Appendix-A

1


CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Acetaldehyde (systematically ethanal) is an organic chemical compound with
the formula CH
3
CHO or MeCHO. It is one of the most important aldehydes,
occurring widely in nature and being produced on a large scale industrially.
Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in coffee, bread, and ripe fruit, and is produced
by plants as part of their normal metabolism. It is also produced by oxidation
of ethanol and is popularly believed to be a cause of hangovers. Pathways of
exposure include air, water, land or groundwater that can expose the human
subject directly if they inhale, drink, or smoke.

1.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Acetaldehyde is a colorless, mobile liquid having a pungent suffocating
odor that is somewhat fruity and pleasant in dilute concentrations. Some
physical properties of acetaldehyde are given in Table(1.1), the vapour pressure
of acetaldehyde and its aqueous solutions in Table(1.2 & 1.3) and the solubility
of acetylene, CO
2
and N
2
in liquid acetaldehyde in Table(1.4). The freezing
points of aqueous solutions of acetaldehyde are as follows:

4.8 wt.% - 2.5
o
C; 13.5 wt.% - 7.8
o
C; & 31.0 wt.% - 23.0
o
C

Acetaldehyde is miscible in all proportions with water and most common
organic solvents; acetone, benzene, ethyl alcohol, ethyl ether, gasoline,
paraldehyde, toluene, xylene, and acetic acid.
Appendix-A

2

Table-1.1: Physical Properties of Acetaldehyde
Formula weight 44.052
Melting point, C -123.5
Boiling point at 760 mm, C 20.16
Density, d
2o
4
0.7730
Vapor density (air = 1) 1.52
Surface tension at 20
o
C, dyne/cm 21.2
Absolute viscosity at 15
o
C ( cgs units) 0.02456
Specific heat, cal/(
o
C)(g) at 0
o
C 0.522
at 25C 0.336
Latent heat of fusion, cal/g 17.6
Latent heat of vaporization, cal/g 139.5
Heat of combustion of liquid at constt.pr. Kcal/mol 279.2
Heat of formation at 273
o
K 39.55
Free energy of formation at 273
o
K, Kcal/mole -32.60
Critical temp, C 181 .5
Critical pressure, atm. 63.2
Dissociation constant, K
a
, at 0
o
C 0.7 10
-14

Flash point, closed cup, C -38
Ignition temp. in air,
o
C 165
Explosive limits of mixtures with air, % acetaldehyde by vol. 4-57





Appendix-A

3


Table-1.2: Vapor Pressure of Acetaldehyde
Temperature
o
C
Vapor Pressure
mm Hg
Temperature
o
C
Vapor pressure
mm Hg
-50
-20
0
5
10
15
19
123
330
411
508
622
20
20.16
30
50
70
100
755
760
1069
3096
3696
3607

Table-1.3: Vapor Pressure of Aqueous solutions of Acetaldehyde
Temperature
o
C
Vapor Pressure
mm Hg
Temperature
o
C
Vapor pressure
mm Hg
10
10
20
20
4.9
10.5
5.4
12.9
4.9
10.5
5.4
12.9
74.5
139.8
125.2
295.2
Table-1.4: Solubility of Gases in Liquid Acetaldehyde at 760 mmHg
(volume of gas [NTP] dissolved in one volume of acetaldehyde)

Temperature
o
C Acetylene Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen
-6
0
12
16
27
17
7.3
5
11
6.6
2.45
1.5


0.15


Appendix-A

4

1.2 USES
About 95% of the acetaldehyde produced is used internally by the
manufacturers as an intermediate for the production of other organic chemicals..
Table(1.5), gives an idea of the use pattern. Imports and exports of acetaldehyde
are negligible.

Acetic acid and anhydride are the major derivatives of acetaldehyde (45%
in 1970) followed by n-butanol (19%) and 2-ethylhexanol (17%). Twenty
percent of the acetaldehyde is consumed in a variety of other products, the most
important being pentaerythritol, trimethylolpropane, pyridines, peracetic acid,
crotonaldehyde, chloral, 1,3-butylene glycol, and lactic acid. The proportion of
acetaldehyde used in the manufacture of acetic acid and acetic anhydride will
tend to increase in the near future, and the proportion used in the synthesis of n-
butanol and 2-ethylhexanol will decrease. Acetaldehyde is competing with
propylene and o-olefins as the raw material for the production of n-butanol and
higher alcohols (oxo route).
Other uses of acetaldehyde include: in the silvering of mirrors; in leather
tanning; as a denaturant for alcohol; in fuel mixtures; as a hardener for gelatin
fibres; in glue and casein products; as a preservative for fish and fruit; in the
paper industry; as a synthetic flavoring agent; and in the manufacture of
cosmetics, aniline dyes, plastics and synthetic rubber.
Acetaldehyde is also used in the manufacture of disinfectants, drugs,
perfumes, explosives, lacquers and varnishes, photographic chemicals, phenolic
and urea resins, rubber accelerators and antioxidants, and room air deodorizers;
acetaldehyde is a pesticide intermediate.


Appendix-A

5

Table-1.5 Acetaldehyde, United States Uses in 1970

Acetic acid and anhydride 45 %
n-Butanol 19%
2-Ethylhexanol 17%
AH others 19%


The future growth of acetaldehyde will be mainly dictated by the acetic
acid and anhydride picture and the growth of the other minor derivatives
mentioned above.

1.3 FUTURE TRENDS
In the next decade the major change that will occur in the acetaldehyde
picture is a decrease in the use of acetaldehyde for the preparation of derivatives
that can be manufactured from alternative raw materials. This has already
happened in the production of butanol and 2-ethylhexanol in which
acetaldehyde raw material has been replaced by propylene and synthesis gas in
oxo-type processes. Acetic acid and anhydride are the major outlets for
acetaldehyde. Production of these chemicals from alternative processes (like
methanol carbonylation or saturated hydrocarbon oxidation) would also have an
adverse effect on acetaldehyde consumption in the future. Here again, the
energy crisis could accelerate the expansion of some of these processes that are
competing with acetaldehyde by-making synthesis gas and carbon monoxide
available through coal gasification. Long range, carbon monoxide and hydrogen
could become the new building blocks of the organic chemical industry.


Appendix-A

6

1.4 HANDLING
In handling acetaldehyde, one has to remember that it is an extremely
reactive compound that can be easily oxidized, reduced, or polymerized, and is
highly reactive with oxygen. It has to be treated as a volatile, flammable, and
toxic material. The following is a list of precautions recommended when
handling acetaldehyde:
Nitrogen or other inert gases should be used as a blanketing
material whenever exposure to air is a possibility
Safety goggles should be used
Transfers should be made in open-air structures or using suitable
gas mask or self-contained breathing equipment .
Drums should be stored out-of-doors, avoiding direct exposure to
sunlight
Acetaldehyde should be-chilled before transferring and a nitrogen
blanket should be used.

1.5 SHIPPING AND STORAGE
Acetaldehyde is shipped insulated tank trucks, and insulated tank cars.
Acetaldehyde in, the liquid state is non-corrosive to most metals, but it can be
easily oxidized to acetic acid. Suitable materials of construction are stainless
steel and aluminum. Drums coated with phenolic resins have also been used. If
a darker color and some iron contamination are not objectionable, carbon steel
may be used. Because acetaldehyde is classed as a flammable liquid, it requires
a red DOT (Department of Transportation) shipping table.
Bulk storage held at low temperature and pressure is recommended over
storage in a pressure vessel.

Appendix-A

7


CHAPTER-2


MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The economics of the various processes for the manufacture of acetaldehyde are
strongly dependent on the price of the feed stock used. Since 1960 the liquid
phase oxidation of ethylene has been the process of choice. However, there is
still commercial production by the partial oxidation of ethyl alcohol and the
hydration of acetylene.

Acetaldehyde is also formed as a co-product in the high temperature
oxidation of butane. A recently developed rhodium catalyzed process produces
acetaldehyde from synthesis gas as a co-product with ethyl alcohol and acetic
acid.

2.1 HYDRATION OF ACETYLENE
In this process high pricing acetylene is fed with steam to a rubber lined
vertical reactor which contains a catalyst solution of mercury salt (0.5 to 1
wt.%) sulfuric acid (15 to 20 wt.%) ferrous and ferric iron (2 to 4 wt/%) and
water. Minute particles of free mercury are suspended in the catalyst solution.
The temperature and pressure are controlled at 90 to 95
o
C and 1 to 2 atm,
respectively. The acetylene conversion per pass is about 55%.


Appendix-A

8

2.2 ETHYLENE OXIDATION PROCESS
The process is essentially based on three chemical reactions.

C
2
H
4
+ 2CuCl
2
+ H
2
O CH
3
CHO + Pd
o
+ 2HCl
Pd
o
+ 2CuCl
2
PdCl
2
+ 2CuCl (Pd oxidation)
2CuCl + 2HCl + 1/2O
2
2CuCl
2
+ H
2
O (CuCl oxidation)
C
2
H
4
+ O
2
CH
3
CHO (Overall reaction)

In this process, the palladium chloride is required only in very small
concentration, and the copper salts are continuously regenerated with oxygen. In
this way direct oxidation of ethylene take place.

In this process fresh oxygen and ethylene are fed independently to a
vertical ceramic lined reactor containing a water solution of catalyst (PdCl
2
and
CuCl
2
). The reactor is operated to 120 to 130
o
C and about 3 atm. The heat of
vaporization is removed by evaporating acetaldehyde and water from the
catalyst solution. The ethylene conversion per pass is 75%.

2.3 OXIDATION OF SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Acetaldehyde is formed as a co-product in the vapor-phase oxidation of
saturated hydrocarbon such as butane. Oxidation of butane yields acetaldehyde,
formaldehyde, methanol acetone and mixed solvents as major products, other
aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, glycols acetals, epoxides and organic acids are
formed in smaller concentrations. This is of historic interest unlike the acetylene
rout; it has almost no chance to be used as a major process.


Appendix-A

9

2.4 SYNTHESIS GAS PROCESS
A rhodium catalyzed process capable by converting synthesis gas directly
into acetaldehyde in a single step was reported in 1974.

CO + H
2
CH
3
CHO + other products

The process comprises synthesis gas over 5% rhodium on SiO
2
at 300
o
C
and 2.0 MPa(20 atm). The principle co products are acetaldehyde 24% are
acetaldehyde 24% acetic acid 20%, and ethanol 16%. If there is a substantial
degree of coal gasification, the interest in the use of synthesis gas as a raw
material for acetaldehyde production will increase.

2.5 ETHYL ALCOHOL PROCESSES
There are two commercial processes for the production of acetaldehyde
from ethyl alcohol. These are vapor phase oxidation of ethanol.

Ag
CH
3
CHCH
2
OH + O
2
CH
3
CHO + H
2
O
550
o
C

In this process a mixture of ethyl alcohol vapors and oxygen are passed over
silver catalyst filled in tubes of multi-tubular fixed bed reactor. The reaction is
carried out at 550
o
C and conversion of ethyl alcohol to acetaldehyde is 50-55%
per pass.
The second process is vapor phase dehydrogenation of ethanol.
Cr and Cu
C
2
H
5
OH CH
3
CHO + H
2

260 to 290
o
C

Appendix-A

10
In this process vapors of ethanol are reacted over a chromium copper
catalyst at atmospheric pressure and 260 to 290
o
C temperature. The alcohol
conversion is 30 to 50% depending upon reaction temperature and alcohol flow
rate.

Out of these processes we have selected Ethylene Oxidation Process.
Process description is given below.

2.6 PROCESS DESCRIPTION


















Appendix-A

11

CHAPTER-3


MATERIAL & ENERGY
BALANCE


3.1 MATERIAL BALANCE
BASIS: 1000 Kg/hr production of acetaldehyde

REACTOR-R1
Material entering with stream-8
C
2
H
5
OH = 863.26 Kg/hr = 18.766 Kgmol/hr
H
2
O = 45.43 Kg/hr = 2.524 Kgmol/hr
O
2
= 635.28 Kg/hr = 19.852 Kgmol/hr
N
2
= 2090.82 = Kg/hr = 74.62 Kgmol/hr
Chemical reaction involved is
C
2
H
5
OH + O
2
CH
3
CHO + H
2
O
As conversion of C
2
H
5
OH is 50% so
C
2
H
5
OH converted = 9.383 Kgmol/hr
C
2
H
5
OH unvonverted = 9.383 Kgmol/hr
O
2
= converted = 9.383/2 = 4.692 Kgmol/hr
O
2
= unconverted = 15.16 Kgmol/hr
Appendix-A

12
CH
3
CHO formed = 9.383 Kgmol/hr
H
2
O = formed = 9.383 Kgmol/hr
Total water leaving = 2.524 + 9.383 = 11.907 Kgmol/hr
So material leaving with strea-9
C
2
H
5
OH = 9.383 Kgmol = 431.6 Kg
CH
3
CHO = 9.383 Kgmol = 412.85 Kg
H
2
O = 11.907 Kgmol = 214.33 Kg
O
2
= 15.16 Kgmol = 485.12 Kg
N
2
= 74.67 Kgmol = 2090.82 Kg
Total material leaving = 3634 Kg/hr
Total material entering = 3634 Kg/hr

ABSORBER-A1
In first absorber 95% entering acetaldehyde will be absorbed












Material entering with stream-9
CH
3
CHO = 422.85 Kg/hr
11 10
14
9
Appendix-A

13
C
2
H
5
OH = 431.6 Kg/hr
H
2
O = 85.33 + 129 = 214.35 Kg/hr
O
2
= 485.12 Kg/hr
N
2
= 2090.82 Kg/hr
Material with stream-10
CH
3
CHO = 20.64 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH = 17.1 Kg/hr
O
2
= 485.12 Kg/hr
N
2
= 2090.82 Kg/hr
Material entering with stream-11
H
2
O = 4064 Kg/hr
CH
3
OHO = 20.43 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH = 17 Kg/hr
Material leaving with stream-14
CH
3
CHO = 412.6 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH = 431.5 Kg/hr
H
2
O = 4278.6 Kg/hr
Total material entering = 7736 Kg/hr
Total material leaving = 7736 Kg/hr










