THE MOST ADVANCED

VOVA.GE DA.TA. RECORDERS

IN THE WORLD
Most advanced features in the industry
Preferred choice of the cruise line industry
Unbeatable performance record
Years of operational success and proven
data retrieval
Largest international team dedicated
exclusively to VDR services
Worldwide type approvals
RUTTER TECHNOLOGIES INC.
ST. ..JOHN'S, N L, CANADA
TEL: + 170936S4213/4
FAX: +1709-36S1337
WWW.RUTTERTECH.C C M n:073510 2 RUTTER

INTERTANKO
AGuidetoCrudeOilWashing
and Cargo Heating Criteria
May2004
G)
I NTERTANKO
InternationalAssociation ofIndependentTanker Owners
Acknowledgements
INTERTANKO is grateful to the author of 'A Guide to Crude Oil Washing
and Cargo Heating Criteria', Timothy Gunner, and the INTERTANKO
Safety Technical and Environmental Committee (ISTEC) for their valuable
contribution tothispublication.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including
photocopyingorstoring it inanymedium byelectronicmeansandwhetheror nottransientlyor incidentally
tosomeotheruseofthispublication) without thewritten permission ofthecopyright owner.Applications
,
for thecopyright owner'swritten permission to reproduce any part of thispublication should be addressed
tothepublisher.
INTERTANKO2004
Whilstevery efforthas been made to ensure that the informationcontained inthis publicationis correct,
neither the authors nor INTERTANKO can accept any responsibilityfor any errors oromissions or any
consequencesresultingtherefrom.
No reliance should be placed on the information contained in this publication without independent
verification.
INTERTANKOOSLO INTERTANKO LONDON
P.O.Box5804Majorstuen StClareHouse30-33 Minories
0308Oslo, Norway London EC3N 100.UK
Tel:+4722122640 Tel:+442079777010
Fax:+4722122641 Fax:+442079777011
Email:Oslo@intertanko.com
Email:London@intertanko.com
INTERTANKOASIA INTERTANKO NORTHAMERICA
5TemasekBoulevard 801NorthQuincy Street
#12-07 SuntecCityTower5 Suite200,Arlington
Singapore 038985 VA22203, USA
Tel:+6563334007 Tel:+17033732269
Fax+656333 5004 Fax:+1703841 0389
Email:Singapore@intertanko.com Email:Washington@intertanko.com
www.intertanko.com
AGuidetoCrude OilWashing
andCargo Heating Criteria
May2004
TABLEOFCONTENTS
1 Introduction 1
2 TheCOWManual 2
2.1 Section9oftheCOWManual 3
3 Whatiscrudeoil? 6
4 The physicalbehaviourofcrudeoil 6
4.1 Thephysical behaviourofaromaticcrudeoils 7
4.2 Thephysicalbehaviourofparaffiniccrudeoils 9
5 The CloudPointtemperature determination ofacrudeoil 10
5.1 Methodsfordetermining theCloudPointtemperatureonboardatanker 11
5.1.1 BondiTestmethod 11
5.1.2 PrimaryCloudPointtest method 13
5.1.3 Densitymethod 16
5.1.4 TheCloudPointtemperature model 17
5.2 Thepredicted extentofprecipitatedsludgebeforeCOW 18
6 Thepracticalimplications oftheCloudPointdetermination 19
6.1 MARPOLregulationsandcommercial implications 19
6.2 Thecrudeoilwashingofsludgeandsomepractical implications 21
7 COWequipmentandprocedures 23
7.1 COWmachinesandtankcleaningnozzles 23
7.2 COWpipelinesystems 25
7.3 Strippingsystems 26
7.4 Crudeoilwashing concurrent withcargodischarge 27
7.5 "Closedcycle"crudeoilwashing 28
8 Crudeoilwashinp ofsludges 29
8.1 Thetheory andbackground 29
8.2 Practicalcircumstances affectingthecrudeoilwashingofsludges 31
8.3 Analternative, practicalprogrammeforthecrudeoilwashingofsludge 34
9 Closingremarks 36
1 Introduction
Regulations laid down in the 1978 Protocol to the 1973 Marine Pollution Convention (MARPOL
73/78) require the cargo tanks of crude oil tankers to be cleaned using a procedure called crude oil
washing (COW). With the COW procedure the crude oil cargo itself is used as the cleaning medium.
During the 196,6s it was discovered that crude oil, when applied to the cargo still remaining on tank
floors and to the tank structures, using tank cleaning machines, effectively dissolves and
dilutes these residues and mixes it in with the rest of the cargo which is being discharged ashore by
the cargo pumps.
Prior to the advent of COW, cargo tanks were washed with sea water on their ballast voyage to the
next loading port. The mixture of oil and cleaning water resulting from this type of cleaning operation
could settle out in the tanker's slop tanks with the decanted water being discharged overboard into
the ocean. Consequently, this operation resulted in inevitable operational discharges of oil-water
mixture into the sea.
However, the use of crude oil to COW the tanks means that the solvent action of the crude oil makes
the process far more environmentally friendly than when water is used. Additionally, after undertaking
COW, th volume of cargo residues left in the tanks is greatly reduced removing the subsequent risk
of opera ional discharges at sea.
Modern ankers are designed with segregated ballast tanks (SST), and there are only a few stipulated
on which seawater comes into contact with the oil cargo system during the course of
normal tbnker operations. The requirement for new crude oil tankers to be built with double hulls,
in the 1990s, has further improved the efficiency of COW operations because more of
the structural support members are placed outside the cargo tank and on these types of ships, the
amount bf crude oil residues left in the cargo tank following discharge is much reduced. Overall, the
COW prbcedure and ship design changes have greatly reduced the need for operational discharges
from tankers.
13S of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78 requires that the COW installation and arrangements
onboardla tanker should comply with the provisions of the "Specifications for the Design, Operation
and Conkol of Crude Oil Washing Systems"adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
in 1978'fThe COW regime requires that before departure on a ballast voyage, after the complete
discharg of cargo, sufficient tanks shall have been crude oil washed to preclude the ballasting of a
cargo without it having been crude oil washed. On SST ships approximately 25 per cent of the
crude oi carrier's cargo tanks need to be washed, in the prescribed manner, on every voyage for
sludge c ntrol purposes provided that no tank need be crude oil washed for sludge control purposes
more th n once in every four months. For tankers with insufficient SST capacity, the number of tanks
to be crude oil washed has to be increased above this minimum level in order to render sufficient
cargo "clean" enough (as defined by the regulations) to take onboard enough water ballast to
achieve he tanker's required sailing ballast draught for the voyage.
Page 1 INTERTANKO - A Guide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Heating Criteria - May 200
In addition to the regulatory controls governing the use of COW, cornmercial or charter party
requirements may require the tankeroperatorto carry out agreateror lesserdegreeof COW than
the specified rninimum in orderto rnaximise the dischargeofthe crude oil cargo. Notwithstanding
these commercial pressures for the extent ofCOWto be undertaken, at no time should a tanker
undertake less than the minimum levels specified in paragraph 6 of Section 1 ofthe mandatory
onboardCOWManual.
Although the MARPOL 73/78 COW regime has proved to be eminently successful in minimising
tankeroperationaldischargesand improvingcargooutturnsduringthe lasttwo decadesofthe 20th
century, the tanker industryhas also been learning more aboutthe behaviourof crude oil cargoes
over the period. A number of research projects' have led to a better understanding of the COW
process and how it could be further improved. As a result of this work and at the initiative and
suggestion ofINTERTANKO, in 1999 the IMO adopted amendedCOWrequirements that are laid
down in the revised "Specifications for the Design, Operation and Control of Crude Oil Washing
Systems". Theserevised Specifications can befound inthe 2000Editionofthe "Crude Oil Washing
Systems" publication, issued bythe IMO.
Froman operational perspective the changes provide a more realistic and accurate wayof determining
the suitabilityofacrude oilfor useincrude oilwashing.
2 The COW Manual
The 2000 Edition ofthe "Crude Oil Washing Systems" publication containsthe following:
-Revised "Specifications for the Design, Operation and Control of Crude Oil Washing Systems"
(IMO ResolutionA.446(XI),as amendedby ResolutionsA.497(XII)andA.897(21));
-Standardformatfor the "Crude Oil Washing Operations and EqUipment Manuals" (IMO Resolution
MEPC.3(XII),as amended by Resolution MEPC.81(43));
-Examplesof "Crude Oil Washing Operations and Equipment Manuals";
-"Guidelines for In-port Inspection of Crude Oil Washing Procedures".
It is a MARPOL requirement that every crude oil carrier has onboard a reference manual, known
as the "Crude Oil Washing Operations and Equipmen: Manual", in orderto assist the responsible
tankerofficerincarryingoutthe prescribedCOWoperationcorrectly. Each tanker'sCOWManualis
customisedtomeetthe specificrequirementsofthe particularship. The COW Manualiscomprised
ofthe following 17sections:
1. The text ofthe revised specifications.
This section containsthe completetext of the revised "Specifications for the Design, Operation
and Control of Crude Oil Washing Systems" and the agreed interpretations ofcertain ofthe
provisionsofthe revised Specifications.
1 T.J. Gunner, "Pollution Control for CrudeOil Tankers andtheAccuracy inthe Measurementof theirCargoes"
- University of Wales .1993
INTERTANKO- ,A, Guideio CrudeOil \jVElsh\\lQ <.H",C: CatTiOHeahng Criteria - ~ y 2004 Page 2
2.COWsystem drawings
This section contains linedrawings showing thefollowing aspects:
(a)crude oil washing lines andvalves;
(b)cargopumps, linesandvalves;
(c)ballast systems(wherefitted);
(d)stripping systems;
(e)position oftankwashing machines;
(f) positionoffacilities for handdipping andtank gauges; and
(g)inertgas deck distribution system.
3. Description oftheCOWsystem andoperationalandequipmentparameters. Thissectioncontains
a description of the cargo, ballast, washing and stripping systems. In addition, it specifies the
following details:
(a) types oftankwashing machinesandtheirstandpipe length insidethetanks;
(b) revolutions ofthemachines;
(c) methods ofchecking theoperation oftank washing machines;
(d) minimum operation pressureforcrude oilwashing;
(e) maximumpermitted oxygen level incargotanks;
(f) duration oftank washing machine cycles;
(g) resultsoftests performed inaccordancewith paragraph 4.2.1O(b) ofthe revised
Specificationsandthe methodofcomputation; and
(h) method ofpreventing entryofoil/vapours intothe engine room.
4. Dangers ofand precautionsagainstoilleakage
5. Useandcontrol ofinertgas
6. Precautionsagainstelectrostatichazards
7. Personnel requirements(training andqualifications)
8. Methods ofcommunicationduring COW
9. Determinationofthesuitabilityofacrude oilfor useincrude oilwashing
10. Crudeoilwashing checklists
11. Approved methods and programmesforcrude oilwashing
12.Typical crudeoilwash programmes
13. The methodfordraining cargo tanks
14.Themethod and procedures fordraining cargo pumps and lines
15.Typicalproceduresforballasting and methodof preventing hydrocarbonvapouremissions
16. Compliance procedures for Regulation 9ofMARPOLAnnex 1
17. Inspections andmaintenanceofequipment
2.1 Section 9 ofthe COW Manual
Eachtanker'sCOW Manualcontainsallthenecessaryinformationregarding thetechnicaloperation
ofthe crude oil washing equipment and associated onboard systems. Of particularinterest in the
contextofthis publication isSection 9,whichprovides information onthecrudeoilwashing medium.
Page3 INTERTANKO- /1, Guide toCrude Oil Washing and Cargo Heatmg Criteria - May 200
Thissection was the subjectofmajoramendmentbyIMO in 1998. Followingdetailed researchinto
the behaviourof a wide range of different crude oil cargoes, it was agreed that itwould be more
appropriatetospecifycriteriato help determinethe suitabilityofacrude oilfor COW ratherthan the
previousapproachoflncludinqalonglistofcrudeoilsdeemedtobeunsuitablefor COWAsaresult,
the heading ofSection ghasbeen changedfrom "Listofcrude oilsunsuitable forcrudeoilwashing"
to "Determination ofthesuitabilityofa crudeoilforuseincrudeoilwashing".
Section g, like all sections of the COW Manual with the exception of the Specifications, is
recommendatory. The revised contentsofsectiongofthe COW Manual iswordedasfollows:
QUOTE
(1) Foratankernotfittedwith heatingcoils
Thistankerisnotfittedwithheatingcoilsinthecargotanksandshouldnotcarrycargoeswhichwill
requiretobeheatedeithertoobtainminimum pumpabiiitycriteriaortoavoidexcessivesludgingof
boththe designatedclean ballasttanks andthe vessel'stankstobewashedfor sludge control.
Notes andDefinitions
(1) Thepumpabilitycriterionisdeterminedbytheoil'skinematicviscosityattheobservedtemperature
of the cargo prior to its discharge. In order to attain optimum efficiency for discharge this viscosity
shouldnotexceed250centistokes(cSt)andneverbein excess of600cSt.
(2) Theexcessivesludgingcriterionis determinedprimarilybythecrudeoil'stemperaturethroughout
its transportation andstorage. Ifthe cargo's temperature is likely to drop belowthe crude oil
cargo's Cloud Pointtemperature, then sludging of cargo tanks is to be expected. The Cloud
Pointtemperature is the temperature at which the crude oil's wax andassociatedsolid phase
separatesfrom thebulk liqUidphaseofthe cargo.
(2) Foratankeronlyfittedwithheatingcoilsin sloptank(s)
Thistankerisfittedwithheatingcoilsonlyinthesloptank(s)andshould notcarrycargoeswhich
will require tobe heated for pumpabiiity.
Notes
(1) Ifsludge deposition is suspected or determined in the main cargo tanks, then an alternative
crude oilwashing programmeshouldbeutilised. Recommendationsregarding thisprogramme
andprocedurearetobefoundinSection 11 ofthis COWManual.
(3) For atanker fittedwithheatingcoils
This tankerisfitted with heatingcoils inall thecargo tanks and, SUbjecttothe iimitationsofthe
cargo heatingsystem, cancarry cargoeswhich requireheatingfor eitherpumpabilityorsludge
deposition/control.
GeneralGuidance
Attention is drawn to the difficulties which may be encounteredwith certain crude oils. During the
dischargeof crude oils that exhibit criteria that would create eitherpumpability problems orsludqe
INTERIANKO- ACudetoCrude OilVVashing and Ca-ge Heating Criteria Mav2004 Page 4
deposition, crude oil washing of each tank scheduled for such an operation should be carried out
concurrently with the discharging of the particular tank in order to minimise the affect on the crude
oil residues of cooling. Cooling will increase both the kinematic and dynamic viscosities of the tank
residues and, therefore, affect the efficiency of the crude oil washing programme.
As a general guidance to the suitability of an oil for crude oil washing on board this tanker, the
following criteria should be used:
(1) For aromatic crude oils whose kinematic viscosity is the temperature controlling characteristic,
the kinematic viscosity of the oil used for crude oil washing should not exceed 60 cSt at the oil
wash medium temperature
Or
(2) For paraffinic crude oils whose Pour Point temperature is the controlling characteristic, the
temperature of the cargo to be used for crude oil washing should exceed its Cloud Point
temperature by at least 10C if excessive sludging is present and should only be used once in a
"closed cycle" washing programme.
The approximate Cloud Point temperature of an oil may be calculated with the following formula,
where the Pour Point temperature (x) of the crude oil is known:
Cloud Point temperature eC) = 20.2 (100.00708. 0.1157714) + 8'
Where:
x is the crude oil's Pour Point temperature degree C
UNQUOTE
As mentioned, the above advice is contained in Section 9 of the COW Manual which, in turn, is
contained in the 2000 Edition of IMO's COW Systems publication. The advice shows that the crude
oil itself is key to the effectiveness of all COW programmes.
Crude oil is a generic name for a broad range of hydrocarbon liquids. Crude oils range from the wax-
rich, paraffinic cargoes with high Pour Point temperatures to the aromatic high-viscosity types. The
densities of the full spectrum of crude oil cargoes range from about 700 to 980 kg/m'. Some crude
oils contain large amounts of gaseous/volatile components Which, in turn, may contain hydrogen
sulphide. In contrast, other crudes contain little or no gaseous component. To achieve the desired
goal of adequately cleaning cargo tanks carrying crude oil, it is essential to understand the nature
and behaviour of a crude oil prior to using it as a washing medium.
2 For a worked example using this equation and a corresponding graph for Cloud Point temperature determination,
please see section 5.1.2 below
Page 5 INTERTANI<O A GUide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Heating Criteria May 200
3 What is crude oil?
Crude oil is a naturally formed liquid/substance that is, probably, the most complex liquid carried by
sea. The term "crude oil" loosely describes a vast number of varying types of liquids that contain the
basis of supply of all hydrocarbons required by society. To the general population, this substance
is perceived to be the black sticky material that is very occasionally found washed up on beaches
or seen in media coverage of pollution incidents covering sea birds and mammals. In fact, such a
perception is wrong as crude oil is a heterogeneous mixture of hundreds of differing hydrocarbon
species, all in differing proportions depending upon the specific type of crude oil and even perhaps
the unique consignment of the oil. In nature it is far from the black sticky substance, except for certain
types of crude oil, and is normally a brown/black liquid whose viscosity is similar to that of water.
In the context of crude oil washing, the MARPOL 73/78 definition of crude oil is as follows:
"Crude oil means any liquid hydrocarbon mixture occurring naturally in the earth, whether or not
treated to render it suitable for transportation, and includes:
(a) crude oil from which certain distillate fractions may have been removed; and
(b) crude oil to which certain distillate fractions may have been added."
The treatment referred to is the preparation of the crude oil for transport by stabilising it. In this
process the dissolved gas content within the crude oil, including the toxic hydrogen SUlphide gas, is
