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DOI: 10.1177/0142064X11415317
2011 34: 3 Journal for the Study of the New Testament
Dale C. Allison, Jr
A Liturgical Tradition behind the Ending of James

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DOI: 10.1177/0142064X11415317
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Dale C. Allison, Jr, Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, 616 N. Highland Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15206 USA
Email: dallison@pts.edu
Article
A Liturgical Tradition behind
the Ending of James
Dale C. Allison, Jr
Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, USA
Abstract
The themes of healing and turning back the wayward, which come together in Jas 5.13-
20, were traditionally associated. They appear side by side not only in the Tanak but
also in later Jewish and Christian prayer traditions that show engagement with Ezek.
3233. The nal verses of James also reect the language of those chapters of Ezekiel
and probably are inuenced by a very primitive church order.
Keywords
James, church order, liturgy, healing, Didascalia, Amidah
The thematic coherence of the closing verses of James has long puzzled scholars. The
problems begin with 5.12, the prohibition of oaths. The line appears isolated, coming as
it does between a call to patient endurance (vv. 7-11) and sayings about prayer and con-
fession (vv. 13-18). Exegetical ingenuity has, to be sure, often divined connections
between v. 12 and its current context. But the various proposals, which tend to cancel
each other out, fail to satisfy.
1
That some commentators have treated v. 12 as an
1. Bengel (1850: 507) thought v. 12 a tting introduction to v. 13: when faced with adversity, one
should use the tongue to pray, not swear. Cf. Mayor 1913: 167; Chaine 1927: 425; Cantinat
1973: 241. For Baker (1995: 278), to the contrary, the concluding so that you may not fall
under judgment is the key to the location of 5.12: the theme of judgment adverts to what has
gone before. Ruckstuhl (1985: 30) sees a link with v. 9: the mention of the judgment there
encouraged placing a saying about judgment here. Church (2004: 409) draws a line back to
5.1-6: those who hired but did not pay lack integrity; their yes at hiring time should be
matched by a yes at pay time. Keenan (2005: 162) nds yet another way of tying v. 12 to its
context: the immediate focusis upon Job and his attempts to drag God into court, to subject
Gods truth to human norms of validation. He has just said that the judge is standing at the
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4 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1)
independent section is wholly understandable.
2
One can hardly fault the candor of Adam
Clarke (1856: 896), who wrote: What relation this exhortation can have to the subject in
question, I confess I cannot see. It may not have been designed to stand in any connec-
tion, but to be a separate piece of advice.
3
Adding further to the impression that, as Paul Minear (1971: 7) once put it, Jas 5 is an
unorganized jumble of oral traditions which the editor felt no pressure to reorder into a
smoother literary sequence is the seeming lack of unity in vv. 13-20. While vv. 13-18
have to do with prayer, healing and anointing, vv. 19-20, which close the book, exhort
readers to turn back those who have wandered from the truth. What does the one subject
have to do with the other? The answer is far from self-evident. It does not surprise, then,
that, in many outlines of James, vv. 19-20 are not a subsection of some larger portion but
a free-standing unit.
4
I shall not, in this article, say anything more about v. 12, which is indeed only feebly
linked to the verses that surround it. My purpose is rather to urge that vv. 13-20 are,
despite initial appearances, juxtaposed for good reason: in Jewish and Christian sources,
including above all liturgical sources, healing and turning back from wandering are regu-
larly conjoined. Moreover, the traditional association of those two themes was closely
related to application of famous lines from Ezekiel, lines that lie behind Jas 5.13-20.
A Traditional Association
I begin with a late text, The Testament of our Lord. Extant in Syriac, Ethiopic and Arabic,
it was composed, or rather compiled, originally in Greek, probably in the fourth century.
5

It incorporates large portions of the Apostolic Tradition as well as two other sources (one
an apocalypse) of unknown date and provenance. It is relevant for our purposes because
door, so it follows that we should not usurp the role of judging, of validating the nal truth of
our statements. Keenan goes on to urge that James also here qualies his endorsement of Job,
because the latter used oaths (e.g. 27.2). Belser (1909: 192-93) also draws a comparison with
the oppressed Job. Still others, inuenced by Francis (1970), now regard 5.12-20 as a proper
epistolary conclusion. So, for instance, Johnson (1995: 325-46), who treats v. 12 as the intro-
duction to the entire section, which he thinks of as a discourse on positive modes of speech in
the community.
2. Cf. Pareus 1647: 570-72; Benson 1756: 112-15; Chaine 1927: 125-26; Marty 1935: 198-203;
Mitton 1966: 190-95; Muner 1967: 211-12; Vouga 1984: 138-39; Schnider 1987: 130-32;
Hartin 2003: 257-64.
3. Cf. Oesterley n.d.: 472-73: there is not the remotest connection between v. 12 and the section
that has gone before, so it must be regarded as the fragment of some larger piece; Rendall
1927: 68 n. 1: v. 12 is so jejune, so irrelevant, and so interruptive of the general sense, that it
must be an intruding adscript or gloss, originally appended perhaps as comment on iii. 9-10;
Dibelius 1976: 248: this verse has no relationship with what precedes or follows.
