Richardson Zaki Sedimentation and Fluidisation Part I PDF

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Institution of Chemical Engineers
SEDIMENTATION AND FLUIDISATION: PART I
By J. F. RICHARDSON, Ph.D.* (ASSOCIATE MEMBER) and W. N. ZAKI, Ph.D.*
SUMMARY
The present work is concerned with the study of sedimentation and liquid-solid fluidisation. In the
former, suspended solids are falling under the influence of gravity in a stationary fluid, while in the
latter, the particles are kept in suspension by an upward flow of liquid.
The object is to examine experimentally the effect of concentration of suspended particles upon
their rate of settlement, and to find a satisfactory method of correlating the results. The present part
of the experimental work has been confined to uniformly sized spherical particles, greater than 100
microns in diameter. As reported elsewhere, an attempt has been made to develop an expression, from
theoretical considerations, for the rate of settling of suspensions, and the experimental results obtained
in the present work are compared with those predicted from this theory. The work has been extended
for comparison to liquid-solid fluidised systems.
Sedimentation
The wide range of applications in chemical
n i n ~ r i n of systems in which relative motion
takes place between a fluid and suspended solid
particles has led to the need for a greater under-
standing of their underlying characteristics.
Sedimentation processes are widely employed
in the chemical industry and have received the
attention of chemical engineers and mining
engineers over a long period, but the technique
of using fluidised solids is comparatively new and
has been developed on a large scale only since
1942, when it was succes:,,fully applied to the cata-
lytic cracking of high boiling petroleum fractions.
The work has been extended to t4e study of
liquid-solid fluidised systems, in order to compare
the behaviour of these essentially similar processes
and to enable measurements to be made at a much
higher relative velocity between solids and liquids.
In addition, the fluidisation characteristics of
cubes, cylinders, hexagonal prisms, and plates have
'been investigated, and the behaviour of a mixture
of sizes in a fluidised bed has also been studied.
The first important theoretical study of the
forces acting on an immersed body moving rela-
tive to a viscous fluid, was made in 1851 by
Stokes
l
who derived an equation for the viscous
resistance to the motion of a single spherical
particle in an infinite fluid.
F = 317 pVd (1)
where F = viscous drag
d = diameter of sphere.
p = viscosity of fluid
V = velocity of sphere relative to fluid.
Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College,
London, Sow: 7.
TRANS. INSTN CHEM. ENGRS, Vol. 32, 1954
The terminal falling velocity V
o
of the particle
is obtained by equating the viscous drag as given
by equation (1), to the effective gravitational
force.
17d
3
I.e. 317 P V
o
d = (\ (Ps - p) g
_ d
2
(ps - p) g
hence Vo ---:- 18p (2)
where Ps = density of sphere,
p = density of fluid,
g = acceleration due to gravity.
No satisfactory treatment has been developed
for particles of any other shape, or for high relative
velocities, or for systems in which there is inter-
ference between particles, but the problem has
been examined experimentally.
In 1916, Coe and Clevenger
2
studied the settling
of slimes containing particles with a wide range of
sizes. Sedimentation usually began at a constant
rate, and particles were continuously deposited on
the bottom of the vessel to form a bed of loose
structure, which gradually consolidated as a
result of the weight of the accumulated solids;
liquid was thereby displaced upwards through the
pore spaces in the bed. It was however noted that
with very fine flocculated pulps there was no con-
stant rate period of settling, and the rate of sedi-
mentation decreased progressively.
In 1926, Robinson
3
suggested a modification of
Stokes' law for predicting the settling rates (V
c
)
of suspensions of fine uniformly sized particles.
V
c
= K d
2
(ps - Pc) g . (3)
Pc
where Pc = average density of suspension,
Pc = viscosity of suspension,
K = constant.
S82
JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChernE, Vol 75, December 1997 S83
RICHARDSON AND ZAKI. SEDIMENTATION AND FLUIDISATION: PART I
(4)
velocity of a single particle falling in a fluid of
viscosity (,uc) and density (Pc), where ,uc and Pc are
the apparent viscosity and density of the suspen-
sion.
(7)
I.e.,
v = Vc = d
2
(ps - Pc) g
s e 18,uc
Robinson, Steinour, and Hawksley all assumed
that the effective buoyancy force acting on the
particles depends on the density of the suspension.
