Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
table of contents
PART ONE: POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I.
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
6) Taxpayer Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
a) Generally No Standing to Litigate Government Expenditures . . . 8
b) ExceptionCongressional Measures Under Taxing and
Spending Power that Violate Establishment Clause . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7) Legislators Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8) Assignee Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Adequate and Independent State Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
a. Adequate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
b. Independent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
c. Where Basis Is Unclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6. Abstention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
a. Unsettled State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
b. Pending State Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1) Pending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2) Civil and Administrative Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3) Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7. Political Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
a. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
b. CompareNonpolitical Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1) Legislative Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2) Presidential Papers and Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8. Eleventh Amendment Limits on Federal Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
a. What Is Barred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1) CompareSovereign Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
b. What Is Not Barred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1) Actions Against Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2) Actions by the United States Government or Other State
Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3) Bankruptcy Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
c. Exceptions to Eleventh Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1) Certain Actions Against State Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
a) Actions Against State Officers for Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
b) Actions Against State Officers for Monetary Damages from
Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
c) Actions Against State Officers for Prospective Payments from
State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2) Congressional Removal of Immunity Under the Fourteenth
Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
a) CompareArticle I Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
d. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
II.
LEGISLATIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. ENUMERATED AND IMPLIED POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Necessary and Proper Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Taxing Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Direct TaxesMust Be Apportioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
b. Navigable Waterways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Power to Coin Money and Fix Weights and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Patent/Copyright Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. DELEGATION OF LEGISLATIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Broad Delegation Allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Limitations on Delegation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Power Cannot Be Uniquely Confined to Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Clear Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Separation of Powers Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Important Liberty Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Criminal vs. Civil Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. THE SPEECH OR DEBATE CLAUSESPECIAL IMMUNITY FOR
FEDERAL LEGISLATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Persons Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Scope of Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Bribes Excluded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Speeches Outside Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Defamatory Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. CONGRESSIONAL VETO OF EXECUTIVE ACTIONS INVALID . . . . . . . . .
III.
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
25
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
26
26
26
27
27
27
27
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW v.
27
27
27
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
30
30
30
30
30
30
31
31
31
31
32
32
32
33
V.
INTERSOVEREIGN LITIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. SUITS BY THE UNITED STATES AGAINST A STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. SUITS BY STATE AGAINST UNITED STATESUNITED STATES MUST
CONSENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. FEDERAL OFFICER AS DEFENDANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Specific Relief Against the Individual Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. SUITS BY ONE STATE AGAINST ANOTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
VI.
34
34
34
34
34
34
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
36
36
36
36
37
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
38
39
39
39
39
39
39
40
40
40
40
40
41
41
41
41
42
42
42
42
43
43
43
43
43
44
44
44
44
44
45
45
45
45
45
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
49
49
49
50
50
50
50
50
50
51
51
51
51
52
52
52
52
52
52
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
55
55
55
55
55
55
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
57
57
57
57
b) Nursing Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Licensing and Provision of Essential Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Congressional Grant of Corporate Charter and Exclusive Name . . .
4) No Government Duty to Protect Individuals from Harm by Private
Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. TIPS FOR BAR EXAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. State Must Be Significantly Involved in Private Entity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. No Constitutional Mandate to Outlaw Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
58
58
58
58
58
59
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
60
61
61
61
61
61
61
62
62
58
58
58
58
x. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
XV.
65
65
65
66
66
66
66
66
66
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
68
68
68
68
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
70
70
70
71
71
71
71
71
71
72
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
73
73
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
76
76
76
76
76
77
77
77
77
77
77
78
78
78
78
79
80
80
80
80
80
80
81
81
76
a) Remedial Justifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(1) Local Private Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(2) Diversity in Public Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Discriminatory Legislative Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Private Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Alienage Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Federal Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. State and Local Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) ExceptionParticipation in Self-Government Process . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Undocumented Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Punitive Laws Against Illegal Alien Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Education Rights of Alien Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. QUASI-SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Intentional Discrimination Against Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Government Interest Must Be Genuine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Affirmative Action Benefiting Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Intentional Discrimination Against Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Invalid Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Valid Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Legitimacy Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. No Punitive Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Inheritance from Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Statute of Limitations on Paternity Suits May Be Discriminatory . . .
b. Immigration Preference to Legitimate ChildrenPermissible . . . . . . . . .
F. OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Age Not Suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Wealth Not Suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Abortions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
81
81
83
83
83
83
84
84
84
84
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
86
86
87
87
87
87
87
87
88
88
88
88
89
89
89
89
89
89
89
90
90
90
90
90
90
91
91
91
c. Remedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Financing Abortions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Obscene Reading Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Keeping Extended Family Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Rights of Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Visitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Intimate Sexual Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Freedom from Collection and Distribution of Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. RIGHT TO VOTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Restrictions on Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Residency Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Members of Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) CompareNonresidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Property Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Poll Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Primary Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) State Regulation of Party Primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) States May Subsidize Primaries of Major Parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Dilution of Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. One Person, One Vote Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Establishing Voting Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Congressional ElectionsAlmost Exactly Equal . . . . . . . . . . . .
(1) CompareApportionment Among the States . . . . . . . . . . .
b) State and Local ElectionsVariance Not Unjustifiably Large . . .
c) Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(1) ExceptionAppointed Officials and Officials Elected
At Large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(2) ExceptionSpecial Purpose Government Units (Water
Storage Districts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Standardless Recount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Racial Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Political Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Multi-Member Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Candidates and Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Candidate Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Fee Must Not Preclude Indigents as Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Restrictions on Ability of Person to Be a Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Required Resignation of Office Is Permissible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Campaign Funding, Contributions, and Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Extraordinary MajoritiesReferendum Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Replacement of Incumbent Legislators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. RIGHT TO TRAVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Interstate Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Nature of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
91
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
93
93
93
93
93
93
93
93
93
94
94
94
94
94
94
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
98
98
98
98
99
99
99
b. ExamplesResidential Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Targeted Picketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Charitable Solicitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. ExampleDesignated Public Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Content BasedNecessary to a Compelling Interest . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Content NeutralBurdens No More Speech than Necessary . . . . .
2. Limited Public Forums and Nonpublic Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Viewpoint Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Reasonableness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Significant Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Military Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Government Workplace or Charity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4) Postal Service Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5) Signs on Public Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6) Airport Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7) Candidate Debates on Public Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8) Mailboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. UNPROTECTED SPEECHREGULATION OR PUNISHMENT BECAUSE
OF CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Clear and Present Danger of Imminent Lawlessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Allows for Sanctions Against Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Compelling Justification Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Fighting Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. True Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. States May Ban Words Likely to Incite Physical Retaliation . . . . . . . . . .
c. Statutes Regulating Fighting Words Tend to Be Overbroad or Vague . . . .
d. Statutes Cannot Be Content-BasedLimits Hate Crime Legislation . . .
1) ComparePunishing Racially Motivated Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Appeal to Prurient Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Average Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Material Designed for Deviant Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Patently Offensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Community Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) National Standard Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Lacking in Serious Social Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4) Standard May Be Different for Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Pictures of Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) CompareSimulated Pictures of Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Question of Fact and Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Jury Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Independent Review by Appellate Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Evidence of Pandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4) EvidenceSimilar Published Materials Not Automatically
Admissible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
108
108
108
109
109
109
109
109
110
110
110
110
110
110
111
112
112
112
112
112
112
113
113
113
113
113
113
114
114
114
114
114
114
115
115
115
115
115
115
115
116
116
116
116
116
116
116
c.
117
117
117
117
117
117
118
118
118
118
118
118
119
119
119
119
119
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
121
121
121
121
122
122
122
122
122
122
122
122
122
123
123
123
124
124
124
b. Required Disclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Special Attorney Advertising Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. PRIOR RESTRAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Sufficiency of Governmental Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. National Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Preserving Fair Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) CompareGrand Jury Prior Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Contractual Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Military Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Procedural Safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Obscenity Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Seizure of Books and Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) Single Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Large Scale Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Forfeiture of Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Injunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Movie Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Burden on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Publication of Truthful Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Access to Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Access to Voir Dire Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Access to Other Pretrial Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Compelling Interest in Protecting Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Protective Order in Publishing Information Gained in Pretrial
Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Requiring Members of the Press to Testify Before Grand Juries . . . . . . . . . .
4. Interviewing Prisoners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Business Regulations or Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Monetary Damages for Failure to Keep Identity Confidential . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Broadcasting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Fairness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) CompareGrant of Equal Newspaper Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Newspaper Ownership of Radio or TV Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Prohibiting Indecent Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Political Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Elimination of Editorial Speech from Stations Receiving Public Grants . .