reduced. Reference to the removal of distillate fractions expands the number of liquids capable of
being used for crude oil washing to include "topped crude oils", i.e. partially refined crude oil. In the
extreme case this definition could apply to atmospheric residue, i.e. the residue remaining follOWing
the distillation of crude oil as the definition does not contain any percentage of the fractions that
may have been removed. Reference to the addition of certain distillate fractions further augments
the number of COW liquids covered by the definition to include spiked crude oils and, again in the
extreme case, reconstituted (recon) crude oils.
4 The physical behaviour of crude oil
As a basic rule for all substances their physical state varies with the temperature of the substance
that reflects the heat energy supplied to the substance or retained by the substance. The physical
states of a substance fall into three primary phase categories namely, their solid, liquid and gaseous/
vapour phases. In the case of crude oil as a heterogeneous mixture of many individuai hydrocarbon
substances, its normal visual state is that of a liquid.
Crude oil as a mixture contains numerous species of hydrocarbons that will also, if separated from
the original mixture, exhibit the same three phases, as described above, at varying temperatures. If a
pure individual hydrocarbon specie were to be studied, then precise temperatures may be ascertained
for the formation of each of the relevant phases. However, by mixing the numerous hydrocarbon
types together to generate the complex mixture which constitutes a crude oil, a vast array of differing
physical properties is created. The determination of the behaviour of the overall mixture and the
interaction of the various hydrocarbon species upon each other become very important when
INTERTANKO -/\ Guide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Heatirg Criteria - May 2004
Page 6
considering the most effective methods for the removal of any separated sludge from a crude oil, i.e.
the interaction of liquid solvent phase upon a partially solidified phase. However, this publication will
not attempt to describe such behaviour in detail but will concentrate upon that behaviour that would
impact the transportation criteria and the subsequent use of a crude oil as a washing medium.
In terms of their composition and their general cargo-handling attributes, crude oils can be considered
to fall into one of three categories, i.e. low-wax, higher viscosity aromatic crude oils; highly waxy,
paraffinic crudes; intermediate/naphthenic crude oils that fall between these two extremes.
Paraffinic crude oils, for example, Bu Attifel, Widuri and Sarir, have relatively high Pour Point
temperatures due to the relatively large amounts of paraffinic wax they contain but much lower
viscosities than aromatic crudes in the liquid phase. Paraffinic crude oils are temperature-sensitive
and require continuous heating in order to prevent phase separation and "solidification" during
transportation and for efficient discharge.
Aromatic crude oils, for example, Boscan and Tia Juana Pesado, have very much higher kinematic
viscosities than paraffinic crude oils. As such, without heating they may not be able to meet the 250
cSt criterion laid down in Section 9 of the COW Manual and would need to be carried in tanks with
heating colis. Because they do not have the phase separation characteristics of paraffinic crude oils,
aromatic crude oils pose fewer difficulties with regard to any phase separation characteristics when
being transported by sea and during cargo-handling and COW operations. When heating is required
for aromatic crude oils, it will be for viscosity control and pumpabllity rather than to prevent phase
separation and sludge deposition.
In the past, the two characteristics of crude 011 identified as the primary determinants of its carriage
conditions in tankers were its Pour Point temperature and kinematic viscosity. However, as reflected
in the 2000 Edition of the COW Systems publication, and as will be explained in this Guide, the
Pour Point temperature has been replaced by the Cloud Point temperature as the second of the two
primary criteria in respect of crude oil washing.
4.1 The physical behaviour of aromatic crude oils
Like paraffinic crude oils, aromatic crudes also contain the relevant series of hydrocarbons that
would be gaseous, liquid and solid phase products in their own right under normal transportation
conditions. While the gaseous and liquid phases are readily detectable in aromatic crudes, the
partially solidified phase is less noticeable. An aromatic crude oil's true Pour Point temperature
is difficult to determine accurately. As aromatic oils contain only very limited amounts of paraffinic
waxes, attempts to determine this temperature precisely can yield varying results and will depend
upon the analyst's observational skills. Whatever the final result, the real Pour Point temperature for
aromatic oils is normally very low.
Why should this be so? As stated above, aromatic crude oils are temperature-dependant due to
their higher kinematic viscosities compared to those of paraffinic crude oils. As viscosity varies with
temperature, i.e. a log linear variation, the viscosity of aromatic crude oils increases as the oil cools.
Page 7
INTERTANKO - A GUide to Crude Oil and CarQD Heating Criteria - May' 200
Advanced tankcleaning
Alta Laval can now add tort er value for our cust omers by offering
complete tank cleaning systems, after acquiring Guncl ean Toft ejorg
the world lender in advanced tank cleaning.
With our joint networks wo can guarantee the best systerns and
most efficient aftersales support, wherever you are,
Alfa Laval +46 8 530 650 00 Alta Laval Tank Equipm ent +4b 1\;,55 8699 wwwal alav, , com
For the analyst, the Pour Point temperature is that at which the oil ceases to move within the testing
apparatus. For aromatic crude oils, the Pour Point is reached as kinematic viscosity slowly becomes
so large that movement within the test sample slows to such an extent as not to be detectable. In
contrast, determining the Pour Point temperature of a paraffinic crude oil is more straightforward
because the point at which the waxes crystallise is relatively easy to observe and creates a more
rapid transition from liquid to near solid state. At their Pour Point temperatures aromatic crude oils
still remain fairly homogenous mixtures, with no observable phase separation.
The phase separation factor is a distinguishing feature when considering the transport of aromatic
and paraffinic crude oils, in particular for their respective heating requirements and COW operations.
Phase separation will be discussed further below when other physical properties of crude oils are
considered. However, the General Guidance as supplied in the revised Section 9 of the COW Manual
with regard to kinematic viscosity should be noted. Poorer pumping performance will commence
with centrifugal pumps when the kinematic viscosity of the cargo exceeds 250 cst. Poorer stripping
performance wili occur when the kinematic viscosity of the cargo exceeds 600 cst. Thus, the crude
oil cargo temperature at which these two operation parameters are reached becomes an essential
pumping criterion for effective discharge of all the crude oil cargo and should be made available in
the cargo's Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). These data sheets are now required prior to the
delivery onboard of both oil cargoes and ship's bunkers as from 2
0
' June 2003 as a result of the IMO
Marine Safety Committee Resolution NO.150 (77).
4.2 The physical behaviour of paraffinic crude oils
Phase separation and the effect of temperature
The examination of the behaviour of numerous crude oils has shown that under certain temperature
conditions extensive sludge/residues can separate from the crude oil. These sludges would, under
normal circumstances, remain onboard tankers after cargo discharge and the mandatory (or charter
party-specified) crude oil washing of the ship's tanks.
Some of the crude oils that experienced such phase separation, for example Gulf of Suez mix, Flotta,
Iranian Heavy, Iranian Light and Kuwait Export Blend (on occasions and subject to the blend), were
not traditionally expected to behave in this manner. Samples of the residues from actual discharges
were obtained for physical examination and analysis, together with numerous samples of a wider
selection of crude oils. The investigation was undertaken in order to gain a greater understanding of
the behaviour and effectiveness of the crude oil as a medium for a COW programme.
This investigation enabled the preparation of guidance as part of achieving the overall objective, as
mandated in the regulations, of cleaning tanks in preparation for the possible loading of baliast and to
control sludge build-up in the cargo tank spaces, not least on segregated ballast tankers. An added
benefit of the investigation, particularly for the cargo owner, is that it provided an understanding of
how to maxlrnise the volume crude oil cargo discharged.
Page 9
The investigationwas inordertoachievethe followingspecificaims:
(1) Toidentifythecriticaltemperatureat which aspecificcrude oilwill begin toprecipitatesludge-
forminghydrocarbons,as noted onboard the varioustankers.
(2) Todetermineamethodtocalculate theextentofthelikelydeposition;forthepurposeofaccuracy
acomparisonwasundertakenbetweentheobservedandmeasuredvolumes ofsludgeonboard
the vessels.
(3) As a result of gaining a better understanding ofthe behaviourofthe sludge, to determine the
Iikeiy effectiveness of COW operations and develop suitable methods for the removal of the
sludge by COw.
Itisclearfromtheinvestigation thatthephase that creates thegreatestdifficultyfor crude oilwashing
isthatofparaffinic sludge (sometimes, erroneouslyreferred toas"sedirnents'").Sludge isthepartially
SOlidified hydrocarbon deposits of paraffinicwaxes and otherspecies from a crude oil that also has
entrapped within its complex structure avariety of hydrocarbon species from the crude oil asa liquid
phase.Predominantly,thecompositionofsludgeisaselection ofthevariouswaxspecies ascontained
within a crude oil cargo. Once the sludge has separated it is nearly impossible, given the normal
facilities onboard atanker,toreturnthiswaxy material toitsoriginal liquid phasewithinthe crudeoil's
liquidphase.
In the investigation the deposits/sludges were also examined to determine their flow/pumpability
propertiesunderdifferingconditionsanddilutions.Thiswasdonetodeterminewhetheritwaspossible
todevelopalternativeCOWtechniquesthatwouldefficientlyremovethe siudge. Thetemperatureat
which the phase separation, or sludgedeposition, phenomenon occurs has been termedthe Cloud
Point temperatureofacrudeoil.
5 The Cloud Point temperature determination of a crude oil
The Cloud Point temperature ofacrude oil may bedefined asthe temperatureat which the waxes
inthe oil changefrom theirliquid phaseand becomesuspended, partiallysolidified particleswithin
the bulk ofthe remaining cargo. Inotherwords, itisthe temperatureatwhich aphase separationis
created within the oil.
Fortransparentoils, such asgasoil,the Cloud Pointtemperaturehastraditionallybeen obtained by
visual examination ofsamplesSUbjectedtoacooling programmeandthe identificationofacloud or
haze ofprecipitatedwaxcrystalsatthecritical temperature. Itistobenotedthatthis"new"CloudPoint
temperaturecriterionisthestartofthephaseseparationwhereasthetraditionalPourPointtemperature
isthe"completion"temperatureforthephase separation.
3 Reference: ISO TR 8338 for relevant definition- see definitionsin paragraph 6.2.1.
TERTANKO..AGuiceto Crude OilWaslling and Cargo Healing Criteria- May2004 Page 10
Clearly, for operational purposesitis more importanttodeterminethe temperatureatwhich awaxy
phaseseparationstartsratherthan the one atwhich itfinishes.This isparticularlyimportantbecause
once this phase separation has occurred onboard, tankers do not normaliy have the facilities or
heating capacityto re-Iiquefythe partialiysolidified phase. Once this phase has started, itwili have
developed its own physical parameters, such as its PourPointtemperature, thatare differentfrom
the originalcrudeoil's parameters.
5.1 Methods for determining the Cloud Point temperature onboard a tanker
5.1.1 Bondi Test method
The visual technique used to determine the Cloud Point ofa transparentoil like gas oil cannotbe
utilised for crude oils due to their opalescence. The first method for determining the Cloud Point
temperature of a crude oil that was investigated, the Bondi Test method, focuses on the physical
behaviourofanoilduringacontroliedcoolingprogrammethatcould beundertakensafelyandeasily
onboard a tanker. The method relies upon the detection ofthe oil's stable temperature transition
through itslatentheatloss to partial "solidification".
This methodcan beaccomplishedas foliows:
(1) Obtaina representativesampleofthe cargo. Do not aliowthe cargo sampletocool before
commencingthe test procedure.
(2) Obtainaglasscontainer(preferablynearlyspherical)thatismadeofheat!temperatureresistant
glassand filithe containerwith the sample.
(3) Insert a thermometer into the centre of the sample volume and heat the sample to a
temperature of at least30"C above the Pour Pointtemperature ofthe crude oil in a hot water
bath. Do not tightly stopper the container during this process.
(4) Prepare an alternativebath with waterwhosetemperature isatleast15"C belowthe sample's
PourPointtemperature. Have aclockorwatch availablewith asecond hand.
(5) Immersethe heated sample containerinto the cold bath and record atvery regularintervals(at
leastevery30seconds)the temperatureofthe sample.
(6) Graphicaliyplotthe sampletemperatureagainsttime elapsefromthe start ofthe test. Determine
the temperatures at which there was no loss oftemperature with time elapse. The first such
instanceasdetectedwili bethe approximateCloud Point temperatureand the second instance,
iftestingtime isextendedtothe requiredperiod,will betheapproximatePourPointtemperature
ofthe crude oil.
Upon completionofthetestand the plottingofthe measuredresults, thegraphwili roughlyresemble
the shapeshownin Figure 1,overleaf.
Page 11 INTERTANKO -1\ Guide to Crude Oil \iVashingand Cargo Heating Criteria - May 200
Upto now, a great manypeople in classification circles saem to havethouqht: "Oh, ir s just atanker. Simple design -
simple to class." But in r cent years shipowners have begun t o ask questions about the fatigue problems affec ng
bulk oil tankers attar Dilly , few years in service or the problems chemical tankers are conlrontad with when carry-
macertain cargoes. Ma)lIet ankers ar n't mat simpl e after all. Not surprisrnqlv, the focus IS switching to issues such
as operational durahility and corrosion resistance, and to a tanker's service life. Because at GL we are applying all
our experienceandexpertiseto the serious businessof improvmq operational durability and safetystandardsf or t an-
kers. At GLwe have the expertise to help your tankers achievethis goal - over a long service life.
@
Germanischer Lloyd Ak(iengesellschaft Vorsetzen 35 020459 Hamb urg
G rmarus h loyd
Phone +49(O)40 -:J61 49-0 Fax +49 (0l40-361 49-200
e-mail: headoffice@g l-group.com . www.gl-group.com
p
RAT I N 2 4 I 7
Figure 1 shows a temperature drop of an oil sample against time. There are two positions along the
temperature gradient where no apparent temperature loss is observed. However, heat loss (energy)
will be occurring at these positions, which is termed "latent heat". It is these positions that determine
the phase transition from liquid to solid for the paraffinic waxes within the oil sample. The highest
temperature "plateau" is the Cloud Point temperature of the sample (in this case approximately 59'C)
while the lowest is the Pour Point temperature (approximately 43'C).
"'
65
55
fr---------
45 +---+--- ---
i --
1----
1/;-----1
Time In Minutes
Figure 1 Example of a Bondi Test on a crude oil sample
The Bondi test is recommended for the determination of the Cloud Point temperature of high wax
content opaque hydrocarbons. For these oils with a high Pour Point temperature, the Bondi Test
provides reasonable indications of the critical Cloud Point temperature, as shown in Figure 1.
However, the overall results for all of the crude oils tested did not meet the accuracy requirements of
the investigation, i.e. within 3'C of the equivalent observed Cloud Point temperature.
5.1.2 Primary Cloud Point test method
The second method relies on the potential non-linear (logarithmic) increase in the kinematic viscosity
of the crude oil with temperature decrease, a phenomenon caused by the precipitation of the wa,xl
sludge phase. Although this method sounds complicated, it relies upon a basic dynamic physical
parameter of a liquid which is well-known to most Chief Engineers. The Cloud Point temperature is
that point on the graph where the kinematic viscosity shows an inflection point as the temperature
decreases. This is the point at which the oil sample becomes non-Newtonian or is a mixture of
materials rather than a homogenous substance.
The quidlnq test method used for this determination is the standard kinematic viscosity test method
as used in all oil laboratories. Although this testing procedure cannot normally be carried out onboard
a tanker, a formula has been developed from the numerous results obtained. This formula allows the
Cloud Point temperature to be calculated to a degree of accuracy sufficient to ensure the reliability
of the results for most crude oils.
Page 13 INTERTAr-,IKO - A Guide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Heating Criteria - rvlay 200
The results of this developed testlnc method were then applied in the testing of some 73 different
crude oils types for their kinematic viscosities to determine their Cloud Point temperatures. Log
Kinemat ic. Viscosity graphs for a selection of these crude oils are shown in Figure 2. As mentioned,
the individual Cloud Point temperatures may be identified by the inflection points in the various
graphs.
4 ,
Bach Ho
Bonny Light
3.5
-'- BrontBlend
- -- Cabi nda
'I
Daqlng
3
.- Djano

