit of charge is the coulomb.
2.
Define current?
The flow of free electrons in a metal is called electric current. The unit of current is the
ampere. Current
(I) = Q/t, Where Q is total charge transferred & T is time required
for transfer of charge.
3.
What is voltage?
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit called voltage. The unit
of voltage is volt. It is represented by V OR v.
Voltage = W/Q = workdone/Charge
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
4.
Define power.
The rate of doing work of electrical energy or energy supplied per unit time is called the
power. The power denoted by either P of p. It is measured in Watts. (W).
Power = work done in electric circuit/Time
P = dw/dt = dw/dq.dq/dt
P = VI
5.
What is network?
Interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements is called an electric network.
6.
7.
8.
9.
www.rejinpaul.com
10.
11.
12.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
What is resistance?
It is the property of a substance which opposes the flow of current through it. The
resistance of element is denoted by the symbol R. It is measured in Ohms.
R = PL / A
www.rejinpaul.com
19.
20.
Voltage
Current
Power
Resistance
V = iR
i=V/R
P = vi
Inductance
V = L di /dt
i = 1/L vdt
P = Li di / dt
Capacitance
V = 1/c idt
i = C dv / dt
P = CV dv / dt
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
21.
22.
23.
www.rejinpaul.com
24.
25.
26.
27.
Two resistances with equal value of R are connected in series and parallel. What
is the equivalent resistance?
Resistance in series
R eq =
R1+R2
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
R1R2
__________
R1+R2
Two inductors with equal value of L are connected in series and parallel what is
the equivalent inductance?
Resistance in parallel
28.
29.
30.
R eq
Inductance in series
L eq = L1 + L2
Inductance in parallel
L1L2
L eq = _______
L1+L2
Two capacitors with equal value of C are connected in series and parallel. What
is the equivalent capacitance?
Capacitance in series
C1C2
C eq = ____________
C1+C2
Capacitance in parallel
C eq = C1 + C2
Write down the formula for a star connected network is converted into a delta
network?
R R +R R +R R
A B
B C
C A
R
= ____________________________
AB
R
C
R R +R R +R R
6
www.rejinpaul.com
A B
B C
C A
R
= ____________________________
BC
R
A
R R +R R +R R
A B
B C
C A
R
= ____________________________
CA
R
B
31.
Write down the formula for a delta connected network is converted into a star
network?
R
*
R
AB
CA
R
= ____________________________
AB
R
+R + R
AB
BC CA
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
R
B
R
*
R
AB
BC
= _____________________________
R
AB
R
B
R
*
R
BC
CA
= _____________________________
R
AB
Where R
32.
=
AB
+
AB
R
BC
CA
www.rejinpaul.com
33.
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called time
period (T).
2
Time period (T)
= _________
W
The number of cycle that a alternating quantity completed per second is known as
frequency. It is measured in HZ.
1
Frequency (f)
= ________
T
34.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
35.
V (t) dt
av
T
0
37.
40.
What is impedance?
The ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current is called impedance.
8
www.rejinpaul.com
It is denoted as Z and it is measured in Ohms.
41.
V
Impedance (Z) = ____
I
Obtain the equivalent impedance and reactances for series and parallel connections.
Impedance in series
Z
eq
Impedance in parallel
= Z+Z
1
2
Z
eq
Reactances in series j X
= Z
Z
1
2
_________
Z1 + Z2
= j (X +
1
X)
2
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
eq
1
2
= j ____________
X + X
1
2
Reactances in parallel j X
eq
41.
Define admittance.
The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance. It is denoted as Y and it is measured
in Siemens (S).
Admittance (Y)
42.
1
1
___ = ___
Z
V
Admittance in series Y
=
eq
Admittance in parallel Y
Eq
Y
Y
1
2
____________
Y
Y
1
2
Y
1
Y
2
www.rejinpaul.com
43.
Obtain the equivalent conductance and susceptance for series and parallel
connections.
Conductance in series
Conductance in parallel
G
eq
G
G
1
2
_________
G + G
1
2
G
+
1
Eq
Susceptance in series
jB
eq
G
2
B
B
1
2
__________
G + G
1
2
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
Susceptance in parallel
jB
eq
j(B
1
B)
2
44.