8. Cable Television Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. CompareContent-Based Cable Broadcast Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Internet Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
124
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
126
126
126
126
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
128
128
128
128
128
129
132
132
132
133
133
133
129
129
129
129
130
130
130
130
130
131
131
131
131
131
131
133
133
134
134
134
134
134
134
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
136
136
136
137
137
137
137
137
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
139
139
139
139
139
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
141
141
141
3.
141
141
142
142
142
143
143
143
143
143
144
144
144
145
145
145
145
146
146
147
147
147
148
148
148
148
148
149
149
149
149
149
149
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and
8.
2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
that the statute providing for the reinstatement of the dismissed cases
violated the separation of powers doctrine under the Constitution. [Plaut
v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc., 514 U.S. 211 (1995)]
1) Caution
When determining whether federal legislation impairs the finality of a decision of
the United States Supreme Court, be careful to scrutinize the facts. For example,
states have limited power to regulate interstate commerce, while the federal
government has plenary power to do so. Thus, a decision that a state lacked the
power to enact a particular regulation of commerce does not necessarily prevent
Congress from adopting a regulation similar to the state regulation that was struck
down. There is no interference with the finality of the Courts decision, because of
the difference in standards.
2. Federal Review of State Acts
Federal review of state acts (executive, legislative, or judicial) was established by the
Marshall Court in a series of decisions. Clear basis exists here in the Supremacy Clause of
Article VI, which states that the Constitution, Laws, and Treaties of the United States take
precedence over state laws and that the judges of the state courts must follow federal law,
anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. [Fletcher v.
Peck, 10 U.S. 87 (1810)]
C. FEDERAL COURTS
Only the actions of Article III courts are the subject of our outline, but you should know that there
are two types of federal courts.
1.
2. Article I Courts
Congress has created certain other courts, however, by way of implementing its various
legislative powers; e.g., United States Tax Court, courts of the District of Columbia. Judges
of such Article I courts do not have life tenure or protection from salary decrease as do
Article III court judges. Article I courts are sometimes vested with administrative as well
as judicial functions, and the congressional power to create such hybrid courts has been
sustained by the Supreme Court. [Glidden v. Zdanok, 370 U.S. 530 (1962)]
a. Limitation
Congress may not take cases of the type traditionally heard by Article III courts and
assign jurisdiction over them to Article I courts. [Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v.
Marathon Pipeline Co., 458 U.S. 50 (1982)broad grant of jurisdiction to bankruptcy
courts, including jurisdiction over contract claims, violates Article III]
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 3.
2. Appellate Jurisdiction
Article III, Section 2 further provides that in all other Cases before mentioned [i.e., arising
under the Constitution, Act of Congress, or treaty], the Supreme Court shall have appellate
jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as
the Congress shall make.
a. Statutory Application of Appellate Jurisdiction
Congress has provided two methods for invoking Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction:
appeal (where jurisdiction is mandatory), and certiorari (where jurisdiction is within
the Courts discretion). Very few cases fall within the Courts mandatory appeal jurisdiction; thus, appellate jurisdiction is almost completely discretionary.
1) Writ of Certiorari (Discretionary)
The Supreme Court has complete discretion to hear cases that come to it by writ of
certiorari. A case will be heard if four justices agree to hear it. The following cases
may be heard by certiorari:
a) Cases from the highest state courts where (i) the constitutionality of a federal
statute, federal treaty, or state statute is called into question; or (ii) a state
statute allegedly violates federal law [28 U.S.C. 1257]; and
b) All cases from federal courts of appeals [28 U.S.C. 1254].
2) Appeal (Mandatory)
The Supreme Court must hear those few cases that come to it by appeal. Appeal is
available only as to decisions made by three-judge federal district court panels that
grant or deny injunctive relief. [28 U.S.C. 1253]
b. Limitations on Statutory Regulation
Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. 506 (1868), has been read as giving Congress full power to
regulate and limit the Supreme Courts appellate jurisdiction. However, possible limitations on such congressional power have been suggested:
1) Congress may eliminate specific avenues for Supreme Court review as long as
it does not eliminate all avenues. For example, in McCardle, two statutes had
allowed the Supreme Court to grant habeas corpus to federal prisoners. The
Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the repeal of one of the statutes
because the other statute remained as an avenue for Supreme Court habeas corpus
review.