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Isolation vs. Expansion - Background of America's War with Spain

By Toni Lee Robinson It was 1898. The nation that had begun as a bunch of ragtag rebels throwing rocks at the world's most powerful army had grown up. Amazingly, it had won its independence. At the time, the British Empire spanned the world. The young nation had even withstood a second war against Britain. It had bounced back from the humiliation of seeing its capital reduced to ashes. It had even withstood the dreadful wounds of a war within itself. The United States was no longer an upstart band of colonies. It was a union, over one hundred years old, solid and strong. Through all its struggles, its people had constantly pushed out its boundaries. A vast wilderness had been tamed. Now the country sprawled across the North American continent. It truly stretched "from sea to shining sea." Ships carrying goods from U.S. fields and factories docked at all the world's ports. From all over the world, other ships brought people to the nation's wide shores. The newcomers looked to America for their future. Many thousands had hung their hopes on the "broad stripes and bright stars." In the 1890s, the U.S. and the world were getting ready for the coming of a whole new century. For many Americans, times were good. They had made it through a nasty economic storm in the early part of the decade. Now, factories were humming and people were buying goods. In most sectors, money was flowing. The importance of foreign affairs was not lost on the money makers. They knew that far-off markets helped American business thrive. Still, for the better part of the last century, the attitude of most had been "There's no place like home!" Americans should look to America, people said, and leave the rest of the world to look after itself. Isolationism had been the prevailing way of looking at the world almost since the nation's birth. Americans were interested in selling goods to distant markets. Beyond that, they had little desire to be involved in foreign relations. In the early days, there was concern over the threat of European presence in the "neighborhood." The U.S. had gone into the War of 1812 overly confident in their military might. They had even tried to grab Canada for themselves. They'd gotten a scare when Britain not only proved herself fully capable of hanging on to Canada, but threatened to sweep through the U.S. as well. Americans were thankful when the U.S., in the end, managed to hold its own. The events of the second war, as well as the actions of European powers, made Americans rethink their strategy. Just how secure were they? The world powers were always in the market for new territory. They had snapped up many nooks, crannies, and handy little islands in what was then the new world. The vast, resource-rich lands of America would make a fine prize. If one of its land-hungry neighbors came calling, would the U.S. be able to defend itself? In 1823, President James Monroe gave a speech to Congress. In it, he served notice to European nations. If you're thinking of grabbing more land in our neck of the woods, he told them, forget it! Of course, his exact words were more formal, but that's the idea. He told European countries that fishing for colonies in the Americas would be considered an act of war against the U.S. The declaration came to be known as the Monroe Doctrine. Down through the years, Monroe's words had been the guide for U.S. foreign policy to one degree or another. They had been put to the test during the 1860s. As the U.S. fought its Civil War, France made a bold play for control right on America's doorstep. French forces raised up a European king on the throne in Mexico. As the Civil War ended, U.S. troops were sent to the Mexican border. War was narrowly avoided when French troops were called home to deal with other problems. Mexicans threw off the unwanted king and peace was restored. The Monroe Doctrine had been upheld.

Name Tuesday, January 24

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By and large, though, the people who had fought two wars for their freedom had no desire to go to battle for any lesser cause. The 1890s brought other questions for Americans, however. What about someone else's freedom? Was the U.S. willing to go to war for someone else's just cause? Expansionism became a more popular idea as the 1800s drew to a close. In defending the great ideal of freedom, America might add to its territory. Wouldn't that be a just reward? The U.S. had absorbed its wilderness. There was no more new land waiting to be settled. Surely there would always be a need for more land and resources to supply a growing population. Could there, after all, be some reason besides self-defense to go to war? The gathering clouds of war caused a scramble among American military leaders. The U.S. was proud of its navy. It had played a vital part in past military victories. Recently, it had been overhauled and enlarged. In the years since the Civil War, however, ground forces had been cut back. Money had not been allotted to keep the army up to date. Know-how was in short supply as well. Most War Department jobs had been handed out on the buddy system. In many ways, America wasn't ready to fight a war. Isolation vs. Expansion - Background of America's War with Spain

Questions
1. Explain some of the changes America had gone through in the hundred years between her independence and the coming of the 1900s.