This cannot be true for a suspension of uniform
particles all settling at the same rate, because each
particle displaces its own volume of liquid as it
settles. On the other hand, if a large particle is
settling in a suspension of particles which are
sufficiently small to behave as part of the liquid,
the particle displaces an equal volume of 8uspen-
sion. Similarly, for a suspension of uniform
particles, the use of an effective viscosity of the
suspension is not valid. The effect of concentration
on the resistance force encountered by a particle,
for a given relative velocity, is attributable to the
increase in the velocity gradient rather than to a
change in viscosity.
v = d
2
(Ps - Pc) g <I> e
s 18,u
where V
s
= velocity of particles relative to the
fluid.
In any cross-section within the suspension, the
free area available for the flow of the displaced
liquid is e, and therefore its upward velocity rela-
tive to the walls is
1 - e
V--
c e
giving
Steinour,4 who studied the sedimentation of
suspensions of uniform particles under conditions
of streamline flow, assumed that the effect of
concentration could be taken into account by using
the density of the suspension and the viscosity of
the liquid, and a function of the voidage, e, to
account for the shape and size of the flow spaces.
Inserting the values in Stokes' law (equation 2)
he gave the equation
Further
Ps - Pc = Ps - {Ps(l - e) +pe} = e(ps - p)
From experiments on the sedimentation of tapioca
in oil, Steinour obtained
<l>e = 10-
1
.
82
(1-')
and therefore
v - e
2
d
2
(Ps - p) g 10-1.82 (1-') (6)
c - 18,u .
Hawksley5 gave an expression for the rate of
settling of concentrated suspensions, based on the
as&umption that during the settling process an
"equilibrium arrangement" of particles was
established. Lateral forces were assumed to pro-
duce a more or le&S uniform spacing in a horizontal
plane, and the particles were presumed to arrange
themselves in such a way that they offered the
minimum resistance to the flow of the displaced
fluid, i.e., they tended to be marshalled into
vertical columns. This equilibrium arrangement is
likely to be established only when the distances
between particles are comparable with their
diameters.
The rate of setting of a suspension relative to
the fluid, was assumed to be equal to the Stokes
Liquid-80lid Fluidisation
When a fluid is passed slowly upward through a
bed of granular solids, the bed remains static. If
the velocity is increased, a stage is reached when
the particles reorientate themselves and present
a greater cross-sectional area to the flow of fluid;
this readjustment continues until the loosest
stable arrangement is attained. With further in-
crease, the particles are individually supported
by the fluid, and the bed becomes fluidised. At
velocities greater than the minimum required to
produce fluidisation, the bed continues to expand
and the particles remain uniformly dispersed in
the liquid. The degree of agitation becomes greater
but a sharp interface is maintained between the
suspension and the clear liquid above.
It has been observed by Wilhelm and Kwauk
6
and by Johnson? that uniform particles give a
homogeneous fluidised bed. However, Jottrand
8
suggested that the upper part of a fluidised bed
was more concentrated than the lower be0ause he
found there was a difference between the settling
rates of a suspension after agitation and after
fluidisation. In contrast to Jottrand's results, the
experiments of Lewis, Gilliland, and Bauer
9
on the
fluidisation of closely sized glass spheres in water,
and on the hindered settling of the same particles
after agitation, give results which agree closely.
S84 JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChernE, Vol 75, December 1997
M
II = (Ps - p) (1 - 6) g (9)
Pressure drop
Because the particles in a fluidised system are
entirely supported by the fluid, we can write :
where H = height of the bed.
The validity of the above two equations has
been verified experimentally by Wilhelm and
Kwauk,
6
Johnson,
7
and Lewis, Gilliland, and
Bauer.
s
t1P A = M (Ps - p) g .
Ps
where A = cross-sectional area of bed,
M = mass of particles in bed,
t1P = pressure drop.
This relation can also be written in the form:
(8)
obtained a curve approximating to that relating
4d(ps - p)g
3V
c
2p
and
Re = Vcdp
,u
for a single sphere in a fluid.
The behaviour of beds composed of particles of
mixed sizes has been investigated by McCune and
Wilhelm
10
who observed that the smaller particles
collect near the top. The classification of various
sized particles in liquid-solid fluidised systems
was also noted by Lewis and Bowerman,l1 the
fines being removed to the top of the bed from the
interstices of the larger particles. The pressure
drop over the whole bed corresponded closely with
that calculated for the two parts separately.
Expansion of the bed
Johnson assumed that the liquid velocity V
c
required to expand a bed composed of uniform
spheres to a porosity, 6, was the same as the
settling velocity of the particle at that concen-
tration. i.e., that
V = gd
2
(ps - Pc) (10)
c 18,uc
The objections to the use of Pc and ,uc are similar
to those applying in connection with sedimenta-
tion. Each particle is freely suspended in the fluid
and the drag exerted by the fluid is equal to the
weight of the particles in the fluid, not the weight
in the suspension.