4. E.g. Easton 1957: 18; Muner 1967: viii; Cantinat 1973: 11; Schnider 1987: 6; Bauckham
1999: 64; Hartin 2003: vi; Blomberg and Kamell 2008: 27; McCartney 2009: 67. The most
detailed critical analysis of 5.13-18 (Kaiser 2006) interprets the passage without reference to
the following two verses.
5. So Sperry-White 1991: 6: The internal evidencesupports a date sometime in the second half
of the fourth century, probably before 381.
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Allison 5
of its priestly prayer for consecrating the oil of healing (1.24), which includes these words:
send on this oilthe saving power of your good compassion, so that it may deliver those
who are diseased, and that it may heal the sick and sanctify those who return, when they
draw near to your faith. For you are mighty and [to be] praised for ever and ever.
6
Amid
the petitions for healing is a prayer for God to sanctify those who return, when they draw
near to your faith. This is either a plea for welcoming the newly converted or for restoring
individuals who have gone astray but returned to the fold. What it is doing here, in a para-
graph otherwise focused on the physically ill, is unclear. But the parallel with Jas 5.13-20,
which likewise (i) calls for prayer, (ii) commends anointing the sick with oil and (iii)
enjoins turning back (t iopt q , o t iopt o,) the wayward, is notable.
One might dismiss this agreement as a coincidence of no account, or perhaps see here
the inuence of James.
7
But then there is Apost. Const. 2.14-15 (ed. Funk, 51-61) =
Didascalia 6 (ed. Vbus, 63-72). This is a long exhortation to receive those who
return
8
to the faith, that is, a call to embrace Christians who have repented of their sins:
Receive, then, without doubt, the one who repents. And do not be hindered by the
unmerciful, who say that we must not be deled with such, and so on. In the center of
this passage are these words: It is necessary for us to help the sick.
9
This is then fol-
lowed (in the Apostolic Constitutions but not the Didascalia) by a quotation of Mt. 9.12:
Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. The illness
hereunlike that in James
10
is presumably spiritual. Nonetheless, as with The
Testament of our Lord, so here, too: language about turning back to the faith is associ-
ated with language about healing the sick.
11
Moreover, the church orders assertion that
6. Cf. the translations from the Syriac of Cooper and Maclean (1902: 78) and Sperry-White
(1991: 20). For the Syriac, see Rahmani 1968: 48.
7. Apart from the parallel noted, the only evidence for the inuence of James upon the Testament
is the latters use of the phrase Father of lights (1.23, 26; cf. Jas 1.17). It is unclear, however,
that James coined the phrase; cf. 4Q503 frags. 13-16 1 (Myrw) yhwl), God of lights); frags
29-32 9 (Myrw) l), God of lights); frag. 215 7 (Myrw) yhwl), God of lights); Apoc.
Mos. 36.3 v.l. (opo, ov oov); 38.1 v.l. (otpo ov oov); P. Heidelberg Inv.
Nr. 1686 30; T. Abr. RecShrt 7.5 (oqp ou oo,); b. Ber. 12a (twrw)mh rcwy, the one
forming the lights).
8. Apost. Const. 2.14-15 uses tioptti, tiopoqt and tioptovo.
9. Apost. Const. 2.14-15 has oi, vooouoiv.
10. Some have suggested that James is writing about the spiritual or supernatural realm. So, e.g.,
Meinertz 1932 and Pickar 1945: 172-73. This is not the natural reading, as the history of inter-
pretation demonstrates. Most interpreters think, at least primarily, of the salvation of the body,
that is, its recovery of health. This must be correct, because ooo + accusative participle of
|ovo was a standard expression for doctors saving the sick: Diodorus Siculus 1.82 (ooooi
ov |ovovo); Philo, Sacr. 123 (oi, |ovouoi o ootooi); Decal. 12 (ooouoi ou,
|ovovo,); Aelius Aristides 2.258 (ooq ou, |ovovo,); Galen, In Hipp. aphr. comm..
vii ed. Khn, 523 (ooqotooi ov |ovovo); Alexander Aphrodisiensis, In Arist. top. libr.
octo ed. Wallies, 33 (ooqvoi ov |ovovo). At the same time, given that bodily and spiri-
tual health were scarcely distinct categories for early Christians, one might credibly urge that
an exclusive emphasis upon the physical is misplaced.
11. Cf. also Apost. Const. 2.21.4 ed. Funk 79: It is not just to be hasty in casting out the one
who has sinned yet to be slow in welcoming the one who has returned (tioptovo), to
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6 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1)
it is necessary for us to help the sick immediately precedes the clause save (them) from
death (putooi t| ovoou), and this last has its close counterpart in Jas 5.20: oooti
t| ovoou.
12
The Didascalia probably takes us back to the rst half of the third century.
13
But the
link between healing and returning was established before then. Polycarp, Phil. 6.1, con-
tains this exhortation: The presbyters, for their part, must be compassionate, merciful to
all, turning back those who have gone astray and visiting all the sick (tioptovt,
o ootiovqtvo, tio|totvoi ovo, ootvti,). This line is, for three rea-
sons, particularly interesting for our purposes. First, Polycarps tioptovt, o
ootiovqtvo employs the same idiom that appears in Jas 5.19 (tov i, tv uiv
iovqq|oi tioptq) and 5.20 (tiopto,t| iovq,). Second, if Polycarps
instructions are for the elders (oi ptoutpoi), Jas 5.14 refers to an actionanointing
the sickconducted by the elders (ou, ptoutpou,). Third, leaving this parallel
to the side, there is no evidence that Polycarp knew James.
