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BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS ARE FIXED


AIM: To find buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement under both ends are fixed condition. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Column test, load indicator, specimen rod with two end supports. FORMULA USED: 42 EI = ----------C 2 E I C Crippling load Youngs modulus moment of inertia Actual length constant (varies with end conditions)

EULERS COLUMN THEORY: As per Eulers equation for buckling load of long column based on bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. ASSUMPTION: Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied in exactly axial. The cross section of column is uniform throughout its length. The column material is perfectly elastic homogenous and isotropic and they obey Hooks law. The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimension and the failure occurs due to buckling load. PROCEDURE: Consider a column AB of length fixed at both of its end A & B. The column is rotated by hand in order to ensure the fixed support. It is positioned to have a complete fixed support. The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to the load cell, intern connected to digital meter.

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The load indicator is connected with column test setup. The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital load indicator. Now the column just starts buckling. Till the column deflection touches the speared position of span, the load is being given to the column. Now shape of deflection of columns occurred as shown in fig. meanwhile applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value. Deflection will be noted from the digital meter. MODEL CALCULATION: 42EI = ------------; where [ = /4] 2 For stainless steel -5 mm Diameter E = 2 105 N/mm2 I = ---- d4 mm4 ,where d= 5mm is the dia of shaft 64 = 1000 mm 4 2 2 105 54 = -----------------------------------10002 9.81 64 = 24.69 Kg Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.

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BUCKLING OF COLUMNS: When both ends are fixed before loading

After loading

S. No. 1. 2. 3.

Specimen Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel

Youngs modulus N/mm2 2 105 2 105 2 105

Diameter mm 4 5 6

Length mm 1000 1000 1000

Crippling load Kg 10.11 24.69 51.20

Loading column is stopped at this crippling load. buckling load of column.

This load is known as

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS HINGED


AIM: To final buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement under both ends are hinged condition. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Column test, load indicator, specimen rod and two various ends supports.

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FORMULA USED: EI = ----------C 2 E I C Crippling load Youngs modulus of specimen moment of inertia Actual length constant (varies to end conditions)

EULERS COLUMN THEORY: As per Eulers equation for buckling load of long column based on bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be adjusted justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. ASSUMPTION: Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load is truly Avail. The cross section of column is uniform throughout its length. The column material is perfectly elastic homogenous and isotropic and they obey Hooks law. The length of column is very large as compared with cross-sectional dimensions and the failure occurs due to buckling load. PROCEDURE: Consider a column AB of length hinged at both of its end A & B. The column is rotated by hand in order to ensure the hinged support. It is positioned to have cone hinged support. The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to load cell, intern connected to digital meter.

The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital load indicator. Now the column just starts buckling. Till the column deflection touches the specified position of span, the load is being given to column.

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Now shape of deflection of columns occurs as shown in figure meanwhile applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value. Deflection will be noted from the digital meter. MODEL CALCULATION: (i) For Stainless steel: 2EI = ------------ = Enter crippling load for strut 2 E = 2 105 N/mm2 I = ---- D4 mm4 where dia of specimen is 5mm. 64 = 1000mm 2 2 105 54 = --------------------------------- = 6.17 Kg 10002 9.81 64

Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.

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BUCKLING OF COLUMNS: Youngs modulus N/mm2 2 105 2 105 2 105 Length Diameter mm mm 1000 1000 1000 4 5 6 Cripping load Kg 2.52 6.17 12.8

S. No. 1) 2) 3)

Specimen Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel

With this crippling load of the column is spring shot. This load is known as buckling load of column. Before loading A After loading P x B P o = deflection

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Both ends hinged Sl. Diameter,d Load,P in Deflection, Deflection/Load, No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' 'N' 'mm' (/P) /P 1 4 2.9 28.449 1.8 0.063271117 2 4 3 29.43 5.8 0.197077812 3 4 3.1 30.41 7.3 0.240052614 4 4 3.2 31.39 10.5 0.334501434 5 4 3.5 34.33 31 0.903000291 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 4.3 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.2 6.5 6.8 12.4 14.8 17 17.1 42.183 48.069 50.031 51.012 54.936 56.898 59.841 60.822 63.765 66.708 121.644 145.188 166.77 167.751 A1= 0.7 A2= 3.8 A3= 5.9 8.6 13.4 15.9 18.7 21.7 40.2 44.1 5.7 6.5 10.5 14.2 B1= 0.016594363 B2= 0.079053028 B3= 0.117926885 0.168587783 0.243920198 0.279447432 0.312494778 0.356778797 0.630439896 0.661090124 0.046858045 0.04476954 0.062960964 0.084649272

() -0.133806695 -0.042974803 -0.094448819 -0.568498858 0.903000291

-2

B1-B2= -0.062458665 B2-B3= -0.038873857 -0.050660898 -0.075332415 -0.035527234 -0.033047346 -0.044284019 -0.273661099 -0.030650228 0.661090124 0.002088505 -0.018191424 -0.021688308 0.084649272

A1-A2= A2-A3= -

-1 4

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RESULT: Thus buckling load of column was found and compared its value with theoretical values.