2. Explain the isolationist way of thinking about foreign affairs.

3. How did the War of 1812 contribute to America's desire for isolation?

4. The Monroe Doctrine was a statement directed at ______. A. Britain B. The European nations C. Spain D. Congressmen who came to Washington not knowing how government worked. 5. True or false. The Monroe Doctrine was the basis for U.S. troops being sent to the U.S./Mexico border after the Civil War. A. False B. True

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6. Expansionists thought the U.S. should go to war with Spain mainly because ______. A. They had a deep desire to see the Cuban people freed. B. They were afraid Spain might attack the U.S. and take its property. C. They thought the U.S. should look for new land. D. It would help American business. 7. Why did the threat of war cause U.S. military leaders concern in 1898?

8. In your opinion, what result would be likely if military leaders got their jobs as a political payback instead of for their knowledge and experience?

Imagine you are living in the mid-1700s, before the American Revolution. You live in a colony. Your home country is actually a European nation far across the sea. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of living in a colony?

Name Wednesday, January 25

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At War with Bigotry - Buffalo Soldiers in the Spanish American War

By Toni Lee Robinson After the U.S. Civil War, troops were needed for remote outposts in the West. Troop strength had been cut after North and South had made peace. At the same time, the military was kept busy subduing native tribes as white settlers pushed west. The newly formed 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry Regiments were called upon to fill the manpower gap. The soldiers of the 9th and 10th were not green recruits. They had fought for the Union as members of the U.S. Colored Troops. They were black units staffed with white officers. A few years later, they were joined by two infantry units, the 24th and 25th. These were also made up of black soldiers. For the next two decades, the four units served in the American West. They put up forts, strung telegraph line, built roads, and guarded mail shipments. That was in addition to the main task-confronting the Apache, Kiowa, Sioux, and other tribes who strongly objected to being cornered on reservations. It was the Kiowa who gave the black troops their nickname-"Buffalo Soldiers." In their many skirmishes with the tribes, the black troops proved as tough and fearsome as the shaggy king of the Plains. Nearly 20 Medals of Honor were awarded amongst the four units during the "Indian Wars." Back in "civilization," however, it didn't matter how bravely a black soldier had served his country. He was subject to the same bias as before. He was still barred from white society, except as a servant. By the mid-1890s, the Buffalo Soldiers had worked themselves out of a job. The West had been tamed. Native tribes had been confined to their allotted lands. Then, towards the end of the decade, a long-simmering conflict just south of U.S. shores boiled over. America joined Cuban freedom fighters to oust Spain from the area. Again, troops were needed to fill the gap. The men of the four black units were useful assets to the U.S. Army. All were seasoned soldiers. They had proven themselves under difficult conditions. One hazard of the tropics for white troops was disease. It was widely thought that the illnesses would have no effect on African Americans. The Buffalo Soldiers were among the first of the regular army called to duty in Cuba. The units were sent to staging areas near Tampa, Florida. In southern towns, the old prejudice was alive and well. The black men who'd proudly done the U.S. military's job in the West were now insulted and demeaned. They endured racial slurs. Their daily lives were controlled by humiliating Jim Crow rules. Most of the soldiers met the insults with stoic restraint. But tension prowled the streets. Violence loomed just beneath the surface of every contact between black soldiers and whites. The war seemed a bitter joke to many black people. The U.S. was eager to come to the aid of those oppressed by Spain. At the same time, its own black citizens struggled with oppression every day. Still, the soldiers were anxious to depart for the battlefield. Anything was better than the hostility all around them in the staging camps. Besides, most believed the war was another chance for them to prove themselves. Once more they would march out under U.S. colors, laying their lives on the line. Surely now the hard edge of hatred would soften. Finally, the time came. Two days after setting foot on Cuban soil, the soldiers saw their first battle. At Las Guasimas, two columns of U.S. troops had already come against a fortified Spanish defense. Having battled dense jungle to get to the scene, Buffalo Soldiers were the last column to join the assault. The black troops burst from the brush with a mighty yell. As they charged toward the enemy, the Spanish line crumbled. The defenders gave up and ran. Observers praised the Buffalo Soldiers' brave charge. In the retelling of