14
The next witness is even earlier. The following appears in 1 Clem. 59.4: We ask
you, Master, to be our helper and protector. Save those among us who are in distress;
have mercy on the humble; raise up the fallen; show yourself to those in need; heal
the sick; turn back those of your people who wanderraise up the weak. We have
here, once more, the imperative to heal right beside the imperative to turn back those
who have wandered. At points, moreover, the very wording in 1 Clement recalls the
end of James:
1 Clem. 59.4 Jas 5.13-20
oo oov oo oti (5.15)
t ytipov t ytpti (5.15)
o otvti , i oooi o otvti (5.15), i oq t (5.16)
ou , iovot vou,t i optov iovqq t iopt q /t iopt o,io vq, (5.19-20)
t ovo oqoov ou , o otvou vo, o otvti (5.14), t ytpti (5.15)
Some sort of relationship, literary or otherwise, suggests itself.
be ready to cut off but unmerciful toward one who is sorrowful and in need of being healed
(ioooi).
12. Although I do not stress the point, because the pertinent lines are separated by a couple of
petitions, Apost. Const. 8.10.14-17 contains a prayer for healing (oo, o |upio, puoqoi
ouou, ooq, vooou |oi ooq, oio|io,) and a prayer that God will turn back those
who have gone astray (utp ov to ovov |oi tiovqtvov tqotv oo, o
|upio, ouou, tioptq). Further, this last petition leads to the exhortation, utp oiiq
iov tqotv (the exact phrase is otherwise attested), and this has a close parallel in Jas 5.16:
tu_tot utp oiiqiov.
13. And perhaps earlier because it is in large measure a collection of earlier sources. But detailed
proposals remain controversial. For discussion, see Stewart-Sykes (2009: 5-89).
14. Mayor (1913: lxxiv) cites only a few parallels between James and Polycarp. They do not
amount to much. Most commentators do not even discuss Polycarp when attempting to date
our epistle. Holmes (2005: 225) remarks that parallels between Polycarp and James scarcely
rise above the level of remote possibilities. Cf. Hartog 2002: 190.
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Allison 7
One might venture this explanation: James came rst. Then Clement borrowed from
James. Then Polycarp borrowed from Clement.
15
Then the later church orders borrowed
from one or more of those sources or from texts that borrowed from those sources. But
this will not do. The dates of James and 1 Clement are not rmly established, which means
that we do not know which one preceded the other.
16
(I for one am inclined to date 1
Clement slightly before James.) Beyond that, 1 Clem. 59.4 belongs to a section of 1
Clementchs. 5961that, in the judgment of many, preserves in whole or in part pre-
formed traditions, perhaps even Jewish prayers, just as the Apostolic Constitutions incor-
porate Hellenistic synagogal prayers.
17
Although the proof of such a thesis falls short,
there is no doubt, as Lhr (2003) has fully demonstrated, that those three chapters of 1
Clement are a concatenation of traditional liturgical phrases and conventional prayer con-
cerns. One guesses that liturgy, not James, is the source of what we nd in 1 Clem. 59.4.
We can, however, do more than guess. For we know that the link between divine heal-
ing and turning back to God was not Jamess invention. This is because the same associa-
tion appears in the Eighteen Benedictions. Consider benedictions 5-8, which I quote
according to what has traditionally been known as the Babylonian recension:
18
5. Cause us to return (wnby#h), our Father, to your Torah. Bring us near, our King, to your
service, and bring us back in perfect repentance (hbw#tb) into your presence. Blessed are
you, Lord, who delights in repentance (hbw#tb).
6. Forgive us, our Father, for we have sinned. Pardon us, our king, for we have transgressed. For
you forgive and you pardon. Blessed are you, Lord, gracious one, who forgives abundantly.
7. Look on our afiction and plead our cause, and redeem us speedily for the sake of your
Name. For you are a mighty redeemer. Blessed are you, Lord, redeemer of Israel.
8. Heal us, O Lord, and we will be healed. Save us and we will be saved. For you are our
praise. And bring perfect healing to all our wounds. For you, God and King, heal, being
faithful and merciful. Blessed are you, Lord, who heals the sick of your people Israel.
Benedictions 5 and 6 go together: those who return to God need their sins to be forgiven.
Benedictions 7 and 8 seemingly also go together: those who are aficted need to be
healed.
19
In any case, we have here a standard Jewish prayer in which the theme of turn-
ing back to God leads to a prayer for healing, both spiritual and physical, a prayer whose
prototype presumably dates from the rst century CE or earlier.
20
15. Polycarps knowledge and use of 1 Clement are undeniable; see Vlter 1910: 31, 40-43.
16. The commentators on James are divided on the issue. Dibelius (1976: 32-33) does not think
that Clement knew James. Johnson (1995: 72-75) thinks he did. Young (1948) argued that
James knew 1 Clement.