How to Calculate: (For guidance)

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For Hinged -Hinged : 5mm Diameter


()= 0.7-3.8 = -3.1 ()= 3.8-5.9= -2.1 (/P)= 0.016-0.079= -0.062 (/P)= 0.079-0.11= -0.0388 (/P) -0.062 Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.020 () -2.1

1 1 Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 49.63 Ratio 0.020

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN ONE END HINGED AND ONE END FIXED
AIM: To final buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement under one end hinged and one end fixed. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Column test, load indicator, specimen rod, Two ends supported. FORMULA USED: EI = ----------C 2 E I Crippling load Youngs modulus of specimen moment of inertia

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Actual length constant (varies to end conditions)

EULERS COLUMN THEORY: As per Eulers equation for buckling load of long column based on bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. ASSUMPTION: Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly axial. The cross section of column is uniform throughout its length. The column material is perfectly elastic homogenous and isotropic and they Obeys Hooks law. The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensional and the failure occurs due to buckling load. PROCEDURE: Consider a column AB of length with one end fixed other end hinged. The column cannot be rotated because it is one end fixed end and other end hinged. It is positioned to have a complete supports. The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to load cell intern to the digital meter. The load indicator is connected with column test setup. The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital load indicator. Now the column just starts buckling. Till the column deflection of column occurs as shown in fig. meanwhile applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value. MODEL CALCULATION: 22EI = ------------ ; [where = /2] 2 for stainless steel

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E = 2 105 N/mn2 I = ---- 54 mm4 where 5 mm is the dia of shaft. 64 = 1000mm 22 2 105 54 = --------------------------------10002 9.81 64 = 12.34 Kg Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods

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BUCKLING OF COLUMNS: When one end is hinged and other ends fixed before loading. Youngs modulus N/mm2 2 105 2 105 2 105 Length mm 1000 1000 1000 Dia in mm 4 5 6 Crippling load Kg 5.05 12.34 25.60

S. No. 1) 2) 3)

Specimen Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel

Loading column is stopped at crippling load. This load to known as buckling load of column.

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Sl. Diameter,d No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6

4.8 5.6 5.8 6.2 6.7 9.7 10.5 11.5 11.8 12.3 12.6 20 23.2 23.8 24.3 25.8

Load,P 'N' 47.088 54.936 56.898 60.822 65.727 95.157 103.005 112.815 115.758 120.663 123.606 196.2 227.592 233.478 238.383 253.098

Hinged-Fixed Condition Deflection/Load, Deflection, 'mm' /P (/P) 7.1 0.150781515 -0.05 11.1 0.202053298 -0.0 16.6 0.291750149 -0.16 27.8 0.457071454 -0.1 42.5 0.646614025 0.646 A1= 4.1 A2= 9.3 A3= 13.6 17.6 25.4 30.7 7 8.9 9.7 9.9 10.3 B1= 0.043086688 B2= 0.090286879 B3= 0.120551345 0.152041328 0.210503634 0.24836982 0.03567788 0.039105065 0.04154567 0.041529807 0.040695699

B1-B2= -0.04 B2-B3= -0.0 -0.03 -0.05 -0.03 0.248

-0.00 -0.00 2E-0 0.000 0.040

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RESULT: Thus the buckling load of column as found and compared with its theoretical value.

How to Calculate: (For guidance) For Fixed- Fixed: 5mm Diameter


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()= 4.1 - 9.3 = - 5.2 ()= 9.3 13.6 = -4.3 (/P)= 0.04 0.09 = -0.047 (/P)= 0.09 0.12 = -0.03 (/P) -0.047 Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.009 () -5.2

1 1 Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 110.16 Ratio 0.009

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DETERMINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS OF ALUMINIUM BY DEFLECTION METHOD Aim: To determine the Youngs modulus of Aluminium specimen by conducting deflection on simply supported beam. Apparatus Required: Beam test set up, simply supported beam, weights, dial gauge 1 No. one hook measuring tape. M. Steel beam wts-500gm-2 Nos. Formula: The equation for Youngs Modulus from the deflection of a flat rectangular section beam of the materials simply supported and loaded at the centre is given by Youngs modulus in N/mm2
Fa2(3L - 4a) = ------------------48 EI

Moment of inertia of beam in mm4

bd3 I= ------ mm4 12

= Deflection of beam in mm Yc (measured in dial gauge)

W measured mass of weight in Kg g 9.81 acceleration due to gravity m/sec2. L Distance between supports point (1000mm for guidance). a Distance from support end to loading point ( 450mm for guidance) b = breadth = 25mm d = depth = 6mm

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Sl. Diameter, d No. 'mm' () Inverse -4 -4 -5 -4 53 B1= 0.16369413 A1= 22 B2= 0.261213048 A2= 41 B3= 0.249178842 A3= 44 48 51 31 34 36 39 43 -2 -3 -4 43 -3 51 -3 -4 0.250921352 0.259938838 0.203873598 0.15753869 0.132481039 0.1266094 0.119761813 -0.009017486 0.259938838 0.046334909 0.025057651 0.005871638 0.006847587 0.119761813 A2-A3= -3 -0.001742509 0.000435627 0.003005829 0.00509684 -0.01544497 -0.012528825 -0.001957213 -0.001711897 0.002785158 A1-A2= -19 B2-B3= 0.012034205 -0.004011402 B1-B2= -0.097518918 0.005132575 0.509683996 0.509683996 0.48027915 -0.029404846 0.448521916 -0.031757234 0.006351447 0.007351211 0.009616679 0.433773614 -0.014748303 0.003687076 0.476587633 0.042814019 -0.010703505 36 40 44 49 53