46.
48.
I
eff
VA
Average power
_________________
Apparent Power
10
www.rejinpaul.com
49.
50.
The product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current
phasor is known as complex power. It is denoted as S and it is measured in volt-amperes (VA)
The complex power is
1
___
2
vi*
51.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
52
What is the equation for determining the number of independent loops in mesh
current method?
L
=
b-n +1
Where L
=
number of loops
B
=
number of branches
N
=
number of nodes.
52.
53.
54.
analysis.
11
www.rejinpaul.com
One way to over come this difficulty is by applying the supermesh technique.
In this case we have to choose supermesh.
A supermesh is constituted by two adjacent loops that have common current source.
57.
If the branches in the network has a voltage source, then it is slightly difficult to apply nodal
analysis.
One way to overcome this difficulty is by applying the supernode technique.
In this case, we have to choose super node.
A supernode is constituted by two adjacent node that have common voltage source.
58.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
59.
Define duality.
Two electrical network which are governed by the same type of equations are called
duality.
12
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT II
TRANSIENT RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUITS
1.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
4.
-st
F (S) =
L [F (T) ] = F (t) e dt
0
6.
1
[F(s)] = f (t) = _________
2j
1 + j
1 - j
st
F (s) e
ds
7.
13
www.rejinpaul.com
9. What is meant by natural frequency?
If the damping is made zero then the response oscillates with natural frequency without any
opposition, such a frequency is called natural frequency of oscillations, denoted as
n.
10. Define damping ratio.
It is the ratio of actual resistance (R) in the circuit to the critical resistance (R cr). It is
denoted by greek letter Zeta ().
R
R
=
____ = _____ C / L
R
cr
2
11. Define initial value theorem.
The initial value theorem states that if f (t) and f (t) both are laplace transformable,
Then
Lim f (t)
=
lim s F (s)
T0
s
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
12. Define final value theorem.
The final value theorem states that, if f (t) and f (t) both are laplace transformable,
then
Lim f (t)
=
lim s F (s)
T
s0
14
www.rejinpaul.com
15. Define network function.
A network function N (S) is defined as the ratio of the complex amplitude of an
excponential output P (S) to the complex amplitude of an exponential input Q (S).
16. Define pole and zero.
The network function N (S) will become infinite. Hence the roots of denominator
polynomial P1, P2, P3,Pm are called poles of network function.
The network function N(S) will become zero. Hence the roots of numerator
polynomial Z1, Z2, Z3..Zn. are called zeros of network function.
17. Define resonant circuit.
The circuit that treat a narrow range of frequencies very differently than all other
frequencies. These are referred to as resonant circuit. The gain of a highly resonant circuit attains a
sharp maximum or minimum as its resonant frequency.
18. When the circuit is said to be in resonance?
1. A network is in resonance when the voltage and current at the network input terminals are
in phase.
2. If inductive reactance of a network equals capacitive reactance then the network is said to
be resonance
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
19. What is resonant frequency ?
The frequency at which resonance occurs is called resonance frequency.
1
f
=
________
r
2LC
www.rejinpaul.com
23. Define half power frequencies ?
The frequencies at which the power is half the maximum power are called half power
frequencies.
R
Lower half power frequency, f1 = f r - ____
4 L
R
Upper half power frequency, f2 = f r + ____
4 L
24. Write down the formula for inductive reactance and capacitive reactance?
Inductive reactance is given by X
L
= 2 fl
1
Capacitive reactance is given by X = _________
C
2 fc
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
Where
F supply frequency
L Inductance of the coil
C Capacitance of the capacitor.
25. Give the expression for quality factor of series RLC Circuit.
Quality factor is Q = 1 / R L /C
26. Give the expression for quality factor of parallel RLC Circuit.
Quality factor is Q = R C / L
16
www.rejinpaul.com
UNIT III
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
1. Give the value of Charge, Mass of an electron.
Charge of an electron 1.6 x 10 -19 coloumbs & Mass of an electron - 9.11 x 10 -31 Kgs
2. Define Potential.
A potential of V volts at point B with respect to point A, is defined as the work
done in taking unit positive charge from A to B , against the electric field.