17. For a survey of research, see Lhr 2003: 5-28.
18. The textual variants of this recension as well as its differences from the Cairo Geniza texts
published by S. Schechter in 1898 are of little signicance for our purposes and will be
neglected herein.
19. According to rabbinic tradition, benedictions 5-8 belong to the middle section of the Tellah.
The rst three blessings constitute the rst section, the last three the last section; cf. b. Ber. 34a.
20. The prayer must have been given the form of eighteen benedictions in around A.D. 70100;
but the underlying foundation of the Prayer is certainly much older. So Schrer et al. 1979:
459. See further, Heinemann 1977: 218-27.
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8 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1)
That blessing 6 is a prayer for forgiveness is of additional signicance, because Jas
5.13-20, as well as its parallels in 1 Clem. 59.4 and Polycarp, Phil. 6.1, are also associ-
ated with the theme of forgiveness:
x 1 Clem. 59.460.2: Heal the sick; turn back those of your people who wander
forgive us our sins and our injustices, our transgressions and our shortcomings.
Do not take into account every sin of your servants and slaves, but cleanse us with
the cleansing of your truth.
x Polycarp, Phil. 6.1-2: The presbyters, for their part, must be compassionate, mer-
ciful to all, turning back those who have gone astray, visiting all the sick
Therefore if we ask the Lord to forgive us, then we ourselves ought to forgive, for
we are in full view of the eyes of the Lord and God, and we must all stand before
the judgment seat of Christ, and each one must account for his own actions.
x Jas 5.14-16: Is anyone among you ill? He should call for the elders of the assem-
bly and have them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord.
And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up; and
anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven. So confess your sins to one
another, and pray for one another, that you may be healed My brothers, if any-
one among you wanders from the way of truth and someone turns him back, let
him know that the one turning a sinner back from the error of his way will save his
soul from death and cover a multitude of sins.
Obviously we have in these texts a traditional concatenation of themes, one mirrored in
the Eighteen Benedictions.
21
The Scriptural Background
Can we offer any account of why, in the passages just introduced, healing and turning
back are such closely related subjects? I believe we can. The explanation almost surely
lies in the Hebrew Scriptures. Consider the following texts:
21. Attention should also be called to frag. 1 col. 2 of 4QWays of Righteousness (= 4Q421). It
is, sadly, fragmentary. Only one word is clear in line 8, namely, hm)prh, their healing.
This is then followed by material having to do with the law of reproof in Lev. 19.17, that is,
with how to deal with someone who needs correction (lines 11-14). Line 15 then appears to
have this: One who is meek and contrite in mind will not turn back until (Trans. of Garca
Martnez and Tigchelaar [1998: 883], following their reconstruction of the Hebrew: #y)
d( rwx) bw#y )wl wlk# yknw wyn(.) Line 16 continues (according to Garca Martnez
and Tigchelaar) with: (who is) reliable will not turn away from the ways of rightousness
(qdc ykrdm rwsy )wl Nm)n; the restoration of the text is made possible by the parallel
in 4Q420 frag. 1 col. 2). Although one can say little because of the fragmentary nature of the
text, 4Q421 may supply yet another instance of the thematic link that occurs in James and
elsewhere.
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Allison 9
x LXX Deut. 30.2-3: and you will return (tiopoqoq) to the Lord your God and
obey his voice in all that I command you this day, with all your heart and with all
your soul; and the Lord will heal (iootoi) your sins.
x 2 Chron. 7.14: If my people who are called by my name humble themselves, and
pray and seek my face, and turn (MT: wb#y; LXX: oooptooiv) from their
wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal
(MT: )pr); LXX: iooooi) their land.
x Prov. 3.7-8: turn away (MT: rws; LXX: t||iivt) from evil. It will be healing
(MT: tw)pr; LXX: iooi,) to your esh and refreshment to your bones.
x Isa 6.10: Make the heart of this people fat, and their ears heavy, and shut their
eyes; lest they see with their eyesand turn and be healed (MT: wl )prw b#w;
LXX: tioptooiv |oi iooooi ouou,).
x Jer. 3.22: Return (MT: wbw#; LXX: tiopoqt), o faithless children, I will
heal (MT: hpr); LXX: iooooi) your faithlessness.
x Ezek. 34.4: The sick you have not healed (MT: Mt)pr; LXX: tvio_uoot), the
crippled you have not bound up, the wayward you have not brought back (MT:
Mtb#h; LXX: ttoptot), the lost you have not sought.
x Hos. 6.1-2: Let us go and return (MT: hbw#n; LXX: tioptotv) to the Lord
our God, because it is he who has torn, and he will heal us (MT: wn)pry; LXX:
iootoi); he will strike down, and he will bind us up. After two days he will
revive us/make us healthy (MT: wnyxy; LXX: uyiooti).
Taken together, these seven texts demonstrate a traditional link between turning and
healing: we have here a linguistic convention. Not all of the verses, however, are equally
relevant for our purposes. 2 Chronicles 7.14 has to do with the land being healed, not with
people being healed; and it employs o oopt o, whereas the Greek texts we have looked
at all use t iopt o. Proverbs 3.7-8 is also of little interest. It too lacks t iopt o and,
beyond that, does not seem to have received much attention from ancient Jews or early
Christians. I know of no citation of it or even clear allusion to it in any intertestamental or
early Christian text. The same may be said of Deut. 30.2-3 and Jer. 3.22.
