Fair Play

DIVERSITY AND CONFLICTS IN EARLY CHRISTIANITY

ISMO

DUNDERBERG,

CHRISTOPHER

TUCKETT

KARI

SYREENI

SUPPLEMENTS TO

NOVUM TESTAMENTUM
EDITORIAL BOARD C . K . BARRETT, D u r h a m - P. BORGEN, T r o n d h e i m J . K . ELLIOTT, L e e d s - H . J . DE J O N G E , L e i d e n A . J . MALHERBE, N e w H a v e n M . J . J . M E N K E N , U t r e c h t - J . SMIT SIBINGA, A m s t e r d a m Executive Editors

M . M . MITCHELL, C h i c a g o & D . P . MOESSNER, D u b u q u e

VOLUME

CIII

6 8 '

FAIR PLAY: DIVERSITY AND CONFLICTS IN EARLY CHRISTIANITY

Essays in Honour of Heikki Raisanen

BY

I S M O D U N D E R B E R G ,

C H R I S T O P H E R AND

T U C K E T T

K A R I

S Y R E E N I

Professor Heikki Risnen

BRILL LEIDEN BOSTON K L N

2002

T h i s book is printed on acid-free paper. L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication D a t a Fair play : pluralism a n d conflicts in early Christianity : essays in h o n o u r of Heikki R i s a n e n / by Ismo D u n d e r b e r g , Christopher Tuckett, a n d K a r i Syreeni. p. cm. (Supplements to N o v u m T e s t a m e n t u m , I S S N 01679732 ; v. 103) Includes bibliographical references a n d indexes. ISBN 9 0 0 4 1 2 3 5 9 8 (alk. paper) 1. C h u r c h historyPrimitive a n d early church, ca. 30-600. 2. Bible. N.T.Criticism, interpretation, etc. 3. Religious p l u r a l i s m -ChristianittyHistory. I. Raisnen, Heikki. II. D u n d e r b e r g , Ismo. III. Tuckett, C . M . (Christopher Mark) I V Syreeni, K a r i . V. Series. B R 1 6 5 .F24 2001 270.1dc21

CONTENTS

Foreword

xi

PART ONE JESUS

E . P . SANDERS ( D u r h a m , N C , 2001046477 CIP Jesus' Galilee M A T T I MYLLYKOSKI (Helsinki)

U.S.A.) 3

D i e D e u t s c h e Bibliothek - C I P - E i n h e i t s a u f h a h m e Fair play : pluralism a m d conflicts in early Christianity : essays in h o n o u r of Heikki R i s a n e n / by Ismo D u n d e r b e r g ; Christopher Tuckett a n d K a r i Syreeni. - Leiden ; Boston; K l n : Brill, 2001 (Supplements to Novum testjgyijBajAbl. 103) ISBN 90-04-1123598 " "

What

Happened

to the B o d y of Jesus? (Oslo) of Interpretation

43

HALVOR MOXNES

Jesus the Jew: Dilemmas

83

PART THE

TWO

GOSPELS

P E T R I LUOMANEN The

(Helsinki) Matthew: and 107

"Sociology of Sectarianism" in

< 5/ , * ISSN167-9732- I S B N 90 04 12359 8

V
2 8 5

M o d e l i n g the Genesis of Early J e w i s h Christian Communities

CHRISTOPHER T U C K E T T The

(Oxford) 131

Disciples a n d the Messianic Secret in M a r k (Oslo) An of

Copyright 2002 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. Mo part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 9 / 0 DanversMA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. I'UlNTl,!) [N Till'. '. 1KILANDS

T U R I D KARLSEN SEIM

Conflicting Voices, Irony a n d Reiteration: Exploration Luke of the N a r r a t i o n a l Structure

24:1-35

a n d Its T h e o l o g i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s

151

J A R M O KIILUNEN

(Helsinki) und die H y p o t h e s e von 165

"Minor Agreements"

Lukas' K e n n t n i s des Matthusevangeliums J R G E N BECKER D a s vierte exlcinen (Kiel) u n d die Frage n a c h Quelle!! seinen

Evangelium und

inlernen

203

Vlll

CONTENTS ANTTI MARJANEN (Helsinki)

CONTENTS

IX

ISMO D U N D E R B E R G

(Helsinki)

T h e B e l o v e d Disciple in J o h n : I d e a l F i g u r e in a n Early Christian Controversy

PART THREE

243

T h e S u f f e r i n g of O n e W h o Is a S t r a n g e r t o S u f f e r i n g : T h e C r u c i f i x i o n of J e s u s in t h e L e t t e r of P e t e r to Philip
P A R T FIVE

487

P A U L TN C O N F L I C T HERMENEUTICAL
JAMES D . G . DUNN (Durham) HANS HBNER (Gttingen)

ISSUES

N o c h e i n m a l " W o r k s of t h e L a w " : T h e D i a l o g u e Continues

ALEXANDER J . M . WEDDERBURN (Tbingen)

273

D i a l o g u n d Dialektik: Z u m w i s s e n s c h a f t s t h e o r e t i s c h e n Gesprach mit Heikki Risnen 501

Paul and Barnabas: T h e Anatomy and Chronology of a P a r t i n g of t h e W a y s

G E R D THEIBEN (Heidelberg)

H A N N A STENSTRM

(Uppsala)

291

G r a n d m a , R i s n e n , a n d t h e G l o b a l Village: A Feminist A p p r o a c h to Ethical Criticism 521

R m 9 - 1 1 e i n e A u s e i n a n d e r s e t z u n g des P a u l u s m i t Israel u n d m i t sich selbst: V e r s u c h e i n e r psychologischen Auslegung

LARS AEJMELAEUS (Helsinki)

R . S . SUGIRTHARAJAH ( B i r m i n g h a m ) P o s t c o l o n i a l T h e o r y a n d Biblical S t u d i e s 311

G E R D LDEMANN (Gttingen)

541

G l a u b e u n d W i s s e n : E i n V o r t r a g f r solche, die d e m C h r i s t e n t u m e n t w a c h s e n sind u n d t r o t z d e m w e i t e r 343 n a c h seiner W a h r h e i t s u c h e n I n d e x of A n c i e n t S o u r c e s I n d e x of N a m e s 377 553 565 585

T h e Q u e s t i o n of S a l a r y in t h e C o n f l i c t b e t w e e n P a u l a n d t h e " S u p e r A p o s t l e s " in C o r i n t h
MORNA D . HOOKER (Cambridge)

Philippians: P h a n t o m O p p o n e n t s a n d the Real Source of C o n f l i c t

K A R I SYREENI (Uppsala)

J a m e s a n d t h e P a u l i n e L e g a c y : P o w e r P l a y in C o r i n t h ? ....
PART FOUR

397

T H E P R O B L E M O F DIVERSITY IN EARLY CHRISTIAN

STEPHEN G . W I L S O N ( O t t a w a ,

OTHER

LITERATURE

Canada)

D i s s i d e n t s a n d D e f e c t o r s : T h e L i m i t s of P l u r a l i s m R i s r o URO (Helsinki) " W h o Will Be o u r L e a d e r ? " A u t h o r i t y a n d A u t o n o m y in t h e Gospel of Thomas