Appendix-A

14
DISTILLATION COLUMN-D1








Product Specifications
Top product
CH
3
CHO = 99%
C
2
H
5
OH = 0.8%
H
2
O = 0.2%
There should be no CH
3
CHO in bottoms
Material entering with stream-14
CH
3
CHO = 412.6 Kg/hr = 8.05%
C
2
H
5
OH = 431.58 Kg/hr = 8.4%
H
2
O = 4278.6 Kg/hr = 83.52%
Total = 5122.78 Kg/hr
So CH
3
CHO balance
0.0805 (5122.78) = 0.99 (D)
D = 416.55 Kg/hr
So top product is = 416.55 Kg/hr
Bottom product = 4706.2 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH in top product = 0.008 416.55
= 3.33 Kg/hr
H
2
O in top product = 0.002 416.55
15
16
14
Appendix-A

15
= 0.833
CH
3
CHO in top product = 412.00 Kg/hr
Material leaving in bottom product
C
2
H
5
OH = 431.58 3.33 = 428.25 Kg/hr
H
2
O = 4278.6 0.833 = 4277.76 Kg
Total material leaving = 5122 Kg/hr
Total material entering = 5122 Kg/hr








Appendix-A

16

3.2 ENERGY BALANCE
VAPORIZER











Temperature of stream-A = 25
o
C
Mass flow rate = 503 Kg/hr
Cp of 95% ethyl alcohol = 0.64 Kcal/Kg
o
C
So heat with stream-A = 503 0.64 25
= 8048 Kcal/hr.
Similarly, heat ith stream-B = 27263 Kcal/hr
So, heat with stream-C = 27263 + 8048
= 35311 Kcal/hr
Flow rate of stream-C = 908.7
C
p
= 0.73 Kcal/Kg
o
C
Temperature of stream-C = Q/mC
p


Separator

Vaporizer

G

A

C

E

D

F

B
Appendix-A

17
=
73 . 0 7 . 908
35311

= 53
o
C
Stream-G is saturated liquid at 2.3 atm
Heat with stream-G = Q = mC
p
AT
= 227.1 0.92 112
= 23400 Kcal/hr
Heat with stream-D = 23400 + 35311
= 58711 Kcal/hr
Flow rate of stream-D = 1135.8 Kg/hr
Temperature of stream-D =
78 . 0 8 . 1135
58711

= 66
o
C
at 2.3 atm ethyl alcohol (95%) will be vaporized at 112
o
C, so, we have to
supply heat to ethyl alcohol in vaporizer.

In vaporizer
Sensible heat
Q
1
= mC
p
AT
= 1135.8 0.87 (112 66)
= 45454.7 Kcal/hr
Latent heat
As only 80% ethyl alcohol (95%) is being vaporized so 908.7 Kg/hr of ethyl
alcohol will be vaporized.
Water vaporized = 0.05 908.7
= 45.43 Kg/hr
Latent heat of vaporization of water = 500 Kcal/hr
O H
2
Q = 22717.5 Kcal/hr
Ethyl alcohol evaporated = 863.2 Kg/hr
Appendix-A

18
Latent heat of vaporization = 175 Kcal/kg
OH H C
5 2
Q = 175 863.2 = 151071
Total heat to be supplied = 45454.7 + 22717.5 + 151071
= 219243.5
If steam is used at 130
o
C latent heat of steam at 130
o
C = 519.8 Kcal/kg
So, flow rate of steam = 219243.5/519.8
= 421 Kg/hr

Reactor
Standard heat of reaction = - 43 Kcal/hr
Heat of reaction at given conditions = 401860 Kcal/hr
So,
401860 Kcal/hr heat should be removed from reactor by cooling water.
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 25
o
C
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 45
o
C
Mass flow rate of water = m = ?
m =
T C
Q
p
A

=
20 1
401860

= 20093 Kg/hr
DISTILLATION COLUMN
Input = Output
W
F
H
F
+ Q
R
= Q
C
+ W
B
H
B(l)
+ + W
D
H
D(l)

W
F
= 256.4595 Kg-mol/hr
W
B(l)
= 246.9015 Kg-mol/hr
W
D(l)
= 9.5412 Kg-mol/hr
H
F
= 3145495 J/Kg-mol. hr
H
B(l)
= 3169709 Kg-mol/hr
Appendix-A

19
H
D(l)
= 1473400 Kg-mol/hr
Q
C
= 111507000 J/hr
Q
R
= 1105043000 J/hr
Putting in eq.
917196375 J/hr = 917196375 J/hr


























Appendix-A

20

REACTOR DESIGN

FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTORS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Fixed-bed catalytic reactors have been aptly characterized as the
workhorses of me process industries. For economical production of large
amounts of product, they are usually the first choice, particularly for gas-phase
reactions. Many catalyzed gaseous reactions are amenable to long catalyst life
(1-10 years); and as the time between catalyst change outs increases, annualized
replacement costs decline dramatically, largely due to savings in shutdown
costs. It is not surprising, therefore, that fixed-bed reactors now dominate the
scene in large-scale chemical-product manufacture.

4.2 TYPES OF FIXED BED REACTOR
Fixed-bed reactors fall into one of two major categories:
Adiabatic or
Non-adiabatic.

A number of reactor configurations have evolved to fit the unique
requirements of specific types of reactions and conditions. Some of the more
common ones used for gas-phase reactions are summarized in Table(4.1) and
the accompanying illustrations. The table can be used for initial selection of a
given reaction system, particularly by comparing it with the known systems
indicated.

Appendix-A

21
Table 4.1: Fixed-Bed Reactor Configurations for Gas-Phase Reactions
Classification Use Typical Applications
Single adiabatic bed Moderately exothermic
or
endothermic non-
equilibrium
limited
Mild hydrogenation

Radial flow Where low AP is
essential
and useful where
change
in moles is large
Styrene from
ethylbenzene
Adiabatic beds in series
with intermediate
cooling or heating
High conversion,
equilibrium
limited reactions

SO
2
oxidation
Catalytic reforming
Ammonia synthesis
Hydrocracking Styrene
from ethylbenzene
Multi-tabular
non-adiabatic
Highly endothermic or
exothermic reactions
requiring
close temperature
control to
ensure high selectivity
Many hydrogenations
Ethylene oxidation to
ethylene oxide,
formaldehyde
by methanol oxidation,
phthalic anhydride
production
Direct-fired
non-adiabatic
Highly endothermic,
high temperature
reactions
Steam reforming





4.4 SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE
After analyzing different configuration of fixed bed reactors we have
concluded that for our system the most suitable reactors is multi tube fixed bed
reactor. Because oxidation of ethyl alcohol is highly exothermic reaction, so
cooling will be required otherwise the temperature of reactor will rise and due to
rise in temperature the catalyst activity and selectivity will be affected and in
Appendix-A

22
turn, the formation of by-products will increase which is direct loss of
productions.

As reaction temperature is already high 550
o
C if we keep the process
adiabatic temperature of reactor will rise and the structure of the catalyst will be
changed and catalyst will be damaged. For such a situation the best reactor is
multi-tube fixed bed reactor

4.5 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF
MULTI-TUBE FIXED BED REACTOR
Because of the necessity of removing or adding heat, it may not be
possible to use a single large-diameter tube packed with catalyst. In this event
the reactor may be built up of a number of tubes encased in a single body, as
illustrated in Fig. The energy exchange with the surroundings is obtained by
circulating, or perhaps boiling, a fluid in the space between the tubes. If the heat
effect is large, each catalyst tube must be small (tubes as small as 1.0-in.
diameter have been used) in order to prevent excessive temperatures within the
reaction mixture. The problem of deciding how large the tube diameter should
be, and thus how many tubes are necessary, to
achieve a given production forms an important problem in the design of such
reactors.

A disadvantage of this method of cooling is that the rate of heat transfer
to the fluid surrounding the tubes is about the same all along the tube length, but
the major share of the reaction usually takes place near the entrance. For
example, in an exothermic reaction the rate will be relatively large at the
entrance to the reactor tube owing to the high concentrations of reactants
existing there. It will become even higher as the reaction mixture moves a short
distance into the tube, because the heat liberated by the high rate of reaction is
Feed Stream
Appendix-A

23
greater than that which can be transferred to the cooling fluid. Hence the
temperature of the reaction mixture will rise, causing an increase in the rate of
reaction. This continues as the mixture moves up the tube, until the
disappearance of reactants has a larger effect on the rate than the increase in
temperature. Farther along the tube the rate will decrease. The smaller amount
of heat can now be removed through the wall with the result that the
temperature decreases. This situation leads to a maximum in the curve of
temperature versus reactor-tube length.


























Cooling
(or Heating)
fluid out
Cooling
(or Heating)
fluid in
Feed Stream
Product Stream
Appendix-A

24












Figure-4.1: Multi-tubular fixed bed reactor


4.6 EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON MULTI-TUBE FIXED
BED REACTOR
4.6.1 Particle Diameter
The overall heat transfer coefficient declines with decrease in particle size
in the usual practical range. Redial gradients increase markedly with decrease in
particle size. Small size, however, may improve rate or selectivity in some case
by making catalyst inner surface more accessible.

4.6.2 Tube Diameter
Reducing tube diameter reduces the radial profile. Heat transfer area per
unit volume is inversely proportion al to the tube diameter and reaction
temperature is affected by a change in this area.
Appendix-A

25

4.6.3 Outside Wall Coefficient
Improvement up to the point where this resistance becomes negligible
is worthwhile. Boiling liquids are advantageous because of the high heat
transfer coefficient.

4.6.4 Heat of Reaction and Activation Energy
Accurate values should be used since calculated temp. is sensitive to
both of these, particularly to the value of energy of activation. This roust be
determined carefully over the range of interests, but calculated results should
be obtained based on different activation energies over the probable range of
accuracy for the data so that final equipment sizing can be done with a feel
for uncertainties.

4.6.5 Particle Thermal Conductivity
One of the mechanisms of radial heat transfer in a bed, conduction
through the solid packing which must quite logically depend on the thermal
conductivity of the bed, can be reasoned to have some dependence on the
thermal conductivity of the solid. But since it only affects one of the several
mechanisms, the proportionally cannot be direct. Differences in effective
conductivity and the wall heat transfer coefficient h between beds of packing
having high and low solid conductivity may be in the range of a factor of
2-3. The largest difference will occur at lower Reynolds numbers. Most catalyst
carriers have low conductivities, but some such as carbides have high
conductivities.


Appendix-A

26










4.7 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR MULTI TUBE FIXED
BED REACTOR
To calculate weight of catalyst required

}

=
2
1
Ao
F
W
A
A
X
X
A
A
r
dX

If space time is know then space time =
rate flow Volumetric
reactor of Volume


By the knowledge of bulk density of catalyst and weight of catalyst
Calculate volume of reactor
Volume of reactor =
catalyst of density bulk
catalyst of weight


Decide the dimensions of tube; keeping in mind that

particle catalyst of Dia
tube of Dia
> 30

Calculate volume of one tube and then number of tubes required
Appendix-A

27
No. of tubes =
tube one of Volume
Reactor of Volume


Calculate the shell dia
NT =
( ) ( )( )
( )
2
t
4 3 1 s t 2
2
1 s
P 1.223
k nk k D P k
4

k D
(

+



Calculate pressure drop

( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

= G
D
1
C D
G

1
L
P
p 1 f p


Calculate heat transfer co-efficient
i) Shell side
h
o
=
( )( )
( )
2 . 0
8 . 0
b
D
V 0.011t 1 150
'
' +

ii) Tube side

d
dp
4.6
0.7
p p
e

G d
3.50
k
d h

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
iii) Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient

Calculate area required for heat transfer.

Calculate area available for heat transfer.
Available area should be greater than required area


Appendix-A

28








SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification

Item Reactor
Item No. R-1
No. required 1

Function: Production of acetaldehyde by air oxidation of ethyl alcohol.

Operation: Continuous
Type: Catalytic
Multi tube, fixed bed

Chemical Reaction:
C
2
H
5
OH + O
2
CH
3
CHO + H
2
O
A H
298
= - 43 Kcal

Catalyst: Silver, coated on alumina
Shape: Spherical
Size: 1.25 mm

Tube side:
Material handled Feed Product
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
C2H5OH 86326 432.58
H2O 45.44 214.35
CH3CHO ----- 412.8
O2 635.28 484.96
N2 2090.82 2090.82
Temp (
o
C) 550 550
Tubes:
No. 709
Length 2.438 m
O. D 63.5 mm
Pitch 79.37 mm A pattern
Material of construction = copper
Appendix-A

29
Shell side
Fluid handled = cooling water
Temperature 25
o
C to 45
o
C
Shell
Dia = 2.66 m
Material of construction = Carbon
steel
Heat transfer area required = 77.67 m
2

Overall heat transfer coefficient = 10.77 W/m
2

o
C

CHAPTER-5


DESIGN OF ABSORBER

5.1 ABSORPTIONS
The removal of one or more component from the mixture of gases by
using a suitable solvent is second major operation of Chemical Engineering that
based on mass transfer.

In gas absorption a soluble vapours are more or less absorbed in the
solvent from its mixture with inert gas. The 'purpose of such gas scrubbing
operations may be any of the following;

a) For Separation of component having the economic value.
b) As a stage in the preparation of some compound.
c) For removing of undesired component (pollution).

5.2 TYPES OF ABSORPTION
1) Physical absorption,
2) Chemical Absorption.

Appendix-A

30
5.2.1 Physical Absorption
In physical absorption mass transfer take place purely by diffusion and
physical absorption is governed by the physical equilibria.

5.2.2 Chemical Absorption
In this type of absorption as soon as a particular component comes in
contact with the absorbing liquid a chemical reaction take place. Then by
reducing the concentration of component in the liquid phase, which enhances
the rate of diffusion.