DraLigen

. - Escravo9
2.5 ,
Si der
Foreados
i
(.)
0
,
"
.\ \
. .
"
I '."" . '\
....
i
,
\ .

......Gulfof
:;; " ', . 1
"2 . \ \.. .....--. \
KuwaitExport
' . lalang
". lowerZakum
" \ \ '\ . " . -. -"--- """
'Ii' " : : .. . . ' . , ',-. _.
- - - Minas
..J 1.5 .. . : . ..: . . . ... : ., .. . .. .:.;-..:..__ _ _..._
Murban
.. . Nemba
- ..- Oseberq
' .. ,...: .
Qualhoe
0,5
a- Rabi
- -.&. - - Widuri
o
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperate\c>;nl igmdn)
Figure 2Cloud Point graphs foravariety ofcrude oils
Asexamples,theCloud Point and Pour Point temperaturesforanumberofcrude oils,asfound by
analysis,are given inTable 1.
Crude Oil PourPoint TemperatureC Cloud Point Temperature C
ArabLight - 57.0 10.0
Iran Heavy - 12.0 14.0
BrentBlend
_3.0
0
15.0
0
DubaiExport - 60.0
0
16.0
Flotta Crude - 8.0
0
18.0
Kale Melange
..
o.o- 24,0
G.S.M. -I- 3.0
0
26.0
Ardjuna , +27.0
0
30.0
Sarir
I
+27.0" 38.0"
BuAttifel +35.0
c
50S
Table1Pour Point andCloud Point temperaturesforavariety ofcrude oils
It was recognised that if the formula is to be capable of use onboard vessels then the input data
to the formula would have to be readily available to a vessel. A rough "rule of thumb" correlation
exists between the Cloud Point and Pour Point temperaturesofcertain refined petroleum products.
/l1!).1 Paae 1
.
alln,..l emf ,[j
Forexample, formiddle distillatesthere isa relativelystablegap between thetwotemperatures of
approximately 15'C.However,there isno similar, simple correlationforcrudeoils.
ThePourPointtemperatureofa crude oil wasthoughtto be the mostsuitablestarting point, given
its common reference within documents, when inputting data in orderto determine a crude oil's
approximateCloud Pointtemperature. Thus, theequation capable of predicting a crude oil's Cloud
Pointis basedon theuse ofthecrudeoil's PourPointtemperature(x) asthekey parameter.
Thisequation isas follows:
CloudPointtemperatureeC) =20.2(10.00708'-0.1157714) +8
where:
x isthe crudeoil's PourPointtemperaturedegreeC
Foreaseofunderstanding, a worked exampleof theuse ofthis equation for a crude oil thathas a
PourPointtemperatureof 15C is:
CloudPointtemperature eC)=20.2(10.00708'-0.1157714) +8
=20.2x (1010.00708"51-0."57714) +8
=20.2x (1001062-0.1157714) +8
=20.2X (10-00095714) +8
=(20.2x 0.9782)+8
=19.76+8
Cloud Pointtemperature(OC) = 27.8
0
This equationmaybe represented in agraphicalformatforeaseof use, as shownin Figure3.
5 ~
45
40
30
25
2O.jC:'-----t-------+-----+------t------+-------!
-20 10 10 20 30 40
Pour POlnl Temperature (centigrade)
Figure3Agraphusedto determinethe Cloud Pointofacrudeoil
Page15 lNTERT/l..NKO - AGuideto Cn.de Oil'v".la.<jnmp and CargoHeating Criteria - May 200
5.1.3 Density method
This third Cloud Point temperature prediction method utilises theparameterofdensity and isbased
on aconsiderable amount of research. Crude oil densityisaparameterwell understood by tanker
deck officers andthe method can besafely undertaken onboard ship todetermine theCloud Point
temperature, provided the basic equipment is available. This density method was also used in
this investigation of crude oil behaviour to correlate the results with the Cloud Point temperatures
determined byviscometryunder laboratoryconditions.
Amore sophisticated piece ofanalytical equipmentwas used during the research to determine the
density for a range of crude oils over a typical carriage temperature range. By plotting densities
againsttherespectivetemperatures.aninflectioninthegraphwasnotedatthepreviouslydetermined
Cloud Point temperature. Figure 4 shows the respective results for the Cloud Point temperature of
Bonny Lightcrude oilobtained byboth thedensityand kinematicviscosity techniques.
0.B60 . _ . 5UO