441

457

FOREWORD

T h e s c h o l a r l y p r o d u c t i o n of H e i k k i R i s n e n e x t e n d s o v e r m a n y fields in N e w T e s t a m e n t , e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e , e a r l y p a t r i s t i c studies, a n d c o m p a r a t i v e religion. W h a t is characteristic of his r e s e a r c h in all t h e s e a r e a s is m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a w a r e n e s s c o m b i n e d w i t h a k e e n i n t e r e s t in b a s i c e t h i c a l issues. B o t h a s p e c t s of H e i k k i R i s n e n ' s w o r k a r e i n c l u d e d in w h a t h e o f t e n h a s called " f a i r p l a y " . It is b o t h a s c h o l a r l y a n d m o r a l a t t i t u d e , a call f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l h o n e s t y a n d m o r a l integrity. It is a serious, e n g a g i n g f o r m of " p l a y " t h a t p r e s u p p o s e s s o m e b a s i c rules a c c e p t e d b y all players. B u t t h e p l a y e r s a r e n o t all alike, n o r s h o u l d t h e y b e ; w h a t m a k e s t h e " p l a y " so m o r a l l y serious is precisely t h e f a c t t h a t biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h e business of so m a n y d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , in history a n d n o w . F o r R i s n e n , " f a i r p l a y " m e a n s a b o v e all a n h o n e s t d i a l o g u e , a real e n c o u n t e r , as well as r e c o g n i t i o n of d i v e r g i n g o p i n i o n s . R i s n e n h a s r e c e n t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h e c o n n e c t i o n of t h e s e aspects w i t h historical r e s e a r c h as follows: " W h a t e v e r little I u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t d i a l o g u e , e n c o u n t e r , diversity a n d p l u r a l i s m , I h a v e l e a r n t in critical historical w o r k " (.Reading Bible in Global Village, S B L , A t l a n t a , 2 0 0 0 , p . 23). A n y o n e f a m i l i a r w i t h R i s n e n ' s w o r k m u s t a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t it is these a s p e c t s of " d i a l o g u e , e n c o u n t e r , diversity a n d p l u r a l i s m " , a n d t h e spirit of fair p l a y , t h a t p e r v a d e all t h a t h e d o e s , b o t h a c a d e m i c a n d n o n - a c a d e m i c . ( O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n y o n e f a m i l i a r w i t h Heikki's w a y of p l a y i n g soccer, w h i c h is his f a v o u r i t e h o b b y , k n o w s t h a t his idea of f a i r p l a y c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t e x c l u d e u n y i e l d i n g a n d t o u g h d e f e n c e n o r e v e n h a r d tackles, if necessary.) T h u s , t h e t h e m e f o r this collection of essays in h o n o u r of H e i k k i R i s n e n ' s 6 0 t h b i r t h d a y c a m e q u i t e easily: t h e decision w a s m a d e to invite his i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o l l e a g u e s a n d his s t u d e n t s in H e l s i n k i t o c o n t r i b u t e essays o n issues r e l a t e d t o p l u r a l i s m a n d conflicts in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d to t h e i r c h a l l e n g e f o r biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e large n u m b e r of Heikki R i s n e n ' s s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d in this p r o j e c t d e m n s t r a l e s , in a d d i t i o n , his d e d i c a t i o n n o t only t o his o w n r e s e a r c h but also to t h e s t i m u l a t i o n , g u i d a n c e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t h e h a s ;( to his d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s ; m o r e t h a n 20 dissertations in N e w T e s t a m e n t h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t to c o m p l e t i o n in Helsinki d u r i n g his

540

HANNA STENSTRM

poverty? O r for that matter, h o w can a white Western

academic, So P O S T C O L O N I A L T H E O R Y A N D BIBLICAL R . S . SUGIRTHARAJAH STUDIES

f e m a l e o r m a l e , give a v o i c e t o t h e v i c t i m s o f t h e c o l o n i s a t i o n ?

I s t o p h e r e , a n d l e a v e it f o r o t h e r s t o a r t i c u l a t e t h a t p r o t e s t , a n d t o t e a c h m e m o r e a b o u t a c t i n g i n r e s p o n s i b l e w a y as b o t h a m a r g i n a l a n d a privileged scholar. F i n a l l y , I w a n t t o t h a n k H e i k k i o n his s i x t i e t h b i r t h d a y f o r t h e critical stimulus to think f u r t h e r a n d m o r e p r o f o u n d l y a b o u t things t h a t a r e o u r u l t i m a t e c o n c e r n s . A f t e r all, t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g is n o t that we should always agree with each other, but rather that we are c o n c e r n e d for the s a m e things. A n d I think that we are. T h e r e f o r e , j u s t as I d o n o t e x p e c t t h a t t h e last w o r d o f t h i s a r t i c l e will b e m y final w o r d in t h e s e issues, I d o l o o k f o r w a r d t o c o n t i n u i n g t h e d i a logue with Heikki Risnen.

W e c a n ' t get n o w h e r e until we settle accounts with history. Earl Lovelace T h i s p a p e r will h a v e t h r e e p a r t s . F i r s t , I will t r y t o spell o u t w h a t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m is a b o u t , a n d o u t l i n e s o m e o f its t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a x i o l o g i c a l i n t e n t i o n s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s . S e c o n d l y , I will d e a l w i t h t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m t o b i b l i c a l s t u d i e s ; a n d i n t h e e l u d i n g p a r t I will t r y t o a n s w e r s o m e o f t h e q u e s t i o n s p o r t to the theory. B r i e f l y , let m e t r y t o spell o u t w h a t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m is a b o u t . A t t h e o u t s e t , I m u s t a d m i t t h a t t h e t a s k is n o t a n e a s y o n e g i v e n t h e limited space, a n d , m o r e importantly, because of the definitional begin ambiguity that surrounds the notion of postcolonialism.' T o conconstantly

asked a b o u t postcolonialism, a n d e n d with m y o w n cautionary sup-

w i t h , t h e r e is r e l u c t a n c e a n d s h y n e s s a m o n g t h e t h e o r i s t s t o spell o u t the p u r p o s e a n d p a r a m e t e r s of the discourse, electing to be freelance a n d thus m a k i n g vagueness a cardinal virtue. E a c h scholar, d e p e n d i n g o n his o r h e r a c a d e m i c s p e c i a l i t y , s u b j e c t s t a t u s , a n d instit u t i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n , h a s c o m e u p w i t h a d i f f e r e n t set o f d e f i n i t i o n s , e x a m p l e s a n d e m p h a s e s . T h e n t h e r e is t h e v e x e d issue o f t h e p o s i t i o n i n g of the hapless h y p h e n . It h a s c a u s e d c o n s t a n t h e r m e n e u t i c a l s q u a b b l e s a m o n g t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s a n d t h e i r critics. I n its h y p h e n a t e d

1 Recently, t h e r e h a v e b e e n a n u m b e r of i n t r o d u c t o r y texts that strive to wrestle with t h e a i m a n d a m b i t of t h e discourse: A. L o o m b a , Colonialism/Postcolonialism ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1998); L . G a n d h i , Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction ( E d i n b u r g h : E d i n b u r g h University Press, 1998); B. M o o r e - G i l b e r t , Postcolonial Theory: Contexts, Practkes, Politics (London: Verso, 1997); B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths a n d H . Tiffin, Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1998); B. M o o r e - G i l b e r t , G . S t a n t o n a n d W . Maley, Postcolonial Criticism ( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n , 1997); P. Ghilds a n d P. Williams, An Inroduction to Post-Colonial Ttmny ( L o n d o n : Prentice Hall, 1997); A. Q u a y s o n , Postcolonialism: 'Theory, ractice or rocess ( C a m b r i d g e : Polity Press, 2000); H. S c h w a r z a n d S. Ray (eds.), Companion to Postcolonial Studies ( O x f o r d : Blackwell P u b l i s h e r s , 2000); .). M c L c o d , /leginniw> Postcolonialism ( M a n c h e s t e r : M a n c h e s t e r University Press, 2000).