5.3 TYPES OF ABSOR5SRS
There are two major types of absorbers which are used for absorption
purposes:

Packed column
Plate column

5.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN PACKED AND PLATE
COLUMN
1) The packed column provides continuous contact between vapour and
liquid phases while the plate column brings the two phases into contact
on stage wise basis.
2) SCALE: For column diameter of less than approximately 3 ft. It is more
usual to employ packed towers because of high fabrication cost of small
trays. But if the column is very large then the liquid distribution is
problem and large volume of packing and its weight is problem.
3) PRESSURE DROP: Pressure drop in packed column is less than the plate
column. In plate column there is additional friction generated as the
Appendix-A

31
vapour passes through the liquid on each tray. If there are large No. of
Plates in the tower, this pressure drop may be quite high and the use of
packed column could effect considerable saving.
4) LIQUID HOLD UP: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be a
Urge quantity of the liquid in plate column, whereas in a packed tower
the liquid flows as a thin film over the packing.
5) SIZE AND COST: For diameters of less than 3 ft. packed tower require
lower fabrication and material costs than plate tower with regard to
height, a packed column is usually shorter than the equivalent plate
column.

From the above consideration packed column is selected as the absorber,
because in our case the diameter of the column is approximately 0.8 meter
which is less than 3 ft. As the solubility is infinity so the liquid will absorb as
much gases as it remain in contact with gases so packed tower provide more
contact. It is easy to operate.

5.5 PACKING
The packing is the most important component of the system. The packing
provides sufficient area for intimate contact between phases. The efficiency of
the packing with respect to both HTU and flow capacity determines to a
significance extent the overall size of the tower. The economics of the
installation is therefore tied up with packing choice.

The packings are divided into those types which are dumped at random
into the tower and these which must be stacked by hand. Dumped packing
consists of unit 1/4 lo 2 inches in major dimension and are used roost in the
smaller columns. The units in stacked packing are 2 to about 8 inches in size,
they are used only in the larger towers.
Appendix-A

32

The Principal Requirement of a Tower packing are:
1) It must be chemically inert to the fluids in the tower.
2) It must be strong without excessive weight.
3) It must contain adequate passages for both streams without excessive
liquid hold up or pressure drop.
4) It must provide good contact between liquid and gas.
5) It must be reasonable in cost.

Thus most packing are made of cheap, inert, fairly light materials such as
clay, porcelain, or graphite. Thin-walled metal rings of steel or aluminum are
some limes used.
Common Packings are:
a) Berl Saddle.
b) Intalox Saddle.
c) Rasching rings.
d) Lessing rings.
e) Cross-partition rings.
f) Single spiral ring.
g) Double - Spiral ring.
h) Triple - Spiral ring.

5.6 DESIGNING STEPS FOR ABSORPTION COLUMN
Determining the approximate dia of the column
Selection of column.
Selection of packing and material
Calculating the size of packing
Calculating the actual dia of column
Appendix-A

33
Calculating the flooding velocity
a) Finding loading velocity with the knowledge the flooding velocity
b) Calculating actual dia of column
Finding the no. of transfer units (No
G
)
Determining the height of packing
Determining the height of the column
Determining the pressure drop.
by equation AP =
G
2
F
b

g 10 a

[in. water /ft of packing]

SPECIFICATION SHEET

Identification
Item: Packed Absorption Column
Item No. A1
No. required 01

Function: To absorb acetaldehyde and ethyl alcohol in water.

Operation: Continuous
Material
Handled

Entering gas
Kg/hr
Exit gas
Kg/hr
Liquid
entering
Kg/hr
Liquid
leaving
Kg/hr
CH
3
CHO 412.8 20.64 20.43 412.6
C
2
H
5
OH 431.58 17.1 17 414.48
Appendix-A

34
H
2
O 85.35 ------- 4064 4278.6
O
2
484.96 484.96 ------- ------
N
2
2090.82 2090.82 ------- ------

Design Data
No. of transfer units = 7
Height of transfer units = 0.2 ft (0.06 m)
Height of packing section = 6.44 ft (1.96 m)
Total height of column = 15 ft (4.5 m)
Inside diameter = 2.62 ft (0.8 m)
Flooding velocity = 2.36 m/sec
Maximum allowable gas velocity = 1.416 m/sec
Pressure drop = 20 mmH
2
O/m of packing

Internals
Size and type = 66 mm, intalox saddle
Material of packing: Ceramic
Method of packing: (wet) float into tower filled with water.
Packing arrangement: dumped
Type of packing support: gas injection support
Type of liquid distributor: Weir flow distributor















Appendix-A

35

DESIGN OF DISTILLATION
COLUMN

In industry it is common practice to separate a liquid mixture by distillating the
components, which have lower boiling points when they are in pure condition
from those having higher boiling points. This process is accomplished by partial
vaporization and subsequent condensation.

6.1 CHOICE BETWEEN PLATE AND PACKED COLUMN
Vapour liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate
column or packed column. These two types of operations are quite different. A
selection scheme considering the factors under four headings.

i) Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
ii) Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.
iii) Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column
and its internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
iv) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation,
continuous distillation, turndown, intermittent distillation.

The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
i) Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates
without flooding.
Appendix-A

36
ii) If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column,
because solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing
materials and making it ineffective.
iii) Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of
liquid are low as compared to gases.
iv) For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than
plate column.
v) If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for
cleaning. In packed columns packing must be removed before
cleaning.
vi) For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.
vii) Design information for plate column are more readily available and
more reliable than that for packed column.
viii) Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or
solution in plate column.
ix) When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.

For this particular process, Acetaldehyde, ethyl alcohol and water system, I
have selected plate column because:
i) System is non-foaming.
ii) Temperature is high (91
o
C).
6.2 CHOICE OF PLATE TYPE
There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve
trays and the counter flow trays. I have selected sieve tray because:

i) They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper
to install.
ii) Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
Appendix-A

37
iii) Peak efficiency is generally high.
iv) Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.

6.3 DESIGNING STEPS OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio R
m
.
Calculation of optimum reflux ratio.
Calculation of theoretical number of stages.
Calculation of actual number of stages.
Calculation of diameter of the column.
Calculation of weeping point.
Calculation of pressure drop.
Calculation of thickness of the shell.
Calculation of the height of the column.





SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Item Distillation column
Item No. DC1
No. required 1
Tray type Sieve tray
Function : Recovery of Acetaldehyde
Operation: Continuous
Appendix-A

38
Material handled
Feed Top Bottom
Quantity 256.4595 Kgmol/hr 9.5412 Kgmol/hr 246.9015
Kgmol/hr
Composition of
acetaldehyde
3.66% 98.2% 0
Temperature 91
o
C 20
o
C 96
o
C

Design Data
No. of trays = 12 hole area/active area = 0.10
Pressure = 1 atm weir length = 0.5867 m
Height of column = 4.3 m weir length = 25.4 mm
Diameter of column = 0.762 m reflux ratio = 3.5:1
Hole size = 3.175mm tray spacing = 0.3048 m
Tray thickness = 3mm Down comer area = 4.56912 . 10
-2
m
2

Flooding = 53 % Hole area = 0.045576 m
2

Active area = 0.34638 m
2

CHAPTER-7


DESIGN OF HEAT
EXCHANGERS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A heat exchanger is a heat-transfer devise that is used for transfer of
internal thermal energy between two or more fluids available at different
Appendix-A

39
temperatures. In most heat exchangers, the fluids are separated by a heat-
transfer surface, and ideally they do not mix. Heat exchangers are used in the
process, power, petroleum, transportation, air conditioning, refrigeration,
cryogenic, heat recovery, alternate fuels, and other industries. Common
examples of heat exchangers familiar to us in day-to-day use are automobile
radiators, condensers, evaporators, air pre-heaters, and oil coolers.

In our project a number of heat exchangers are used . Here we will
discuss heat exchanger used as

Condenser
Vaporizer
Preheater

All of these are shell and tube heat exchangers.


Selection Guide To Heat Exchanger Types

Type Significant feature
Applications best
suited
Limitations
Approximate
relative cost
in carbon
steel
construction
Fixed tube
sheet
Both tube sheets fixed to
shell.
Condensers; liquid-
liquid; gas-gas; gas-
liquid; cooling and
heating, horizontal or
vertical, reboiling.
Temperature difference
at extremes of about 200
o
F Due to differential
expansion.
1.0
Floating head
or tubesheet
(removable
and
nonremovable
bundles)
One tubesheet floats in
shell or with shell, tube
bundle may or may not
be removable from shell,
but back cover can be
removed to expose tube
ends.
High temperature
differentials, above
about 200
o
F extremes;
dirty fluids requiring
cleaning of inside as
well as outside of shell,
horizontal or vertical.
Internal gaskets offer
danger of leaking.
Corrosiveness of fluids
on shell-side floating
parts. Usually confined
to horizontal units.
1.28
U-tube;
U-Bundle
Only one tube sheet
required. Tubes bent in
U-shape. Bundle is
removable.
High temperature
differentials, which
might require provision
for expansion in fixed
Bends must be carefully
made, or mechanical
damage and danger of
rupture can result. Tube
0.9-1.1
Appendix-A

40
tube units. Easily
cleaned conditions on
both tube and shell side.
side velocities can cause
erosion of inside of
bends. Fluid should be
free of suspended
particles.
Double pipe
Each tube has own shell
forming annular space
for shell side fluid.
Usually use externally
finned tube.
Relatively small transfer
area service, or in banks
for larger applications.
Especially suited for
high pressures in tube
(greater than 400 psig).
Services suitable for
finned tube. Piping-up a
large number often
requires cost and space.
0.8-1.4
Pipe coil
Pipe coil for submersion
in coil-box of water or
sprayed with water is
simplest type of
exchanger.
Condensing, or
relatively low heat loads
on sensible transfer.
Transfer coefficient is
low, requires relatively
large space if heat load
is high.
0.5-0.7
Plate and
frame
Composed of metal-
formed thin plates
separated by gaskets.
Compact, easy to clean.
Viscous fluids, corrosive
fluids, slurries, high heat
transfer.
Not well suited for
boiling or condensing;
limit 350-500
o
F by
gaskets. Used for liquid-
liquid only; not gas-gas.
0.8-1.5
Spiral
Compact, concentric
plates; no bypassing,
high turbulence.

Cross-flow, condensing,
heating.
Process corrosion,
suspended materials.
0.8-1.5

7.2 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
In process industries, shell and tube exchangers are used in great
numbers, far more than any other type of exchanger. More than 90% of heat
exchangers used in industry are of the shell and tube type. The shell and tube
heat exchangers are the work horses of industrial process heat transfer. They
are the first choice because of well-established procedures for design and
manufacture from a wide variety of materials, many years of satisfactory
service, and availability of codes and standards for design and fabrication. They
are produced in the widest variety of sizes and styles. There is virtually no limit
on the operating temperature and pressure.
7.2.1 Classification of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
There are four basic considerations in choosing a mechanical
arrangement that provides for efficient heat transfer between the two fluids
while taking care of such practical matters as preventing leakage from one into
the other.
Appendix-A

41
1) Consideration for differential thermal expansion of tubes and shell.
2) Means of directing fluid through the tubes.
3) Means of controlling fluid flow through the shell.
4) Consideration for ease of maintenance and servicing.

Heat exchangers have been developed with different approaches to these
four fundamental design factors. Three principal types of heat exchangers

2) Fixed tube-sheet exchangers
3) U-tube exchangers and
4) Floating head exchangerssatisfy these design requirements.
Design procedure for shell-and-tube heat exchangers

Appendix-A

42




7.3 VAPORIZERS
Vaporizers are heat exchangers which are specially designed to supply
latent heat of vaporization to the fluid. In some cases it can also preheat the
fluid then this section of vaporizers will be called upon preheating zone and the
Appendix-A

43
other section in which latent heat is supplied; is known as vaporization zone but
he whole assembly will be called a vaporizer.

Vaporizers are called upon to fulfill the multitude of latent-heat services
which are not a part of evaporative or distillation process.

There are two principal types of tubular vaporizing equipment used in
industry: Boilers and Vaporizing Exchangers. Boilers are directly fired tubular
apparatus, which primarily convert fuel energy into latent heat of vaporization.
Vaporizing Exchangers are unfired and convert latent or sensible heat of one
fluid into the latent heat of vaporization of another. If a vaporizing exchanger is
used for the evaporation of water or an aqueous solution, it is now fairly
conventional to call it an Evaporator, if used to supply the heat requirements at
the bottom of a distilling column, whether the vapor formed be steam or not, it
is a Re-boiler; when not used for the formation of steam and not a part of a
distillation process, a vaporizing exchanger is simply called a vaporizer. So any
unfired exchanger in which one fluid undergoes vaporization and which is not a
part of an evaporation or distillation process is a vaporizer.

7.4 TYPES OF VAPORIZERS
Some common types of vaporizers are
Vertical vaporizer
Indirect fluid heater
Tubular low temperature vaporizer
Electrical resistance vaporizer
Cryogenic vaporizer

The commonest type of vaporizer is the ordinary horizontal 1-2
exchanger or one of its modifications, and vaporization may occur in the shell
or in the tubes. If steam is the heating medium, the corrosive action of air in the
Appendix-A

44
hot condensate usually makes it advantageous to carry out the vaporization in
the shell.

In the case of vaporizer, however, operation is often at high pressure, and
it is usually too expensive to provide disengagement space in the shell, since the
inclusion of disengagement space at high pressures correspondingly increases
the shell thickness. For this reason vaporizers are not usually designed for
internal disengagement. Instead some external means. Such as an inexpensive
welded drum, is connected to the vaporizer where in the entrained liquid is
separated from the vapor.

When a 1-2 exchanger is used as a vaporizer, it is filled with tubes and
cannot be adapted for blow down, since all the feed to a vaporizer is usually of
value and a rejection as blow down is prohibitive. If the feed were completely
vaporized in the vaporizer, it would emerge as a vapor and any dirt which a was
originally present would be left behind on the tube surface over which total
vaporization of occurred, fouling it rapidly, If the 1-2 exchanger (vaporization)
were over-designed, that is, if it contained too much surface, disengagement
would have to occur on the tubes and due to the excess surface the vapor would
superheat above its saturation temperature.

The feed to a vaporizer should not be vaporized completely. The value of
this rule is apparent. If less that 100 percent to the feed is vaporized in 1-2
exchangers, the residual liquid can be counted on to prevent the accumulation of
dirt directly on the surface of the heating element. A maximum of about 80
percent vaporization appears to provide favorable operation in 1-2 exchanges,
although higher percentages may be obtained in vessels having interval
disengagement space.