Load 'Kg'

Load,P in 'N'

Deflection, 'mm' Ratio, [(/P)]/[()]

Both ends fixed Deflection/Load, (/P) /P

7.7

75.537

-93.4273421 271.2176471 157.4444444 136.032 103.986

9.4

92.214

10

98.1

10.4

102.024

10.6

103.986

13.7

134.397

194.8339914

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16

156.96

-249.289412

18

176.58

2295.54 332.6869565 196.2 -64.746 -79.8159413 -510.930647 -584.147378 359.046

10

19.5

191.295

11

20

196.2

13

15.5

152.055

14

22

215.82

15

27.7

271.737

16

31.4

308.034

17

36.6

359.046

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RESULT: Thus buckling load of column was found and compared its value with theoretical value.

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How to Calculate: (For guidance) For Fixed- Fixed: 5mm Diameter


()= 22-41 = -19 ()= 41 - 44= -3 (/P)= 0.163 0.261 = - 0.0975 (/P)= 0.261 0.249 = -0.012 (/P) Ratio = -------- = () -0.0975 ---------- = 0.0051 -19

1 1 Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 194.83 Ratio 0.0051

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BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS HINGED


AIM: To final buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement under both ends are hinged condition. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Column test, load indicator, specimen rod and two various ends supports. FORMULA USED: EI = ----------C 2 E I C Crippling load Youngs modulus of specimen moment of inertia Actual length constant (varies to end conditions)

EULERS COLUMN THEORY: As per Eulers equation for buckling load of long column based on bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be adjusted justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. ASSUMPTION: Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load is truly Avail. The cross section of column is uniform throughout its length. The column material is perfectly elastic homogenous and isotropic and they obey Hooks law. The length of column is very large as compared with cross-sectional dimensions and the failure occurs due to buckling load. PROCEDURE: Consider a column AB of length hinged at both of its end A & B. The column is rotated by hand in order to ensure the hinged support. It is positioned to have cone hinged support.

20

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The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to load cell, intern connected to digital meter. The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital load indicator. Now the column just starts buckling. Till the column deflection touches the specified position of span, the load is being given to column. Now shape of deflection of columns occurs as shown in figure meanwhile applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value. Deflection will be noted from the digital meter. MODEL CALCULATION: (ii) For Stainless steel: 2EI = ------------ = Enter crippling load for strut 2 E = 2 105 N/mm2 I = ---- D4 mm4 where dia of specimen is 5mm. 64 = 1000mm 2 2 105 54 = --------------------------------- = 6.17 Kg 10002 9.81 64

Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.

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BUCKLING OF COLUMNS: Youngs modulus N/mm2 2 105 2 105 2 105 Length Diameter mm mm 1000 1000 1000 4 5 6 Cripping load Kg 2.52 6.17 12.8

S. No. 1) 2) 3)

Specimen Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel

With this crippling load of the column is spring shot. This load is known as buckling load of column. Before loading A After loading P x B P o = deflection

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Both ends hinged Sl. Diameter,d Load,P in Deflection, No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' 'N' 'mm' Deflection/Load, /P (/P) 1 4 3.5 34.335 33 -7 2 4 3.8 37.278 40 -9 3 4 4.2 41.202 49 -9 4 4 4.4 43.164 58 -8 5 4 4.8 47.088 66 66 0.961118392 1.073018939 1.189262657 1.343712353 1.401630989 B1-B2= -0.179229537 B2-B3= -0.100965973 A1-A2= -14 0.01280211 A2= 36 A3= 46 62 68 24 32 43 55 62 -8 -11 -12 -7 62 0.790010194 0.845329554 B3= 0.625212368 B2= 0.524246396 A2-A3= -10 0.010096597 -0.164797825 -0.055319361 0.845329554 0.222407562 0.260958206 0.337175567 0.421543155 0.468154189 -16 -6 68 -0.038550644 -0.076217361 -0.084367588 -0.046611034 0.468154189 0.010299864 0.009219893 0.012431317 0.004818831 0.006928851 0.007030632 0.006658719 0.007550874 () -0.111900546 -0.116243718 -0.154449696 -0.057918636 1.401630989 A1= 22 B1= 0.345016859

Ratio, [(/P)]/[()] Inverse 0.015985792 62.55554795 0.012915969 77.42353846 0.017161077 58.2714 0.007239829 138.1248 0.021236833 47.088

6.5

63.765

78.112125

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68.67

99.04326923

9 10 11

5 5 5

7.5 8 8.2

73.575 78.48 80.442

97.08865979 108.4611236 80.442 207.5192308 144.3240741 142.234717 150.1790317 132.435

18 19 20 21 22

6 6 6 6 6

11 12.5 13 13.3 13.5

107.91 122.625 127.53 130.473 132.435

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RESULT: Thus buckling load of column was found and compared its value with theoretical values.