It is otherwise with Isa. 6.10 and Hos. 6.1-2: these were, on the contrary, popular in
some circles.
22
Still, there is every reason to believe that it is Ezekiel in particular that lies
behind the tradition uncovered above, or at least that Ezekiel came to inuence that tradi-
tion at some point.
23
For one thing, Polycarp, Phil. 6.1, 1 Clem. 59.4 and Jas 5.19-20 all
connect tiopto with the iov- root, and this is likewise true of Ezek. 34.4 but not
Isa. 6.10 or Hos. 6.1-2:
22. For Isa. 6.10, see Mt. 13.13; Mk 4.12; Jn 12.40; Acts 28.27; Rom. 11.8. Hos. 6.1-2 was prob-
ably important in early Christian apologetic for the resurrection of Jesus; see Lindars 1961:
59-72. Deut. 30.1-5 was presumably the key text behind the far-ung expectation of the return
to the land of the scattered or lost tribes; cf. Isa. 49.6; Zeph. 3.20; Zech. 10.9-10; Tob. 14.5;
Philo, Conf. 197; T. Levi 17.20; T. Jud. 23.5; T. Naph. 4.3.
23. Note, however, that b. Meg. 17b, when discussing the order of prayers in the Amidah, quotes
Isa 6.10if only to discount its relevancewhen trying to understand the sequence following
the fth benediction.
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10 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1)
x Polycarp, Phil. 6.1: tioptovt, o ootiovqtvo
x 1 Clem. 59.4: ou, iovotvou,tioptov
x Jas 5.19-20: iovqqtioptqtiopto,iovq,
x LXX Ezek. 34.4: o iovotvov ou| ttoptot
24
In addition to this, Ezek. 34.4 belongs to a discourse in which God, through the prophet,
excoriates the shepherds of Israel and promises to take their place: I myself will be the
shepherd of my sheep. Indeed, the closing words of the chapter, which adopt Ps. 79.13
and 100.3,
25
are these: You are my sheep, the sheep of my pasture (34.31; LXX:
po oo ou |oi po oo oivi ou ou t ot). This matters because, in 1 Clem. 59.4,
the prayer that God will heal the sick and turn back those of the people who wander,
incorporates LXX Ps. 78.13: We are your people and the sheep of your pasture (q ti ,
ioo , oou |oi po oo q , voq , oou). In other words, 1 Clem. 59.4, just like Ezekiel
34, associates turning and healing with the line from the Psalms. As if that were not
enough to establish a connection, there is also this: whereas the dominant theme of Ezek.
34 is the failure of the shepherds to feed the sheep, a task that God then has to ll, 1 Clem.
59.4 asks God to feed the hungry. Clements debt to Ezekiel is patent.
Before turning to the next subject, it is worth noting that, beside LXX Ps. 78.13 and
1 Clem. 59.4, the precise phrase, pooo q, voq, oou, seemingly occurs only in
one other ancient Jewish or Christian text, that being the important but almost wholly
neglected Egerton Papyrus 5.
26
This papyrus is a leaf from a liturgical book, and it con-
tains a prayer that is almost certainly Jewish rather than Christian, a prayer very closely
related to the Eighteen Benedictions. Marmorstein (1943) demonstrated its nearness to
the Shemoneh Esreh decades ago, even if many of his detailed proposals fail to persuade.
More recently, van der Horst and Newman (2008: 97) have characterized Egerton
Papyrus 5 as an abbreviated adaptation of the Amidah.
The papyrus fragment contains a prayer for healing: You are the only physician of
our ailing souls. Keep us in your joy (?). Heal us in sickness. Cast us not away as unt to
receive your healing. The word of your mouth is the giver of health. The arresting fact
for us is that this prayer for healing immediately follows the phrase pooo q, voq,
oou: Sanctify, sustain, gatherthe people that you have established, the peculiar peo-
ple, the people that you have ransomed, the people that you have called, your people, the
sheep of your pasture. Moreover, after its prayer for healing, the papyrus goes on to a
prayer for forgiveness, which is precisely what happens in 1 Clement.
27
This then is addi-
tional evidence that the prayer in 1 Clem. 59 is related to a Jewish prayer tradition that
has also inuenced the Eighteen Benedictions.
24. Cf. LXX Ezek. 34.16: o iovotvov tiopto.
25. LXX Ps 78.13: qti, t ioo, oou |oi pooo q, voq, oou; LXX Ps. 99.3: ioo,
ouou |oi pooo q, voq, ouou. Cf. also 74.1; 78.52.
26. See Bell and Skeat 1935: 56-60.
27. Recall also that, in the Eighteen Benedictions, blessing 6 is about forgiveness, 8 about healing;
see above.
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Allison 11
James and Ezekiel
At this point, we revert back to James. A substantial minority of commentators have
called to mind, when writing on Jas 5.19-20, Ezekiels famous refrain, according to
which God does not wish the death of sinners but rather waits so that they might turn
and live.