3. Define Current density.
It is defined as the current per unit area of the conducting medium. J = I / A
4. Define Electron volts.
If an electron falls through a potential of one volt then its energy is 1 electron volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 joules
5. What is Electrostatic deflection sensitivity?
Electrostatic deflection sensitivity of a pair of deflecting plates of a cathode ray
oscilloscope ( CRO) is defined as the amount of deflection of electron spot
produced when a voltage of 1 Volt DC is applied between the corresponding plates.
6. What is the relation for the maximum number of electrons in each shell?
Ans: 2n2
7. What are valence electrons?
Electron in the outermost shell of an atom is called valence electron.
8. What is forbidden energy gap?
The space between the valence and conduction band is said to be forbidden energy gap.
9. What are conductors? Give examples?
Conductors are materials in which the valence and conduction band overlap each other so there is a
swift movement of electrons which leads to conduction. Ex. Copper, silver.
10. What are insulators? Give examples?
Insulators are materials in which the valence and conduction band are far away
from each other. So no movement of free electrons and thus no conduction.
Ex glass, plastic.
11. Give the energy band structure of Insulator.
In Insulators there is a wide forbidden energy gap. So movement of valence
electron from valence to conduction band is not possible.
12. Give the energy band structure of Semi conductor.
In Semiconductors there is a small forbidden energy gap. So movement of
valence electron from valence to conduction band is possible if the valence
electrons are supplied with some energy.
13. Give the energy band structure of conductor.
In conductors there is no forbidden energy gap, valence band and conduction
and over lap each other. so there is a heavy movement of valence electrons.
14. what are Semiconductors? Give examples?
The materials whose electrical property lies between those of conductors and
insulators are known as Semiconductors. Ex germanium, silicon.
15. What are the types of Semiconductor?
1. Intrinsic semiconductor 2. Extrinsic semiconductor.
16. What is Intrinsic Semiconductor?
Pure form of semiconductors are said to be intrinsic semiconductor.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
17
www.rejinpaul.com
Ex: germanium, silicon.
17. Define Mass action law.
Under thermal equilibrium the product of free electron concentration (n) and hole
concentration (p) is constant regardless of the individual magnitude.
n.p = ni2
18. What is Extrinsic Semiconductor?
If certain amount of impurity atom is added to intrinsic semiconductor the
resulting semiconductor is Extrinsic or impure Semiconductor.
19. What are the types of Extrinsic Semiconductor?
1. P-type Semiconductor
2. N- Type Semiconductor.
20. What is P-type Semiconductor?
The Semiconductor which are obtained by introducing pentavalent impurity atom
(phosphorous, antimony) are known as P-type Semiconductor.
21. What is N-type Semiconductor?
The Semiconductor which is obtained by introducing trivalent impurity atom (gallium, indium) are
known as N-type Semiconductor.
22. What is doping?
Process of adding impurity to a intrinsic semiconductor atom is doping. The impurity is called
dopant.
23. Which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in N-type
Semiconductor?
majority carrier: electron and minority carrier: holes.
24.which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in P-type
Semiconductor?
Majority carrier: holes and minority carrier: electron
25. Why n - type or penta valent impurities are called as Donor impurities?
n- type impurities will donate the excess negative charge carriers ( Electrons) and therefore they are
reffered to as donor impurities.
26. Why P type or trivalent impurities are called as acceptor impurity?
p- type impurities make available positive carriers because they create holes which can accept
electron, so these impurities are said to be as acceptor impurity.
27. Give the relation for concentration of holes in the n- type material?
pn = ni
2 /ND
Where
pn - concentration of holes in the n type semiconductor
ND - concentration of donor atoms in the n type semiconductor
28. Give the relation for concentration of electrons in the p - type material?
np = ni
2 /NA
Where
np - concentration of electrons in p- type semiconductor
ND - concentration of acceptor atoms in the p type semiconductor
29. Define drift current?
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, the holes move towards the negative
terminal of the battery and electron move towards the positive terminal of the battery. This drift
movement of charge carriers will result in a current termed as drift current.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
18
www.rejinpaul.com
30. Give the expression for drift current density due to electron.
Jn = q n nE
Where,
Jn - drift current density due to electron
q- Charge of electron
n - Mobility of electron
E - applied electric field
31. Give the expression for drift current density due to holes.
Jp = q p p E
Where, Jn - drift current density due to holes q - Charge of holes
p - Mobility of holes E - applied electric field
32. Define the term diffusion current?
A concentration gradient exists, if the number of either electrons or holes is greater in one region of a
semiconductor as compared to the rest of the region. The holes and electron tend to move from
region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. This process in called diffusion
and the current produced due this movement is diffusion current.