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How to Calculate: (For guidance) For Hinged -Hinged : 5mm Diameter


()= 22 - 36 = - 14 ()= 36 46 = - 10 (/P)= 0.345 0.524= - 0.179 (/P)= 0.524 0.625= - 0.100 (/P) - 0.179 Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.0128 () - 14

1 1 Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 78.11 Ratio 0.0128

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BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN ONE END HINGED AND ONE END FIXED
AIM: To final buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement under one end hinged and one end fixed. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Column test, load indicator, specimen rod, Two ends supported. FORMULA USED: EI = ----------C 2 E I C Crippling load Youngs modulus of specimen moment of inertia Actual length constant (varies to end conditions)

EULERS COLUMN THEORY: As per Eulers equation for buckling load of long column based on bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. ASSUMPTION: Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly axial. The cross section of column is uniform throughout its length. The column material is perfectly elastic homogenous and isotropic and they Obeys Hooks law. The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensional and the failure occurs due to buckling load. PROCEDURE: Consider a column AB of length with one end fixed other end hinged. The column cannot be rotated because it is one end fixed end and other end hinged.

26

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It is positioned to have a complete supports. The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to load cell intern to the digital meter. The load indicator is connected with column test setup. The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital load indicator. Now the column just starts buckling. Till the column deflection of column occurs as shown in fig. meanwhile applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value. MODEL CALCULATION: 22EI = ------------ ; [where = /2] 2 for stainless steel E = 2 105 N/mn2 I = ---- 54 mm4 where 5 mm is the dia of shaft. 64 = 1000mm 22 2 105 54 = --------------------------------10002 9.81 64 = 12.34 Kg Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods

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BUCKLING OF COLUMNS: When one end is hinged and other ends fixed before loading. Youngs modulus N/mm2 2 105 2 105 2 105 Length mm 1000 1000 1000 Dia in mm 4 5 6 Crippling load Kg 5.05 12.34 25.60

S. No. 1) 2) 3)

Specimen Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel

Loading column is stopped at crippling load. This load to known as buckling load of column.

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Sl. Diameter,d No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 B1= 0.009801615 102.024 B2= 0.043938276 113.796 B3= 0.101936799 117.72 119.682 127.53 0.150398556 0.203873598 -9 -3 -4 -5 47 157.941 187.371 217.782 226.611 229.554 26 35 38 42 47 A3= 12 18 26 -0.048461757 -0.053475042 0.203873598 0.164618433 0.186795182 0.174486413 0.185339635 0.204744853 -6 -8 26 -0.022176748 0.012308769 -0.010853222 -0.019405218 0.204744853 0.008076959 0.00668438 0.007841292 0.002464083 -0.004102923 0.002713305 0.003881044 0.004356273 A2= 5 B2-B3= -0.057998524 A1= 1 A2-A3= -7 0.008285503 B1-B2= -0.03413666 A1-A2= -4 0.008534165

5.7 6.1 6.2 6.5 7.2

Load,P 'N' 55.917 59.841 60.822 63.765 70.632

Hinged-Fixed Condition Ratio, Deflection/Load, Deflection, 'mm' /P () [(/P)]/[()] Inverse (/P) 47 -8 0.840531502 -0.078570786 0.009821348 101.8190149 55 -8 0.919102288 -0.116707123 0.01458839 68.5476582 63 -6 1.035809411 -0.046288919 0.00771482 129.6206557 69 -16 1.08209833 -0.121322216 0.007582639 131.8802154 85 85 1.203420546 1.203420546 0.014157889 70.632

10.4

117.1760792

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11.6

120.6927273

9 10 11

5 5 5

12 12.2 13

123.8089655 149.6025 127.53 405.8304619 -243.7286836 368.5541538 257.6626531 229.554

14 15 16 17 18

6 6 6 6 6

16.1 19.1 22.2 23.1 23.4

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RESULT: Thus the buckling load of column as found and compared with its theoretical value.

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How to Calculate: (For guidance) For Fixed- Fixed: 5mm Diameter


()= 1 - 5= - 4 ()= 5 - 12 = - 7 (/P)= 0.0098 0.043 = - 0.034 (/P)= 0.043 0.101 = - 0.057 (/P) - 0.034 Ratio = -------- = ------------ = 0.0085 () -4

1 1 Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 117.17 Ratio 0.0085

YOUNGS MODULUS USING ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE

OBJECTIVE: By using electrical strain gauge, find out youngs modulus for different materials like MS, SS, aluminum. INTRODUCTION: Digital Strain indicators are mainly a Strain gauge signal conditioner and amplifier used to measure strain due to load applied on the material. The strain gauge bonded on the material used as the transducer to measure the strain on the material. Strain gauge is connected to the arms of Whetstones Bridge Where any imbalance in the bridge due to change in the resistance is measured in term of micro strain gauges.
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Strain indicator is a complete system which can be used for measurement of strain using strain gauges. This has inbuilt calibration system and gauge factor setting arrangements for different strain gauges. The system also has full, half, and quarter bridge settings facility. The strain indicator is provided with zero balancing facility through course and fine adjusting potentiometer. Gauge factor of the strain gauge can be adjusted through potentiometer provided on the front panel. Digital display will enable to take error free readings. Digital indicators finds wide applications in all process control stations, chemical industries, Research Laboratories, Educational institutions etc.. An extensive use of linear and digital integrated circuits will enable to achieve high accuracy, stability and trouble free service. The digital indicator comprises of four parts. 1. Power Supply 2. Signal conditioning 3. Amplifier 4. Analog and digital converter. The inbuilt regulated power supply used will provide sufficient power to electronic parts and also excitation voltage to the strain gauge bridge transducers. The signal conditioners Buffers the output signals of the transducers. Amplifier will amplifies the buffered output signal to the required level where it is calibrated to required unit. Analog to digital converter will convert the calibrated analog output to digital signals and display through LED's.