Appendix-A

45
Forced and Natural circulation Vaporizer. When liquid is fed to is fed
by forced circulation. The circuit consists of a 1-2 exchanger serving as the
vaporizer and a disengaging drum from which the un-vaporized liquid is
withdrawn and recombined with fresh feed. The generated vapor is removed
form the top of the drum.

The vaporized may also be connected with a disengaging drum without
the use of a reticulating pump. This scheme is natural circulation. It requires
that the disengaging drum be elevated above the vaporizer. The advantages of
forced circulation or natural circulation are in part economics and a part dictated
by space. The forced-circulation arrangement requires the use of a pump with its
continuous operating cost and fixed charges. As with forced-circulation
evaporators, the rate of feed recirculation can be controlled very closely. If the
installation is small, then use of a pump preferable. If a natural-circulation
arrangement is used pump and stuffing box problems are eliminated but
considerably more headroom must be provided and recirculation rates cannot be
controlled so readily.
The vaporization of a cold liquid coming from storage, the liquid may not
be at its boiling point and may require preheating to the boiling point. Since the
shell of a forced-circulation vaporizer is essentially the same as any other 1-2
exchangers, the preheating can be done in the same shell as the vaporization. If
the period of performance of a vaporizer is to be measured by a single overall
dirt factor, it is necessary to divide the shell surface into two successive zones,
one for preheating and one for vaporization.

The true temperature difference is the weighted temperature difference
for the two zones, and the clean coefficient is the weighted clean coefficient.

Vaporizers tend to accumulate dirt, and for his reason higher circulation
rates and large dirt factors will often be desirable. Preference should be given to
Appendix-A

46
the use of square pitch and a removable tube bundle. Although it may reduce
the possibility of using a 1-2 vaporizing exchanger for other services, the baffle
spacing can be increased or staggered form inlet to outlet to reduce the pressure
drop of the fluid vaporizing in the shell.











SPECIFICATION SHEET FOR VAPORIZER
Identification
Unit Vaporizer
Item No. V-1
Type Forced Circulation
No. of Item 1


Function To vaporize the alcohol


Operation Continuous

Heat duty 905318.7 Btu/hr
Heat transfer area 260.7 ft
2

Overall heat transfer coefficient 88 Btu/hr-ft
2 o
F
Dirt factor 0.003hr-ft
2 o
F/Btu
Appendix-A

47
Shell side Tube side
Fluid circulated Ethyl alcohol Steam
Flow rates 2501.76 lb/hr 966.7 lb/hr
Temperature Inlet = 150.8
o
F
Outlet = 233.6
o
F
266
o
F
Pressure 44.1 psi 39 psi
Pressure drop 1.3 psi 0.035 psi
Material of construction Carbon steel Carbon steel
Specifications I.D = 17.25 in
C' = 0.25 in
B = 4 in
OD = in 16 BWG
Pitch = 1 in
Square arrangement,
Length = 8 ft
N
t
= 166


7.5 CONDENSERS
Introduction
A condenser is a two-phase flow heat exchanger in which heat is generated from
the conversion of vapor into liquid (condensation) and the heat generated is
removed from the system by a coolant. Condensers may be classified into two
main types: those in which the coolant and condensate stream are separated by a
solid surface, usually a tube wall, and those in which the coolant and
condensing vapor are brought into direct contact.

The direct contact type of condenser may consist of a vapor which is
bubbled into a pool of liquid, a liquid which is sprayed into a vapor, or a
packed-column in which the liquid flows downwards as a film over a packing
material against the upward flow of vapor. Condensers in which the streams are
separated may be subdivided into three main types: air-cooled, shell-and-tube,
and plate. In the air-cooled type, condensation occurs inside tubes with cooling
provided by air blown or sucked across the tubes. Fins with large surface areas
are usually provided on the air side to compensate for the low air-side heat
transfer coefficients. In shell-and-tube condensers, the condensation may occur
Appendix-A

48
inside or outside the tubes. The orientation of the unit may be vertical or
horizontal. In the refrigeration and air-conditioning industry, various types of
two-phase flow heat exchangers are used. They are classified according to
whether they are coils or shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Evaporator and
condenser coils are used when the second fluid is air because of the low heat
transfer coefficient on the air side.
In the following sections, the basic types of condensers are shown:

Four Condenser Configuration are Possible
1) Horizontal with condensation is shell side and cooling medium in the
tubes.
2) Horizontal with condensation in tube side cooling medium in shell
side.
3) Vertical with condensation in the shell.
4) Vertical with condensation in the tubes.

Horizontal shell side and vertical tube side are the most commonly used
types of condensers.

In this process we have used the normal mechanism for heat transfer in
commercial condenser which film wise condensation.

Since vapor-liquid heat transfer changes usually occur at constant or
really constant pressure in industry, the vaporization or condensation of a single
compared normally occurs isothermally.

If a mixture of vapors instead of a pure vapor is condensed at constant
pressure, the change does not take place isothermally in most instances.

Appendix-A

49
Types of Condensers
Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers
Plate Condensers
Air-Cooled Condensers
Direct Contact Condensers

SPECIFICATION SHEET
CONDENSER

Identification: Item condenser
No. Required = 1

Function: Condense vapors by removing the latent heat of vaporization
(95% ethanol)
Operation: Continuous
Type: 2-4 Horizontal Condenser
Shell side condensation
Heat Duty = 8951684.54 Btu/hr
Tube Side:
Fluid handled cold water
Flow rate = 248657 lb/hr
Pressure = 14.7 psia
Temperature = 77
o
F to 113
o
F
Tubes: in. diam. 16 BWG
468 tubes each 10 ft long
4 passes
15/16 triangular pitch
pressure drop = 472 psi
Shell Side:
Fluid handled C
2
H
5
OH + H
2
O
vapor (95% ethanol vapor)
Flow rate 22267.8 lb/hr
Pressure 14.7 psia
Temperature 180
o
F to 178
o
F
Shell: 25 in. diam. 2 passes
Baffles spacing 20 in.
Pressure drop = 3.12 psi

Appendix-A

50
Utilities: Cold water
Ud assumed = 100 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F Ud calculated 109 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F
Uc calculated = 163 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F Allowed dirt factor = Rd = 0.003

CHAPTER-8


PUMP AND COMPRESSOR
SELECTION

8.1 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PUMP
Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a
particular operation. The following list indicates the major factors that govern
pump selection.
.
1) The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size
of pump (or pumps) necessary.
2) The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity; of the fluid
influence the power requirement for a given set of operating conditions,
corrosive properties of the fluid determine the acceptable materials of
construction. If solid particles are suspended in the fluid, this factor
dictates the amount of clearance necessary and may eliminate the
possibility of using certain types of pumps.
3) The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps.
The head change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and
downstream reservoir pressures, the change in vertical height of the
Appendix-A

51
delivery line, and frictional effects. This factor is a major item in
determining the power requirements.
4) Type of flow distribution. If nonpulsating flow is required, certain types
of pumps, such as simplex reciprocating pumps, may be unsatisfactory.
Similarly, if operation is intermittent, a self-priming pump may be
desirable, and corrosion difficulties may be increased.
5) Type of power supply. Rotary positive-displacement pumps and
centrifugal pumps are readily adaptable for use with electric-motor or
internal-combustion-engine drives; reciprocating pumps can be used with
steam or gas drives.
6) Cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.

PUMP P-1
The duty of P-I is to pump ethyl alcohol from 1 atm to 2.3 atm with a flow rare
of 1135.8 Kg/hr. for this purpose the best choice is centrifugal pump because
the required pressure is not so high.

PUMP P-2
The duty of pump-2 is to pump a mixture of water, ethyl alcohol and
acetaldehyde with slight pressure development and the flow late required is
5122.78 Kg/hr. Centrifugal pump is most suitable pump for such a service i.e.
high flow rate and low pressure development.

Appendix-A

52
8.2 COMPRESSOR SELECTION
Compressor C-1
The duty of compressor is to compress the air from 1 atm to 2.3 atm and to
made the air flow with flow rate 2726 Kg/hr/

As compression ratio is less than 5 so, single stage compressor will be
sufficient and type of compressor suitable for this situation is centrifugal
compressor, because our objective is to develop just 2.3 atm pressure with
relatively high flow rate.











CHAPTER-9

Appendix-A

53

INSTRUMENTATION AND
PROCESS CONTROL

Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the control
can be affected automatically, semi-automatically or manually. The quality of
control obtainable also bears a relationship to the accuracy,
re-productability and reliability of the measurement methods, which are
employed. Therefore, selection of the most effective means of measurements is
an important first step in the design and formulation of any process control
system.

9.1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Temperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet and
inlet streams in heat exchangers, reactors, etc.

Most temperature measurements in the industry are made by means of
thermo-couples to facilitate bringing the measurements to centralized location.
For local measurements at the equipment bi-metallic or filled system
thermometers are used to a lesser extent. Usually, for high measurement
accuracy, resistance thermometers are used.

All these meters are installed with thermo-wells when used locally. This
provides protection against atmosphere and other physical elements.

9.2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Appendix-A

54
Like temperature pressure is a valuable indication of material state and
composition. In fact, these two measurement considered together are the
primary evaluating devices of industrial materials.

Pumps, compressor and other process equipment associated with pressure
changes in the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices.
Thus pressure measurement becomes an indication of energy increase or
decrease.

Most pressure measurement in industry are elastic element devices, either
directly connected for local use or transmission type to centralized location.
Most extensively used industrial pressure element is the Bourderi Tube or a
Diaphragm or Bellows gauges.

9.3 FLOW MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Flow-indicator-controllers are used to control the amount of liquid. Also
all manually set streams require some flow indication or some easy means for
occasional sample measurement. For accounting purposes, feed and product
stream are metered. In addition utilities to individual and grouped equipment are
also metered.

Most flow measures in the industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a
lesser extent Variable Area is used, as are the many available types as special
metering situations arise. .

9.4 CONTROL SCHEMES OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
GENERAL CONSIDERATION
9.4.1 Objectives
Appendix-A

55
In distillation column control any of following may be the goals to
achieve
1. Over head composition.
2. Bottom composition
3. Constant over head product rate. .
4. Constant bottom product rate.

9.4.2 Manipulated Variables
Any one or any combination of following may be the manipulated
variables

1. Steam flow rate to reboiler.
2. Reflux rate.
3. Overhead product withdrawn rate.
4. Bottom product withdrawn rate
5. Water flow rate to condenser.



9.5 LOADS OR DISTURBANCES
Following are typical disturbances

1. Flow rate of feed
2. Composition of feed.
3. Temperature of feed.
4. Pressure drop of steam across reboiler
5. Inlet temperature of water for condenser.

Appendix-A

56
9.6 CONTROL SCHEME
Overhead product rate is fixed and any change in feed rate must be
absorbed by changing bottom product rate. The change in product rate is
accomplished by direct level control of the reboiler if the stream rate is fixed
feed rate increases then vapor rate is approximately constant & the internal
reflux flows must increase.

ADVANTAGE
Since an increase in feed rate increase reflux rate with vapor rate being
approximately constant, then purity of top product increases.

DISADVANTAGE
The overhead reflux change depends on the dynamics of level control system
that adjusts it.







Appendix-A

57

Figure: Control scheme



CHAPTER-10


HAZOP STUDY

Appendix-A

58
INTRODUCTION
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of
systematic qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing
facilities and can be applied to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of
equipment It uses as its database the usual sort of plant and process information
and relies on the judgment of engineering and safety experts in the areas with
which they are most familiar. The end result is, therefore reliable in terms
of engineering and operational expectations, but it is not quantitative and may
not consider the consequences of complex sequences of human errors.

The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:

1) To identify (areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard
potential.
2) To identify and study features of the design that influence the
probability of a hazardous incident occurring.
3) To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
4) To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant
hazard potential.
5) To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the
team.
6) To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's
detailed comments.

A HAZOP study is conducted in the following steps:

Appendix-A

59
1) Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study. The purpose
may he the analysis of a yet to be built plant or a review of the risk of
un existing unit. Given the purpose and the circumstances of the study,
the objectives listed above can he made more specific. The scope of
the study is the boundaries of the physical unit, and also the range of
events and variables considered. For example, at one time HAZOP's
were mainly focused on fire and explosion endpoints, while now the
scope usually includes toxic release, offensive odor, and
environmental end-points. The initial establishment of purpose,
objectives, and scope is very important and should be precisely set
down so that it will be clear, now and in the future, what was and was
not included in the study. These decisions need to be made by an
appropriate level of responsible management.
2) Select the HAZOP study team. The team leader should be skilled in
HAZOP and in interpersonal techniques to facilitate successful group
interaction. As many other experts should be included in the team to
cover all aspects of design, operation, process chemistry, and safety.
The team leader should instruct the team in the HAZOP procedure and
should emphasize that the end objective of a HAZOP survey is hazard
identification; solutions to problems are a separate effort.
3) Collect data. Theodore16 has listed the following materials that are
usually needed:

Process description
Process flow sheets
Data on the chemical, physical and toxicological properties of all
raw materials,, intermediates, and products.
Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs)
Appendix-A

60
Equipment, piping, and instrument specifications
Process control logic diagrams
Layout drawings
Operating procedures
Maintenance procedures
Emergency response procedures
Safety and training manuals









Appendix-A

61





Table-10.2: HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings
Guide Words Meaning
No
Less
More
Negation of design intent
Quantitative decrease
Quantitative increase
Appendix-A

62
Part of
As well as
Reverse
Other than
Qualitative decrease
Qualitative Increase
Logical opposite of the intent
Complete substitution


4) Conduct the study. Using the information collected, the unit is divided
into study "nodes" and the sequence diagrammed in Figure , is
followed for each node. Nodes are points in the process where process
parameters (pressure, temperature, composition, etc.) have known and
intended values. These values change between nodes as a result of the
operation of various pieces of equipment' such as distillation columns,
heat exchanges, or pumps. Various forms and work sheets have been
developed to help organize the node process parameters and control
logic information.