542

R.S. SUGIRTHARAJAH

POSTCOLONIAL T H E O R Y AND BIBLICAL STUDIES

543

f o r m , p o s t - c o l o n i a l i s m , d o e s it m a r k t h e e n d of c o l o n i z a t i o n ? O r t h e u n s e p a r a t e d t e r m , p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m , d o e s it i n d i c a t e t h e continued Then m e s s y a n d c o m p l i c a t e d history c o l o n i a l i s m left in its a w a k e ?

n a t i v e soul, a n d u n c o n t a m i n a t e d i n d i g e n o u s cultures, a n d t h r i v e d o n utilizing p o l a r i z i n g categories. 2 T h e t h i r d s t r e a m is a b o u t m u t u a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e e m p h a s i s h e r e is o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n i d e n t i t y b a s e d o n t h e i n t e r t w i n e d histories of t h e c o l o n i s e r a n d t h e c o l o n i s e d . Its a i m is t o g o b e y o n d totalisms, essentialisms a n d d i c h o t o m i e s , a n d t r a n s c e n d t h e m o d e r n i s t n o t i o n of a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d t h e m i n o r i t i e s i n t o o n e m o n o l i t h i c c u l t u r a l w h o l e . T h e key w o r d s h e r e a r e h y b r i d i t y a n d liminality, w h i c h d e n o t e a n i n - b e t w e e n - s p a c e . It is a s p a c e w h e r e o n e is e q u a l l y c o m m i t t e d a n d d i s t u r b e d b y t h e c o l o n i s e d a n d t h e c o l o n i z i n g c u l t u r e s . I n H o m i B h a b h a ' s w o r d s , it is t h e " T h i r d S p a c e " 3 w h i c h e m e r g e s f r o m a n a n a l y t i c a l s c r u t i n y of diverse c u l t u r e s r a t h e r t h a n f r o m i n t e g r a t i n g t h e m . T h o u g h c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y t h e s e s t r e a m s e m e r g e o u t of d i f f e r e n t c o n texts, t h e y a r e n e i t h e r l i n e a r n o r m o n o l i t h i c ; t h e y sit side b y side a n d interact constantly. M o r e importantly, the protagonists, too, cannot be boxed into neat wholes.

t h e w h o l e d i s c o u r s e is t o r n b e t w e e n its use of m u t u a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e critical c a t e g o r i e s s u c h as M a r x i s m a n d p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s m . A d d e d t o this is t h e c o n s t a n t c h a n g i n g of f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n t h e field.

Streams of Postcolonialism T h e r e a r e t h r e e s t r e a m s of p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m a t w o r k . T h e first c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e n o t i o n of i n v a s i o n a n d c o n t r o l ; t h e s e c o n d p l a c e s e n o r m o u s i n v e s t m e n t in r e c o v e r i n g t h e c u l t u r a l soul; a n d t h e t h i r d stresses mutual interdependence and transformation. T h e first s t r e a m is a b o u t t e x t u a l p r a c t i c e s a n d r e s i s t a n c e t o colon i a l s u p r e m a c y a n d m a n a g e m e n t of o t h e r p e o p l e s ' lives, t e r r i t o r i e s a n d cultures. T h e f o c u s of t h e d i s c o u r s e h e r e is t o e x p o s e c o l o n i a l c o n t r o l a n d d o m i n a t i o n , w i t h a v i e w to g a i n i n g e v e n t u a l i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d l i b e r a t i o n . T h e r e a r e essayists, c u l t u r a l critics a n d politi'cal activists r a n g i n g f r o m T r i n i d a d i a n C . L . J a m e s to M a r t i n i q u a n A i m e C e s a i r e , t o S r i - L a n k a n A n a n d a C o o m a r a s w a m y , w h o s e text u a l i n p u t is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s such a task. H e r e t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t is l o c k e d i n t o a b a t t l e b e t w e e n t w o u n e q u a l h o m o g e n e o u s e n t i t i e s t h e i n v a d e r a n d t h e o c c u p i e d . Ironically, t h e d e b a t e is s h a p e d b y t h e l a n g u a g e of r e s i s t a n c e , a n d t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s of t h e o c c u p i e r w h o s u p p l i e d a n d i n f o r m e d a n t i c o l o n i a l a t t i t u d e s to class, c u l t u r e , g e n d e r , subjectivity, a n d so f o r t h . T h e second stream concentrates on recovering the "cultural soul" f r o m t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d c u l t u r a l g r i p of t h e m a s t e r . H e r e w e see t w o ploys at w o r k . O n e is b e n t o n r e c o u p i n g t h e p u r e essence of t h e n a t i v e soul a n d c u l t u r e w h i c h is m o m e n t a r i l y d e b a s e d a n d disg r a c e d ; t h e o t h e r is e n g a g e d in e x p o s i n g t h e wiles of t h e m a s t e r a n d t h e pitfalls of his c l a i m s t o p r e e m i n e n c e . T h e f o r m e r is e s p o u s e d by, a m o n g others, A n a n d a C o o m a r a s w a m y w h o emphasises the i m m e n s e p o t e n t i a l i t y a n d p e r e n n i a l u s e f u l n e s s of i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r a l energies. T h e l a t t e r is e x e m p l i f i e d b y F a n o n a n d M e m m i w h o s e d i s t i n g u i s h e d w o r k e x p o s e s t h e illegitimacies of t h e m a s t e r c u l t u r e . B o t h c a m p s believe in t h e spiritual a n d t h e o l o g i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y of A f r i c a n a n d Asian cultures which were u n d e r m i n e d by the current Western s u p r e m a c y . T h e y t e n d t o rely on t h e essentialist n o t i o n s of a civilized

Historical

Background

T h e a r r i v a l of p o s t c o l o n i a l d i s c o u r s e o n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l scene is c m cial. Its a d v e n t w a s facilitated b y t h r e e key e v e n t s w h i c h o c c u r r e d m o r e o r less s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e f a i l u r e of t h e socialist e x p e r i m e n t as p r a c t i s e d in t h e Soviet b u r e a u c r a c y ; t h e rise of global c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y w h i c h r e s u l t e d in t h e a l t e r a t i o n of m e t r o p o l i t a n a n d village e c o n o m i e s ; a n d t h e loss of political m o m e n t u m a m o n g the T h i r d W o r l d countries w h o covenanted to create a NoilA l i g n e d m o v e m e n t in B a n d u n g . U t i l i z i n g t h e s p a c e o f f e r e d by t h e W e s t e r n a c a d e m y in t h e 80s, d i a s p o r i c intellectuals of T h i r d W o r l d o r i g i n r e p r o b l e m a t i z e d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o l o n i a l i s m f o r m u l a t e d b o t h b y colonialists a n d nationalists. T h o u g h t h e c r i t i q u e e m e r g e d f r o m different disciplinary needs, postcolonialism provided a n interv e n t i o n a r y i m p u l s e . A n d t h e text t h a t p l a y e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t in o p e n i n g u p t h e d e b a t e a n d m a k i n g t h e issue visible w a s E d w a r d S a i d ' s Orientalism, p u b l i s h e d in 1978.

2 For ;1 introduction to a n d critique of the a u t h o r s m e n t i o n e d here, refer to o n e ol tlie readers m e n t i o n e d in 11. I above.

U.K. Bliablia, '/he hiailion of Culture (London: Ronllcdge, 199 )]:i(i 39, 2IH.

544

R.S.

SUGIRTHARAJAH

POSTCOLONIAL THEORY ANDBIBLICALSTUDIES543

545

I n spite of all these ambiguities, postcolonialism is a serviceable c a t e g o r y b e c a u s e it conveys t h e historical p h e n o m e n o n of E u r o p e a n s u b j u g a t i o n a n d colonialism a n d its a t t e n d a n t features, n a m e l y t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t of p o w e r a n d t h e i n t e r - m i x of cultures w i t h i n p a r ticular g e o g r a p h i c a l locations. It is a c o n v e n i e n t tool to u n m a s k t h e p a s t textual p r o d u c t i o n of colonialism a n d to dislodge its legitimizing strategies. Positively, it p r o v i d e s a location f o r o t h e r voices, histories a n d e x p e r i e n c e s to b e h e a r d . T h e c a t e g o r y is also useful in c r e a t i n g a w a r e n e s s of the colonial legacy as it c o n t i n u e s to m a i n t a i n a h o l d o n p e o p l e , c o m m u n i t i e s a n d culture. It is also useful in signifying c h a n g i n g relations a m o n g these p e o p l e , cultures, a n d c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e p o s t m o d e r n w o r l d . W h a t postcolonial t h e o r y d o e s is to offer a space for t h e o n c e colonised. It is a n i n t e r p r e t a t i v e act of t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of those o n c e s u b j u g a t e d . I n effect it m e a n s a r e s u r r e c t i o n of t h e m a r g i n a l , t h e i n d i g e n e a n d t h e s u b a l t e r n . It m e a n s e n g a g i n g w i t h t h e m a s s of k n o w l e d g e w h i c h is p r o d u c e d o n t h e i r b e h a l f a n d w h i c h is in t h e d o m a i n of E u r o - A m e r i c a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It is a n act of r e c l a m a t i o n , . r e d e m p t i o n a n d r e a f f i r m a t i o n against t h e p a s t colonial a n d c u r r e n t neo-colonising tendencies w h i c h c o n t i n u e to exert influence even after territorial a n d political i n d e p e n d e n c e h a s b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d . It is a tactic a n d a practice. It m e a n s finding ways of o p e r a t i n g u n d e r a set of a r d u o u s a n d difficult c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h j e o p a r d i s e a n d d e h u manise people.