THEORY BEHIND IT: When a material is subjected to any external load, there will be small change in the mechanical properties of the material. The mechanical property may be, change in the thickness of the material or change in the length depending on the nature of load applied to the material. This change in mechanical properties will remain till the load is released. The change in the property is called strain in the material or the material gets strained. So the material is mechanically strained, this strain is defined as ' The ratio between change in the mechanical property to the original property'.
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Suppose a beam of length L is subjected to a tensile load of P Kg the material gets elongated by a length of dl so according to the definition strain S is given by S = L / L Eq 1 Since the change in the length of the material is very small it is difficult to measure dl. So the strain is always read in terms of micro strains. Since it is difficult to measure the length Resistance strain gauges are used to measure strain in the material directly. Strain gauges are bonded directly on the material using special adhesives. As the materials get strained due to load applied, the resistance of the strain gauge changes proportional to the load applied. This change in resistance is used to convert mechanical property in to electrical signal which can be easily measured and stored for analysis. The change in the resistance of the strain gauge depends on the sensitivity of the strain gauge. The Sensitivity of strain gauges are usually expressed in terms of a gauge factor Sg where Sg is given as Eq 2 Rg / Rg = Sg Where is Strain in the direction of the gauge length.

The output Rg / Rg of a strain gauge is usually converter in to voltage signal with a Whetstones bridge, If a single gauge is used in one arm of whetstones bridge and equal but fixed resistors is used in the other arms, the output voltage is Eo = Ei / 4 (Rg / Rg) Substituting Eq 2 into Eq 3 gives Eo = 1/4 (Ei Sg ) Eq 4 The input voltage is controlled by the gauge size (the power it can dissipate) and the initial resistance of the gauge. As a result, the output voltage Eo usually ranges between 1 to 10 V and micro units of strain.
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Eq 3

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CIRCUIT EXPLANATION The circuit comprises of three parts: 1. POWER SUPPLY 2. SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND AMPLIFYING 3. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

1.

POWER SUPPLY:

Inbuilt power supply use power to all electronic devices inside the circuitry. High stable regulated Power supply is used for better performance. There is different power supply inside the unit. (+5) - 0 (-5) V 500mA to drive Digital integrated Circuitry &Drive A To D Converter Display unit 1.2 V to 10 V variable power supply for strain gauge excitation and to set gauge factor of the strain gauge. 2. SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND AMPLIFYING. Signal conditioner will process the output of transducer and presents a linear DC Voltage to the amplifier. This circuit will also buffer the inputs signal given to the differential amplifier. The operational amplifier is used as a differential amplifier where the signal gets amplified to required level. The amplifier gives out the analog output. This output is controlled and calibrated to get the linear to micro strain. This analog output is fed to the A to D converter.

3. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER.


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The output from the amplifier is a linearised analog DC voltage. This analog output is converted into digital output with the help of IC 7107 3.5 digit 200mA A to D converter. Then it is displayed through seven segmented LEDs.

SPECIFICATION: DISPLAY RANGE: 3 1/2 digit RED LED display to +/-1999 micro strain ACCURACY: +/-1 % of FSD ZERO: Potentiometer to balance the bridge and to make the Display read 000 Separate zero is provided for all the three channels CAL: To calibrate the Unit in micro strains.

SELECTOR SWITCH: Select the required channel POWER ON: Switch on or off the instrument BRIDGE EXCITATION: 10 V DC BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS: Full POWER: 230 V +/- 10% at 50Hz. with perfect grounding.

OPERATING PROCEDURE: FOR MS * Check connection made and Switch ON the instrument by toggle switch at the front panel (power on). The meter glows to indicate the instrument is ON. * Allow the instrument in ON Position for 10 minutes for initial warm-up. * Select the beam by using the selector switch.
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* The channel 1, 2, 3 selector switch should be in the channel 1. * Adjust the ZERO Potentiometer (MS) in the front panel till the display reads 000. * Apply load on the Cantilever beam in steps of 200 gm and observe the readings & tabulate the readings. FOR SS * Check connection made and Switch ON the instrument by switch at the front panel (power on). The Display glows to indicate the instrument is ON. * Allow the instrument in ON Position for 10 minutes for initial warm-up. * The channel 1, 2, 3 selector switch should be in the channel 2. * Adjust the ZERO Potentiometer (SS) in the front panel till the display reads 000by operating clock/anti clock wise direction by using small screw driver. * Apply load on the Cantilever beam in steps of 100 gm and observe the readings & tabulate the readings.

FOR Al * Check connection made and Switch ON the instrument by switch at the front panel (power on). The Display glows to indicate the instrument is ON. * Allow the instrument in ON Position for 10 minutes for initial warm-up. * The channel 1, 2, 3 selector switch should be in the channel 3. * Adjust the ZERO Potentiometer (Al) in the front panel till the display reads 000by operating clock/anti clock wise direction by using small screw driver. * Apply load on the Cantilever beam in steps of 100 gm and observe the readings & tabulate the readings.