When the nodes are identified and the parameters are identified, each
node is studied by applying the specialized guide words to each parameter.
These guide words and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP
procedure. They are listed in Table(10.1).

Repeated cycling through this process, which considers how and why
each parameter might vary from the intended and the consequence, is the
substance of the HAZOP study.

5) Write the report. As much detail about events and their consequence
as is uncovered by the study should be recorded. Obviously, if the
HAZOP identifies a not improbable sequence of events that would
result in a disaster, appropriate follow-up action is needed. Thus,
Appendix-A

63
although risk reduction action is not a part of the HAZOP, the HAZOP
may trigger the need for such action.

The HAZOP studies are time consuming and expensive. Just getting the P
& ID's up to date on an older plant may be a major engineering effort. Still, for
processes with significant risk, they are cost effective when balanced against the
potential loss of life, property, business, and even the future of the enterprise
that may result from a major release.

HAZOP Study of Storage Tank for Ethyl Alcohol
A HAZOP study is to be conducted on ethyl alcohol storage tank, as presented
by the piping and instrumentation diagram show in fig(10.2).
In this scheme, ethyl alcohol is unloaded from tank trucks into a storage
tank maintained under a slight positive pressure until it is transferred to the
process. Application of the guide words to the storage tank is shown in
Table(10.2) along with a listing of consequences that results from process
deviation. Some of the consequences identified with these process deviations
have raised additional questions that need resolution to determine whether or
not a hazard exist.


Appendix-A

64

Figure-10.2: Piping and instrumentation diagram



Deviations
from
operating
conditions
What event could cause
this deviation
Consequences of this
deviation on item of
equipment under
consideration
Process
indications

Ethyl Alcohol
Storage Tank






Appendix-A

65
Level:
Less







More



Temperature:
Less

More

Tank runs dry

Rupture of discharge line
V-3 open or broken
V-1 open or broken
Tank rupture (busting of
vessel)

Unload too much from
column
Reverse flow from
process

Temperature of inlet is
colder than normal
Temperature of inlet is
hotter than normal
External fire

Pump cavitates

Reagent released

Reagent released
Reagent released
Reagent released

Tank overfills

Tank overfills


Possible vacuum

Region released

Tank fails

LIA-1
FICA-1
LIA-1,
FICA-1
LIA-1
LIA-1
LIA-1

LIA-1

LIA-1




CHAPTER-11

Appendix-A

66

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT

HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION
Acute Effects:
The primary acute (short-term) effect of inhalation exposure to acetaldehyde is
irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract in humans. Erythema, coughing,
pulmonary edema, and necrosis may also occur and, at extremely high
concentrations, respiratory paralysis and death.

Acute inhalation of acetaldehyde resulted in a depressed respiratory rate
and elevated blood pressure in experimental animals.

Tests involving acute exposure of animals, such as the LC
50
and LD
50

tests in rats, rabbits, and hamsters, have demonstrated acetaldehyde to have low
acute toxicity from inhalation and moderate acute toxicity from oral or dermal
exposure.




Chronic Effects (Noncancer)
In hamsters, chronic (long-term) inhalation exposure to acetaldehyde has
produced changes in the nasal mucosa and trachea, growth retardation, slight
anemia, and increased kidney weight.
Appendix-A

67

Symptoms of chronic intoxication of acetaldehyde in humans resemble
those of alcoholism.

The RfC for acetaldehyde is 0.009 mg/m3 based on degeneration of
olfactory epithelium in rats.

EPA has medium confidence in the principal studies because appropriate
histopathology was performed on an adequate number of animals and a no-
observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) and a lowest-observed-adverse-effect
level (LOAEL) were identified, but the duration was short and only one species
was tested; low confidence in the database due to the lack of chronic data
establishing NOAELs and due to the lack of reproductive and developmental
toxicity data; and, consequently, low confidence in the RfC.

EPA has not established an RfD for acetaldehyde

Reproductive/Developmental Effects
No information is available on the reproductive or developmental effects of
acetaldehyde in humans. Acetaldehyde has been shown, in animals, to cross the
placenta to the fetus.

Data from animal studies suggest that acetaldehyde may be a potential
developmental toxin. In one study, a high incidence of embryonic resorptions
was observed in mice injected with acetaldehyde. In rats exposed to
acetaldehyde by injection, skeletal malformations, reduced birth weight, and
increased postnatal mortality have been reported.

Cancer Risk
Appendix-A

68
Human data regarding the carcinogenic effects of acetaldehyde are inadequate.
Only one epidemiology study is available that several limitations including
short duration, small number of subjects, and concurrent exposure to other
chemicals and cigarettes.

An increased incidence of nasal tumors in rats and laryngeal tumors in
hamsters has been observed following inhalation exposure to acetaldehyde.

EPA has classified acetaldehyde as a Group B2, probable human
carcinogen.

EPA uses mathematical models, based on human and animal studies, to
estimate the probability of a person developing cancer from breathing air
containing a specified concentration of a chemical. EPA calculated an inhalation
unit risk estimate of 2.2 H 10-6 (m g/m3)-1. EPA estimates that, if an individual
were to breathe air containing acetaldehyde at 0.5 m g/m3* over his or her
entire lifetime, that person would theoretically have no more than a one-in-a-
million increased chance of developing cancer as a direct result of breathing air
containing this chemical. Similarly, EPA estimates that breathing air containing
5.0 m g/m3 would result in not greater than a one-in-a-hundred thousand
increased chance of developing cancer, and air containing 50.0 m g/m3 would
result in not greater than a one-in-ten thousand increased chance of developing
cancer.

EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, for a hazard ranking
under Section 112(g) of the Clean Air Act Amendments, has ranked
acetaldehyde in the nonthreshold category. The 1/ED10 value is 0.033 per
(mg/kg)/d and this would place it in the low category under Superfund's ranking
for carcinogenic hazard.

Appendix-A

69
ATMOSPHERIC PERSISTENCE
Acetaldehyde exists in the atmosphere in the gas phase. It also can be formed in
the atmosphere as a result of photochemical oxidation of organic pollutants in
urban atmospheres. The dominant atmospheric loss process for acetaldehyde is
by reaction with the hydroxyl radical. Based on this reaction, the atmospheric
half-life and lifetime is estimated to be 15 hours and 22 hours, respectively. The
products of this reaction include formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).








CHAPTER-12


COST ESTIMATION


An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating
under conditions which will yield a profit.0^ Since, Net profit total income-all
expenses

It is essential that chemical engineer be aware of the many different types
of cost involved in manufacturing processes. Capital must be allocated for direct
Appendix-A

70
plant expenses; such as those for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides
direct expenses, many other indirect expenses are incurred, and these must be
included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to be obtained. Some
examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries, product
distribution costs and cost for interplant communication.









12.1 ESTIMATION OF EQUIPMENT COST
Equipment Cost (Rs.)
Vaporizer V-I 290436
Exchanger E-I 154427
Exchanger E-2 183702
Heater E-3 175501
Heater E-4 279200
Cooler E-5 193459
Pre-heater E-6 61770
Condenser E-7 70890
Condenser E-8 1283730
Re-boiler E-9 938765
Re-boiler E-10 1415840
Appendix-A

71
Distillation Column D-1 7748874
Distillation Column D-2 11069820
Absorber A-1 7431117
Absorber A-2 9085370









12.2 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Direct Cost (Rs)
Purchased equipment cost = Rs. 40382901
Purchased equipment installation = 0.47 40382901 = Rs. 18979963
Instrumentation & Process Control = 0.12 40382901 = Rs. 2277595
Piping (installed) = 0.66 40382901 = Rs. 26652714
Building (Including Services) = 0.18 40382901 = Rs. 7268922
Yard improvements = 0.1 40382901 = Rs. 4038290
Service facilities (installed) = 0.7 40382901 = Rs. 5088245
Land = 0.06 40382901 = Rs. 305294
Total direct plant cost = Rs. 104993924

Indirect Cost
Engg & Supervision = 0.33 40382901 = Rs. 13326357
Construction expenses = 0.41 40382901 = Rs. 16556989
Appendix-A

72
Total Indirect Cost = Rs. 29883346
Total Direct & Indirect Cost = Rs. 134877270
Contractors fee = 0.05 134877270 = Rs. 6743863
Contingency = 0.1 134877270 = Rs. 13487727

Fixed Capital Investment = Total direct + indirect cost + contigency +
Contractors fee
= Rs. 155108860

Total Capital Investment = F.C.I + W.C.
Now
W.C = 0.15 (T.C.I)
= 0.15 (155108860 + W.C)
W.C = Rs. 27372151
T.C.I = 155108860 + 27372151
= Rs. 182481011













Appendix-A

73








APPENDIX-A

A-1) DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF MULTI-TUBULAR
FIXED BED REACTOR

















PRODUCT
CH
3
CHO = 412.8 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH = 431.58 Kg/hr
H
2
O = 214.35 Kg/hr
O
2
= 484.96 Kg/hr
N
2
= 2090.8 Kg/hr
Cooling Water in
Cooling Water Out
Appendix-A

74






Volume of Reactor
Volumetric flow rate of feed to reactor = V
o
= 63.84 m
3
/min
Space velocity = S = 15 min
-1

as we know that
S = V
o
/V where, V = Volume of reactor.
V = V
o
/ S
= 63.84/15 = 4.256 m
3


Weight of Catalyst
(Silver Catalyst on Alumina Support of size 1.25 mm is used)
volume of reactor = 4.256 m
3

porosity = 0.4
so volume of catalyst = 0.6 4.256 = 2.5536 m
3

particle Density of catalyst = 2250 Kg/m
3

mass of catalyst = 2250 2.553 b
= 5746 Kg

Number of Tubes
Length of tube = 8 ft = 2.439 m
To calculate tube dia
As we know that to prevent deviation from plug flow assumption
Appendix-A

75
D
t
/D
p
> 30
Where D
t
= dia of tube
D
p
= dia of particle
Let inside dia of tube = 2.204 in = 55.98 mm
D
t
/D
p
= 55.98/1.25 = 44.78 which is satisfactory
Volume of one tube = t/4 D
t
2
L
t

= 3.14/4 (55.98/1000)
2
2.439
= 0.785 0.00313 2.439
= 0.006 m
3

As total volume = 4.256 m
3

So number of tubes required = 709 tubes

Diameter of Shell
To calculate shell dia eq. (from Ludwig)
( ) ( )( )
( )
2
t
4 3 1 s t 2
2
1 s
T
P 1.223
K nK K - D P - K
4

K - D
N
+
(

+
=
where N
T
= number of tubes = 709
D
s
= shell dia = ?
P
T
= pitch = 1.25 0.1 of tube
= 1.25 2.5
= 3.125 in. (76.2 mm)
for this pitch
K
1
= 1.08 K
2
= - 0.9
K
3
= 0.69 K
4
= - 0.8
n = 1 ( 1 tube pass)
By solving above eq.
D
s
= 104.72 in.
Appendix-A

76
= 8.72 ft = 2.66 meter

Shell Height
Length of tube = 2.439 m
Leaving 20 % spacing above and below
So height of shell = 2 (0.2 2.439) + 2.439
= 3.415 m

Pressure Drop
( )
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= G
D
1
G D
G 1
L
P
P f P
3
c

c
c

c = porosity = 0.4
D
P
= particle dia = 1.25 mm = 0.125 cm
L
f
= feed density = 0.000948 g/cm
3

G = mass velocity = 0.0579 g/cm
2
Sec
= viscosity of feed = 0.000343 g/cm. Sec
C
1
= 981.46 cm/sec
2

For smoth particles
= 180 = 1.8
L = length = 2.439 m = 243.9 cm
Putting values in above eq. gives
P = 210.83 gm/cm
2

And 1033.074 g/cm
2
= 1 atm
So P = 0.204 atm



Appendix-A

77
Calculations of Heat Transfer Co-efficients
Shell Side
For water a simplified equation for heat transfer co-efficient
( )( )
( )
0.2
0.8
b
o
D
V 0.011t 1 150
h
'
' +
=
t
b
= average water temperature;
o
F
=
2
45 25 +
= 35
o
C = 95
o
F
D' = Diameter, in
Equivalent diameter =
perimeter heated
area flow 4

Flow area = ( )
2
ot t
2
s
D N D
4

D
s
= 104.72 in
N
t
= 709
D
ot
= 2.5 in
Flow area = 5130 in
2

Heated perimeter = N
t
D
ot
t
= 709 2.5 3.14
= 5565 in.
De =
5565
5130 4
= 3.68 in
Now to calculate V' = velocity of water in fps
Mass velocity = G = W/a
s

W = flow rate of water = 2009.9 Kg/hr
= 44237 lb/hrs
flow area = as = 5130 in
2
= 35.625 ft
2

G = 44257/35.625 = 1242 lb/hr. ft
2

Appendix-A

78
Also G = V
= density of water = 62.5 lb/ft
3

so velocity V = G/ = 1242/62.5
= 19.87 ft/hr
= 0.00552 fps
so h
o
( )( )
( )
2 . 0
8 . 0
3.68
00552 . 0 85 0.011 1 150 +
=
= 3.691 Btu/ hr. ft
2

o
F

Tube Side
An equation proposed by LEVA to find heat transfer co-efficient inside
the tubes filled with catalyst particles.
d
dp
e

dpG
3.5
k
h
4.6
0.7
p

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
d

G = 420 lb/hr. ft
2

= 0.0829 lb/hr. ft
k = 0.0315 Btu/hr. ft
o
F
D
p
= dia of particle = 0.0041 ft
D = dia of tube = 0.1836 ft
Putting values in above eq.
0.7
p
0.0829
420 0.0041
3.5
0.0315
1836 . 0 h
|
.
|

\
|

=

5.828 hp = 3.5 (8.36) (0.9023)
hp = 4.53 Btu/hr. ft
2

o
F
h
io
= 4.53
D O
D I
4.53

=
2.5
204 . 2 4.53
= Btu/hr. ft
2


Dirt Factor
Assume dirt factor = 0.003
Appendix-A

79
Over all H.T. Coefficient
D
o io D
R
h
1
h
1
U
1
+ = =
003 . 0
3.691
1
4
1
U
1
D
+ = =
= 0.5273
U
D
= 1.896 Btu hr. ft
2

Area required for Heat Transfer
Q = 1519488 Btu/hr
LMTD = 515
o
C = 959
o
F
U
D
= 1.896 Btu/hr. ft
2

A =
959 1.896
1519488
LMTD U

D

= = 835 ft
2
= 77.67 m
2

Area Available for Heat Transfer
Length of tube = L
t
= 2.439 m
Outer Dia of tube = D
ot
= 0.0635 m
Surface area of one tube =
t ot
L D
= 3.14 0.0635 2.439
= 0.486 m
2

Total surface area available = 709 0.486
= 344.9 in
2

so sufficient area is available for heat transfer.
A-2) DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF ABSORBER-A1









H
2
O = 4064 Kg/hr
CH
3
CHO = 20.43 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH = 17 Kg/hr


CH
3
CHO = 20.64 Kg/hr
C
2
H
5
OH = 17.1 Kg/hr
O
2
= 484.96 Kg/hr
N
2
= 2090.82 Kg/hr



Appendix-A

80


































Appendix-A

81
We want to scrub 412.59Kg acetaldehyde and 431.48kg/hr ethyl alcohol.
This duty is done by two absorbers .In fist absorber 95% of acetaldehyde is
absorbed and about 99.96% of alcohol is absorbed.
The solvent used for this purpose is water.