"-50

?;-

C>
C BEi O
0 .3 5:;
a
I
C B" :; 1

I
I
" ', <,
. I

, 3 5 0
I40 0
1300
1
250 I
20 0 :lI::
I'"
D. r1S l t y
-,- V I$-C OS I t y cs!
I
. Ba)
om I
I
\ ,--_1
I::"
10 10 20 2 5 30 3 0
Ternoerat ure(centIgrade )
Figure4 Density Relationshipwith KViscosityfor Bonny Light Crude OilSampleNo.1032
Figure4 Cloud PointtemperatureforBonny Lightcrude oil ,8S determined bydensity andkinematic
viscositymethods".
ItisbelievedthatthedensitymethodprovidesaviablewayofdeterminingtheCloudPointtemperature
ofcrude oilwhich can beundertaken onboard ship.
The density method procedure iscomprised ofthe following steps:
(1) Obtain asample ofthe crudeoil cargo.
(2) Obtain a set of standard petroleum hydrometers and thermometers to cover the range of
temperatures likely tobeencountered during the voyage.
, TheKED lineinserted onthegraph identifies thetemperature atwhich thedensity plotisnolonger linearwhereas theBLUE vertical
line identifies thetemperatureatwhichthekinemati cvlscosity IS nolonger Newtonian. These twotemperatures are thesameand
identifytheCloudPointtemperature ofthecrude oil .
Pa
'NTERTl \ NKO- A GUIdellJ Crw
7.2 COW pipeline systems
Figure 5 shows a simplified schematic plan of a pipeline system used to del iver crude oil to the COW
machines. An examination shows the following three sources of crude oil supply :
(1) Directly into the main crude oil wash line on deck via a crossover on deck from the main crude oil
discharge pipelines . This is achieved by opening the relevant valves connecting the main crude
oil pipelines with the main cow pipeline on the crossover pipeline.
(2) By isolating one cargo pump from the bulk discharge for the purpose of taking suction on a crude
oil volume in a specific cargo tank. This is achieved by opening the relevant valve on the COW
pipeline crossover (e.g. connecting the green crude oil line) to the COW main and closing the
main green crude oil block valve on deck.
(3) By isolating one cargo pump (e.g. the green pump) from the bulk discharge for the purpose of
taking suction on a prepared and designated crude oil wash stock located in the vessel 's slop
tanks. This is achieved by the same method as above but taking direct suction on the slop tank
using the green pump.
- COW Mil'"
- Red C" rgo Line
- Blue Cargo lInc
- Gfo' n ~ r g o line
- Slop Tank Sucuon hnes
- COW Machlnea
Figure 5 Outline of a COW pipeline system
These differing crude oil supply methods allow flexibil ity when compiling a specific COW programme
in order to achieve optimum effectiveness and cleanliness in the cargo tanks to be washed .
The crude oil supply is delivered into a main fore and aft pipeline running the full length of the ship's
cargo tanks space; this is the crude oil wash main pipeline. At suitable locations along the length
of this main pipeline smaller diameter transverse pipelines are connected to enable delivery of the
crude oil supply to specific COW machines. The COW pipeline system, as required by the MARPOL
regulations, is a fixed system. In contrast , prior to the usc of COW, the water washing systems
employed onboard tankers were based on the use of portable hoses and machines.
I. : E I ~ ~ I . 'Ill l ' ruu II'. .l I, l I . . ' , _ j, I 25
(3) Heatorcool the sampleonboardby meansofmarginalcoolingand heatingofthe sampleusing
waterina safe environment(being alertto risks posed bycrudeoilvapouremissions).
(4) Record both the observed density, to at least three decimals, and the corresponding sample
temperature, to at leastO.5'C.
(5) DatarecordedcanbeplottedtorevealtheinflectionpointontheplotsimilartothatshowninFigure4.
5.1.4TheCloudPointtemperaturemodel
As an alternative to measuring crude oil densityat differing temperatures and using the database
ofthe Cloud Pointtemperaturesobtained by the viscometricmethod, a mathematicalequationwas
developedto provide Cloud Point temperatures that fall within the accuracy limits required by the
research programme,i.e. 3'C, for all crudeoils. Inorderto obtainareasonablysimplemodel, only
the three main parameters that affectthe temperature and extent of precipitation of waxes from a
crudeoilwereused indevelopingthe equation.Althoughverypertinentto the precipitationof crude
oil sludges, these parametersmaynot be readilyavailableto all, including ships'crews,whowould
wish to determinethe valueofthis parameter.
Thethree parametersareas follows:
(1) Totalwaxcontentofthe crudeoil.
(2) Meltingpoint/congealing pointtemperatureofthe varioustypesofwaxescontained inthe crude
oil and theirrespectiveamounts.
(3) Extent of "solvent" present in the oil which prevents, or inhibits, the precipitation until it is
"saturated".
The equationdevelopedto determinethe Cloud Pointtemperatureof acrudeoil isas follows:
PredictedCloudPointtemperatureeC) =104.26(lnlnF-1.55)
where: F=a +b+ c
2T
and where:
a =4(W
,
x M
,
x C )
sso
b=2(W xM xC )
2 2 S09
c= W X M X C
3 3 369
T = L C
,49
, C
232
, C
342
, C
369
, C
S09
' C
sso
and where:
W isthe waxcontent(%weight)ofthe relevantC refining "cut"
Misthe relevantmeltingpointofthe wax contentW
Cisthepercentageweightofthe signified distillation/refining"cut" at
the subscripttemperatures
Page17
!NTERTP.,NKO- AGuide to Crude Oil \ \ i 3 S h i ~ ~ and CargoHeating Cnteria- May 200
Although the equation looks complicated, it can be easily computerised for onboard use. However,
the calculation relies upon the availability and knowledge of the relevant parameters for a crude oil
so that they may be inserted into the equations at the appropriate point. Such parameters may be
found in the more complete types of crude oil assays compiled by oil companies for their internal
use. This calculation method will provide an accurate temperature to which a cargo should be heated
in order to prevent the phase separation/deposition of potentially extensive sludges in a crude oil
tanker's cargo tank.
5.2 The predicted extent of precipitated sludge before COW
One negative result of heating an oil cargo, particularly for a volatile crude oil, is the increased
probability of volumetric loss due to breathing/evaporation of volatile fractions from the crude oil.
The loss of these volatile fractions from the oil will, in turn, reduce the potential "solvency" of the
remaining crude oil for washing purposes. As a result, it is necessary to exercise close control over
the heating of crude oil in a cargo tank, i.e. within a narrow temperature band of say 3'C, during
transport in order to minimise volumetric loss of vapours from the heated cargo and, therefore,
maximise the volume of crude oil discharged.
A further preliminary equation has been developed to predict the likely extent of sludge deposition
from a crude oil given a cargo temperature below the Cloud Point temperature. This equation could
be of use to a tanker's Chief Officer during the preparation of a COW programme, helping with the
answers to questions such as: How many cycles are required? Should the COW medium be heated?
How much COW medium is needed? Should the COW concentrate on a bottom wash only In order
to remove the majority of the precipitated sludges?
The sludge deposition equation is as follows:
Sludge deposited (% weight of total cargo] =WTI WTI
c o
(T
c
Tpl
where:
Tp is the Pour Point temperature eC) of the crude oil
T
c
is the Cloud Point temperature eC) of the crude oil
To is the observed temperature eC) of the crude oil
W
T
is the total wax content (% weight) of the crude oil - this unknown can be calculated using the
equation for wax content In section 6.2
The sludge deposition equation has been tested for its accuracy on a number of occasions and has
shown reasonable accuracy, i.e. within 0.075 per cent of the true/observed residual onboard (ROB)
volume percentage. As a recent example, a tanker which discharged a 337,000 m' crude oil cargo
at an average temperature of 20SC, and whose cargo Cloud Point temperature was 24'C, was left
with an ROB volume of 1,333 m' prior to COw. The deposition model predicted an ROB/unpumpable
volume of 1,146 rn", or 0.34 per cent of the cargo volume. The actual ROB volume observed was
0.39 per cent of the full cargo volume.
INTERTANKO -A Guide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Heating Cnleria - May 2004 Page 18
6 The practical implications of the Cloud Point determination
6.1 MARPOL regulations and commercial implications
As a resultof the introduction of MARPOL1973f78, crude oil tankers are obliged to undertakethe
cleaning of aselection oftheirtanks utilising their crude oil cargo during itsdischargefor eitherthe
subsequentcarriage of ballastwateror de-sludging the cargo tanks. Within the commercial world
of chartering and trading of vessels/cargoesthis procedurewas originallydeemed to befinancially
advantageousgiven that all thevessel's cargo, savefor,perhaps, upto 0.1%,would bedischarged
includingthetraditionallyunpumpablematerial.
Inreturnfortheseincreasedout!urns,tankerownerswerenormallyallowedadditionaltimeof,typically,
12 hours to accommodatecargo dischargealong with the COW procedure. However, todaymany
standard, modern charter party forms allow substantiallyless additional time and only when COW
is specifically requested over and above the mandatory minimum to comply with MARPOL73/78.
The following charterparty exampleshighlightthecurrentstate ofplay:
(1) BEEPEEVOY4, clause 19,allows additional time, only when additional COW (additional tothe
MARPOLminimum) is requested, at 25 per cent of the total discharge time stipulated for the
pumpingwarranty,e.g.6hoursfora24-hourdischarge.Notimeisallowed forthebasicMARPOL
minimum COw.
(2) SHELLVOY5, clause 20, allowsadditional time if COW is required "by charterersor any other
competent authority". The question remains: Which authorities fall within the definition of 'a
competentauthority'?Forexample,isIMOacompetentauthority?Ifso, shouldundertakingthe
mandated minimum COWto complywith MARPOLbecompensated with additional time? The
time allowancestipulated bytheclauseis0.75 hours per cargo tank washed.
Thesecharter party examplesof additional dischargetime would enable atankeroperatorto carry
out one cycle of washing of the cargo tanks to renderthem clean and acceptablefor the receipt of
ballast;todesludgetherequiredlrotationtanksforthatloadedvoyage; andtomaximisethedischarge
volume. InthecaseoftheSHELLVOYcharterpartytheextratimeallowancewould onlycompensate
forthe normal time required forabottomwash with minimalstripping.
Given the possibilityofsludgedeposition from acrude oil cargo, it has been necessaryto consider
the likelyeffects/efficiencyofatypicalcrudeoilwashing programmeforthe removal ofthedeposited
sludges generated when the crude oil's temperature drops belowthe Cloud Point temperature.As
an extremeexample, the extent of deposition witnessed and measured when the oil temperature
drops belowthe Cloud Point can begreaterthan 10,000 barrelsofoil on asingle laden voyagefor
the larger crude oil carriers. However, before considering the efficiency and expectations of COW,
given the foregoing time criteria, the physicalcriteriaofthecrude oilshould bereviewedto discover
whetherthe oilissuitableforthe washing process.
TheamendedrequirementsofSection9oftheCOWManualremovefrom considerationtheconcept
ofthe"SUitability"ofacrudeoilforitspurposeasawashingmedium.Allcrudeoilswithin the MARPOL
Page 19
Ir--HERTA.NKO - AGuide to Crude OillNa::.hingand Carqo lteatinq Criteria - May 200
definition would be suitable as a washing medium, provided the crude oil or the proposed washing
stock can be pre-treated to meet the physical requirements stated above. However, with respect
to certain crude oils, particularly the aromatic types due to their individual behaviour, it is doubtful
that significant additional benefit can be accrued from crude oil washing over the traditional efficient
stripping of the cargo tanks.
In addition, if the tanker is offered a crude oil wash medium from ashore, it is necessary to check the
following aspects
- Is it to be delivered heated and, if so, at what temperature?
- What volume or tonnage is available?
- What is the quality of the material being offered?
- Is the crude oil wash material compatible with the likely residues to be found in the vessel's
tanks? If the oil is aromatic, what impact will it have on paraffinic sludge residues?
It has been stated that in order for a crude oil to remain in a "totally" liquid phase a temperature above
the Cloud Point temperature must be maintained. It is important to ensure that this temperature
requirement is observed in order to avoid havinq to use a heterogeneous crude oil mixture for crude