sider t h e biblical narratives, n o t as a series ol' divlllply H e d incid e n t s o r s u p e r n a t u r a l r e p o r t s a b o u t divine-human rnCOwHlK b u t as e m a n a t i n g f r o m colonial contacts. It will revnlur th OfHHkfcl ideology, stigmatization a n d negative p o r t r a y a l s cmlinldod ji'^ie c o n t e n t , plot a n d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . It will scour I lie l)!bU0WMges f r h o w colonial i n t e n t i o n s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s i n f o r m e d Mild i n f l u e n c e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of the texts. It will a t t e m p t to rmirtfCIt I0|t voices a n d causes w h i c h a r e d i s t o r t e d o r silenced in I lie cMhonited text. T h e s e c o n d task of postcolonial criticism is to eiigMffe Ift r e c o n structive r e a d i n g w h i c h will r e r e a d biblical texts Iron! the perspective of postcolonial c o n c e r n s s u c h as liberation slnt((((|p1l af the past a n d p r e s e n t ; it will b e sensitive to s u b a l t e r n a n d Ihnllllnc elements e m b e d d e d m t h e texts; it will i n t e r a c t with a n d rellei't on postcolonial c i r c u m s t a n c e s such as hybridity, f r a g m e n t a t i o n , drlcrrltorialization, a n d / o r h y p h e n a t e d , d o u b l e o r multiple i d e n l i l i n O T h e task of postcolonial criticism is to interrgate both colonial a n d m e t r o p o l i t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s to d r a w attention to the inc'Hcapable effects of c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d colonial ideals 011 inlet prrlativc works s u c h as c o m m e n t a r i a l w r i t i n g s a n d historical and iidiiuniHtrative r e c o r d s w h i c h h e l p e d to (re)inscribe t h e notion of a myxtinil, irrational, s t a g n a n t O r i e n t p i t c h e d against a progressive, rational and secular O c c i d e n t . It will also investigate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which contested colonial interests a n d c o n c e r n s . It will bring to the lore h o w t h e invadees, o f t e n c a r i c a t u r e d as a b u s e d victims or grateful beneficiaries, t r a n s c e n d e d these i m a g e s a n d wrested interpretation from t h e invaders, starting a process of self-discovery, appropriation and subversion. S u b j e c t i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n Bible to a postcolonial g a z e is n o t in o r d e r to m a k e t h e texts c o m e alive a n d p r o v i d e solace a n d c o m f o r t to those d e v o u t (in s o m e case n o t so devout) r e a d e r s w h o also h a v e social a n d political perceptiveness. A t a time w h e n s a c r e d texts m a y n o t b e t h e only p l a c e to look for answers to a b s t r a c t o r existential p r o b l e m s , the p u r p o s e of postcolonial r e a d i n g is n o t to invest texts with p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h n o l o n g e r h a v e r e l e v a n c e to o u r c o n t e x t , o r w i t h excessive a n d exclusive theological claims w h i c h invalidate o t h e r claims. It seeks to p u n c t u r e t h e C h r i s t i a n Bible's W e s t e r n p r o t e c t i o n

Postcolonialism and Biblical

Studies

A p p l i e d to biblical studies, 4 postcolonial criticism h o p e s to d o t h e following: First, scrutiny of biblical n a r r a t i v e s for t h e i r colonial i n v o l v e m e n t . T h e Bible as a collection of d o c u m e n t s w h i c h c a m e o u t of v a r i o u s imperial contextsEgyptian, Persian, Assyrian, Hellenistic a n d R o m a n o r w e r e p r o d u c e d u n d e r courtly supervision of D a v i d i c a n d S o l o m o n i c dynasties, n e e d s to b e reinvestigated a g a i n . It will r e c o n -

1 F o r r e c e n t a t t e m p t s , see Semeia 75 (1996): " P o s t c o l o n i a l i s m a n d S c r i p t u r a l R e a d i n g " ; R . S u g i r t h a r a j a h , The Postcolonial Bible (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1998); idem, Asian Biblical Hermeneutics and Postcolonialism: Contesting the Interpretations (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1999).

r ' For e x a m p l e s of diasporic h e r m e n e u t i c s , see F.F. Segovia (cd.), Inlerprctim! Bevond Borders (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2000).

546

R.S.

SUGIRTHARAJAH

POSTCOLONIAL THEORY AND BIBLICAL STUDIES

543

a n d p r e t e n s i o n s , a n d to h e l p r e p o s i t i o n it in r e l a t i o n to its o r i e n t a l r o o t s a n d E a s t e r n h e r i t a g e . T h e a i m is n o t t o r e d i s c o v e r t h e biblical texts as a n a l t e r n a t i v e , o r t o s e a r c h in its p a g e s f o r a b e t t e r w o r l d as a w a y of c o p i n g w i t h t h e t e r r o r s of t h e c o l o n i a l a f t e r m a t h . T h e Bible is a p p r o a c h e d n o t f o r its intrinsic a u t h o r i t a t i v e n e s s o r distinctiveness, b u t b e c a u s e of t h e t h e m a t i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s of p o s t c o l o nialism, w h i c h a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c u l t u r a l a n d psychological effects triggered b y colonialism. P o s t c o l o n i a l i s m ' s critical p r o c e d u r e is a n a m a l g a m of d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s r a n g i n g f r o m t h e n o w u n f a s h i o n a b l e f o r m - c r i t i c i s m to c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a r y m e t h o d s . It is i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y in n a t u r e a n d p l u ralistic in its o u t l o o k . It is a n a v e n u e of i n q u i r y t h a n a h o m o g e n e o u s p r o j e c t . O n e of t h e significant aspects of p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m is its t h e o retical a n d intellectual c a t h o l i c i s m . I t thrives o n inclusiveness, a n d it is a t t r a c t e d t o all k i n d s of tools a n d d i s c i p l i n a r y fields, as l o n g as t h e y p r o b e injustices, p r o d u c e n e w k n o w l e d g e w h i c h problematises home

t h e m o d e r n i s t i c sin of p r e s c r i p t i v e a n d h e g e m o n i c t e n d e n c i e s , p o s t m o d e r n i s m is shy of m a k i n g h a r d e t h i c a l a n d m o r a l decisions. By c o n t r a s t , p o s t c o l o n i a l criticism a r g u e s f o r ethical p r a c t i c e e v e n t h o u g h it is suspicious of its u n i v e r s a l applicability. H e r e I a g r e e w i t h A t o Q u a y s o n ' s plea for a proactive ethical involvement, notwithstanding t h e risk a n d d a n g e r i n v o l v e d in s u c h a n e n t e r p r i s e : Recognizing that there is m u c h destitution, poverty a n d sheer despair in the world, it seems to me increasingly imperative that the risk of appearing prescriptive is worth taking if one is not to surrender completely to a debilitating anomie brought on by the apprehension of persistent social tragedies. Those who lose their limbs to landmines, are displaced through refugee crises or merely subsist in the intermittent but regularly frustrated hope that the world can become a better place, cannot wait for complete moral certitude before they take action to improve their existence. It is partly in the implicit (and often real) alliance with those who, to appropriate a phrase from Julian Murphet, "keep running all the time simply to keep pace with events" that we ought to take courage to make ethical judgements even in the full knowledge that we may be proved wrong. T o this larger picture, and in service of this larger affirmation we ought to commit our critical enterprises. b

w e l l - e n t r e n c h e d positions, a n d e n h a n c e s t h e lives of t h e m a r g i n a l i s e d . A n y t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k t h a t s t r a d d l e s a n d finds h e r m e n e u t i c a l i n d i f f e r e n t disciplines, is b o u n d t o suffer f r o m c e r t a i n eclectic t h e oretical d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . S u c h a selective bias, t h o u g h u n s a f e , s o m e t i m e s is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o press o n w i t h it f o r t h e sake of t h e task a t h a n d .