Compositions of Components in Gas Mixture at Enterance
Components Kg Kg mol Mol %
CH
3
CHO 412.8 9.38 8.27
C
2
H
5
OH 431.58 9.38 8.27
H
2
O 85.35 4.78 4.18
O
2
484.96 15.15 13.37
N
2
2090.82 74.67 65.89
Total G = 3505 Gm = 113.32

Composition of Components in Liquid
Components Kg Kg mol Mol %
H
2
O 4064 225.7 0.996
CH
3
CHO 20.43 0.464 0.002
C
2
H
5
OH 17 0.37 0.0016
Total L = 4101.43 Lm = 226.534

Temperature of entering gas = 30
o
C
Pressure = 1.1 atm
Average molecular weight of Gas = 3505/113.32
= 30.93 Kg/Kg-mol

G
= PM/RT (where, R = 0.08205)
Appendix-A

82

G
=
303 08205 . 0
93 . 30 1 . 1

= 1.36 g/L = 1.36 Kg/m

3

water
=
L
= 997 Kg/m
3
(at 25
o
C)

Approximation of column dia
Approximate column dia from figure
Dia ~ 1 meter = 3.28 ft
When the dia of column less than 3ft or near about 3ft use packed columns.
Because it is always economical to use packed column when the dia is about 1
m or less 1 m.

Selection of Packing
We have selected ceramic Intalox saddle.
Intalox saddle and pall rings are most popular choices. We have selected
ceramic intalox saddle because they are most efficient. We have selected the
ceramic material of packing because in our system oxygen and water are present
and they can cause corrosion and ceramic material will prevent corrosion.

Size of the Packing
Now we will find the maximum size of intalox saddle which would be used for
this particular dia of the column.
Packing size =
15
1 1
15
D 1
=

= 0.0666 m = 66 mm
Although the efficiency of higher for small packings, it is generally
accept that it is economical to use these small sizes in an attempt to improve the
performance of a column. It is preferable to use the largest recommended size of
a particular type of packing and to increase the packed height to compensate for
small loss of efficiency.
Appendix-A

83

Flooding Velocity
liquid
G

G
L

where,
L = 4101.43 Kg/hr
G = 3505 Kg/hr

L
= 997 Kg/m
3

.
G
= 1.36 Kg/m
3

Let superficial velocity should be 60% of flooding velocity.
Superficial velocity = 0.6 2.36 = 1.416 m/sec
Note: This velocity is near the loading velocity.
Mass velocity of gas = density velocity
= 6932.73 Kg/hr-m
2
As flow rate of gas = 3505 Kg/hr
Mass velocity flow rate of gas/cross sectional area
A =
2
D
4

= 3505/6932.74 = 0.5055-m
2

D
2
= 0.64
D = 0.80 m
This the actual diameter of column.
Number of Transfer Units (N
OG
)
y
1
= mole fraction of acetaldehyde in entering gas = 0.0828
y
2
= mole fraction of acetaldehyde in exit gas = 0.0052
As gas is dilute mixture of acetaldehyde.
So by Fig-25 of Appendix-B.
y
1
/y
2
= 15.945
Appendix-A

84
Lm
Gm
m = ?
where m = slop of equilibrium curve and it is straight line because system is
dilute one.
Let m = 1.6
Lm
Gm
m =
226.24
3 . 113 1.6
= 0.8
where
Lm = optimum liquid flow rate. It has been optimized before the liquid enters
the 2
nd
column.
Optimum value for term
Lm
Gm
m will lie between 0.7 to 0.8
So by using Fig.25
N
OG
= 7

Height of Packing(Z)
For ceramic intalox saddle:
H
OG
=
( )
( )
315 . 0
316 . 0
Lm
Gm
1.14
Where
G
m
= gas flow rate, lb moles/hr. ft
2

L
m
= liquid flow rate, lbmol/hr.ft
2

We have,
G
m
= 113.3 Kgmol/hr
Since cross-section area = A = 0.502 m
2

G
m
= 113.3/0.502 Kg mol/m
2
hr = 225.69 Kgmol/m
2
hr
Similarly,
L
m
= 226.24/0.502 Kgmol/m
2
hr = 450.67 Kgmol/hr. m
2

G
m
= 225.69 Kgmol/hr.m
2

Appendix-A

85
= 46.15 lbmol/hrft
2

Similarly,
L
m
= 92.15 lbmol/hr.ft
2

H
OG
=
( )
( )
315 . 0
316 . 0
92.15
46.15
1.14
H
OG
= 0.92 ft
Where
H
OG
= height of a transfer unit
Z = H
OG
N
OG

Z = 0.92 7 = 6.44 ft
Z = 1.96 m
Where Z is the height of packing.
Allow 2.0 ft for good liquid distribution through the packing from top.
Allowance for supports
= (2 ft) (2 sections) = 4 ft
Total packing height required = Z = 6.44 + 2 + 4 = 12.44 ft
use 15 ft of packing.

Degree of wetting
LP =
packing of are Specific
rate Liquid

Liquid rate = 2.27 m
3
/m
2
sec
And
Specific area of packing = 118 m
2
/m
3

L
P
= 2.27 10
-3
/118 = 1.92 10
-5
m
3
/m.sec

Appendix-A

86
Pressure Drop
Ap = a.10
b

g
2
F
/
G

A, b = constants obtained from table 5-1.
Ap = pressure drop
= liquid flow rate lb/ft
2
sec
g
F
= gas flow rate lb/ft
2
.sec

G
= gas density lb/ft
3

Note: Above equation is applicable for condition near the flooding.

The pressure drop is higher than the value predicted by equation given above
and account should be taken of this fart where appropriate.
From table for 2-in (50mm) ceramic intalox saddles.
A = 0.12
B = 0.1
L = 0.464 lb/sec ft
2

Similarly,
g
F
= 0.39 lb/sec.ft
2

G
= 0.084 lb/ft
3

AP = 0.12 10
0.10.464
(0.39)
2
/ 0.084
AP = 0.24 in. of water/ft of packing.

To convert above AP to S.I units by multiplying the value of AP by the factor
83.3 to obtain the units of (mm/m)
AP = 0.24 83.3
= 19.99 ~ 20
= 20 mm H
2
O/m. of packing.


Appendix-A

87














A-3) DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF DISTILLATION
COLUMN (DC-1)












FEED
CH
3
CHOH = 3.66 %
C
2
H
5
OH = 3.66 %
H
2
O = 92.69 %
TOP PRODUCT
CH
3
CHOH = 98.2 %
C
2
H
5
OH = 0.75 %
H
2
O = 0.97 %
Appendix-A

88












Process Design
Temperature of feed = 91
o
C
Temperature of top product = 20
o
C
Temperature of bottom product = 99
o
C
P = 1 atm

Minimum Reflux Ratio
Component
Feed
F X
f

Top
D X
d

Bottom
W X
w

Relative
Volatility o
CH3CHO
C2H5OH
H2O
0.0366
0.0366
0.9269
0.982
0.0075
0.0097
0
0.0377
0.962
10.87
2.27
1.00

Light key component = CH
3
CH
2
OH = B
Heavy key component = H
2
O = C
Appendix-A

89
Lighter than light key component = CH
3
CHO = A
Using underwood equation
q 1

C
fC C
B
fB B
A
fA A
=

x x x

As feed is at its bubble point so q = 1
Bt trial u = 3.5
Using eq. of min. reflux ratio,
1 R

m
C
fC C
B
fB B
A
fA A
+ =

x x x

putting all values R
m
= 2.62
No. of plates at total reflux
Using Fenskes equation
( ) ( )
( )
ave
BC
s
X
X
X
X
m
log
d log
1 N
B
C
C
B
(

= +
( )( ) | |
log2.27
log
N
0.0377
0.962
0.0097
0.0075
m
=

Relative Volatility Method for Plate to Plate Calculations
Above feed plate:
L
n
= RD = 3.5 9.5412 = 33.3942 Kg mol/hr
V
n
= (R+1) D = 4.5 9.5412 = 429354 Kgmol/hr

Below feed plate:
L
m
= L
n
+ F = 33.3942 + 256.4595 = 289.8537 Kgmol/hr
V
m
= L
m
W = 289.8537 246.9015 = 42.9522 Kgmol/hr

Operating lines above feed point:
Appendix-A

90
d
n
1 n
n
n
m
V
D
X
V
L
y x + =
+

y
n
CH
3
CHO = 0.7778 X
n+1
+ 0.2806
y
n
C
2
H
5
OH = 0.7778 X
n+1
+ 0.0021
y
n
H
2
O = 0.7778 X
n+1
+ 0.0028
Operating lines below feed plate:
w
m
1 m
m
m
m
X
V
W
X
V
L
y =
+

y
m
CH
3
CHO = 6.748 X
m+1

y
m
C2H
5
OH = 6.748 X
m+1
0.2167
y
m
H
2
O = 6.748 X
m+1
5.5269

Starting from top plate:
Componen
t
o
X
d
=
y
t

Y
t
/o
X
t
=

=
o
o
t
t
t
y
y
X

Y
1
Y
1
/o
X
1
=

y
X
1
1
1

CH
3
CHO
C
2
H
5
OH
H
2
O
10.8
7
2.27
1.00
0.782
0.007
5
0.009
7
0.90
3
0.01
7
0.00
9
0.8739
0.032
0.0939
0.96
0
0.02
7
0.07
5
0.20
0.02
7
0.17
0
0.0794
0.0680
0.4282

Y
2
X
2
X
3

Below feed
plate
Y
8

0.342
0.055
0.336
------
------
------
0.0363
0.0361
0.9258
0
------
------
0
0.0370
0.963
Appendix-A

91

No. of plates = 8
Rebioler acts as one plate, so actual
No. of trays = 7
Feed plate = 2 from bottom

Tray Efficiency:
Average temperature of column =
2
96 20 +
= 58
o
C
Feed viscosity at average temperature =
ave
= 0.224 Cp
(relative volalitoly of key component)
ave
= 2.27 0.224 = 0.509
from graph (17) of Appendix-B, overall efficiency of column = 60%
So, No. of actual trays =
6 . 0
7
= 12
location of feed point =
6 . 0
2
= 3

Determination of the Column Diameter
Top Conditions Bottom Conditions
L
n
= 33.394 Kgmol/hr
V
n
= 42.9354 Kgmol/hr
Average mol. Wt. = 43.73 Kg/Kgmol

T = 20
o
C
Liquid density =
L
= 0.78158
gm/cm
3

Vapour density =
V
= 3.56 10
-3

gm/cm
3

L
m
= 289.8537 Kgmol/hr
V
m
= 42.9522 Kgmol/hr
Average mol. wt. = 19.05
Kg/Kgmol
T = 96
o
C
Liquid density =
L
= 0.99178 g/cm
3


Vapor density =
V
= 1.433 10
-3

gm/cm
3


Because liquid and vapour flow rates are greater at bottom so based upon
bottom flow rates.