oil washing. Such a mixture contains an amount of quasi-solid suspended or phase-separated
sludqe. The behaviour and characteristics of this sludge, which could accumulate in a vessel's tank
or COW piping system, are very different from the "mother" crude.
The efficiency of crude oil washing with a liquid cargo containing separated sludge will not be
as good as that with a "totally" liquid phase crude oil because the reduced solvent powers of the
heterogeneous crude oil mixture make the removal of deposited sludges more difficult. Laboratory
simulations have shown that liquid cargo containing separated sludge has a limited impact as a
solvent. This is to be expected as crude oil in such a state and at such a temperature, below the
Cloud Point temperature, would be in the process of precipitating some of its own constituent waxes
into a suspended sludge phase.
With such high Pour Point temperature materials in suspension, i.e. typically between 45'C and
60'C, when a paraffinic crude oil's temperature drops below the crude oil's Cloud Point temperature,
additional deposition in the tank being washed is probable.
The provisions of the additional clauses usually contained in tanker charter parties, often entitled
"cargo retention" or "cargo delivery" clauses, place a responsibility on the vessel's owners for the
discharge of the entire tank contents, including residues, unless it is commercially or physically
impracticable to do so. Failure to comply with such provisions will result in the payment of the value of
the "retained" quantity by way of a deduction from freiqht". The normal commercial criteria associated
with a balanced set of charter party clauses relevant to this topic are as follows:
(1) The tank residues are liquid, or should have been removable by efficient COW and/or maintaining
the specified/required heating of the cargo.
5 Harvey Williams, "A Guide to Tanker Charters" INTERTANKO 2001.
lNTERTANKO - A Guide to Crude Oil Waslling and Cargo Heating Criteria - ~ l y 2004
Page 20
(2) Theresiduesarereachable bythevessel's pumps; i.e.theywillflowtotheaftendofthevessel's
tankandthepump,through thelengthofsuction piping',withtheenergy induced by thetrimof
thevessel.
(3) The residue ispumpable bythevessel'spumps.
(4) Thecircumstancesare certified, where appropriate, byanindependentsurveyor.
Inorder to meet the foregoing commercial requirements, three primarycriteria must be present. In
orderfortheCOWprogrammetosucceed andextensivevolumesofsludgesandoilstoberemoved
fromthe cargotanks, itmay benecessaryto bringthethree criteria into playsimultaneously.
Thethree conditionswhich mustbemetforasuccessfulCOWoperation areasfollows:
(a) The crude oil wash medium must have adequate residual solvency. This can be achieved by
heating, andavoiding the useofsludge contaminatedwash medium i.e.extensive recirculation
during "closed cycle" crude oilwashing. Typically,the minimum temperature required forcrude
oil washing ofaprecipitated paraffinicsludge phasewould be30C.
(b) The crude oil wash jet must beapplied with sufficientforce to move the settled sludge phase.
Therefore, the COW pressure must beclosely monitored, particularlyatthe forward endof the
crude oilwash supply pipeline. The input of warm "fresh"crude oil will helpto create adilution
by adding a liquid phase to the static sludge phase to change the crude oil's overall "dynamic
behaviour",
(c) The obtaining of a suitable trim of the vessel to induce flow tothe suction positions ina tank.
Subjecttostressandbending momentrestrictions, aminimumtrimof8metresoverthelengthof
VLCC isnormally recommended.
6.2 The crude oil washing of sludge and some practical implications
What is sludge?
InISOITR8338:1988 standard definitions are given for both "sludge" andthe more commonly, but
potentiallyerroneously, used alternativetermof"sediment". These definitionsareasfollows:
Sludge
That element ofmaterial in a ship's cargo tank that is essentiallynot free-flowing. It consists of
hydrocarbonwaxes andmaycontain waterloilemulsionsandsediment.
Sediment
Thatelementofnon-free-flowingmaterialleftina ship'stankwhichisessentiallyinorganicinnature,
forexample sand,rustparticles, etc. Itisnotsoluble inhydrocarbonoil.
6 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) explanations - see "AnExplanation and Guideline for Pumping Calculations"
- INTERTANKO, March 2001.
Page 21
!NTERTANI<O - AGuide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo HeatlrJ[J Criteria- f\..1ay200
Given the foregoing and before considering the dynamic behaviour of sludge, it is important to
record the physical properties of sludqe so they may be related to the ISO definitions above. The
various sludges, as sampled from cargo tanks upon completion of a crude oil wash programme,
normally exhibit Pour Point temperatures in the 45' -60'C range, although very much higher Pour
Point temperatures have occasionally been observed, irrespective of the paraffinic type of crude oil.
A set of test methods and physical properties of a typical sludge can be found in Table 2 below.
Test Method Result
Density@ 15C kg/I I.P.189/190 0.9225
Wax Content %(m/m) UOP46/85 mod 25.51
Pour Point C I.P.15 + 66
Asphaltenes %(m/m) I.P.143 0.42
Table 2 Test results and physical properties for a typical sludge
Due to the difficulty in accurately determining the total hydrocarbon wax content of an oil by analysis,
a model has been developed which correlates the total wax content of a crude oil with its Pour Point.
The various analyses that have been undertaken have shown that the percentage of wax normally
determined is only a proportion of the total wax in a crude oil sludge. In addition, only a proportion of
the paraffinic types of wax and none of the non-paraffinic waxes have been detected.
The formula for determining the total hydrocarbon wax content of an oil is as follows:
Log (wax content % weight) = 100.00708,.0 115n'4
where:
x is the Pour Point temperature of the oil in 'C
This formula indicates that the associated wax contents of sludges having the Pour Point temperatures
quoted above would be in the 33-54% range. The balance of the sludge volume is normally comprised
of entrapped oils, precipitated asphaltene/polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), water and other
foreign matter (rust and sand) in the wax-rich crystalline matrix. Depending on the extent of water
present in the sludge, a wax-rich "tight" emulsion with high dynamic viscosities is created.
The dynamic behaviour of sludge does not correspond to the normal behaviour of highly viscous
substances. When flow is induced by a force on highly viscous substances, i.e. their yield stress
has been exceeded, in normal circumstances such substances will continue to flow thereafter. The
yield stress of a substance is the necessary force that has to be applied to the substance to achieve
deformation due to failure of its structure.
In contrast, waxy crude oil sludges are so called "memory liquids". In other words, although the
required force is applied to the sludge to promote flow, after a short period the sludge will re-adopt
its original form and cease flowing. It remembers its original molecular form! This will clearly create a
problem when attempting to remove sludge from a vessel's tanks because, as the COW jet rotates
around the tank, it is applying force for only a moment at a specific point in the tank.
INTERTANKO A Guide to Crude Oil Waslling and Cargo Heating Criteria - May 2004 Page 22
Preliminary investigations to determine the actual dynamic behaviour of sludge samples when
simulating the practical conditions onboard a tanker revealed important physical data. Not least, the
yield stress of these precipitated sludges at the corresponding environmental temperature was in the
order of 1,000 to 3,000 Pascals.
In addition, the dynamic viscosity of one sludge sample was found to be as high as 2,000,000
centipoise (mPa s). With a density of 1,000 kg/m3, this dynamic viscosity would be equivalent to
2,000,000 cSt at the simulated environmental temperature. With such yield stresses and dynamic
viscosities it is clear that these sludges, on their own, could not be classed as liquid, pumpable or
reachable by the vessel's pumps. In other words they would not readily flow under normal gravitational
forces, as experienced when the ship is trimmed, to the pump suction.
A substance with these types of properties is similar to that of a "wet concrete". With these properties
the programming for the crude oil washing of a vessel's tanks to remove the deposited sludge and
its oils must be carefully considered. This exercise must take into account the physical and chemical
properties of the wash medium and the energy input options available to the tanker operator.
7 COW equipment and procedures
In Section 2 the basic objectives and relevant equipment for crude oil washing, as specified in COW
Manuals, are listed. Previous sections in this Guide have described the behaviour of the various
crude oil wash media. This section will cover the types of equipment and cargo systems typically
used in COW operations, as well as the procedures/programmes most commonly employed to
carry out COW. The following descriptions will not be appropriate for the equipment and procedures
employed on every crude oil tanker, simply because of the vast array of differing types of equipment,
cargo system designs and pipeline systems available on the market. Instead, generalisations are
made in order to provide a simple explanation of the key COW equipment and procedures.
7.1 COW machines and tank cleaning nozzles
COW-specific equipment found on a tanker comprises the crude oil washing machines and their
"guns". The different types of COW machines available fall into one of three main categories, i.e.
programmable, non-programmable and submerged machines. The first two categories are deck-
mounted equipment with the tank cleaning nozzles, or guns, suspended on fixed, rigid pipes about
5 metres below the vessel's main deck. The submerged machine is tank bottom-mounted and is
non-programmable but "spot-located" to assist in the washing of shadow areas of the tank where
direct impingement of the main jet from the deck-mounted guns is deficient. Operation of submerged
machines is similar to that of deck-mounted, non-programmable machines.
Programmable machines allow the operator to decide on the scope of movement of the washing
gun and the rate of rotation of the nozzle in the cargo tank. The scope is controlled by the angle
of elevation of the gun, with O' being directly beneath the gun position in the tank. Therefore, for a
bottom wash cycle, for example, the elevation of the gun will be limited to, say, 40', and the cycle
Page 23 INTERTANKO - A ~ J l d to Crude Oil Washing ario Cargo Heating Cntena ~ May 200
will be determined as being say, 0'- 40'- 0'. likewise, with a side or top wash the scope of elevation
of the crude oil wash machine will be set at, say, 40'- 110'. Although programmable machines offer
a number of advantages (these will be discussed below), such machines are more expensive and
more maintenance intensive than the non-programmable alternative.
As suggested by their name, it is not possible to control the wash programme with non-programmable
machines. The starting location of the machine nozzles is normally unknown and the operator has
to assume that the whole tank has been washed in the operation manual's stipulated time for one
complete cycle of the machine (bottom and side/top wash).
Another major difference between the two types of equipment is the number of nozzles per machine.
A typical programmable machine has one nozzle of between 25 and 35 mm diameter whereas non-
programmable machines have two nozzles of smaller diameter. Some new programmable machines
have a smaller diameter nozzle. It is said that such nozzles provide a more effective COW operation
and require less motive pressure to adequately operate the machine. However, a smaller nozzle
does suggest less COW medium is used in the COW operation and this will therefore have an impact
upon the extent of solvency available to remove the precipitated sludges.
The final major difference between the types of COW equipment is the manner in which the machines
and their nozzles rotate. The different approaches are described in the following paragraphs:
Programmable machines
The machine head rotates horizontally, with the nozzle being set at the programmed angle. With
each completed horizontal rotation, the angle of the single nozzle is either lifted or depressed in a