33. Define mean life time of a hole or and electron.
The electron hole pair created due to thermal agitation woll disappear as a result of recombination.
Thus an average time for which a hole or an electron exist before recombination can be said as the
mean life time of a hole or electron.
34. What is the other name of continuity equation? What does it indicate?
The other name of continuity equation is equation of conservation of charge.
This equation indicates that the rate at which holes are generated thermally just equals the rate at
which holes are lost because of recombination under equilibrium conditions.
35. Define Hall effect?
If a metal or semiconductor carrying current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B , an electric
field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B This phenomenon is known as Hall
effect.
36. Give some application of Hall Effect.
i). Hall Effect can be used to measure the strength of a magnetic field in terms of electrical voltage.
ii).It is used to determine whether the semiconductor is p type or n- type material
iii).It is used to determine the carrier concentration
iv).It is used to determine the mobility.
37. Define the term transition capacitance?
When a PN junction is reverse biased, the depletion layer acts like a dielectric material while P and
N type regions on either side which has low resistance act as the plates. In this way a reverse biased
PN junction may be regarded as parallel plate capacitor and thus the capacitance across this set up is
called as the transition capacitance.
CT = A / W
Where
CT - transition capacitance
A - Cross section area of the junction
W Width of the depletion region
38. What is a varactor diode?
A diode which is based on the voltage variable capacitance of the reverse biased p-n junction is said
to be varactor diode. It has other names such as varicaps, voltacaps.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
19
www.rejinpaul.com
39. Define the term diffusion capacitance.
The diffusion capacitance of a forward biased diode is defined as the rate of change of injected
charge with voltage.
CD = I / VT
Where, Cd time constant
I current across the diode
vT threshold voltage
40. what is recovery time? Give its types.
When a diode has its state changed from one type of bias to other a transient accompanies the diode
response, i.e., the diode reaches steady state only after an interval of time tr called as recovery
time. The recovery time can be divided in to two types such as
(i) forward recovery time
(ii) reverse recovery time
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
20
www.rejinpaul.com
41. What is meant by forward recovery time?
The forward recovery time may be defined as the time interval from the instant of 10% diode voltage
to the instant this voltage reaches 90% of the final value. It is represented as t f r.
42. What is meant by reverse recovery time?
The reverse recovery time can be defined as the time required for injected or the excess minority
carrier density reduced to zero , when external voltage is suddenly reversed.
43. Define storage time.
The interval time for the stored minority charge to become zero is called storage time. It is
represented as t s.
44. Define transition time.
The time when the diode has normally recovered and the diode reverse current reaches reverse
saturaton current I0 is called as transition time. It is represented as t t
45. What are break down diodes?
Diodes which are designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to operate in the break down
region are called as break down or zener diodes.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
46. What is break down? What are its types?
When the reverse voltage across the pn junction is increased rapidly at a voltage the junction breaks
down leading to a current flow across the device. This phenomenon is called as break down and the
voltage is break down voltage. The types of break down are
i) zener break down
ii)Avalanche breakdown
21
www.rejinpaul.com
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
49. How does the avalanche breakdown voltage vary with temperature?
In lightly doped diode an increase in temperature increases the probability of collision of electrons
and thus increases the depletion width. Thus the electrons and holes needs a high voltage to cross the
junction. Thus the avalanche voltage is increased with increased temperature.
50. How does the zener breakdown voltage vary with temperature?
In heavily doped diodes, an increase in temperature increases the energies of valence electrons, and
hence makes it easier for these electrons to escape from covalent bonds. Thus less voltage is
22
www.rejinpaul.com
sufficient to knock or pull these electrons from their position in the crystal and convert them in to
conduction electrons. Thus zener break down voltage decreases with temperature.