Appendix-A

92
Vapour load at bottom
3600
V
Q
V
m
V

= = 0.15861 m
3
/Sec

Liquid load at bottom
3600
L
Q
L
m
L

=

= 1.542 10
-3
m
3
/Sec

Tray Dynamic
i) Flow Parameter:

0.5
L
v
m
m
LV

V
L
F
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
0.5
3 -
0.99178
10 1.433
42.9522
289.8537
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
= 0.2565

ii) Capacity Parameter:
Assumed tray spacing = 12 in. = 30.48 Cm
From Fig (24) of Appendix-B, sieve tray flooding capacity,
C
sb(20)
= 0.028 m/Sec
Surface tension of system = o = 74.62 dynes/Cm
Corrected C
sb
= C
sb(20)

2 . 0
20
|
.
|

\
|
o
= 0.0364 m/Sec
Now U
nf
=
0.5
V
V L
bs

C
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 0.7361 m/Sec

iii) Tray Selection
We have selected single crossflow sieve tray with segmental down
comer. For this type of tray,
Appendix-A

93
Down comer area = A
d
= 0.12 A
T

Weir length = L
w
= 0.77 D
T

Selected weir height = h
w
= 1 in. = 25.4 cm
Hole size (range 1/8 to ) = 1/8 = 3.175 mm
Assumed tray spacing = 12 in.

iv) Tower Diameter
Let flooding = 53% (Correct trial)
F
*
= 0.53
U
n
*
= U
nf
F
*
= 0.390133 m/Sec
Un* = flooding velocity based upon net area.
Net area A
n
= A
T
A
d
= 0.88 A
T

A
T
=
0.88
A
n
=
*
n
V
0.88U
Q
= 0.461992 m
2

A
T
=
4

D
2
= 0.461992 m
2

D = 0.76715 m = 2.517 ft.
Selected D = 2.5 ft. = 0.761963 m
A
T
=
4

D
2
= 0.45576 m
2


v) Flooding Check
U
n
=
n
V
A
Q
=
T
V
0.88A
Q
= 0.395467 m/Sec
Now F = F*
|
|
.
|

\
|
*
n
n
U
U

= 0.537
Now following information are available,
Appendix-A

94
Tower area = A
T
= 0.45576 m
2

Net area = A
n
= 0.88 A
T
= 0.40107 m
2

Active area = A
a
= 0.76 A
T
= 0.34638 m
2

Down comer area = A
d
= 0.12 A
T
= 5.46912 10
-2
m
2

Hole area = A
h
= 0.1 A
T
= 4.5576 10
-2
m
2


vi) Calculation of Entrainment
At F
LV
= 0.2565 and F = 53%
From Figure (23) of Appendix-B, fractional entrainment,
= 0.0015
since < 0.2, so now process is satisfactory
e =
- 1

L
= 8.295 Kg/hr here, L = L
m
mol. wt.

vii) Tray Pressure Drop
a) Hole Velocity
U
h
=
h
V
A
Q
=
45576 . 0 0.1
0.15861

Tray thickness = 3mm = 0.118 in. [for steel tray]
Hole dia = 1/8 = 3.175 mm
Tray thickness/Hole dia =0.9449
Hole area / active area =
0.34638
10 4.5576
2

= 0.1315
Now gross % free area = % 100
area tower
area hole

|
.
|

\
|
= 10 %
From Fig (20) of Appendix-B,
Appendix-A

95
8 . 1
C
1
2
vo
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

C
vo
= dry orifice co-efficient
Dry tray pressure drop = P
dry
= 5.08
2
vo
2
h
L
V
C
1
U

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

= 0.288 cm
since < 0.1, no need of correction factor.

b) Areated Liquid Drop, ha:
F
va
= ( )
0.5
a
V
h
A
Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 0.01733
From figure (19) of Appendix-B, aeration factor of liquid on tray,
Q
p
= 0.8
L
w
= 0.77 D
T
= 0.5867 m
So height of liquid on the weir,
How = 6.66
0.67
W
L
L
Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
= H
w
= 1 in. = 2.54 cm
h
a
= Q
p
(h
w
+ h
ow
)
= 0.8 (2.54 + 12435)
= 2.13148 cm
h
a
= height of areated liquid drop

c) Total Pressure Drop:
AP
T
= P
dry
+ h
a
= 0.288 + 2.13148 = 2.41948 cm

Estimation of Weep Point

L
= 0.99178 gm/cm
3
= 991.78 Kg/m
3

Appendix-A

96
o = 74.62 dynes/cm
3
= 0.07462 J/N
2

d
h
= 3.175 mm
h
a
= 4.16348
h
o
=
h L
4
d
10 4.14
= 0.98106 cm
Now P
dry
+ h
o
= 1.26906 cm
h
w
+ h
ow
= 2.04896 inch
Hole area / active area = 0.1315
From figure (22) of Appendix-B, the point of intersection is above the relevant
line, so no weeping problem.

Down Commer Residence Time
Down comer velocity based upon clear liquid,
V
d
=
L d
A
L

Here, L = L
m
mol. wt.
= 5.5917 Kg/hr
So, V
d
= 0.02828 m/Sec,
L
= 991.78 Kg/m
3

Residence time =
d
V
spacing Tray
= 10.78 Sec
Which is greater than 3. so, satisfactory.

Calculation of Liquid Gradient
a) Height of Froth
h
f
=
1 - 2Q
h
p
=
1 - 2(0.8)
0.98106
= 1.6351
b) Hydraulic Radius:
R
h
= cross section / wetted perimeter
Appendix-A

97
D
f
=
2
D L
T w
+
= 0.676925 m
So, R
h
=
f f
f f
100D 2h
D h
+
= 0.02 m

c) Velocity of aerated mass U
f
:
for F
va
= 0.01733, | = 0.59 [figure(19) of Appendix-B]
U
f
=
f f
L
D h
100Q
= 0.244394 m/sec

d) Reynolds modulus:
R
eh
=
L
L f h

U R

mix
= 0.6442 C
p
= 6.442 10
-4
N.S/m
2

L
= 491.78 Kg/m3
R
h
= 0.02 m
U
f
= 0.244394 m/Sec
R
eh
= 7525

e) Friction factor:
f = 0.10 Fig (18) of Appendix-B

f) Calculation of gradient (A):
A =
g R
L 100fU
h
w
2
f

2
9.81m/Sec g =
= 0.14137 cm
Now P
dry
= 0.288 cm
1/2 P
dry
= 0.144 cm
Because A < P
dry

Appendix-A

98
Its is satisfactory

g) Height of aerated mass in down comer:
Assuming a try clearance 38 mm. between down comer apron. And the
try.
h
da
= 13.1 (Q
L
/A
da
)
2

= 13.1 (1.542 10
-3
/0.022294)
2

h
da
= 0.06267 [A
da
= L
w
clearance in m]
So height of liquid in down comer,
h
dc
= AP
T
+ h
w
+ h
ow
+ A + h
da

= 2.41 + 2.54 + 0.12435 + 0.14137 + 0.06267
= 5.28779 cm
height of aerated liquid = h
dc
/Q
p
= 6.609738 cm
Tray spacing = 12 = 30.48 cm
Tray spacing = 15.24 cm
half of tray spacing > h
dc
/Q
p

so process is satisfactory.

Mechanical Design
1) Shell Thickness
Material of construction = Stainless steel 316
Operating Pressure = 14.7 Psi
Design Pressure = 25 Psi
Shell thickness is given by
C
P 2fJ
PD
t
m
+

=
Where f = max allowable working stress = 18700 Psi
J = weld efficiency factor (max) = 0.8
C = corrosion factor = 0.002 in./year
Appendix-A

99
For 25 year life C = 0.002 25 = 0.05 in
Period = 25 year, D = 2.5 ft = 30 in
( )( )
05 . 0
25 1.8700 0.8 2
30 25
t
m
+

= = 0.0525 in
for each 20 ft height 1/16 is added
t
m
= 0.0525 + 1/16 = 0.11 in = 3 mm

Tray Specifications
Total no. of holes =
hole one of Area
holes for area Total

=
( )
( )
2
2
2.54 0.01265625
100 0.045576

= 5582
No. of holes/in
2
of tray =
( )
0.34638
2.54 5582/
2
= 10
Now from graph Fig (21) of Appendix-B,
Pitch = 2.0 3.175 = 8.89 mmA

Height of Distillation Column
No. of plates = 12
Tray spacing 1 ft
Distance between 12 plates = 12 ft
Top clearance = 1 ft
Bottom clearance = 1 ft
Tray thickness = 3 mm/plate = 0.00983 ft/plate
Total thickness of trays =
12
12 0.118
= 0.118 ft
Total height of column = 11 + 1 + 1 + 0.118
Appendix-A

100
= 13.118 ft
= 3.998 ft
= 4 ft

NOMENCLATURE OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
A
a
= Active area (m
2
)
A
d
= down comer area (m
2
)
A
h
= hole area (m
2
)
A
n
= Net area (m
2
)
A
T
= total area (m
2
)
A
da
= area under down comer apron (m
2
)
C = corrosion allowance (in/year)
C
sb(20)
= capacity parameter for liquids (o = 20 dynes/cm)
C
sb
= Capacity parameter of liquid
D = Diameter of tower (m)
D
f
= flow width normal to liquid flow (m)
D
h
= hole diameter (m)
e = total entrainment (Kg/sec)
F = feed (Kgmol/hr)
F* = Design % loading
H
F
= Enthalpy of feed (J/Kgmol K)
H
B(l)
= Enthalpy of bottom (J/Kgmol K)
H
D(L)
= Enthlpy of the distillate (J/Kgmol K)
h
a
= head loss due to created liquid (cm)
h
f
= froth height on tray (cm)
h
ad
= had loss due to down comer apron (cm)
h
dc
= height of clear liquid in down comer (cm)
h
w
= weir height (cm)
Appendix-A

101
h
ow
= height of liquid crest over weir (cm)
h
o
= head loss due to bubble formation (cm)
J = weld efficiency factor
L = liquid flow rate (Kg/hr)
L
w
= weir length (m)
N
m
= min. no. of plates
P = period (years)
AP
dry
= dry pressure drop (cm)
AP
T
= total pressure drop (cm)
Q
L
= Liquid flow rate (Kg/m
3
)
Q
v
= Vapour flow rate (Kg/ m
3
)
Q
c
= condenser duty (J/ m
3
)
Q
R
= Rebotr duty (J/hr)
Q
P
= Areatio factor
R
h
= Hydraluic radius of aerated mass (m)
R
eh
= Modified Reynold No.
R
m
= Min. reflux ration
R = operational reflux ratio
T
m
= thickness of shell (mm)
U
h
= vapour velocity through holes (m/sec)
V
m
= vapour flow rate at bottom (Kgmol/hr)
W
F
= mass flow rate of feed (Kgmol/hr)
W
B()
= bottoms (Kg/hr)
W
D()
= mass flow rate distillate (Kg/hr)
U
nf
= flooding velocity based upon net area (m/sec)
V
d
= down comer liquid velocity (m/sec)
o = relative volatility

L
= density of liquid (Kg/m
3
)
Appendix-A

102

v
= density of vapor (Kg/m
3
)

average
= average viscosity of feed (Cp)
+ = fractional entrainment factor
| = relative froth density
o = surface tension (J/N
2
)
A = liquid gradient







A-4) DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF VAPORIZER







Heat Duty
Q
t
= Q
1
+ Q
2

1)=> Preheating 2)=> Vaporization
Q
1
= mCpAT
= 1135.8 0.87 (112-66)
= 45454.7 Kmol/hr = 180.375.8 Btu/hr
Q
2
= Q
alcohol
+ Q
H2O

Steam





Alcohol
966.7 lb/hr
266
o
F
266
o
F
2501 lb/hr

150.8
o
F 233.6
o
F
Appendix-A

103
Latent heat of vaporization of H2O = 185.32 Kcal/Kg
Latent heat of vaporization of alcohol = 500 Kcal/Kg
Q
2
= 863.2 + 45.43 + 500
Q
2
= 182685 Kcal/hr = 724942.5 Btu/hr
Q
t
= Q
1
+ Q
2

= 228140.2 Kcal/hr
= 905318.7 Btu/hr



FOR PREHEATING ZONE
For steam T
1
= 130
o
C = 266
o
F
T
2
= 130
o
C = 266
o
F
For process fluid,
T
1
= 66
o
C = 150.8
o
F
T
2
= 112
o
C = 233.6
o
F
At
1
= LMTD
=
( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|

8 . 150 266
6 . 233 266
ln
8 . 50 266 6 . 233 266

= 65.27
o
F

For Vaporization Zone
At
2
= 266 233.6 = 32.4
o
F
At, weighted =
2
2
1
1
t
Q
t
Q
t
Q
+

Appendix-A

104
At, w =
32.4
724942.5
65.28
180375.8
905318.3
+

At, w = 36
o
F
assume U
D
= 95 Btu/hr.
o
F. ft
2

as Q
t
= U
D
A At, w
A =
36 95
905318.3

= 264.71 ft
2


Exchange Layout
1-2, shell & tube heat exchanger
OD, 1 sq. pitch,
A = a
t
N
t
Lt
A = 0.1963 ft
L
t
= 8 ft.
a
t
= 0.1963
A = 0.1963 8 N
t

N
t
=
8 1963 . 0
264.7

= 168
N
t
= 166 (Nearest count)
So
A = 260.68 ft
2

U
D
= 96 Btu/hr. ft
2
.
o
F

SPECIFICATIONS
Shell Side Tube Side
17 , C' = 0.25 OD, 1 sqr. Pitch
Appendix-A

105
B = 4 in 16. BWG

Calculations (Tube Side)
a
t
=
2 144
166 0.302

= 0.174 ft
2

F
t
= m/a
t
= 966.7/0.174 = 5555.74 lbm/hr. ft
2

D = (I.D)
Tube
/2 = 0.62/12 = 0.052 ft
R
,t
= DG
t
/
At T = 130o C = 266
o
F
= 0.014 C
p
= 0.03388 lb/ft hr
Re
,t
=
03388 . 0
74 . 5555 0.052
= 852.7
For condensing steam,
h
io
= 1500 Btu/hr. ft
2

o
F

Shell Side Calculations
a
s
=
t
144P
B C I.D '

=
1 144
4 25 . 0 17.25

= 0.119 ft
2

G
s
= m/a
s
= 2501.76/0.119 = 21023 lb/hr ft
2

Re
s
= De Gs/
De = 0.95/12 = 0.079167 ft
(for liquid) = 0.25 C
p

= 0.25 2.42 = 0.604 lb/hr. ft
R
e,s
=
0.604
21023 0.079167
= 2745
J
H
= 300
h
o
= J
H
(K/De)(C/K)
1/3

Appendix-A

106
= 218.2 Btu/hr.ft
2

o
F
U
1
= h
io
h
o
/h
o
+ h
io

U
1
= 74 Btu/hr.ft
2

o
F
A
1
=
1 1
1
t U
Q
A

= 37 ft
2

For vaporization zone
'(at 112
o
C for vaps) = 0.012 Cp
= 0.012 2.42 = 0.029 lb/hr. ft
Re',s = DeGs/ =
0.029
21023 0.079

R'
e,s
= 57269
J
H
' = 140
h'o = J
H
(K/De)(c/K)
1/3

= 141.8 Btu/hr.ft
2

o
F
U
2
=
o io
o io
h h
h h
' +
'

=129.5 Btu hr. ft
2

o
F
Clean surface required for vaporization
A
2
= Q
2
/U
2
(At)
2

A
2
= 172.78 ft
2

Total clean surface required
A
c
= A
1
+ A
2

= 37 + 172.78
A
c
= 209.78 ft
2

Weighted clean overall co-efficient
Uc,w =
2 1
2 2 1 1
A A
A U A U
+
+

Appendix-A

107
= 119 Btu/hr. ft
2

o
F
R
d
= 0.003
1/U
D
= 1/U
C
+ R
d

U
D
= 88 Btu/hr ft
2

o
F (Correct)
PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS
Tube side Pressure Drop
At Re,
t
= 8527
f = 0.00028
Specific volume of steam at 39 Psi
v = 10.854 ft3/lb
s =
3
3
ft
lb
lb
ft
62.5 10.854
1

s = 0.00147
G
t
= 5555.7 lb/hr. ft2
AP
t
= 1/2
1 0.00147 0.052 10 5.22
L fG
10
n
2
t