Is it Right to Subject Past Documents to the Cunent Notions of Sexism etc.? Some Constantly asked Questions

Racism,

Postmodernism

and PostcolonialismAre

they same?

Postmodernism a n d postcolonialism e m b o d y an important impulse, a n i m p u l s e to i n t e r v e n e a n d i n t e r r o g a t e a c c e p t e d k n o w l e d g e s , a n d t o destabilize t h e i r c o m p l a c e n c i e s . B u t w h a t distinguishes p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m f r o m typically p o s t m o d e r n d i s c o u r s e is p o s t m o d e r n i s m ' s seepticism of history, its implicit p r i v i l e g i n g of p r e s e n t W e s t e r n c u l t u r a l n o r m s , a n d its lack of a n y political a g e n d a . U n l i k e p o s t m o d e r n i s m w h i c h sees t h e e n d of g r a n d n a r r a t i v e s , p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m views l i b e r a t i o n as a m e t a story w h i c h still h a s t o p l a y o u t its full p o t e n t i a l . M o d e r n i t y itself is o f t e n r e g a r d e d b y p o s t m o d e r n i s t s as a n a n a c h r o n i s m , b u t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m sees t h e less p e r v e r t e d f o r m s of m o d e r n i z a t i o n as a v e r y a p p e a l i n g a n d a p p l i c a b l e o p t i o n f o r T h i r d W o r l d p e o p l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y as a vehicle of e c o n o m i c l i b e r a t i o n . In its v e n e r a t i o n of plurality, a n d its f e a r of r c p l i c a t i n g

H i s t o r i a n s a r e o f t e n i m p a t i e n t if 2 0 t h c e n t u r y c o n c e r n s a r e i m p o r t e d into ancicnt materials. A n y attempt to read past d o c u m e n t s from p o s t c o l o n i a l a n d f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e f r o w n e d u p o n . T h e real q u e s t i o n is, as G a y a t r i S p i v a k p u t s it, " w h y s t r u c t u r e s of p a t r i a r c h a l d o m i n a t i o n s s h o u l d b e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y r e c o r d e d . " S h e goes o n to say t h a t " h i s t o r i c a l s a n c t i o n s f o r collective a c t i o n t o w a r d social justice c a n only b e d e v e l o p e d if p e o p l e o u t s i d e of t h e discipline q u e s t i o n t h e s t a n d a r d s of ' o b j e c t i v i t y ' p r e s e r v e d as s u c h b y t h e h e g e m o n i c tradition."7 A n o t h e r p o i n t is t h a t , if t h e s e d o c u m e n t s a r e historical p h e n o m enon, then we should not claim any c o n t e m p o r a r y relevance for t h e m b e it t h e Bible o r S h a k e s p e a r a n texts, a n d s h o u l d leave t h e m

' Q u a y s o n , 'osleohmi/ilism: 'henry, /'riuiice or Ihocess, >). ' ( i . ( I. Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: loivar/l a History of Vanish1> Present ( C a m b r i d g e , : H a r v a r d University I'ress, I!)!)!)) :101.

548

R.S.

SUGIRTHARAJAH

POSTCOLONIAL THEORY AND BIBLICAL STUDIES

543

a t t h a t . M o r e t o t h e p o i n t , w e revisit t h e s e texts n o t t o b e j u d g m e n t a l but to readjust our perceptions a n d prejudices a n d inform our present knowledge which often accepts the discriminatory practices as t h e n o r m . Is Everything Postcolonial?

I n c r e a s i n g l y o n e o f t e n h e a r s t o d a y t h a t , since m o s t of t h e c o u n t r i e s h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h s o m e k i n d of colonial e x p e r i e n c e , e v e r y t h i n g is p o s t c o l o n i a l . T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y to s m o o t h o u t t h e d i f f e r e n t colonial e x p e r i e n c e s . T h u s , 19th c e n t u r y British imperialists a r e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e 10th c e n t u r y M o n g o l s w h o h a d t h e largest l a n d e m p i r e , a n d t h e A m e r i c a n i n v a s i o n of G r e n a d a is t r e a t e d as e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e I n d o n e s i a n o c c u p a t i o n of E a s t T i m o r . It is this k i n d of t h i n k i n g w h i c h w o u l d like to n e u t r a l i z e British c o l o n i a l i s m in H o n g K o n g as a b e n e v o l e n t i n t r u s i o n , a n d C h i n e s e n a t i o n a l i s m as n a t i v e b a c k wardness. Such a position, according to R e y C h o w , flattens out past injustices a n d plays i n t o t h e h a n d s of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h views t h e p a s t injustices as i r k s o m e a n d d i s p e n s a b l e . F o r s o m e p o s t c o l o nials, w h o m C h o w t e r m s as p o s t m o d e r n hybridites, t h e r e is n o t m u c h difference between the n e w globalism a n d cosmopolitanism. Such c l a i m s b l u r a n d o b l i t e r a t e c o m p l e x histories, e m p h a s i z i n g o n t h e " p o s t " a n d r e a d i n g t h e " p o s t " as " a f t e r " a n d " o v e r w i t h " r a t h e r t h a n p u t t i n g t h e e m p h a s i s o n t h e colonial. T h e significance of t h e p o s t is n o t " a f t e r " , r a t h e r it designates a space of cultural contest a n d c h a n g e . P o s t c o l o n i a l i s m is n o t a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r e p o c h , r a t h e r , it is a b o u t a set of m e a s u r e s u n d e r t a k e n b y critics to infuse a n e w sense of destiny."

T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of r i g h t e o u s n o n - J e w s , a n d a n t i - a p a r t h e i d n o n b l a c k s w h o s p o k e o u t f o r w h a t w a s right, irrespective of w h o e v e r t h e y w e r e . It will b e l a m e n t a b l e if o n e resorts to p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e as a h e r m e n e u t i c a l t r u m p c a r d . I n t h a t case, o n e w o u l d h a v e t o b e a J e w t o resist a n t i - S e m i t i s m , a g a y t o s u p p o r t h o m o s e x u a l rights, a n d p o o r in o r d e r t o a d v o c a t e w e l f a r e r e f o r m s . If o n e e x t e n d s this t o its logical c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n only a n i m a l s c o u l d d o a n i m a l t h e o l o g y a n d o n l y trees c o u l d talk a b o u t d e f o r e s t a t i o n . P e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , c u l t u r a l affinities, a n d ideological closeness, i m p o r t a n t t h o u g h they are, are p o o r surrogates for understanding a n d accountability in h e r m e n e u t i c s . S e n s i n g a n d feeling w h a t is right, is sufficient. O n e d o e s n ' t h a v e t o h a v e lived it. T o e s p o u s e a c a u s e o r p l e a d f o r s o m e t h i n g b e c a u s e it c o n c e r n s o n l y y o u is f a r less i m p r e s s i v e t h a n c h a m p i o n i n g it s i m p l y b e c a u s e it is fair. T h e s e c o n d story c o m e s f r o m m a i n s t r e a m intellectuals w h o wish t o restrict t h e discipline t o t h e f o r m e r colonial victims, a n d t o d e c l a r e it as a n o g o a r e a f o r First W o r l d p e o p l e . T h i s is a skilful w a y of r e s t r i c t i n g t h e discipline a n d g h e t t o i s i n g it. S e g r e g a t i o n a n d setting u p " w e " a g a i n s t " t h e m " a r e p a r t of t h e colonial g r a n d design. T h e p o i n t of p o s t c o l o n i a l s t u d y is n o t o n l y t o q u e s t i o n t h e u n f a i r n e s s m e t e d o u t t o c e r t a i n g r o u p s of p e o p l e a n d to t h e i r histories a n d cultures, b u t to s t u d y t h e i n v o l v e m e n t a n d i n c o r p o r a t i o n of E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h facilitated, l e g i t i m a t i z e d a n d p e r p e t u a t e d s u c h inequalities. T h e C h i n e s e c u l t u r a l critic P h e b e S h i h C h a o , b a s i n g h e r a r g u m e n t o n F a n o n , c h a r t s a similar p r o c e s s w h i c h t h e c o l o n i s e r , t o o , u n d e r g o e s . T h e c o l o n i s e d passes t h r o u g h stages, f r o m i m i t a t i o n of t h e m a s t e r , t o t h e desire to r e t u r n to his o r h e r roots, t h r o u g h t o b e i n g a n a w a k e n e r of his o r h e r p e o p l e . Similarly, t h e c o l o n i s e r , in his t u r n , m o v e s f r o m b e i n g a willing p a r t i c i p a n t in c o l o n i a l i s m , t o a f e e l i n g of r e m o r s e , a n d finally to seeki n g to rectify p a s t m i s d e e d s a n d m i s p e r c e p t i o n s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s m a y n o t coincide, a n d n e e d n o t go h a n d in h a n d . Since b o t h t h e colonised a n d t h e coloniser a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y i n v o l v e d , a n d h a v e stake in u n r a v elling r a c e , g e n d e r a n d e t h n i c i t y , t h e w h o l e exercise b e c o m e s p e d a gogically a n d critically ineffective if t h e field is restricted to o n e g r o u p of p e o p l e . 9

Who Can Engage in Postcolonial

Discourse?