UNIT IV
TRANSISTORS
51. What is a transistor (BJT)?
Transistor is a three terminal device whose output current, voltage and /or power
is controlled by input current.
52. What are the terminals present in a transistor?
Three terminals: emitter, base, collector.
53. What is FET?
FET is abbreviated for field effect transistor. It is a three terminal device with its output
characteristics controlled by input voltage.
54. Why FET is called voltage controlled device?
The output characteristics of FET is controlled by its input voltage thus it is voltage controlled.
55. What are the two main types of FET?
1. JFET 2. MOSFET.
56. What are the terminals available in FET?
1). Drain, 2).Source and 3). Gate
57. What is JFET?
JFET- Junction Field Effect Transistor.
58. What are the types of JFET?
N- Channel JFET and P- Channel JFET
59. What are the two important characteristics of JFET?
1. Drain characteristics 2. Transfer characteristics.
60. What is transconductance in JFET?
It is the ratio of small change in drain current to the corresponding change in drain to source voltage.
61. What is amplification factor in JFET?
It is the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage to the corresponding change in Gate to
source voltage.
62. Why do we choose q point at the center of the loadline?
The operating point of a transistor is kept fixed usually at the center of the active region in order that
the input signal is well amplified. If the point is fixed in the saturation region or the cut off region the
positive and negative half cycle gets clipped off respectively.
63. List out the different types of biasing. ._
Voltage divider bias, Base bias, Emitter feed back bias, Collector feedback bias, Emitter bias.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
64. What do you meant by thermal runway?
Due to the self heating at the collector junction, the collector current rises. This causes damage to the
device. This phenomenon is called thermal runway.
65. Why is the transistor called a current controlled device?
The output characteristics of the transistor depend on the input current. So thtransistor is called a
current controlled device.
66. Define current amplification factor?
23
www.rejinpaul.com
It is defined as the ratio of change in output current to the change in input current at constant.
67. What are the requirements for biasing circuits?
The q point must be taken at the Centre of the active region of the output characteristics.
Stabilize the collector current against the temperature variations.
Make the q point independent of the transistor parameters.
When the transistor is replaced, it must be of same type.
68. When does a transistor act as a switch?
The transistor acts as a switch when it is operated at either cutoff region or saturation region
69. What is biasing?
To use the transistor in any application it is necessary to provide sufficient voltage and current to
operate the transistor. This is called biasing.
70. What is stability factor?
Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect to the rate of change
of reverse saturation current.
71. Explain about the various regions in a transistor?
The three regions are active region saturation region cutoff region.
72. Explain about the characteristics of a transistor?
Input characteristics: it is drawn between input voltage & input current while keeping output voltage
as constant. Output characteristics: It is drawn between the output voltage &output current while
keeping input current as constant.
16 marks-Hints
73. Explain the construction, operation, volt ampere characteristics, and application
of SCR, also explain its two transistor model.
Maximum mark for this question: 16 marks
Construction (2marks)
Equivalent circuit and two transistor model (2marks)
Operation (4marks)
Volt ampere characteristics (4marks)
Application (2marks)
74. Explain the construction, operation, equivalent circuit, volt ampere
characteristics, and application of UJT.
Maximum mark for this question: 16 marks
Construction (4marks)
Equivalent circuit (2marks)
Operation (4marks)
Volt ampere characteristics (4marks)
Application (2marks)
75. Explain the construction, operation, equivalent circuit, volt ampere
characteristics, and application of DIAC.
Maximum mark for this question: 16 marks
Construction (4marks)
Equivalent circuit (2marks)
Operation (4marks)
Volt ampere characteristics (4marks)
Application (2marks)
76. Explain the construction, operation, equivalent circuit, volt ampere
characteristics, and application of TRIAC
Maximum mark for this question: 16 marks
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
24
www.rejinpaul.com
Construction (4marks)
Equivalent circuit (2marks)
Operation (4marks)
Volt ampere characteristics (4marks)
Application (2marks)
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
UNIT V
www.rejinpaul.com
4. It can be used as trigger device for SCR and triac.
5. It is used in saw tooth generator.
6. It is used for pulse generation.
84. What is a DIAC?
DIAC is a two terminal bidirectional semiconductor switching device. . It can conduct in either
direction depending upon the polarity of the voltage applied across its main terminals. In operation
DIAC is equivalent to two 4 layer diodes connected in antiparallel.