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the event, however, another group stole the limelight. Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders had also fought in the battle. The well-known group's exploits were highlighted. The role of the Buffalo Soldiers was barely mentioned. A week later came the key battle at San Juan Hill. Here, U.S. troops fought their way uphill against an enemy barricaded at the top. Spanish bullets rained down on the Americans. Black soldiers fought just as fiercely as the other U.S. units. At one point, the Rough Riders were pinned down by enemy fire. Bullets were zinging in from all sides. Charging into the relentless gunfire, the 10th Cavalry came running to the rescue. "If it hadn't been for the black cavalry, the Rough Riders would have been exterminated," one of Roosevelt's men exclaimed. Some accounts placed black troops first at the top of San Juan Hill, though that honor was later claimed by other units. Military officialdom recognized the valor of the black troops. The Medal of Honor was awarded to five men of the 10th Cavalry. Certificates of Merit were given to another 21. Later, the 25th infantry unit confronted a more subtle enemy. The troops were sent to render aid to a hospital full of yellow fever victims. Eight white regiments had bowed out of the job. Of 35 remaining members of the 25th, 19 became ill. Still, the black soldiers carried out their duties, even staying on as part of the occupation force after the war's end. For a few shining moments, the victory over Spain seemed to mellow old mind-sets. The black soldiers were called heroes along with all the others. "The services of no four white regiments can be compared with those rendered by the four colored [units]," wrote a reporter. "They were at the front at Las Guasimas, at El Caney and at San Juan, and what was the severest test of all...in the yellow fever hospitals." The praise was short-lived, however. In fact, the treatment of black soldiers worsened after the war ended. By the turn of the century, it was decided that the usefulness of "colored" troops was limited. They were totally dependent, the military claimed, on the leadership of white officers. Gradually, the status of black army units was downgraded. They were channeled into service jobs and menial labor. In 1948, President Harry Truman would issue an executive order ending racism in the U.S. Armed Forces. Until then, it would be a long, uphill fight for black soldiers. At War with Bigotry - Buffalo Soldiers in the Spanish American War

Questions
1. The 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry Regiments were formed from ______ after the Civil War. A. Hundreds of homeless, destitute freed slaves B. Loyal black men who had stayed in the South to support the Confederacy C. The remnants of U.S. Colored Troops units which had fought for the Union D. Displaced plantation owners 2. Describe the duties of black cavalry and infantry units in the American West from 1866 to the early 1890s.

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3. List three reasons U.S. Army officials called upon the Buffalo Soldiers to go to Cuba.

4. Explain the irony involved in the Spanish American War that embittered some black people.

5. Black troops were uncomfortable in the Tampa staging area because: A. They were subjected to racial prejudice. B. There weren't enough facilities or food for everyone. C. They knew they would soon be facing death in the war. D. They were used to a cooler climate. 6. One reason black troops in the Spanish American War didn't get proper recognition was ______. A. Most people focused on Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders and forgot about the contributions of black soldiers. B. They hated to have their pictures taken and/or to speak to reporters. C. Their best efforts couldn't keep Spain from winning the war. D. They proved to be lazy and cowardly in confronting Spanish troops. 7. The 25th U.S. Infantry performed an important task in Cuba besides fighting the Spanish. What was it? A. Hauling fresh water for Cuban communities B. Keeping the Cubans from taking revenge on the Spanish residents C. Hunting wild boar D. Helping in a hospital overrun by yellow fever victims 8. In your opinion, what caused whites to treat black soldiers so badly even though the soldiers had risked their lives for their country?

Name Thursday, January 26

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Remember the Maine! - Causes of America's War with Spain

By Toni Lee Robinson Whether the U.S. was ready or not, there was a war waiting in the wings. The drama was taking place in some exotic islands just off the southern edge of the U.S. Cuba and Puerto Rico had long been colonies of Spain. The Spanish empire had once cut a proud swath through many regions of the world. Now, these small, poor territories and the Philippines, halfway around the world in Asia, were all that was left. The islands were pulsating with discontent. Cuba had been a hotbed of strife for several years. A guerrilla force of Cuban natives was waging a bloody war against the Spanish overlords. A long struggle called the Ten Years' War had ended in 1878. Still, the conflict ebbed and flowed. First one side and then the other won territory. Again and again, the Cuban rebels would strike and fade away into the countryside. While they rarely won a major victory, it seemed they couldn't be beaten. As things stood, Spanish General Valeriano Weyler realized, the uprising would never be put down. The rebels could count on the people of the countryside for supplies and refuge. General Weyler had a solution to the problem. He used his army to force the villagers from their homes. The Spanish army moved thousands of men, women, and children from outlying areas into camps in the cities. Conditions in the camps were horrible. Many thousands of people died of disease and starvation. During this time, the Spanish ruled with an iron fist. Suspected rebels were shot. Even those thought to be in support of the revolt were killed, most without trials. Among those executed were 53 crew members of the Virginius, a vessel flying the American flag. The ship had been captured in October, 1873, by the Spanish. It was suspected of running guns to Cuban rebels. The ship was taken in Jamaican waters and brought to Cuba. Only the intervention of a British warship stopped the executions of the rest of the crew. U.S. newspaper publishers were eager to bring this and other events of the war to light. They printed gory details of the bloodshed and injustice. Over their breakfast tables, Americans learned all about the violence in Cuba. Some of what they learned might not have been true. Publishers weren't above embellishing and inventing to keep the public riveted. Sensational stories sold papers. The reports also prompted some serious soul-searching. Was Cuba's fight for freedom a good enough reason for Americans to go to war? On the one hand, injustice was running rampant. Innocent people were dying. On the other hand, Spain's power was dwindling. The rebels were wearing them down. Chances were, sooner or later, Spain would give up and grant Cuba its freedom. As Spain faded, though, a new possibility presented itself. A stronger country could overpower her and bully its way in. A fierce foreign military within striking distance wasn't a pleasant prospect for the U.S. Meanwhile, the Cuban people were struggling for freedom, an ideal dear to the heart of Americans. The climate of public opinion in the U.S. began to tilt toward war. Then, in February of 1898, Americans learned of the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The Maine had steamed into the harbor at Havana, Cuba, less than a month earlier. The battleship had been sent to protect American interests during the upheaval taking place on Cuban soil. Late in the evening on February 15, an explosion tore the battleship apart. Its bow, where most of the 375-man crew was sleeping, sank immediately to the bottom of the harbor. Two hundred seventy-four men died. More than fifty were injured.