T h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s of stories o n e h e a r s . O n e is p e r p e t u a t e d b y t h e f o r m e r c o l o n i s e d w h o insist o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e of o p p r e s s i o n as a vital i n g r e d i e n t f o r h o l d i n g o n t o a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n . T h e i r r o u t i n e a r g u m e n t " y o u d o n ' t k n o w w h a t it is like, b e c a u s e it n e v e r h a p p e n e d to y o u , a n d t h e r e f o r e y o u h a v e n o right t o s p e a k " d o e s n o t give r o o m f o r a s o b e r a s s e s s m e n t . T h e c o l o n i a l a r c h i v e s r e c o r d i n s t a n c e s of a m i s s i o n a r y o r a c o l o n i a l civil s e r v a n t , a t t h e a n n o y a n c e of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , t a k i n g u p t h e c a u s e of t h e victims.

R . C h o w , Ethics After Idealism: TheoryCultureEthnicity I n d i a n a University Press, 1998) l ! 5 6 ! .

Reading (Bloomington:

P.S. C h a o , " R e a d i n g T h e Letter in a Postcolonial W o r l d " , in M. Bernstein a n d G. Sulfilar (eds.), Visions of/he Kast: Orientalism in Film ( L o n d o n : I.B. T a u r i s Publishers, 1997) 292 <W.

12

R.S.

SUGIRTHARAJAH

POSTCOLONIAL T H E O R Y AND BIBLICAL STUDIES

543

Comments,

Concerns,

Cautions

Like it o r l u m p it, p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m as a critical c a t e g o r y will c o n t i n u e t o exercise i n f l u e n c e at least f o r s o m e t i m e to c o m e , b o t h in a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e a n d in g e n e r a l u s a g e , since it signals a n i m p o r t a n t n e w s t a r t i n g p o i n t a n d a significant shift. I n its n a m e significant work has already b e e n done. T h e marginals a n d the natives have b e e n rescued without fantasising a n d investing t h e m with a venerab l e status; c o l o n i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n u n m a s k e d ; e s t a b l i s h e d i d e a s a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e a b o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s set in p l a c e b y c o l o n i a l i s m h a v e b e e n d i s l o d g e d . B u t this d o e s n o t m e a n to be mesmerised by the recent kudos accorded by the that e v e r y t h i n g is fine a n d t h a t b e t t e r d a y s a r e h e r e . T h e t e m p t a t i o n is academy, a n d t o t u r n g a m e k e e p e r a n d s u p e r i n t e n d a n d p o l i c e o t h e r discourses i n c l u d i n g t h e m i n o r i t y o n e . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is t o e m p l o y postc o l o n i a l a p p a r a t u s w i t h c a u t i o n a n d suspicion, a n d u s e it as a n o p p o sitional tool. A n t i - c o l o n i a l r e a d i n g is n o t n e w . It h a s g o n e o n w h e n e v e r a n a t i v e .put quill p e n t o p a p e r t o c o n t e s t t h e p r o d u c t i o n of k n o w l e d g e b y t h e i n v a d i n g p o w e r . P o s t c o l o n i a l i t y begin w h e n s u b j e c t s find t h e m selves t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i n g in c e r t a i n ways. W h a t is distinctive a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t e n t e r p r i s e , h o w e v e r , is t h a t it is n o t l o c k e d i n t o t h e colonial p a r a d i g m w h e r e t h e colonialists set t h e g r o u n d rules, b u t m o r e i m p o r t a n d y it c o n c e d e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y of c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e i n v a d e r a n d t h e i n v a d e e s . It goes b e y o n d t h e b i n a r y n o t i o n s of c o l o n i s e d a n d c o l o n i s e r a n d lays w e i g h t y e m p h a s i s o n critical e x c h a n g e s a n d m u t u a l transformation between the two. Postcolonialism does not m e a n that the colonised are innocent, generous and principled, w h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r colonisers, a n d n o w t h e n e o - c o l o n i s e r s , a r e all i n n a t e l y c u l p a b l e , g r e e d y a n d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r all social evils. S u c h a n o t i o n is n o t only a n i n v e r t e d f o r m of c o l o n i a l i s m b u t it also absolves t h e T h i r d W o r l d elite of t h e i r p a t r i a r c h a l a n d vassalising t e n d e n c i e s . W h a t t h e c u r r e n t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m tries t o d o is t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t this r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r u l e r a n d t h e r u l e d is c o m p l e x , full of cross-trading a n d m u t u a l appropriation a n d confrontation. S o m e of t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l a n d p r a x i o l o g i c a l a g e n d a t h a t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m seeks t o p u r s u e c o i n c i d e w i t h o t h e r liberative m o v e m e n t s s u c h as f e m i n i s m , etc. T h o u g h t h e r e is a s h a r e d i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d v o c a t i o n a l mission, p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m differs significantly f r o m these critical u n d e r t a k i n g s in t w o ways. It c o m b a t s t h e W e s t ' s t c x t u a l i z i n g

d e f a m a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i s e d , a n d r e d r e s s e s c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s c a u s e d b y W e s t e r n civilization. T h e o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t , u n l i k e t h e d o m i n a n t t h e o r e t i c a l categories, p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m d i d n o t b e g i n its c a r e e r as a n a n s w e r to t h e W e s t ' s intellectual a n d psychological d i l e m m a s , b u t as m e e t i n g t h e n e e d s of t h e c o l o n i s e d o t h e r . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , it is b y t h e m a n d a b o u t t h e m , b u t h a s t r e m e n d o u s hermeneutical consequences for the West. U n l i k e t h e o t h e r critical c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h a r e in v o g u e t o d a y , p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m ' s i n c a r n a t i o n w a s in t h e f o r m of i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e in t h e w r i t i n g s of I n d i a n s , A f r i c a n s a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a n s . T h e o r e t i c a l fine-tuning f o l l o w e d later. I n a n e r a w h i c h is so p a r a n o i d a b o u t gett i n g t h e o r e t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s c o r r e c t , p o s t c o l o n i a l critics m a y b e e n t i c e d i n t o s p e n d i n g t h e i r e n e r g y in a s e a r c h f o r finer t h e o r e t i c a l excell e n c e , a n d so lose t h e i r ability t o t r i g g e r off a n e w w a v e of i m a g i n a t i v e h e r m e n e u t i c a l r e n d i t i o n s . If t h e y persist in this t h e y will forfeit t h e i r a p p e a l a n d m o m e n t u m , a n d a r e b o u n d to b e c o m e r e d u n d a n t . S u c h a p u r s u i t w o u l d b e t h e n seen as a n escapist activity, w i t h i n v e n tive h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o d u c t i o n s giving w a y to t h e o r e t i c a l p u r i t y . A n y t h e o r y o r d i s c o u r s e p r a c t i c e t h a t d o e s n o t h a v e w i t h i n itself a n inbuilt m e c h a n i s m f o r its o w n d e c o n s t r u c t i o n will b e c o m e a p o t e n t tool f o r t h e o l o g i c a l a n d ideological p r o p a g a n d a . T h i s applies to postcolonial t h e o r y as t o a n y o t h e r . T h e success of p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m d e p e n d s o n its e n g a g e m e n t with m o r e t h a n o n e c o n s t i t u e n c y . It s h o u l d b e a b l e t o m o v e freely in t h e a c a d e m y a n d t h e w o r l d outside. It s h o u l d involve b o t h intellectual a n d p o p u l a r discourse. P o s t c o l o n i a l t h e o r y as it is p r a c t i s e d in c e r tain circles h a s b e e n p e r c e i v e d to b e t o o c o m p l e x a n d esoteric to have m u c h influence outside the academy. While the academic comm u n i t y h a s p r o d u c e d incisivc c r i t i q u e s of O r i e n t a l i s m , t h e p o p u l a r m e d i a , a n d especially t h e e c u m e n i c a l a n d d e n o m i n a t i o n a l press c o n t i n u e to orientalise in t h e i r v o r a c i o u s p o r t r a y a l s of a n e x o t i c / d e m o n i c v e r s i o n of I n d i a / A f r i c a t h r o u g h f o o d , f a m i n e , films etc. O n e of t h e uses of p o s t c o l o n i a l t h e o r y is t o m a k e r e a d e r s a n d a u d i e n c e a w a r e of t h e n a t u r e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e task of t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l critic is t h e p o w e r f u l , as E d w a r d S a i d h a s b e e n t h e p o o r a b o u t t h e p o w e r f u l , especially wielded by t h e m e d i a , m u l t i n a t i o n a l s a n d n o t only to s p e a k t r u t h to u r g i n g , b u t also t o s p e a k to about the e n o r m o u s power t h e institutionalized C h u r c h .