= 1/2
( )
1 00147 . 0 052 . 0 10 5.22
2 8 5555374 100028
10
2



AP
t
= 0.035 Psi

Shell Side Pressure Drop
For preheating zone
At Re,s = 2745 f = 0.0027
Length of preheating zone = L
P
=
c
1
t
A
A
L
= 1.41 ft
No. of crosses, (N + 1) =
8
1.4 12

Appendix-A

108
= 4.2
s = 0.81
D
s
= 17.25/12 = 1.44 ft
AP
s1
=
( )
s s 10 5.22
1 N D G f
10
3
2
s
|
+

AP
s1
= 0.22 Psi
For vaporization zone
At Re,s = 57269 f = 0.0018
Length of vaporization zone) = Lv =
c
2
t
A
A
L
= 6.6 ft
No. of crosses, (N+1) =
B
L
12
v

= 19.74

outlet

liquid
= 0.81 62.5 = 50.625

outlet

varps
= PM/RT =
6 . 693 10.73
3 . 42 44.1

= 0.25
s
outlet

mix
=
50.625
227.1
0.25
908.7
62.5
1135.8
+

= 0.005
s
mean
=
( )
2
1 N
0.005 0.81
+
+
= 0.4
AP
s2
=
( )
1 10 22 . 5
1 N Ds fG
10
2 2
s

+
s De

= 1.08 Psi
AP
s
= AP
s1
+ AP
s2

AP
s
= 1.3 psi
Appendix-A

109
A-5) DESIGNING CALCULATIONS OF PRE-HEATER-E6
Design Calculations



Inlet
temp
eratu
re of
the
process stream = t
1
= 122
o
F
Outlet temperature
of the process
stream = t
2
= 195.8
o
F
Inlet temperature of steam = T
1
= 240
o
F
Outlet temperature of steam = T
2
= 240
o
F
Mass flow rate of process stream = m = 11281.45 lb/hr
Specific heat capacity of the process stream = Cp = 0.943 Btu/lb
o
F

Heat load

T mC Q
p
A =

3 . 78 943 . 0 45 . 11281 x x Q=

hr
Btu
Q 46 . 785114 =

Mass flow rate of steam

Q
m =

1 . 952
46 . 785114
= m


T
1
=240
o
F T
2
=240
o
F
t
2
=195.8
o
F t
1
=122
o
F
Appendix-A

110
hr
lb
m 33 . 860 =


LMTD

) (
) (
ln
) ( ) (
1 2
2 1
1 2 2 1
t T
t T
t T t T
T
m

= A


) 122 240 (
) 8 . 195 240 (
ln
) 122 240 ( ) 8 . 195 240 (

= A
m
T


F T
o
m
72 . 75 = A

Since steam is condensing medium therefore R = 0 and FT = 1 so t T
m
A = A

Assumed calculations
Value of U
D
assumed

F hrft
Btu
U
o D 2
195 =

Heat transfer area

t U
Q
A
D
A
=

72 . 75 195
46 . 785114
x
A =

2
17 . 53 ft A=
Now, lets take
Tube length = 6ft
Tube O.D. = in
Area of one tube = DL = 1.178 ft
2

No. of tubes = 46 tubes
Appendix-A

111
From tube count table
For 50 tubes shell I.D. = 10 in for one pass
Pitch = PT = 1.25 x = 0.937 in
Baffle spacing = B = 5 in Clearance = 0.187 in


Shell Side Calculations
Flow area

T
s
P
B IDxC
a
144
'
=

937 . 0 144
5 187 . 0 10
x
x x
a
s
=

2
052 . 0 ft a
s
=

Mass velocity

s
s
a
W
G =

052 . 0
45 . 11281
=
s
G

2
52 . 216951
hrft
lb
G
s
=



Reynolds No.

s e
G D
= Re

2 . 1
92 . 216951 046 . 0
Re
x
=

49 . 8316 Re =

Value of J
H
from shell side heat transfer curve
Appendix-A

112
J
H
= 55


Thermal conductivity

k = k
1
x
1
+ k
2
x
2
+ .. + k
n
x
n


k = 0.36 Btu/hrft
2
(
o
F/ft)


Shell side coefficient

3
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
C
D
k
J
h
p
e
H
o
o

|

3
1
36 . 0
2 . 1 943 . 0
046 . 0
36 . 0
55
|
.
|

\
|
=
x h
o
o
|


F hrft
Btu
h
o
o
o
2
74 . 632 =
|



for coefficient correction

wall temperature

) (
a a
i io
io
a w
T t
h h
h
t t
+
+ =

F t
o
w
94 . 215 =
at wall temperature

fthr
lb
w
6354 . 0 =

089 . 1
14 . 0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
w
s

|

corrected coefficient

s
o
o
o
h
h |
|
=

Appendix-A

113
F hrft
Btu
h
o o 2
92 . 688 =


TUBE SIDE CALCULATIONS

Flow area

in a
t
302 . 0 ' =

n
a N
a
t t
s
144
'
=

2 144
302 . 0 50
x
x
a
s
=

2
046 . 0 ft a
s
=

Mass velocity

t
t
a
W
G =

046 . 0
33 . 860
=
t
G

2
82 . 18702
hrft
lb
G
t
=

Reynolds No.

t
G D
= Re

029 . 0
82 . 18702 0517 . 0
Re
x
=


61 . 33342 Re =

for steam

F hrft
Btu
h
o io 2
1500 =

Appendix-A

114
Clean overall coefficient

o io
o io
C
h h
h h
U
+
=

92 . 688 1500
92 . 688 1500
+
=
x
U
C


F hrft
Btu
U
o C 2
09 . 472 =

Design overall coefficient

d
C D
R
U U
+ =
1 1


003 . 0
09 . 462
1 1
+ =
D
U


F hrft
Btu
U
o D 2
202 =

Pressure drop (Shell side)

for Re = 8316.49
friction factor for shell side = f = 0.0025
No. of crosses , N+1 = 12L/B = 14.4 = 15

s e
s s
s
s D x
N D fG
P
|
10
2
10 22 . 5
) 1 ( +
= A

085 . 1 89 . 0 046 . 0 10 22 . 5
15 833 . 0 92 . 216951 0025 . 0
10
2
x x x x
x x x
P
s
= A

psi P
s
6 . 0 = A


Pressure drop (Tube side)
for Re = 33342.61
friction factor for tube side = f = 0.00018
Appendix-A

115
t
t
s
Ds x
Ln fG
P
|
10
2
10 22 . 5 2
1
= A

0 . 1 00098 . 0 0517 . 0 10 22 . 5
2 6 82 . 18702 00018 . 0
2
1
10
2
x x x x
x x x
P
s
= A

psi P
s
2 . 0 = A

















A-6) DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF CONDENSER








Inlet temperature of the process stream = T
1
= 180
o
F
Outlet temperature of the process stream = T
2
= 178
o
F
Inlet temperature of the water = t
1
= 77
o
F
Outlet temperature of the water = t
2
= 113
o
F
T
2
= 178
o
F
t
1
= 77
o
F
t
2
= 113
o
F
T
1
= 180
o
F
Appendix-A

116
Mass flow rate of the process stream = m = 22267.8 lb/hr
Enthalapy of saturated vapor (95% Ethanol) = H
v
= 500 Btu/lb
Enthalapy of saturated liquid (95% Ethanol) = H
l
= 98 Btu/lb

Heat Load
Q = m(H
v
H
l
)
Q = 22267.8 (500 98)
Q = 8951684.54 Btu/hr

Mass flow rate of cooling water

t C
Q
m
p
=
Appendix-A

117
=
36 1
8951684.54

= 248657.5 lb/hr

LMTD

( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 2
2 1
1 2 2 1
m
t - T
t - T
ln
t - T - t - T
T = A

( ) ( )
( )
( ) 77 - 178
113 - 180
ln
77 - 178 - 113t - 180
T
2
m
= A
= 81
o
F
Since process is condensing therefore R=0 and F
T
= 1 so, t T
m
A = A

Assumed Calculations
Value of U
D
Assumed
U
D
= 100 Btu/hr.ft
2

o
F

Heat Transfer Area

t U
Q
A
D
=

81 100
8951684.54
A

=
= 1105 ft
2

Assume 4 passes
Now, lets take
Tube length = 10 ft
Configuration is 2 shell side passes and 4 tube side passes
Tube O.D. = in.
Appendix-A

118
Area of one tube = tDL = 2.35 ft
2

No. of tubes = 1105/2.35 = 470
From tube count table
For 468 tube shell I.D. = 25 in for one pass
Pitch = PT = 1.25 = 0.937 in.
Baffle spacing = B = 20 in
Clearance = 0.187 in
Then
Corrected A = 1099 ft
2

Corrected U
D
= 100.5 Btu/hr.ft
2 o
F

Shell Side Calculations
Flow Area

r
s
144P
B C ID
a
'
=
=
937 144
20 187 25
a
s

=
= 0.692 ft
2


Mass Velocity

s
s
a
W
G =
Appendix-A

119
=
0.692
22267.8
G
s
=
= 32177.74 lb/hr ft
2


Loading

1/3
t
LN
W
G = ' '

( )
3 / 2
466 10
22267.8
G

= ' '
= 37.09
Assumption
h = h
o
= 200
hio = 909.33 Btu/hr.ft
2

o
F
t
w
= ( )
a v
i io
io
a
t T
h h
h
t h
+
+ =
= 110
o
F

Film Temperature
T
f
=
2
t T
w a
+


Physical Properties at t
f

Thermal conductivity k
f
= 0.116 Btu/hr-ft-
o
F
Specific gravity s
f
= 081 lb/hr-ft
Viscosity
f
= 1.45 lb/hr-ft
From Figure(6) of Appendix,
h = h
o
calculated = 200 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F

Appendix-A

120
Tube Side Calculations
Flow Area

t
a' = 302 in.

t
a' = N
t
a
t
/144a

t
a' =
4 144
0.302 468

= 0.245 ft
2


Mass Velocity
G
t
= W/a
t

G
t
= 248657/0.245
= 1014926 lb/hr-ft
2


Water Velocity
V = G
t
/ 3600
= 1014926 / 7600 62.5 = 4.512 ft/sec
At t
a
= 95
o
F
= 1.7 lb/ft-hr
I.D of tube = 0.62/12 = 0.0517 ft

Reynold No.
Re
t
= DG
t
/
= 0.0517 1014926.5 / 1.7 = Re
t
= 30865

from figure of (Kerm) h
i
= 1100 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F
h
io
= h
i

O.D
I.D
= 909.33 hr-ft
2
-
o
F

Appendix-A

121
Clean Overall Coefficient

o io
o io
C
h h
h h
U
+
=

200 909.33
200 909.33
U
C
+

=
= 163.94 Btu/hr-ft
2

o
F

Design Overall Coefficient Calculated
Allowable dirt factor Rd = 0.003

d
C
D
R
U
1
U + =
= 1/150 + 0.003
= 109.89 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F

Pressure Drop (Shell Side)
Reynolds No.
At T = 180
o
F

ap
= 0.01 2.42 = 0.0242
De = 0.55/12 = 0.0458 ft
2

Re
s
= D
e
G
s
/
= 0.0458 32177.74/0.0242
= 60898
For Res = 60898
Friction factor for shell side f = 0.0015
No. of crosses, N + 1 = 1210/20 = 6
Density = f = 0.085 (by using ideal ged equation)
S = specific gravity = 0.085/82.5 = 0.0012
Appendix-A

122
( )
s e
10
s
2
s
s
s D 10 5.22
1 D fG
P
|
+
= A
N

=
( )
0013 . 0 0458 . 0 10 5.22
6 2.08 32177.74 0.0015
10
2



= 3.12 psi

Pressure Drop (Tube Side)
Reynolds No.
Re
t
= DG/
= 144930/1.7
= 20865
for Re
t
= 30865
Friction factor for tube side f = 0.00021 ft
2
/in.
t
10
2
t
t
Ds 10 5.22
Ln fG
P
|
= A
=
( )
1 1 10 5.22
4 10 11014930 0.00021
10
2



= 2.0 psi
r
P A = 440.12 / 1 = 0.12 psi
r t T
P P P A + A = A = 2.8 + 1.98 = 4.72 psi
REFERENCES

1) Ludwig, E.E, Applied Process Design, 3
rd
ed, vol. 2, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
2) Ludwig, E.E, Applied Process Design, 3
rd
ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
Appendix-A

123
3) McKetta, J. J., Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design,
Executive ed, vol. 1, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, 1976.
4) Kuppan, T., Heat Exchanger Design Hand Book, Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, 2000.
5) Levenspiel, O., Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 2
nd
ed, John Wiley and
Sons Inc., 1972.
6) Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus, K.D., Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineering, Fourth ed, McGraw Hill, 1991.
7) Rase, H.F., Fixed Bed Reactor Design and Diagnostics, Butterworth
Publishers, 1990.
8) Thomas, J. M., and Thomas, W.T., Introduction to the Principles of
Heterogeneous Catalysis, Acedenic Press, 1967.
9) Bockhurst, J.F. and Harker, J.H, Process Plant Design, Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd, 1973.
10) Coulson, J.m., and Richardson, J.F., Chemical Engineering, 4
th
ed,
Vol.2, Butterworth Heminann, 1991.
11) Peacock, D.G., Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, 3
rd
ed,
vol, Butterworth Heinenann, 1994.
12) Sinnot, R.K., Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering, 2
nd
ed,
vol 6, Butterword Heinemann, 1993.
13) Kern, D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Inc., 2000.
14) McCabe, W.L, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5
th
Ed,
McGraw Hill, Inc, 1993.
Appendix-A

124
15) Perry, R.H and D.W. Green (eds): Perrys Chemical Engineering
Handbook, 7
th
edition, McGraw Hill New York, 1997.
16) www.nist.com
17) www.uspto.gov
18) www.haverstandard.com