vertical direction by the programmed number of degrees. This movement of the machine head and
nozzle creates a form of helical pattern with tighter rotation tracks closer to 0' (vertically below the
machine). The speed of rotation of the head is determined by either the crude oil supply pressure or
a compressed air-driven motor attached to the machine's control mechanisms.
Non-programmable machines
These machines have both a horizontal rotation of the machine head and a near vertical rotation of
the twin (directly opposing) nozzles. As the head of the machine rotates horizontally, the twin nozzles
rotate in the near vertical plane, thereby creating a form of hatched lattice type wash pattern for both
butkheads, deckhead and tank floor simultaneously. Such machines have no method of control, save
for the supply valve for crude oii and the supply pressure that controls the rate of rotation.
The number of machines in each cargo tank varies and is dependent upon the extent of internal
structure within the tank and the size of the tank. Typically, the "effective" jet length from a nozzle,
operating at its correct supply pressure, would be about 40 metres. Therefore, nonnally each tank is
provided with 2 or 3 machines so that the extent of shadow area (non-contact or impingement area)
is limited and meets the requirements of the MARPOL requlations.
- A Guide to Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Healing (>te,.ia . May 2004 Page 24
7.2 COW pipeline systems
Figure 5shows asimplifiedschematicplanofapipeline system usedtodelivercrude oiltotheCOW
machines. An examination shows thefollowing three sourcesofcrude oilsupply:
(1) Directlyintothemaincrudeoilwash lineondeckviaacrossoverondeck fromthemaincrude oil
dischargepipelines. This isachieved byopening the relevant valves connectingthe main crude
oil pipelineswith themain COW pipeline onthe crossoverpipeline.
(2) Byisolating onecargo pumpfrom thebulkdischargeforthepurpose oftaking suction onacrude
oil volume in a specific cargo tank . This is achieved by opening the relevant valve on the COW
pipeline crossover (e.g. connecting the green crude oil line) to the COW main and closing the
main green crude oil block valve on deck.
(3) By isolating one cargo pump (e.g. the green pump) from the bulk discharge for the purpose of
taking suction on a prepared and designated crude oil wash stock located in the vessel's slop
tanks. This isachieved bythe samemethodasabove buttaking direct suction onthe sloptank
using thegreen pump.
- GOW Mall'
- RedcarooLine
- BlueCargoUne
- GwenCargo Line
- Slop e n ~ Suction lines
- COWMachines
}
From
=--------------- Cargo
Tanks
.--
Figure 5OutlineofaCOW pipeline system
These differingcrude oilsupply methodsallowflexibilitywhen compiling aspecificCOW programme
inordertoachieve optimumeffect ivenessand cleanlinessinthe cargo tanks tobewashed.
The crude oilsupply isdelivered into amainfore and aft pipeline running thefull length oftheship's
cargo tanks space; this is the crude oil wash main pipeline. At suitable locations along the length
of this main pipel ine smaller diametertransverse pipelines <=Ire connected to enable deliveryof the
crude oilsupply tospecificCOW machines. The COWpipeline system,asrequired bythe MARPOL
regulations, is a fixed system. In contrast, prior to the use of COW, the water washing systems
employed onboard tankers were based onthe useof portable hoses and machines.
Page ~ ~ r'A .I .' ) J ' .
IJ . l J JIlin il .1'. 'ill. I J. I ut . . I .
7.3Strippingsystems
COW performance and its effectiveness also depend on a well-designed and efficient stripping
system.This is usedfor the removal ofthe crudeoil washmedium from the washed tankstogether
with any recovered oil/sludges. There are two basic types ofstripping system, namely the main
cargo pump "vacstrip" orsimilarsystemand the cargoeductor, sometimesreferred to as "ejector".
Vac-strip systems operate by applying a partial vacuum to the "suction" side ofthe vessel's main
centrifugalpumpsinorderto evacuateany gasesorvapourinthe pumpand aid the pumpingaining
ormaintainingsuctiononthe residueliquidswithinthe relevanttank'. Alternativesystemstothe vac-
strip approachgenerateacolumn or headof liquid inachambercloseto the cargopump, ensuring
thatthe pump is "primed" at all times. This type ofstripping system uses the main cargo pipeline
system and suction, which may be located as much as 150 mm above the tank floor. However,
certain pipeline designsalso havea separatestripping suction connected to the main pipelinethat
is only about 50 mm above the tank floor. With a suitable trim this type of stripping system will
efficientlydrainatankof liquid leavingonlysmallamountsofliquidresiduesinthe aft bayofthe tank
as allowedfor underparagraph4.4.4. ofthe tanker'sCOWManual.
The eductorobtains a veryefficient form of suction using Bernoulli'sprinciple. The principle of an
eductor is that a fluid is pumped past a restriction somewhere along the length ofthe pipeline,
therebycausing the rate of flowto increase.At the pointof the restriction an alternativepipelineis
insertedsuch thatitsopenend isinthe direction offlowofthe liquid.At the open end ofthe inserted
pipelineavacuum isgenerated,therebycreatingasuctionwithinthe pipeline.Crudeoil, suppliedby
oneofthe main cargopumps,isused asthedrivingfluid fortheoperationofthe eductor.Whenusing
an eductor, itisessentialthat the pressureof the driving liquid enteringthe eductoris high enough,
i.e. normallyabout11 kg/cm
2
, to createthe design suction.
Thissystem differssignificantlyfrom the action of acentrifugal pump as it suppliesa suction to the
strippingsystem.Contraryto popularbelief,cargopumpsdo not haveany suctioncapacityand only
applyadditionalenergytothe liquid enteringthe pump.Therefore,the liquid enteringthe pumpmust
flowthereduetoanexternalhead(energysource)overcomingthe netpositivesuctionhead (NPSH)
ofthe suctionpipelinesystems.
Eductorshavetwoadditional majoradvantagesovera conventional pumping/strippingsystem, i.e.
(1) Even though suction from a tank may be lostor the eductorbegins drawing in vapouror gas,
the eductorwill continueto operatewithoutdangeror theriskof damage. Theeductorhasno
movingparts and doesnothaveto be transferred immediatelyto analternativetank containing
liquid.
(2) The suctionsupplied byan eductorsystemoperatingin its designmodeisveryefficientand will
drawnotonlyliquidsinto the system but alsohigherviscositysubstancesthat are verynearto
the tanksuction point.
7 Reference: "AnExplanation and GUidelineforPumping Calculations"-INTERTANKO,March 2001.
B Reference: "AnExplanation and Guideline for Pumping Calculations"- INTERTANKO, March 2001.
INTERTAW<O- AGuideto Crude Oil\Nashing and Cargo He8ting Criteria - MaV2004 Page 26
Having briefly discussed the main COW equipment, itisnecessaryto discuss the commonly used
COW techniques. Inbroad termsthere aretwo very dissimilartechniques, i.e. concurrent washing
(withdischarge) andclosedcyclewashing.
7.4 Crude oil washing concurrent with cargo discharge
COW concurrent with cargo unloading is undertaken during the main discharge programme. The
method utilises the crude oil stream being discharged, togetherwith its associated back pressure,
to supply the COW pipeline with crude oil. Itcan be achieved either by a "bleed-off' system from
the main crude oil discharge pipelines for supply to the COW pipeline (see Figure 5and the deck
crossover tothe COW pipeline) orbyseparate supply using adesignated cargo pump. Ifsupply is
achievedbythebleed-offfromthebulkdischarge,thensufficientbackpressure hastobemaintained
at all times. The normal minimum back pressure required for the operation of the COW guns is 8
kg/cm'.
Thisprocedurecannotbeproperlyusedbytankersequippedwithnon-programmableCOWmachines
ifafullcrudeoilwashprogrammeinvolvingallthevessel'stanksisrequired.Thisisduetothelackof
controllabilityofthenozzleandtheinabilityofanon-programmablemachinetowashselectedareasof
thecargotanktobewashed.Theprogrammewillcommencewhenthefirsttankstobewashedareat
aboutone-halftotwo-thirdsdischarged.Thiswillrepresentthetoporsidewashintherelevanttank.
Advantages oftheCOW concurrentwith cargodischarge method areasfollows:
(1) Itdoes not necessarily require adesignated pump to supply the COW system and,therefore,
it does not significantly slow the overall discharge rate unless one main cargo pump is re-
designated forthewash programme.
(2) Itutilises"clean"crudeoilthroughouttheprogrammeasthecrudeoilisusedonlyonceinthecrude
oil wash programme. Thus, any recovered sludge or tank washings are more homogeneously
mixedwiththebulkdischarge ratherthanconsolidated fordischarge attheendofthedischarge
programme asahigh PourPointtemperaturemixture.
NOTE:HighPourPointtemperaturecrudeoilmixturescanblockpipelines/COWsystems inadverse
temperatureenvironments.
(3) Asthecrudeoilisusedonlyonceintheprogramme, the"solvency"effectofthecrudeoilandits
lower kinematicviscosity assists the potential for the removal ofprecipitated paraffinicsludges
(seefurther discussion below).
However,COW concurrent withcargodischarge isnotwithout itsdisadvantages, asfollows:
(1) The programme requires a significant amount of planning and discipline to ensure that
sufficient crude oil ispresent tocomplete the required COW programme without stopping the
bulkdischarge.
Page27 INTERTANKOAGuide to Crude OilWashingand Cargo Heating Criteria- May200
(2) The programmerequirescontinuous monitoring oftanklevels, particularlysloptanks, to avoid
overfilling. Slop tanks receiving the strippedwashing mediumand recovered sludge should be
dischargedashoreat reasonabletimeintervalsto avoid significantloss of safe/spareUllage.
(3) Theefficiencyofthe COWsystemand the satisfactoryoperationofthe COWcleaning machine
nozzles rely upon the COW pipeline pressure. If the shore back pressure is below 8 kg/cm',
then increased back pressure on the main discharge pipeline delivering to the COW pipeline
would have to be achieved or the COW programme must be stopped as required Within the
COWManualguidelines.This isnormallyundertakenby"throttling",orpartiallyclosing,the deck
pipelinemaster/blockvalve to increasethe pressureatthe "bleedoff'positiontothe COWmain
(see Figure 5 above). However, the action ofthrottling may cause damage to the valve or its
seating ifitisnot designedfor suchpurposes.
(4) This type of programme produces more volumetric loss of hydrocarbon vapour from the
cargo, because of the continuous use of "fresh" crude oil. Therefore, an apparentincrease in
retained vapours onboard may be recorded, particularly for the more volatile types of crude
oil, i.e. those with a Reid vapour pressure (RVP)in excess of 6 psia" ,therebygenerating the
possibilityofan increased outturn loss ofvolume.
(5) When heated wash material is required in orderto comply with guidance notes in Section 9
of the revised COW Manual and to assist with the removal ofprecipitated sludqes, then this
methodmaynotbe usableifthe cargoistransportedand dischargedunheated.
7.5"Closedcycle"crudeoilwashing
The closed cycle COWmethodutilisesafixed and prepared (de-watered)volumeorstockofcrude
oil washing liquid, usually contained within the vessel's slop tank(s). One of the tanker's main
cargo pumps is used both to supply this oil to the main COW pipeline and to drive the eductor
for the simultaneous stripping of the washed tanks. The tank strippings are returned back to the
slop tankCOWstockand this standardstock,togetherwith washing recoveries, iscontinuouslyre-
used throughoutthe total COWprogramme,or foras long aswashing efficiencyis maintained, ina
closed cycle. The contentofthe slop tank/s isfinallydischargedashoreattheend of the discharge
programme.
The advantagesof closed cycle COWare as follows;
(1) The programming of the crude oil washing is very much simplified and does not require
judgement regarding the rate of discharge in order to be sure that sufficient crude oil
wash stock remains within the bulk to be discharged in order to complete a required COW
programme. The exception is when the existing wash stock needs replacing due to a drop in
efficiencyoftheCOWperformed.This ismainlydue tothe extentof"contamination"ofthe wash
stockby recovered sludges.
Reference: TJ Gunner,"The Physical Behaviour ofCrude Oilinfluencing ItsCarriagebySea", ISBN827860-042-2. Itwasfound by
analysisofdata that vapour lossexpectancyincreased whenacrude oilhad anRVPover 6psia.
INTERTANKO - AGuideto Crude OilWashingand Cargo HeatingCriteria - May 2004
Page 28
9
(2) Overfilling ofthevessel'ssloptanksismuchlesslikely,subjecttothe extentofresidue recovery