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A naval inquiry concluded that the explosion was caused by a mine. The navy panel couldn't pin the guilt on any one group. Spain, however, controlled the harbor. If agents of that nation hadn't planted the mine, it was said, they had allowed it to be planted by someone else. U.S. newspapers screamed for war with Spain. The public agreed. Later, "Remember the Maine!" would be a battle cry for rallying U.S. soldiers. (Actually, a hundred years and four investigations later, it has yet to be proven what happened to the Maine. Some people have insisted the blast was an accident, while most agree with the navy's findings about a mine. Who planted the mine is still as much a mystery as it was in 1898. Some experts argue that the Cubans had more to gain by planting the mine than the Spanish. After all, the explosion was sure to bring the U.S. into the conflict on the side of the rebels.) In April, President McKinley asked Congress to send U.S. troops to Cuba. Congress agreed. They passed a resolution declaring Cuba a free nation. Spain must leave Cuba, they said, and the U.S. military would do whatever it took to chase them out. Congress also vowed that the U.S. had no intention of placing any claim on Cuba after Spain was ousted. These provisions had been formulated by Senator Teller of Colorado. They were passed as the Teller Amendment. The U.S. was at war. Remember the Maine! - Causes of America's War with Spain

Questions
1. Describe the state of the Spanish Empire in 1898.

2. Explain the origins of the conflict in Cuba. Who was fighting? Why?

3. The Spanish army forced Cubans into concentration camps in the cities because: A. They wanted the Cubans to have better educational opportunities. B. The population of the cities was falling and they needed workers. C. People living in rural areas had been giving refuge and supplies to rebels. D. Disease was a constant danger in the rural areas. 4. True or false. In 1898, Americans were ill-informed about events in Cuba because U.S. newspapers refused to print the stories of violence and injustice. A. True B. False 5. What was the meaning of the cry, "Remember the Maine!"?

Name Thursday, January 26 6. List the three theories about what happened to the Maine.

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7. The Teller Amendment: A. Urged Spain to negotiate with Cuba for fair treatment of the colony B. Declared Cuba a free country and committed U.S. forces to forcing Spain out. C. Declared that the U.S. would invade Spain. D. Insisted on reparations from Spain to compensate for the Maine 8. In your opinion, what was the most compelling reason the U.S. went to war with Spain? Was it a valid reason? Why or why not?

Describe the government and culture of Cuba today. What signs are there of the fact that the country was once a colony of Spain?

Name Friday, January 27

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Kites and Balloons Go to War