TABLE OF READINGS:

A
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SL. NO. 1 2 3 4 5

LOAD IN Kg 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

LOAD INDICATIO READING MS SS AL


A- MILD STEEL B- STAINLESS STEEL C- ALUMINIUM C

Formulae: To find youngs modulus A = Area = BT mm2 T =5 B = 25 B= Breath of the Beam in mm= 25 mm T= Thickness of the beam in mm = 5mm L= Length of the beam from fixed point to loading point in mm = 250 mm

SECTION MODULUS Z Z = (1/6) BT2 BENDING STRESS BM = --------Z

mm3

where, BM = BENDING MOMENT =P Beam length Kgmm P = load in Kg

in Kg/mm Ym = E= -----

Kg/mm9.81= N/mm

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Where, = Actual strain measured

GRAPH: Bending stress (actual strain) STANDARD YOUNGS MODULUS OF MATERIAL: MILD STEEL=200 Gpa STAINLESS STEEL = 190 Gpa ALUMINIUM = 70Gpa

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TABLE OF READING AND CALCULATIONS:


SECTION MODULUS Z SS 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 250 250 250 250 250 AL 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 MS 4.71 9.42 14.13 18.84 23.54 SS 4.71 9.42 14.13 18.84 23.54 AL 4.71 9.42 14.13 18.84 23.54 Avg MS 196.2 196.2 193.5123 194.1773 194.5785 194.9336 BENDING LENGTH BENDING STRESS YOUNGS MODULUS109 SS AL 188.352 70.2806 188.352 70.80902 190.8973 69.93267 190.2545 69.76 191.4146 69.8635 189.8541 70.12916

SL. LOAD NO. IN Kg

1 2 3 4 5

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

LOAD INDICATIO READING MS SS AL 24 25 67 48 50 133 73 74 202 97 99 270 121 123 337

MS 104.1666667 104.1666667 104.1666667 104.1666667 104.1666667

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GUIDANCECALCULATIONS FOR MS: To find youngs modulus A = Area = BT mm2 =255 =125 mm2 T B

B= Breath of the Beam in mm =25mm T= Thickness of the beam in mm = 5mm (MS), 5mm (SS), 5mm (Al) L= Length of the beam from fixed point to loading point in mm =250mm

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SECTION MODULUS Z Z = (1/6) BT2 mm3 = (1/6) 2552=104.16 mm3 BENDING STRESS BM = --------length Z (0.29.81=1.962N) 490.5 Nmm = ----------------104.16 mm3 = 4.71 N/mm2 4.71106 Ym = E= ------ =-------------= 0.196=196.21109 N/m2 2410-6 Where, = Actual strain measured

where, BM = BENDING MOMENT=P Beam P = load in Kg = 0.1kg BM=0.981250 =490.5 N-mm

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SL. NO. 1 2 3 4 5

LOAD IN Kg 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

LOAD INDICATIO READING MS SS AL 43 44 123 88 90 246 134 135 370 179 180 493 223 226 617

SECTION MODULUS Z MS 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 SS 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 AL 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667

BENDING LENGTH 250 250 250 250 250

BENDING S MS 4.71 9.42 14.13 18.84 23.54

SS 4.7 9.4 14.1 18.8 23.5

SAMPLE CALCULATION: To find youngs modulus A = Area = BT =255 =125mm2

mm2 T B

B= Breath of the Beam in mm =25mm T= Thickness of the beam in mm = 5mm (MS), 5mm (SS), 5mm (Al) L= Length of the beam from fixed point to loading point in mm =250mm

SECTION MODULUS Z

Z = (1/6) BT2

mm3

= (1/6) 2552=104.167 mm3

BENDING STRESS BM = --------length where, BM = BENDING MOMENT=P Beam Kgmm

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Z (0.29.81=1.962N) 490.5 = ----------------104.167 = 4.70N/mm2

P = load in Kg = 0.1kg BM=1.962250 = 490.5Nmm

4.70106 Ym = E= ------ =-------------= 106.81=106109N/m2 4410-6 Where, = Actual strain measured SUSPENDED HINGED BAR BY USING TWO DIFFERENT MATERIAL WIRES To determine the forces and the ratio of forces carried by different wire in a system of a hinged bar suspended by a steel and copper wire experimentally and compare with the theoretical values. Statically Indeterminate A Statically determinate forces system is one in which the values of all the external forces acting on the body can be determined by the equations of static equilibrium alone. The forces acting on a body can not be determined by the equations of equilibrium. Such a case of force system is said to be statically indeterminate. Experiment is aimed at finding these unknown forces using simple dial gauges. A hinged flat suspended by two wires of different materials is an indeterminate system. It will have one unknown force in each wire and a vertical unknown reaction at the hinged support. In this case there are only two effective equations of equilibrium. There are no horizontal forces and hence the system is indeterminate of order one. To determine the unknown forces this method is used, which considers the deformation of the system. The procedure to be followed in analyzing an indeterminate system is to first to write all equations of static equilibrium that pertain to the system and then supplement these equations with other equations based upon the deformation of the structure. Equations involving deformation will be written so that total number of equations from
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both statics and deformations is equal to the number of unknown forces involved. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Hinged bar suspended by Steel and Brass wires of equal length and diameter, Dial gauges (2 Nos.), weights and pan loading frame. PROCEDURE: The hinged flat in suspended using two wires of equal diameter, one of steel and the other of brass. The flat is suspended horizontally. Two dial gauges are placed below the point of attachment of each wire. Weights are placed in the pan in steps of 0.2 kg up to 0.8. Dial gage readings are noted and tabulated. The first weight of 0.2 kg makes the wires initially straight. Hence the difference in the dial gauge readings between 0.8 kg and 0.2 kg is taken for the calculation of load in the wires. Load on each wire is also calculated using theory from Strength of Materials compared with the values obtained from the dial gage readings. The ratio of the loads on each wire also calculated. f1 l 1 1 -------a1E1 f2 l 2 2 = -------a2 E2 l1 + l2= l E1= steel (youngs modulus) S. No. 1 2 3 4 P in kg 0.5 1 0.5 1 a1 E1 f1 = -------- 1 l1 a2 E2 f2 = -------- 2 l2 a1 = a2 = a E2 = Brass (Youngs modulus) 1(STEEL) 2(BRASS)