from theCOW programme.
(3) Given that a vessel's pump is designated as the motive power for sole delivery to both the
COWsystemandfortheeductordrive,closercontroloverdeliverypressurescanbeaintained for
optimum efficiencyofthe COWprogrammeandeductordrive pressure (stripping efficiency).
(4) ThetimeallowedbythecharterpartyforCOWcanbecioselyadheredtoandthewashprogramme
modified orstopped atanytime.
(5) Lessvapour losswillbecreated fromthecargovolume becausethevolumetricvapour losswill
bemainly fromthe COWstock onlyand notthe bulkcargovolume.
(6) Pre-treatmentoftheCOWstockcanbeaccomplished ifheating ofthecrude oilover itsambient
temperature isrequiredforanefficient COWprogramme.Thiscondition issubjecttothe proper
functioning ofthe heating coils inthesloptank(s).
Thereare disadvantagestotheuseofclosed cycleCOW,asfollows:
(1) Because one cargo pump is dedicated to the COW programme, the tanker's full pumping
capacity isnotavailable. Therefore, theoverall dischargeratewill bereduced, particularlywhen
undertaking"topwashing" usingthistechnique.
(2) Ifthe fixed stock of crude oil is required for anextensivewash programmeand particularlyfor
the recovery of large amounts of paraffinic sludges, then its efficiency, both as a solvent and
forretaining thesludges insuspension,will bequicklyreduced.
(3) The crude oil wash stock may become very wax-rich and have an associated high Pour
Point temperature. In cold environments, therefore, there is a risk that the COW pipeline and
machinescould become blocked with precipitated sludges, impairing the efficiencyoftheCOW
programme.
(4) Theefficiencyofthe fixed COW stock may bereduced byits"saturation" with sludges, andthe
last tanks to be washed might not benefit from the COW operation. In such circumstances it
will benecessary toobtain afresh"charge" ofcrude oil.There could beassociated delays inits
preparation, especiallyifitisrequired tobeheated, before COWcan beresumed.
8 Crude oil washing of sludges
8.1 The theory and background
The primary objectivewhen removing deposited sludge isto reduce the viscosity ofthe sludge toa
pumpable state that isalso capable ofadequateflow tothe suction positions within the tanks. The
Page29 INTES:TANKO- AGuideto Crude O:l \Nashing and CargoHeating Criteria - May 200
controlling parameter in seeking to achieve this goal is the crude oil's kinematic viscosity that is used
to blend and dilute the sludges to an acceptable viscosity for pumping. In order to strip the cargo
tank of sludge efficiently, the sludge's viscosity has to be reduced to below 600 cSt. This is roughly
equivalent to the viscosity of a heavy fuel oil at a temperature of about 40"C.
To assist in achieving the objective of effective tank cleaning, the concept of "solvency" of the crude
oil wash medium upon the sludges and "dilution" of the sludges by the COW medium should be
considered. This is the primary way to reduce the sludge's viscosity to an acceptable level to enable
its collection from the cargo tank for ultimate discharge.
The "solvency" powers of the COW medium upon sludges depend upon the crude oil retaining an
adequate quantity of its lighter, more volatile components. These lighter components act as solvents
on the heavier components to be found within the precipitated sludges, reducing the viscosity of the
overall mixture. For example, tanker men know that kerosene is a good medium for cleaning greasy
or "oil-caked" instruments. More volatile hydrocarbon liquids, such as "white spirit", make even better
cleaning fluids. However, the volatility of the components in a crude oil which make good solvents
demands care and attention, especially when the crude oil wash medium is heated in preparation
for its use. Under such conditions, the highly volatile components may escape as vapour, reducing
the solvent powers of the crude oil wash medium and, hence its effectiveness as a cleaning agent.
Therefore, it is important that, when planning the proposed COW programme and pre-treating/
heating the COW stock (assuming a "closed cycle" programme), a balance is obtained between the
benefits of heating the COW medium and the potential loss of solvency of the medium. It should be
noted that the application of heat may melt the paraffinic waxes binding the sludge mass, but once
the heat energy is dissipated throughout the sludge mass, then the waxes will reform. Under such
circumstances, there is generally little to be gained by overheating the COW medium, say beyond
45"C, as a loss of solvency of the COW medium will ensue. However, with certain specific crude oils,
due to their characteristics, this general "rule of thumb" does not apply.
The concept of "dilution" is more closely related to the physical reduction of the viscosity of the
sludge rather than the dissolving of the paraffinic waxes in the context of "solvency". In the crude oil
washing of sludges dilution should be considered in two different ways. By introducing liquid phase
crude oil under pressure into a tank containing precipitated paraffinic studqes, the yield stress of
the sludges in way of the crude oil jet will be exceeded due to the force of impact of the jet upon the
sludges. This action starts the movement and break-up of the sludge mass and its form.
Having achieved "movement" of the sludge mass, the next objective is to "stir up" the precipitated
sludges into the crude oil wash volume, as introduced by the COW jet, and allow the combined
slurry, which is now of reduced viscosity, to flow aft to the tank suction pipeline. However, given the
viscosity of the crude oil wash medium, the amount of crude oil required to undertake this "blending"
can be significant, depending upon the volume of sludges in the tank. Further information regarding
this aspect will be discussed below when suggested alternative techniques for the crude oil washing
of sludges are considered.
INTERTANKO - A Guide to Crude Oil \Jilashing and Cargo Heating Criteria - May 2004 Page 30
8.2 Practical circumstances affecting the crude oil washing of sludges
The two sets of circumstances in which dilution may assist with the crude oil washing of sludges
relate tothe potentialdelaysbefore COWcan beundertakeninaspecifictank. Such delaysmay be
caused,forexample,when thestrippingsuction sharesthemainpipelinesystemtothecargo pumps.
Thus, ifthe maincargo pipelineisusedforbulkdischargefrom alternativetanks inthesame pipeline
groupoftanks, itwould not be possibleto usethe strippingsuctionforthe tank to bewashed.
(1) Ifsignificantvolumesofsludgesare believedtoexist inatankduetothe cargo temperatureand
the calculated Cloud Point temperature of the cargo, the sludge volume can nowbe estimated
using the equation given earlier. Ifthe tanker operator expects large volumes of sludge to be
generated, contraryto the general advice given ina COWmanual, the tank bottom should not
bestrippeddry priorto commencementofCOw.Avolumeoftheoriginalcargo should beleft in
thetank toassistwith the slurrifying ofthe precipitated sludge phase.
(2) If there are likely to be significant delays before COW is commenced, e.g. because
of a two-port discharge schedule, then, given the high Pour Point temperatures of typical
paraffinictype sludgesasshown above, itwould bemore beneficial, particularlyinacold water
environment, if the relevant cargo tanks are not stripped to dryness in the primary discharge
programme as normally suggested in a COW manual. A volume of the original cargo should
be left in the tank to maintain a slightly higher overall Pour Point temperature for the mixture
contained inthe tank. This will bebeneficialand limitthe time required to undertakeanefficient
COWprogrammeinthetanks.
Themotionofacrudeoilwash machinewill notalwaysassistwiththeobjectiveofremovingsludges.
The motionofaprogrammablecrude oilwash gun operating inatank, especiallywhen undertaking
a bottom wash, isbest describedas helical. As the machinerotates through its horizontal arcs, for
50% of the arc the applied force from the crude oil wash jet upon the sludges pushes the sludges
awayfromthedesiredposition, i.e.thesuction pipelinepositionintheaft bayofthetank. This action
decreases the effectiveness of the operation and needs to be considered when designing a COW
programmefor the removal of extensivesludges.
Sludge'sbehaviourwill vary with itstemperature.As paraffinicwax isa relativelygood temperature
insulator,the behaviourofsludgeisnotconstantthroughoutthedepth ofasludgevolume. Within the
vertical profileofthe sludge, the closer thesludgevolumeistothecolderoutsidesurfaceofthetank
the more viscousthe materialwill become.The surfaceofthe precipitatedsludgeincontactwiththe
liquid phase oil will beonlyslightlyviscous and can be removed byone cycle ofcrudeoil washing.
This observation applies to roughly 80% of the depth of a precipitated sludge volume, the actual
percentagedependingupon the environmenttemperatureandthe temperatureofthe original crude
oilcargo. The remaining20% ofthesludgevolumeclose tothe external surfaceofthetank, which is
incontactwith eitherthesea insingle-hulltankersor ballastwaterdouble-hulltankers,will havethe
highest viscosity. Therefore, a precipitated sludge volume is not a homogenous volume exhibitinq
standard behaviouralcharacteristicsthroughoutits depth.
Page31 - AGuide to Crude OilWashin[Jand Cargo Heating Criteria - May 200 .
L
With a normal set of operating parameters for a programmable COW machine on a large crude oil
carrier, in one second of operat ion the crude oil jet will be directed at approximately 1 m
2
of tank
surface and approximately 30 litres of oil will be used in the cleaning of that area. Calculations were
undertaken based upon the crude oil washing equipment operational criteria to establish the rate of
input into a tank per machine per second . These calculations established a possible maximum dilution
of 19% for a depth of sludge of 15 centimetres for each transit of the washing jet over an area of 1
m .
Given the foregoing calculated dilution, the effects of solvency of fresh crude oil upon the sludges
were visually observed during laboratory testing when creating differing dilutions/blends of the sludges
with fresh crude oil. The blends constructed were for 10%, 20%, 40% and 60% at a temperature of
60C in order to represent the dilution of sludges for 1, 2 and 3 washing cycles . The blends were ,
thereafter, cooled at a rate of 1' C per hour to just above the prevailing ambient sea temperature of
13C (a possible sea temperature at the time of COW). The viscosity of the mixtures was thereafter
continuously measured within the temperature range 10
o-15
'C. The results of this work can be seen
in Figure 6.
It was observed that, during the slow cooling programme, the sludges precipitated from the fresh
crude oil. This was to be expected when the crude oil reached a saturation temperature for the
additional types of hydrocarbons introduced into the mixture . At the lower test temperature of 10C
the fresh crude oil used in the testing provided little , if any, solvency effect.
The dynamic viscosit ies of the three dilutions/blends showed , in the main, significant variation for
flow and pumpability purposes from those measured for the unblended sludge. The results ranged
from 7,000 mPa s to 100 mPa s at 13'C, depending upon the extent of dilution. It was concluded that
even the tested blends, if created in the vessel 's tanks, would not flow to the pump suct ion position
after one or two washing cycles .
16000
: .nl o; t.qm t 10% ,-Nr 180, Jl O DO
;<:.:<
12.Q 31 ...... EI11i:I
12 J.. "a. g;-- 16,( 11
NI. 180. J l0 /II;}wn E:a: UD 0% . Nr 180 Jl 0
13.C::!.97. 08 39
V1iCl:lCai.... Vt::t : o:>lty
Ar:i!l bl.Rf ' E:&! l lto l lY-li. , Nr' ro Jl ::: Arb oll E. n;. Lq !'f;4, 60% Nr. l HO, .110
15 1:: s; ":2.::'7, '16..4,2
Figure 6 Sludge from Forozon/Arabian Extra Light (AEL) crude oil, diluted with A.E.L.
IN [RTAN n , Ul d 1.1 .. Il . . I... -
p
Using the data from this investigation,the expected extent of dilution of fresh crude oil needed to
generateapumpableslurrywiththeprecipitatedsludgesthatwould reasonablyflowinatankwiththe
tanker trimmed 8metres bythestern was between 60and70%.Thisissupportedbyadditional and
subsequentdilutionsofanalternativecrude oil tosludges of upto40%subjecttotwo wash cycles .
Theresulting dynamicviscositieswerefoundtobeabout8,000mPas.Itshould beremembered that
thefinalobjectiveofCOW istoreduce theviscosityofthe combined mixture ofoilandsludges toa
maximum ofabout600mPa sorapproximately600 cSt.
rn
3 5000
3 0000
2 000 0
15000
10000
sco 0
00