28
This byword plays an important role in the long recension of the Testament
of Abraham
29
and the extant fragments of the Apocryphon of Ezekiel.
30
In addition,
rabbinic and patristic authorities often cite it.
31
Obviously it was well known.
Those exegetes who have thought of Ezekiel when expounding the end of James have
been right to do so. Not only might Ezekiels recurrent use of a xed phrase with t iopt o
encourage one to associate that verb with that prophet, but the LXX brings tiopto
into close connection with iovoo only four times: Isa. 46.8; Ezek. 34.4; 34.16; Bar.
4.28. Two of these verses come from Ezek. 34 (see above). The decisive consideration,
howevernot to my knowledge noted beforeis this: if one examines the several
28. E.g. Weiss 1892: 117; Marty 1935: 226; Muner 1967: 232-33; Michl 1968: 68; Schnider
1987: 137-38; Martin 1988: 219; Omanson 1986: 435-36; Frankemlle 1994: 741-42; Popkes
2001: 355; Fabris 2004: 348; Maier 2004: 238-39; McCartney 2009: 263-64. The relevant
verses from Ezekiel are 3.18; 13.22; 18.21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 32; 33.11, 19.
29. See Allison 2003: 231-33.
30. See 1 Clem. 8.3; Pap. Chester Beatty 185 frag. 1 verso; Clement of Alexandria, Paed. 1.84.2-4
ed. Marcovich, 52. Given the direction of my argument, it is worth noting that frag. 1 verso of
the papyrus opens with this:
] v ou| t[to]pt[
]v ou| t[t]po[
] ioov ou iov[
See Mueller (1994: 152). This rewrite of Ezek 34.4 uses tpotuo. Moreover, if the standard
restoration is correct, the Apocryphons version of 34.16 inserts a reference to healing:
[vov io]oooi |oi o iovot[vov ti
[opto |]oi oo|qoo ouou[, tyo
31. According to Monteore and Loewe (1974: 236), Innumerable must be the number of times
in which the Ezekiel verses are quoted in rabbinic sources. Patristic references include 1
Clem. 8.2; Ps.-Justin, Quaest. et resp. ad orth. quest. 78, 104 ed. Otto, 110, 160; Theophilus
of Antioch, Ad Autolyc. 3.11 PTS 44 ed. Marcovich, 111; Clement of Alexandria, Div. 39.4
GCS 17 ed. Sthlin, 185; Tertullian, Marc. 2.8, 13 ed. Evans, 108, 124; Res. 9; Origen, Sel. in
Ps. PG 12.1456.29; Eusebius, H.E. 5.1.46 SC 41 ed. Bardy, 18; Ps.-Athanasius, Imag. Beryt.
PG 28.801A; Basil the Great, Ep. 44 LCL ed. Deferrari, 272; Ascet. magn. PG 31.1260A,
1284C; Lit. Bas. PG 31.1649B; Lit. Gr. Naz. PG 36.720; John Chrysostom, Stag 1-3 PG
47.434; Laz.1-7 PG 48.1027; Poenit. 1-9 PG 49.325; Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Cant. PG 81.76A;
XII Proph. proem. PG 81.1740C; Apost. Const. 8.9.9 ed. Funk, 486 (in a prayer that some
have thought was originally Jewish). Dionysius of Alexandria, Ep. ad Fab. apud Eusebius,
H.E. 6.44.2-3 SC 41 ed. Bardy, 159-60, following his comment that God desires not at all
the death of the sinner so much as his repentance (Ezek 18.23; 33.11), tells the story of
a certain relapsed Christian who repented and, when he became ill, called for an elder
(ov ptoutpov oi ivo |oitoov); cf. Jas 5.14.
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12 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1)
contexts in which Ezekiels catchphrase about turning and living occurs, one discovers
the key words and concepts of Jas 5.19-20:
Jas 5.19-20 LXX Ezekiel
tioptq, tiopto, t iopt oi: 3.18 v.l.; 13.22 v.l.; 18.23 v.l.; 33.11 v.l.; t iopt ot:
18.23 v.l., 30, 32; t iopt q : 18.21 v.l.; t i opttv: 18.28 v.l.; cf.
T. Abr. RecLng. 10.14
oopoiov oopoiov: 33.19; oopoiou: 18.23 v.l., 32 v.l.; 33.11 v.l.;
cf. T. Abr. RecLng. 10.14
oooou ouou : 3.19; 13.22; 33.11; oo ov oov
ouou : 3.18; oo q, oou uov: 33.11; t| q, oou: 18.23;
qv oov ouou: 18.30; oi, ooi, ouou : 33.20; q oo,:
18.25 (bis), 29; 33.20
t|oou ouou
oooti u_qv ouou qv u_qv oou puoq: 3.19; ou qv otouou u_qv puoq :
3.21; ooqvoi: 33.12; qv u_qv ouou tuiotv: 18.27
ovoou ovoou: 33.11; ovoov: 18.23, 32; ovoo : 3.18; cf. also
3.20 (q t u_q q oopovouoo ooovtioi); T. Abr.