85. Give some applications of DIAC.
1. To trigger TRIAC
2. Motor speed control
3. Heat control
4. Light dimmer circuits
87. What is a SCR?
A silicon controller rectifier (SCR) is a three terminal, three junction semiconductor device that acts
as a true electronic switch. It is a unidirectional device. It converts alternating current into direct
current and controls the amount of power fed to the load.
88. Define break over voltage of SCR.
Break over voltage is defined as the minimum forward voltage with gate open at which the SCR
starts conducting heavily.
89.Why SCR cannot be used as a bidirectional switch.
SCR can do conduction only when anode is positive with respect to cathode with proper gate
current. Therefore, SCR operates only in one direction and cannot be used as bidirectional switch.
90. How turning on of SCR is done?
1. By increasing the voltage across SCR above forward break over voltage.
2. By applying a small positive voltage at gate.
3. By rapidly increasing the anode to cathode voltage.
4. By irradiating SCR with light.
91. How turning off of SCR is done?
1. By reversing the polarity of anode to cathode voltage.
2. By reducing the current through the SCR below holding current.
3.By interrupting anode current by means of momentarily series or parallel switching
92. Define holding current in a SCR.
Holding current is defined as the minimum value of anode current to keep the SCR ON.
93. List the advantages of SCR.
1. SCR can handle and control large currents.
2. Its switching speed is very high
3. It has no moving parts, therefore it gives noiseless operation.
4. Its operating efficiency is high.
94. List the application of SCR.
1. It can be used as a speed controller in DC and AC motors.
2. It can be used as an inverter.
3. It can be used as a converter
4. It is used in battery chargers.
5. It is used for phase control and heater control.
6. It is used in light dimming control circuits.
95. What is meant by latching.
The ability of SCR to remain conducting even when the gate signal is removed is called as latching.
96. Define forward current rating of a SCR.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
26
www.rejinpaul.com
Forward current rating of a SCR is the maximum anode current that it can handle without
destruction.
97. List the important ratings of SCR.
1. Forward break over voltage
2. Holding current
3. Gate trigger current
4. Average forward current
5. Reverse break down voltage.
98. Compare SCR with TRIAC.
SCR
TRIAC
1. unidirectional current
1. bidirectional current
2. triggered by positive pulse at gate 2. triggered by pulse of positive or negative
at gate
3. fast turn off time
3,. Longer turn off time
4. large current ratings
4. lower current ratings
99. Differentiate BJT and UJT.
BJT
UJT
1. It has two PN junctions
1. It has only one PN junctions
2. three terminals present
2. three terminals present are emitter,
are emitter, base,collector
base1,base2
3. basically a amplifying device
3. basically a switching device
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
100. What is Shockley diode (PNPN diode)?
Shockley diode is a four layered PNPN silicon diode. It is a low- current SCR without a gate. This
device is switched ON when the anode to cathode voltage is increased to forward switching
voltageVS which is equivalent to SCR forward break over voltage.
27
www.rejinpaul.com
The photo diode is a diode in which the current sensitivity to radiation can be made much larger by
the use of the reverse biased PN junction. Thus this diode conducts heavily in the reverse bias when
there is some radiaton allowed to fall on the PN junction.
106. What is a LED?
A PN junction diode which emits light when forward biased is known as Light emitting diode
(LED).
107. What is a tunnel diode?
The tunnel diode is a pn junction diode in which the impurity concentration is greatly increased
about 1000 times higher than a conventional PN junction diode thus yielding a very thin depletion
layer. This diode utilizes a phenomenon called tunneling and hence the diode is referred as tunnel
diode.
108. What is tunneling phenomenon?
The phenomenon of penetration of the charge carriers directly though the potential barrier instead of
climbing over it is called as tunneling.
m
m
o
o
c
c
.
.
l
l
u
u
a
a
p
p
n
n
i
i
j
j
e
e
r
r
.
.
w
w
w
w
w
w
28