-Q-V ...
..

?
"1. v.
i '11.11.
0
....... v
....
!;IV 'jI'
'i /
)00

, " I
/" I I
.--- .-
0
I
..----. v..,. . a..
..
.. I
1
c=. , o!.
. . .
.-.
I
./
'
0 1
..
"V- 1
V

00
,I
I
it
II< 10
Shear RJte
Figure 7Yield stress
An investigation and analysis for the sludqe's yield stress was undertaken. Figure 7 shows the
measurements of yield stress, i.e. the force requiredto move the sludge , over a range of temperatures
foraparticularslucqe sample. Theresults revealed atypical yieldstressofapproximately1,400,000
mPa.When theresults were compared withtheimpact forceofthecrudeoilwashjet ,itshowed that
thejet's force easily exceeded the yield stress ofthe sludge andwould irnpinqe/penetratetothe full
depth of15cmforthe typeofsludge tested.However,itisbelieved that thesludge,given itsnature,
would be pushed/displaced to one side of the jet impingement area/track and create "furrows" in
the sludge mass. Indeed,on inspection of vessel 's tanks after a COW operation ,this pattern was
witnessed.
The "furrowing" ofthe sludgescausesmuch oftheWash medium todrain through thefurrowsaftto
thesuction position within thetank.This clearly impacts thetheoretical dilution ofthocrude oilwash
medium with the extent of sludqes,As a result, the foregoing theoretical calculations are only best
estimates of efficiency. Further, with the loss of the majority of the crude oil wash medium in this
way the impactof solvency of the wash medium upon the precipitated sludges isalso reduced.In
fact,itisbelieved that thewash medium onlyerodes theboundarysludges within the furrows. Itwas
predicted inone suchcircumstancethat onlyabout 5%ofthe sludges would have been removed in
onewash cycle due totheobserved physical nature ofthe sludge.
P 9 . 3 I J l.. ' .. 1 ' J .. ..' 11 II - I
. r
8.3Analternative,practicalprogrammeforthecrudeoilwashingofsludge
AtypicalCOWprogrammewillaccommodatethe possibilityofallthe machinesinone tankoperating
atthesametime. Inpracticesuch ascenariowould havetotakeintoaccountthenumberofmachines
that can be operated simultaneously in a safe manner, given the supply pressure and the size of
the eductorused for the stripping ofthe tankduringthe washing programme.Theprogrammeused
could be based on either the "concurrent" or "closed cycle" method, or even a mixture of the two
techniques.
The use of all the tank cleaning guns in one tank simultaneouslymay not be the optimum way of
removingsludgesdueto, amongstotherreasons, the actionofthe gunsonthe precipitatedsludges.
Thereisa possibilitythattheywould pushthe sludges awayfrom the tanksuction locationfor50%
ofaprogrammablemachine'scycle.
Whenconfrontedwithsludgingofthecargotanks, particularlyincolderclimaticconditions,adeparture
from thetypicalorstandard procedureofcrudeoilwashinghas been found tobemoreeffectiveinthe
removalofsludges.Asuggestedprocedurecan bedescribed on astep-by-stepbasis, as follows:
(1) Utiliseaclosedcyclewash systemand load both sloptankstothe 60% full level with dewatered
crudeoilwashstock. Pre-treatthe crudeoilwashstockby heating,ifpossible, upto 10'Cabove
the oil's Cloud Pointtemperature. Shutthe equalisation line valve between the slop tanks and
cycle back to the first slop tankused for the COWprogramme.
(2) Assumingthatprogrammablemachinesareavailableandunlessrequiredtoemployanalternative
approach, carryout onlyabottomwash ineach tankusinga5'_40'_0'cycle. By commencingat
0',asignificantcumulativetimeisused "spotwashing"the arc 0'_5'duetothe helicalmovement
ofthe gun.
(3) Programme the dischargeso thattwo tanks may be washed together. It is assumed that each
tank has two COW machines, and a maximum oftwo machines may be operated at anyone
time. Itisfurtherassumed that the vessel isequipped with at least one eductorand itmaytake
suctiononeverycargotankwith itsdeliverydirectlybacktoeithersloptank. The cargotankstobe
washed need not bestripped completelydry beforecommencementof COWand, subjectto the
externalenvironment/seatemperaturesandthe natureofthe sludge,i.e.how "sticky" itis,oiltoa
depth ofabout30 cm can beatthe aftsounding location inthe tankbeforecommencingCOw.
(4) Commencethe COWinthe designated pairofcargotanks by opening the aft machinein each
tankto wash and clearthe aft bay. Depending upon the nature of the sludgeand the status of
the washing medium(seebelowforfurtherdiscussion), one cycleofwashingwith the warm oil
should be sufficient. For efficient draining of the cargo tank washings, the aft bay ofthe tank
around the stripping position must be cleaned first and kept clear of any accumulated wash
materialthroughoutthe programme.
(5) Starttheforwardtwomachinesineachtankwiththeremainingmachinesstopped.Thisprocedure
has two primaryadvantages, i.e.
INTERTANKO- AGuide toCrude Oil Washing and Cargo Heating Criteria - May 2004 Page34
(a) The jet of crude oil wash medium projected by the COW guns does not push the sludge
forward as itisconstrained bythe tank's forward bulkhead. Indeed, deflected "splash"will
starttodirectthe sludges aftwithout anycontrary interference/forcesfromthe operation of
theaftmachine haditbeeninoperation.
(b)Thesludgesremaininginthemiddlebaysofthetankwillforcethewarmwashoiltopercolate
throughthe sludges inordertobestrippedfromthetank.Thewarmer oilwillalsowarmthe
unwashedsludges and useallitsremaining "heatenergy"moreeffectively.
The lengthoftime required forthiswashwill againdepend uponthe natureandamount ofsludges
inthetank. However, previous useofthistechnique suggests that amaximum oftwocycleswould
beadequatetocleartheforward bays.
(6) Duetothe importance ofkeepingthesuction position clear,itmaybenecessaryto rewashthe
aftbay.Thisisnotalwaysnecessaryandwilldependuponthenatureanddegreeofdegradation
of"solvency" ofthewashing medium.
(7) The final section of the washing programme requires the washing of the centre and aft bays
ofthetank withthe aft machine inthe pair oftanks. This final stage ofthe programme should
remove the bulk of the sludges from the tank, provided their viscosity has been adequately
reducedtorenderthem pumpable.
(8) Upon completion ofthe final stripping period after closing the aft machine, the tank shouid be
checked foritscleanliness bysounding inthe prescribed four locations (paragraph 4.4.4 ofthe
COW Manual). If residue sludges are found inthe tank at certain locations, "spot" washing to
removethem maybeconsidered.
Afteraperiod oftime,asthisprocessis repeatedinother pairsof cargo tanks,theefficiencyofthecrude
oilwash mediumwillbereduced duetoitssaturation withthe recovered sludges. Thiswill become
evidentwhentheexpectedeffectiveness ofacrudeoilwashinapairofcargotanksisnotapparent.
AtthistimethecontentsofthesloptankbeingusedforthestorageoftheCOWmediumandrecovery
sludgesandoilshouldbeimmediately discharged. Thealready heatedandpreparedCOWmedium
inthealternativesloptankshouldthereafterbeused.Ifthereisexcessive sludgingonboardandafull
COWprogramme isrequired,thenitmaybenecessarytorechargetheoriginalsloptankafterithas
beendischarged withfresh crude oiland prepare itinreadiness tocontinue the COW programme.
Page35
!NTERTANKO- AGuide to Crude Oil Washingand Cargo Heating Criteria May 200 .
9 Closing remarks
All tanker operators and seagoing officers will have at some time in their career encountered sludging
problems onboard crude oil tankers. At the time it may not have been immediately clear either how
or why this problem had occurred or exactly what the impact of the sludging was. The aim of this
Guide is to help resolve some of these questions. By exploring the normal washing procedures used
onboard tankers, it is further hoped that some guidance and recommendations have been provided
on how best to avoid the sludging problem and, when sludging does occur, to minimise its effects on
tanker operations.
INTERTANKO - A Guide 10 Crude Oil Washing and Cargo Heating Criteria - May 2004 Page 36
(D
INTERTANKO
The InternationalAssociationof IndependentTankerOwners
FORSAFE TRANSPORT, CLEANERSEASAND FREE COMPETITION
Box5804Majorstua,0308Oslo,Norway
FaxNo.+4722122641
Iwould liketoorder__copy/iesof"AGuide to Crude OilWashing and Cargo Heating
Criteria'
USD 60 (members)
USD 120 (non-members)
Pleasesend the publicationindicatedabove:
o OurCompanyisaMember/AssociateMemberofINTERTANKO
COMPANY:
ADDRESS:
Attention:
Date:
METHOD OF PAYMENT
o Please charge mycredit card:Visa/Eurocard/Mastercard/Amex(delete asappropriate)
intheamountofUSD .
Credit card no.: .
Expirydate: ..
Cardholder'sname: .
Signature: .
USD paid into INTERTANKO'saccount"
Swift: HANDNOKKHandelsbankenNS, P.O.Box755Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway.
AccountNo.8396.04.41497
AllremittancesshouldbefreeofBankchargesandcommissions.
Publicationswillbe dispatcheduponreceiptof payment.
Compl ete
range of
portable
equipment
Sw ed
..
o e n ta k elea ing tee 010 y
with ag etlc tran i slon ,
WashTrac
ank cleaning monitoring system
combining Scanjet's tank cleani ng
machines with Saab TankRadar
from Saab Rosemount Marine.
Tank clean ing mon itoring systems are
recommended by INTERTANKO.
I//
P.o. Box 13051
SE402 51 GOTEBO G
n
Tel. +46-31 84 93 30
Fax +46-31 84 93 50
www.scaruei .se
office@ canjet. e