RecLng. 10.14
iovqq, iovq, iovqq: 33.12; iovoi: 33.10
These correlations, I submit, should not be put down to coincidence. Nor should one
attribute to chance the fact that, although these parallels are scattered throughout Ezekiel,
all of them occur in ch. 33. We have already learned that the tradition behind James was
associated at some point with Ezek. 34.4. My thesis is that the tradition which inuenced
James as he composed his conclusion was linked to Ezek. 3334, the rst two chapters
in the third major section of Ezekiel (3339).
The Didascalia seemingly clinches the argument. For its exhortations to receive those
who return to the faith and to aid the sick (see above) are surrounded by passages from
Ezekiel, including Ezek. 33 and 34. Near its beginning, Didascalia 6 quotes Ezek. 33.10-
11, which is one version of the refrain about God waiting for the sinner to turn. A bit later
it quotes Ezek. 14.12-14 and then, shortly after its mention of the sick, cites Ezek. 18.1-
32 in its entirety, a section which again features the line about returning and living.
Didascalia 6 as a whole ends by quoting Ezek. 33.12-19, still another passage with
Ezekiels well-known slogan. Moreover, the next chapter of the Didascalia (7), which
continues the exhortation to bring back the wayward, cites the entirety of Ezek. 34 and
then expounds it verse by verse, turning Ezekiels words about turning back and healing
into directions for Christian leaders: they are to bring back the wayward and heal the
(spiritually) inrm. The same application occurs also in Cyprian and other church
fathers.
32
One understands why. It was natural to see the failures of the shepherds in
32. Cf. Tertullian, Pud. 7 CSEL 20 ed. Reifferscheid and Wissowa, 233; Fug. 11 CSEL 76 ed.
Bulhart, 35; Apost. Const. 2.6.8-10 ed. Funk, 41; Cyprian, Ep. 53.4; 57.4; 68.4 CSEL 3/1 ed.
Hartel, 653-55, 746-48; Test. 1.14; Benedict, Reg. 27.5-6 CSEL 75 ed. Hanslik, 83. Note that
Origen, Comm. Matt. 13.30 GCS 40 ed. Klostermann, 268, at the end of a discussion of Mt.
18 and its instructions regarding a sinning brother, concludes with this: It would be folly
were evil deeds counted to anyone while the better deeds, done after the evil ones, should
prot nothing, which also may be learned from Ezekiel [presumably Ezekiel 33] by those who
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Allison 13
EzekielThe weak you have not strengthened, the sick you have not healed, the crip-
pled you have not bound up, the strayed you have not brought back, the lost you have not
sought, and with force and harshness you have ruled them (34.4)as warnings for the
leaders of the church.
33
The Nature of the Tradition behind James
Deppe (1989: 135) offered these remarks about Jas 5.12-20:
We prefer to conceive the organizational arrangement of Jas 5:7-20 as the presentation of a
primitive church order less developed than Did. 716. Just as The Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles combines instruction on baptism (Did. 7), fasting (8), prayers of thanksgiving at the
eucharist (910), the receiving of prophets (1113), confession of sins and reconciliation (14),
the character qualities of church leaders (15), and the last things (16) into a primitive church
order, so James groups together paraenetic exhortations about the last days (5:7-11), the
forbidding of oaths (5:12), the healing ministry of the church (5:13-15), the confession of sins
and prayer (5:16-18), and the reconciliation of the erring (5:19-20). Thus in piecing together a
primitive church order, James moves from speaking about eschatology to various activities
within the church
It is unclear to me whether Deppe is proposing that the author of James assembled a
primitive church order himself or whether he adopted a pre-existing piece. But what-
ever Deppes answer to that question might be, mine is this: although James did not
reproduce a primitive church order, his nal verses are evidence that just such an order
did indeed inuence him.
At least three observations encourage me to forward this proposal. First, the Didache,
whose sources and even nal redaction may be dated to the early second century or even
before,
34
sufces to show that, if James were written around the same time, we cannot
rule out the possibility of his familiarity with a very early church order.
Second, we have seen that later church ordersThe Testament of our Lord, the
Apostolic Constitutions, the Didadascaliacontain striking parallels to what we nd in
Jas 5.13-20. Sarapions Sacramentarya fourth-century text, probably Egyptian, that
preserves traditional prayersoffers more of the same.
35
Given the negligible impact of
carefully consider the things said regarding such cases. Note further that, when Clement of
Alexandria, Paed. 1.9.84.2-4 ed. Marcovich, 52, quotes from the rewrite of Ezek 34.16 in the
Apocryphon of Ezekiel, he observes that the words are addressed precisely to ou , ptout pou,;
cf. Jas 5.14.
33. Jude 17 already seems to belong to this interpretive tradition.
34. See Niederwimmer 1998: 52-53.
35. Its prayer for the sick (tu_q tpi vooouvov; cf. Jas 5.15: tu_q), to be uttered by the bishop
(cf. Jas 5.14: ptoutpou,), contains the following: We beseech youmaker of the soul
(u_q,; cf. Jas 5.20: u_qv)savior (ooqpo; cf. Jas 5.15, 20: oooti) of allcome to the
aid and heal (ioooi; cf. Jas 5.16: ioqt)raise up those who are lying sick (ovooqoov ou,
|oo|titvou,; cf. Jas 5.15: ov |ovovotytpti). Give glory to your name (ovooi;
cf. Jas 5.14: ovooi). See 7(22) ed. Funk, 164-66. Its short prayer for the laying on of hands
for healing8(30) ed. Funk, 166twice mentions the name, once using the expression tv
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14 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1)
James upon the early churches in general,
36
it is reasonable to attribute such parallels not
to the impact of James, but to the inuence of wider liturgical traditions.