By Toni Lee Robinson The Spanish American War took place in 1898. More than thirty years had passed since the U.S. Civil War. The Wild West had been tamed. Things like distance and disease were now life's biggest hurdles. Americans were eager to leap into the new century. The search was on for new tools and know-how. Instead of taming new lands, people explored better ways of doing things. We call this technology (tek NAHL uh gee). It would be a few years before Henry Ford made the first widely used motor car. But the world was already coming out of the horse and buggy stage. The first motor vehicle built factory style came out in the mid-1890s. Only 15 were made. The vehicle was called the Motor Wagon. It looked just like a wagon, except with an engine instead of a horse! Most homes relied on gas for heating and light. Companies were working hard to make electric power handy for everyone. They tried out electric gadgets that would do all sorts of things like cooking and washing clothes. Plants to make electric power were being built in many places. Communication was another big story in these days. By the 1890s, many people who lived in big cities had telephones. The telegraph had also been around for a while. It was the fastest way to send messages long distance. As the war heated up, both media took great strides forward. News crews keeping pace with the war filed their reports first by telegraph. Later, the stories were called in on "battlefield telephones." The wonder of film was brand new at the time. The earliest films were little more than a few grey frames that jerked silently along. Yet the first movies packed a powerful punch. One man filmed a crude reenactment of the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The U.S. public was deeply moved by the dim, grainy images. They helped push the nation closer to the brink of war. In fact, the Spanish American War fostered its own "techno burst." The U.S. Navy had begun to modernize as war loomed. When the war started, the navy cruised out to meet the enemy in the fastest, most powerful ships to be had. There were seven big steel battleships. Each had firepower more than equal to any ship in Spain's fleet. The weapons issued to U.S. soldiers weren't so up to date. The Spanish troops carried rifles that used smokeless shells. They could be fired without giving away the soldiers' positions. Only a few U.S. units had smokeless weapons. One was Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders. After the war, smokeless weapons became the rule. The Gatling gun proved that the newest isn't always the best. The Gatling was an early form of machine gun dating back to the Civil War. It had ten barrels that spun as a man turned a crank at the back. The spinning barrels spit out thousands of bullets in minutes. The big guns were pulled by mules. U.S. troops used four Gatlings in the war with Spain. Some tools used for scouting weren't new ideas either. Still, they helped in the key battle of San Juan Hill. For a time, U.S. troops were trapped at the base of the hill. To spy out a way to the top, a hot air balloon was sent aloft. From the air, a team of spotters searched the jungle-covered hill. The bright balloon was an easy target for the Spanish. It was shot so full of holes it couldn't hold air. Before it fell to earth, though, spotters found a route up the hill. Kites may not seem like a weapon of war. By 1898, however, they had been used for hundreds of years. In ancient times, they were sometimes flown at night to frighten enemies. They also lofted cargo over enemy lines. Large kites even carried men who spied out enemy positions. In the war with Spain, several uses for kites were considered. Planners wanted to know if dynamite could be carried by kite and dropped on enemy positions. In a trial, bags of rice were sent by kite and dumped over a certain area.

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The trials pointed out some drawbacks. The main problem was the skittish nature of kites. Their flights vary with air currents and wind speed. In the end, kites were used only for scouting. They carried cameras into the sky to snap pictures. The snapshots helped in planning battles. Reporters also used them in news stories. Another big story was medicine. Over 5000 men died of illness in the war. That was ten times as many as were killed in combat. The soldiers died of yellow fever or malaria. Walter Reed led a team of military doctors in Cuba. The team found the diseases were spread by mosquitoes. To stop them, the doctors had all standing water covered with oil. Even drinking water had to be topped by a layer of oil. The oil killed mosquito larvae. Buildings were sealed and fumigated to kill the insects. By 1901, fewer than 20 people in Cuba died of yellow fever. Walter Reed Army Medical Center was named for the dedicated leader of the team. The mix of old and new ideas in the war with Spain ushered in a new era. It marked the beginning of modern warfare. From that time till now, technology has played a major part in wars. In the U.S., the turn of the century brought a flood of new ideas. The nation emerged from the 1800s as a new world power. Kites and Balloons Go to War

Questions
1. Explain the word "technology."

2. Give examples of 1898 technology in communications, travel, and weapons of war. Beside each, list the technology of today that replaced it.

3. Moving pictures of 1898 were very low quality compared to today's movies. In spite of this, they were a powerful medium. Why might this have been true?

4. The technology of the U.S. Navy at the start of the war was ______ compared to that available to ground troops. A. Outdated B. About the same C. Unknown D. More up to date

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5. The main advantage of smokeless bullets was: A. They were more accurate. B. Soldiers weren't exposed to the health hazard of smoke. C. They were lighter to carry. D. When they were fired, there was no smoke to give away soldiers' positions. 6. A hot air balloon was used for ______ in the Spanish American War. A. Carrying men behind enemy lines B. Scouting C. Rescuing soldiers trapped on a hilltop D. Giving the enemy a false idea of where U.S. troops were located 7. Explain how kites have been used in wars. What was their job in the Spanish American War?

8. What contribution did Walter Reed make to medicine at the time of the Spanish American War?