1(BRASS)

2(STEEL)

The ratio of forces in the Steel and Brass wire is determined experimentally and theoretically and found agree with near by value. The individual forces on each

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wire obtained experimentally are higher than the theoretical values due to the slip of the wire, which also contributes to the dial gage readings. The wires may be interchanged and repeat the experiment.

f1 Position Steel f2 Position Brass 1 2 ----- = -------l l ---2 1 = 22 f1 l f2 l ---- = 2 ----aE1 aE2 f1 E1 ---- = 2----f2 E2 Taking movement @ MA = 0 3L l W ----- f1. l f2. ---- = 0 4 2 .(1)

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3/2 W 2f1 = f2

..(2)

substituting in eqn. (1) & E1 = 200 GPa for steel; E2 = 100 GPa for Brass f1 200 ------------------- = 2 -------3 100 ---- W 2f1 2 f1 = 6W 8f1 9f1 = 6w 2 w f1= --- w. & from eqn. (2) f2 = ----3 6 f1 = f2 = 4 (3)

Actual brass youngs modulus is 95.1 10-3 Due to commercial ingradients at the time of manufacturing we have to take 100 x 10-3 Gpa How to calculate f1 = 2/3 w 3 4 ---- (w 2f1) = f1 2 12 ----- w 8f1 = f1 2 6w 8f1 = f1 6w = 9f1 6 W ---= f1 9 2 W ----- = f1 3 How to Calculate f2 = w/6
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f2 =

3 2 ----- w - 2 + ---- w 2 3

9w 8w 1 = -------------- = ----- w =f2 6 6 Interchange the wire position f1 Position Brass f2 Position Steel 1 2 ----- = ----l l ---2 1 = 22 f2 l f1 l ---- = 2 ----aE1 aE2 f1 E1 ---- = 2 ----f2 E2 Taking movement @ MA = 0 3l l W ---- f1. l f2. ----- = 0 4 2 3 ----2 .(1)

W 2f1 = f2

.. (2)

Substituting in eqn. (1) & E1 = 100 for brass GPa; E2 = 200 for steel GPa

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f1 100 ------------------- = 2 -------- = 1 3 200 ---- w 2f1 2

3 f1 = ------ (W 2f1)1 2 3 3 1 W 3f1 = ----- w = ----- ----- = -----2 2 3 2 w w f1= ----- & from eqn. (2) f2 = ---2 2 f1/ f2 = 1 (3)

EXPERIMENTAL CALCULATION: l1 + l2 = l = mm d1= d2 = 1mm a1 = a2 = (/4) d2

E1 = MS 200 GPa for steel S. No. 1 2 3 4 P in kg 0.5 1 0.5 1

E2 = (for Brass) GPa 100 1(STEEL) 44 58 1(BRASS) 42 59 2(BRASS) 89 116 2(STEEL) 79 108

1 =44

and 2 = 89

A1E1 (1)2 200 103 1 P1 = -------- 1 = ------------------------------4 l1 l1

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(1)2 100 103 44 P1= ------------------------------ = 46053.33 N 40.15 A2E2 (1)2 100 103 2 P2 = -------- 2 = -----------------------------l2 40.15 (1)2 100 103 44 P2= ---------------------------- =46576.66 N 40.15 46053.33 P1 / P2 = ------------ = 0.99 46576.66 From theory P1 = P/2 and P2 = P/2 P1/P2 = 1(From the Experiment Ratio of forces must be to one) Hence the ratio of forces from the experiment and theory coincides. VERIFICATION OF CASTINGLIANOS LOAD THEOREM Aim: To verify Castinglianos theorem for a given simply supported beam on loading. Apparatus required: Simply supported beam, dial gauge, structure, tape-load 1 Kg. Formula used: Moment of Inertia, bd3 I = ----- mm4 12 b d = = breadth of beam in mm = 25mm width of beam in mm = 6mm

Deflection of beam W = load applied in Kg =( 9.81 W) in N = deflection in mm


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= length of the beam 1000mm Theory: Beam subjected to a load system, deflection at paint P is given by partial differential co-efficient of the total strain energy with respect to pressure force acting at point and in the direction in which the deflection is designed. The figure shows a beam of span applying load W. Reaction at A, RA = wb/. Reaction at B = RB = wa/. Procedure: Fix the given beam on the frame so that its simply supported. Mark the point where the beam is loaded measure the distance AC & CB. AC = a; BC = b Load the beam and note down the deflection in dial gauge which as placed as near to load point. Note down the corresponding deflection in dial gauge. Calculate moment of inertia and diffusion.