Third, we have also discovered parallels to Jas 5.13-20 in 1 Clem. 59.4 and the
Eighteen Benedictions. These are prayer texts, and all the extant church orders, including
already the Didache, are full of prayers. This too, then, is consistent with supposing that
some sort of early church order informed Jas 5.13-20.
A few additional observations about the Eighteen Benedictions are also consistent with
this supposition. We have already seen that the themes of healing, forgiving and turning
back occur in benedictions 5-8 as well as in Jas 5.13-20 (see vv. 15-16), 1 Clem. 59.460.2
and Polycarp, Phil. 6.1-2.
37
With this in mind, it may be relevant that (i) benediction 6
speaks in particular of God forgiving abundantly (xwlsl hbrm), which is roughly parallel
to the last three words of James: |oiu ti iq o, o opio v,
38
and (ii) benediction 8
speaks of salvation (h(#wnw wn(y#wh),
39
which Jas 5.10 also does (oo oti u_q v ou ou t |
ovo ou). Such links scarcely establish that James knew a form of the Eighteen Benedictions,
even though it is plausible that a rst- or second-century Jewish Christian would have known
some form of the Tellah if, as modern scholarship holds, variants already existed in his day.
Still, these additional correlations are congruent with the proposal that the end of James and
the middle part of the Tellah descend from related traditions.
(iii) One might even push this a bit further. Commentators on James have often
puzzled over the illustration in 5.17-18: Elijah was a human being like us, and he
prayed fervently that it might not rain, and for three years and six months it did not rain
on the earth. Then he prayed again, and heaven gave rain and the earth yielded its
harvest. Why choose this episode from Elijahs career? Why not the more dramatic
encounter with the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel? Orall the more tting given
that the topic in James seems to be prayer for healingwhy not cite the story of the
prophet reviving the son of the widow of Zarephath (1 Kgs 17.17-24)?
40
Why the legend
about rain?
41
o ovooi (cf. Jas 5.14: tv o ovooi). The Sacramentary also contains a Prayer (tu_q)
for the Oil for the sick or for the Bread or for the Water (19[17] ed. Funk, 190-92) which uses
ootvtio twice (cf. Jas 5.14: ootvti), refers to the forgiveness of sins (otoiv oopqoov;
cf. Jas 5.15: oopio,otqotoi), and appeals to the holy name (ovoo) of God and to
the name of the only Son (ovoo; cf. Jas 5.14: tv o ovooi).
36. See the overview in Dibelius (1976: 51-54). It is striking that, although the Ps.-Clementine
First Epistle concerning Virginity shows a knowledge of James, in its instructions for healing
the sick, it makes no use of the letter.
37. Note also that the prayer for healing in Egerton Papyrus 5 comes immediately before the
prayer for forgiveness.
38. Perhaps it is a coincidence, but given my conclusions, it intrigues that Clement of Alexandria,
Strom. 2.15.65 GCS 52 ed. Sthlin and Frchtel, 148, follows his quotation of love covers a
multitude of sins with a quotation of Ezek 33.11 = 18.23, 32.
39. This rewrites Jer. 17.14 (h(#w)w yn(y#wh) by switching from the rst person singular to the
rst person plural.
40. Martyrius, Perf. 8.40 CSCO 252 SS 110 ed. Halleux, 13, appropriately adds the story of Elijah
raising a dead person in 1 Kgs 17.22 to his citation of Jas 5.15-18.
41. The commentators ounder here. According to Spitta (1896: 150-51), James rst thought of
the widow of Zarephath and her son, but then moved on to something more dramatic. Plumptre
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Allison 15
I do not pretend to know the answer, but it is curious that benedictions 5-8 immedi-
ately precede the Birkat ha-shanim, the prayer for the [good] years, which includes a
prayer for rain: Give dew and rain upon the face of the earth, etc. If one has determined,
on other grounds, that Jas 5.13-20 is somehow related to benedictions 5-8, then should
we perhaps entertain the possibility that the church order with which James was familiar
included a prayer for rain?
42
Conclusion
The preceding pages do not lead to any neat conclusion. Too many pieces are missing.
We cannot solve the liturgical puzzle, by which I mean we cannot construct a hypotheti-
cal Urtext and create a genealogy leading to Jas 5.13-20 and its liturgical relatives. Some
things are nonetheless clear, or at least more likely than not. (i) The association between
healing and turning back to God appears in the First Testament. (ii) That association also
is attested in later Jewish and Christian sources, including the Eighteen Benedictions,
Christian prayers and Christian church orders. (iii) Some of those sources associate heal-
ing and returning to God with Ezek. 3334, and those chapters are also part of the scrip-
tural background to Jas 5.13-20. (iv) It is plausible, even likely, that a very primitive
church order inuenced the ending of James.
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