If postcolonial t h e o r y helps us to familiarise ourselves with t h e bylanes a n d p a t h w a y s of D i c k c n s i a n E n g l a n d , but acts as a diversion

550

R .s.

SUGIRTHARAJAH

P O S T C O L O N I A L T H E O R Y AND BIBLICAL STUDIES

551

Comments, Concerns,

Cautions

Like it o r l u m p it, p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m as a critical c a t e g o r y will c o n t i n u e to exercise i n f l u e n c e a t least f o r s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , b o t h in a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e a n d in g e n e r a l u s a g e , since it signals a n i m p o r t a n t n e w s t a r t i n g p o i n t a n d a significant shift. I n its n a m e significant w o r k h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d o n e . T h e m a r g i n a l s a n d t h e natives h a v e b e e n rescued without fantasising a n d investing t h e m with a venerable status; c o l o n i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n u n m a s k e d ; established that i d e a s a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e a b o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s set in p l a c e b y c o l o n i a l i s m h a v e b e e n d i s l o d g e d . B u t this d o e s n o t m e a n to be mesmerised by the recent kudos accorded by the e v e r y t h i n g is fine a n d t h a t b e t t e r d a y s a r e h e r e . T h e t e m p t a t i o n is academy, a n d to t u r n g a m e k e e p e r a n d s u p e r i n t e n d a n d p o l i c e o t h e r discourses i n c l u d i n g t h e m i n o r i t y o n e . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is t o e m p l o y p o s t colonial a p p a r a t u s w i t h c a u t i o n a n d suspicion, a n d use it as a n o p p o sitional tool. A n t i - c o l o n i a l r e a d i n g is n o t n e w . I t h a s g o n e o n w h e n e v e r a n a t i v e .put quill p e n t o p a p e r t o c o n t e s t t h e p r o d u c t i o n of k n o w l e d g e b y t h e i n v a d i n g p o w e r . P o s t c o l o n i a l i t y b e g i n s w h e n subjects find t h e m selves t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i n g in c e r t a i n ways. W h a t is distinctive a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t e n t e r p r i s e , h o w e v e r , is t h a t it is n o t l o c k e d i n t o t h e colon i a l p a r a d i g m w h e r e t h e colonialists set t h e g r o u n d rules, b u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y it c o n c e d e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y of c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e i n v a d e r a n d t h e i n v a d e e s . I t goes b e y o n d t h e b i n a r y n o t i o n s of c o l o n i s e d a n d c o l o n i s e r a n d lays w e i g h t y e m p h a s i s o n critical e x c h a n g e s a n d m u t u a l transformation b e t w e e n the two. Postcolonialism does not m e a n that the colonised are innocent, generous a n d principled, w h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r colonisers, a n d n o w t h e n e o - c o l o n i s e r s , a r e all i n n a t e l y c u l p a b l e , g r e e d y a n d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r all social evils. S u c h a n o t i o n is n o t o n l y a n i n v e r t e d f o r m of c o l o n i a l i s m b u t it also absolves t h e T h i r d W o r l d elite of t h e i r p a t r i a r c h a l a n d vassalising t e n d e n c i e s . W h a t t h e c u r r e n t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m tries t o d o is t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t this r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r u l e r a n d t h e r u l e d is c o m p l e x , full of cross-trading a n d mutual appropriation a n d confrontation. S o m e of t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l a n d p r a x i o l o g i c a l a g e n d a t h a t p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m seeks t o p u r s u e c o i n c i d e w i t h o t h e r liberative m o v e m e n t s s u c h as f e m i n i s m , etc. T h o u g h t h e r e is a s h a r e d i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d v o c a t i o n a l mission, p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m differs significantly f r o m these critical u n d e r t a k i n g s in t w o ways. It c o m b a t s t h e W e s t ' s t e x t u a l i z i n g

d e f a m a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i s e d , a n d r e d r e s s e s c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s c a u s e d b y W e s t e r n civilization. T h e o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t , u n l i k e t h e d o m i n a n t t h e o r e t i c a l categories, p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m d i d n o t b e g i n its c a r e e r as a n a n s w e r to t h e W e s t ' s intellectual a n d psychological d i l e m m a s , b u t as m e e t i n g t h e n e e d s of t h e colonised o t h e r . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , it is b y t h e m a n d a b o u t t h e m , b u t h a s t r e m e n d o u s hermeneutical consequences for the West. U n l i k e t h e o t h e r critical c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h a r e in v o g u e t o d a y , p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m ' s i n c a r n a t i o n w a s in t h e f o r m of i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e in t h e writings of I n d i a n s , A f r i c a n s a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a n s . T h e o r e t i c a l fine-tuning f o l l o w e d later. I n a n e r a w h i c h is so p a r a n o i d a b o u t gett i n g t h e o r e t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s c o r r e c t , p o s t c o l o n i a l critics m a y b e e n t i c e d i n t o s p e n d i n g t h e i r e n e r g y in a s e a r c h f o r finer t h e o r e t i c a l excell e n c e , a n d so lose t h e i r ability to t r i g g e r off a n e w w a v e of i m a g i n a t i v e h e r m e n e u t i c a l r e n d i t i o n s . If t h e y persist in this t h e y will forfeit their appeal a n d m o m e n t u m , a n d are b o u n d to b e c o m e r e d u n d a n t . S u c h a p u r s u i t w o u l d b e t h e n seen as a n escapist activity, w i t h i n v e n tive h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o d u c t i o n s giving w a y to t h e o r e t i c a l p u r i t y . A n y t h e o r y o r d i s c o u r s e p r a c t i c e t h a t d o e s n o t h a v e w i t h i n itself a n inbuilt m e c h a n i s m f o r its o w n d e c o n s t r u c t i o n will b e c o m e a p o t e n t tool f o r t h e o l o g i c a l a n d ideological p r o p a g a n d a . T h i s applies to postc o l o n i a l t h e o r y as t o a n y o t h e r . T h e success of p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m d e p e n d s o n its e n g a g e m e n t with m o r e t h a n o n e c o n s t i t u e n c y . It s h o u l d b e a b l e to m o v e freely in t h e a c a d e m y a n d t h e w o r l d outside. It s h o u l d involve b o t h intellectual a n d p o p u l a r discourse. P o s t c o l o n i a l t h e o r y as it is p r a c t i s e d in ccrt a i n circles h a s b e e n p e r c e i v e d t o b e t o o c o m p l e x a n d esoterie to have m u c h influence outside the academy. While the academic comm u n i t y h a s p r o d u c e d incisive c r i t i q u e s of O r i e n t a l i s m , t h e p o p u l a r m e d i a , a n d especially t h e e c u m e n i c a l a n d d e n o m i n a t i o n a l press c o n t i n u e to orientalise in t h e i r v o r a c i o u s p o r t r a y a l s of a n e x o t i c / d e m o n i c v e r s i o n of I n d i a / A f r i c a t h r o u g h f o o d , f a m i n e , films etc. O n e of t h e uses of p o s t c o l o n i a l t h e o r y is t o m a k e r e a d e r s a n d a u d i e n c e a w a r e of t h e n a t u r e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e task of t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l critic is t h e p o w e r f u l , as E d w a r d S a i d h a s b e e n t h e p o o r a b o u t t h e p o w e r f u l , especially wielded by t h e m e d i a , m u l t i n a t i o n a l s a n d n o t o n l y to s p e a k t r u t h to u r g i n g , b u t also to s p e a k to about the enormous power t h e institutionalized C h u r c h .