Result: The deflection under loading on a simply supported beam where theoretical deflection calculated as follow: Wa2b2 ----------3EI

= C

W A C C b where a = 430mm b = 570mm (taken). B

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bd3 Where I = ---------- mm4 12 E = M.S from tables = 2.1 105N/mm2 (taken) (i) Dial gauge C C b a Compare experiment value to theoretical value of deflection. = 1000mm

Wa2b2 C = ---------3EI

Guidance experiment Sl. No. 1 Load (kg) 1 Deflection (Div) 207 Deflection (mm) 2.07

bd3 ----- = 12 Wa2b2 ---------

25(6)3 -------- = 450 12

the

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3 EI 1 9.81 (430)2 (570)2 ---------------------------------3 2.1 105 450 1000 2.07mm 2.07mm.

= the

prod =

VERIFICATION OF MAXEWELLS RECIPROCAL THOEREM Aim: To verify Maxewells reciprocal theorem for a simply supported beam. Theory: Simply supported beam as shown in fig. and calculate the deflection at a point D when the load P is acting at C. this deflection is obtained by substituting x = d into equation. It is seen that this expression does not change if we substitute d for b and b for d, which indicates that for the case shown in fig. the deflection at D1 is the same as the deflection at D in Fig. From Fig b we obtain Fig. c by simply rotating the beam through 180 degrees which brings point C1 into coincidence with point D and point D1 into coincidence with point C. Hence the deflection at C in Fig.1C is equal to the deflection at D in Fig.1a. This means that if the load P is moved from point C to point D, the deflection measured at D in the first case of loading will now be obtained in the second case at point C. This is a particular case of the reciprocal theorem.

Fig. 1

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The reciprocal theorem states that the work done by the forces of the first state on the corresponding displacements of the second state is equal to the work done by the forces of the second state on the corresponding displacements of the first state. Procedure: Measure the length of the given beam. The beam is mounted on a simply supported beam end connection. Load P at point C. Now the dial gauge is fixed at point D. Load is gradually applied at point C and note down the deflection by dial gauge. Load @ D and dial gauge @ C and repeat the experiment as above note down the readings. Weights are used 200gm 3 Nos. DEFLECTION DURING INDIVIDUAL LOADING

Sl. No. 1 2 3

Load applied gm N

Deflection in dial gauge Div mm

For simply supported beam GUIDANCE CALCULATION The Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem for simply supported beam as shown in Fig. 1 to show the deflection at a point D when the load P is acting at C. D=30cm P @ D Dial gauge @ C b = 44.5cm when Load @ D. Load at C deflection at D Sl. No. Load in Kg Deflection in mm

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1 2 3 Load at D deflection at C Sl. No. 1 2 3

0.2 0.4 0.6

0.32 0.64 0.94

Load in Kg 0.2 0.4 0.6

Deflection in mm 0.32 0.64 0.94

Result: The Maxwell Reciprocal theorem is proved. VERIFICATION OF PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION Aim: To verify the principle of super position by simply supported Alluminium beam. Apparatus required: Simply supported beam, meter scale, dial gauge 1 No., 2 hooks, slotted weight 200gm 3 Nos. Theory: Deflection by combined loading is equal to sum of the deflection by individual loading. The total deformation is equal to the algebraic sum of the deformation is equal of the individual section. This principle of finding out the resultant deformation is known as principle of super position. Procedure: Both side Hinged condition. Fix the beam on the frame. The distance between supports in measured and it is taken as span length . Dial gauge is mounted middle of the two loading hook. Two points C & D are selected near by mid span to get accurate readings. At point C load is applied gradually in terms of 200gm and for every load corresponding deflection reading to be noted. The above procedure is followed to D position and take the reading of individual loading. Now all the individual loads to determine the combined load by loading in C & D and note down the deflection.

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Deflection by combined loading is equal to some of the deflection by individual loading. Graph to be drawn to find slope independent load W1 & W2 at C & D should equal to combined load at C & D. Result: The principle of super position is verified. Case A W1 W2 35cm C D 35cm

WA X WB Dial gauge DEFLECTION AND SLOPE DURING COMBINED LOADING Deflection in dial gauge Div mm Slope dy = ----- N/mm dx

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Load applied gm N

Simply supported W1

W2

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C C /2 Case A

/2

W1

C1 Case 1 W2

C2 C = C1 + C2 Case A Load 0.2 0.4 0.6 Load 0.2 0.4 0.6 Load 0.2 0.4 0.6 A 34 62 85 1 17 31 45 2 16 25 37 Case 2

A in mm 0.34 0.62 0.85 1 in mm 0.16 0.31 0.45 2 in mm 0.14 0.54 0.37 A 0.33 0.60
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Case 1

Case 2

0.34 0.62

(1+2) = 16+14 = 33 31+29 = 60

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0.85 X

45+37 = 82 Y

0.82 X & Y are almost equal

Case 1 & 2 should be equal to Case A which proves the principle of super position.

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