If postcolonial t h e o r y helps us to familiarise ourselves with t h e bylanes a n d p a t h w a y s of D i c k c n s i a n E n g l a n d , but acts as a diversion

552

R.S.

SUGIRTHARAJAH

a n d fails t o t a k e n o t e of t o d a y ' s i n n e r cities a n d T h i r d W o r l d p r o b lems, t h e n t h e t h e o r y will n o t b e w o r t h e m p l o y i n g . T e x t u a l reciam a t i o n s a n d resistant r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e s will m a k e sense o n l y if t h e y a d d r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n s p e o p l e f a c e t o d a y . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e q u e s t i o n is n o t w h e t h e r o u r r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e is seen as c o l o n i a l o r p o s t colonial, m o d e r n o r p o s t m o d e r n . Its u s e f u l n e s s will n o t b e j u d g e d b y its ability to o f f e r a c r i t i q u e of t h e c o m p l e x h e r i t a g e t h a t c o l o n i a l o c c u p a t i o n p r o d u c e d . Its critical r e l e v a n c e will b e assessed w h e n it h a s a b e a r i n g o n t h e issues t h a t c a u s e c o n c e r n t o o u r p e o p l e , s u c h as h o u s i n g , e d u c a t i o n , h o m e l a n d , h e a l t h c a r e , social security, a n d t h e j u s t i c e system. Its w o r t h will b e a p p r a i s e d in t h e light of t h e vital role it c a n p l a y w h e n t h e t i m e c o m e s f o r d e c i d i n g t h e s e issues w h i c h affect p e o p l e , r a t h e r t h a n w h e t h e r its t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e is m o d e r n o r n o n - m o d e r n , c o l o n i a l o r a n t i - c o l o n i a l . T h e task of p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m is e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e n e e d s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s of t h e e x p l o i t e d a r e c a t e r e d to, r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g m e r e l y a n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d e n g a g i n g a v e n u e of inquiry. T h i s essay w a s w r i t t e n in a p p r e c i a t i o n of H e i k k i R i s n e n ' s critical e n g a g e m e n t w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e voices t h a t h a v e e m e r g e d f r o m o u t s i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l E u r o - A m e r i c a n circles.

GLAUBE U N D WISSEN:1 EIN V O R T R A G F R DIE D E M C H R I S T E N T U M ENTWAGHSEN UND TROTZDEM WEITER NACH WAHRHEIT SUCHEN

SOLCHE, SIND

SEINER

GERD

LDEMANN

I Wissen 1st in d e r Alltagssprache ein ziemlich eindeutiges W o r t , G l a u b e n d a g e g e n n i c h t . W i s s e n zielt a u f b e r p r f b a r k e i t , A l l g e m e i n g l t i g k e i t , R a t i o n a l i t a t u n d O b j e k t i v i t a t . G r i e c h i s c h e P h i l o s o p h e n w a r e n die e r s t e n , d i e wirkliches W i s s e n v o n blosser M e i n u n g o d e r n u r G l a u b e n u n t e r s c h i e d e n . G l a u b e n 1st n m l i c h vieldeutig. G l a u b e n k a n n e t w a als blosse M e i n u n g r e i n n e g a t i v v e r s t a n d e n w e r d e n . " I c h g l a u b e " heisst d a n n so viel wie: " I c h weiss n i c h t g e n a u " . F e r n e r zeigt sich die V i e l d e u t i g k e i t des Begriffs G l a u b e n d o r t , w o j e m a n d e i n e m a n d e r e n s e i n e n G l a u b e n lassen will, d . h . d a r a u f v e r z i c h t e t , i h n in e i n e m k o n k r e t e n Fall v o n d e m a n sich r i c h t i g e n G e g e n t e i l z u b e r z e u g e n . H i e r h a t G l a u b e n d e n B e i k l a n g v o n Illusion. h n l i c h e s k o m m t d o r t z u m A u s d r u c k , w o j e m a n d b e d a u e r t , e r k n n e i m G e g e n s a t z zu e i n e m a n d e r e n n i c h t m e h r g l a u b e n . H i e r 1st G l a u b e etwas, d a s d e m S p r e c h e r n i c h t m e h r z u g n g l i c h 1st, o f f e n b a r weil d i e R e a l i t t i h m diesen W e g versperrt.

' Dieser V o r t r a g v e r s u c h t die Ergebnisse historischer F o r s c h u n g verstndlich darzustellen u n d konstruktive W e g e aus d e r d a m i t g e g e b e n e n Glaubenskrise aufzuzeigen. Ich verffentliche ihn bewusst in einer Festschrift f r Heikki R i s a n e n , wei! ich m i c h m i t i h m in d e r rcksichtslosen E r f o r s c h u n g historischer W a h r h e i t v e r b u n d e n weiss u n d ebenfalls mit i h m die H o c h s c h t z u n g d e r Religionsgeschichtlichen S c h u l e teile. Z u d e n i m V o r t r a g vorausgesetzten historischen Einzelergebnissen sei verwiesen auf m e i n e Bcher: G . L d e m a n n , Ketzer: Die andere Seite desfrhen Chrislenhtms (Stuttgart: R a d i u s - V e r l a g , 1995); ders., Jesus naeh 2000 Jahren: Was er wirklich sagtc und tat ( L n e b u r g : zu K l a m p e n , 2000) (mit B e i t r a g e n v o n F r a n k Schleritl !11 I M a r t i n a J a n B e n ) . D i e B e h a n d l u n g systematisch-theologischer F r a g e n u n d m e i n e Kritik an R u d o l f B u l t m a n n s theologischem A u s w e g aus d e r d u r c h die historische Kritik h c r v o r g c n i f c n c n Krise finden sich in m e i n e m Biichlein lm Wiirgegriff der {'in/ie. Fiir die FreiheiI der Iheologischen Wissenschaft, (I.iineburg: zu K l a m p e n , 1998). Frank Schleritl d a n k e ieli lirs M i l d e n k e n u n d fiir seine Hilfe.

THIS COLLECTION

OF ESSAYS IN

HONOUR

of Heikki Risnen, New Testament professor at the University of Helsinki, consists of 2 2 essays written by his colleagues and students on Jesus, the gospels, Paul, early Christianity, and biblical interpretation. Risnen's own research has been characterized by methodological awareness combined with a keen interest in ethical issues. Both these aspects come to expression in his insistence on <fair play> as a correct scholarly attitude involving an honest dialogue, a real encounter, and a recognition of diverging opinions. In this spirit, most of the essays in this book lay emphasis on issues related to early Christian diversity and conflicts, and to their challenge in modern society, The book is useful for scholars, academic teachers and students interested in various aspects of the New Testament, early Christianity, and hermeneutics.

1SM0DUNDERBERG
is R e s e a r c h Fellow of t h e A c a d e m y of Finland at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Helsinki.

CHRISTOPHER TUCKETT is P r o f e s s o r o f N e w T e s t a m e n t S t u d i e s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of O x f o r d .

AR

SYREENI

is N e w T e s t a m e n t P r o f e s s o r at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of U p p s a l a .