Wilhelm and Kwauk have plotted the porosity
(e) against a modified Reynolds group
using logarithmic co-ordinatesl and obtained a
series of straight lines with different slopes.
The variation in slope indicates that there is no
simple relation between the porosity (6) and the
other variables.
Lewis, Gilliland, and Bauer have carried out a
number of experiments on fluidisation and sedi-
mentation of glass spheres in water and plotted
d(ps - p) g X 64.65
3 V
c
2
p
against the modified Reynolds group, Re
c
' and
Theoretical Considerations
To apply a similar theoretical treatment';to
sedimentation and fluidisation, it is necessary..to
consider the similarity between the two processes.
Let V
c
be the falling velocity, relative to a fixed
horizontal plane, of a suspension of voidage 6,
and Vc' be the upward velocity of liquid (based on
the dimensions of the empty tube), required in
order to maintain the same system at a voidage 6.
The drag on a constituent particle in each case is
equal to its weight in the liquid, and since the
relative velocity, V
s
' is a unique function of the
physical properties of the liquid, the particle
diameter, the distances between the particles and
the drag force, Vs' must be the same. Applying
equation (5),
V = V
c
and V = Vc'
s 6 s 6
so that
The experimental results of Lewis, Gilliland and
Bauer on the sedimentation and fluidisation of
closely sized glass particles (d = 00061 in.) in
water have here been plotted as log V
c
against
log 6 (Fig. 1); the results are correlated by a
single line.
The resistance to the motion of a single sphere
in a fluid, when both skin friction and form drag
are significant depends on ,u, p, d and V.
I.e.,
(11)
JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChemE, Vol 75, December 1997
S85
RICHARDSON AND ZAKI. SEDIMENTATION AND FLUlDISATlON: PART I
-I 4
(15)
equal to d(ps - p) g (the effective weight divided
by the projected area).
Under these conditions, for a single particle
-18
-16
-2.0 >u
"
-22 S
(5)
(16)
-24
-26
-28
-0.42 -0-38 -0-34 -0-3 -0-Z6 -0-22 -0-18 -0-14 -0-1 -0-06 -0-02
LOG e
Fig. I-Sedimentation and f!uidisation of glass particles
where R = resistance force per unit cross-sec-
tional area of particle,
fL = viscosity of the fluid,
p = density of the fluid,
d = diameter of sphere,
V = velocity of fluid relative to particle.
Ifthe sphere forms part of a uniform suspension,
the resistance force also depends on the presence
of the other particles since they affect the flow
pattern. The restriction of the flow spaces be-
tween the particles with increase of concentration
results in steeper velocity gradients in the fluid
and consequently greater shearing stresses. The
shape of the flow conduits between the particles,
and hence the flow pattern is a function of the
ratio of the diameter of particle (d) to the distance
between the particles (8). For a uniformly dis-
persed suspension, i is a function of the porosity
(e) only. Thus we can write:
and for a constituent particle of a suspension
Rt = 16(fL' p, d, Vs' e,;)
where V
o
is the terminal falling velocity of a
single particle,
and Vs is the settling velocity of the particles
in a suspension, relative to the fluid.
In both cases, the resistance force acting on an
individual particle Rt 7Td
2
!4 is equal to its
weight, but the settling velocity of a suspension
is less than that of an isolated particle.
The actual settling velocity of a particle relative
to the fluid can be expressed in terms of the appar-
ent rate of settling by equation 5
VB = V
e

e
and therefore we have from equation 16 that
R, = 17(P;, p, d, V
e
, e,;) (17)
Rearranging equations 15 and 17,
Vo = fs(p;, p, d, R" (18)
V
e
= f9(P;, p, d, R
t
, (19)
where R
e
= resistance force to a constituent par-
ticle per unit cross-sectional area of
particle.
In order to include the effect of the ratio of
particle diameter to tube diameter, equations (II)
and (12) can be modified as follows:
Dividing equation 19 by equation 18,
The only possible dimensionless combination of
the variables, p;, p, d, R
t
is
R = 13(P;, p, d, .
(13)
R,pd
2
----;F
and and therefore
R
e
= 14(P;, p, d, V, e,;) (14)
e).
(21)
When the particles are settling at a uniform
rate under the action of gravity, the resistance to
motion per unit per unit area of particle (R
t
) is
The group
R,pd
2
p;
586
JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChernE, Vol 75, December 1997
(1)
(23)
(26)
(27)
(22)
= 115(P' Re, e, .
Again p and R
e
cannot be arranged in a dimension-
less group and therefore
= 116(e,
Thus, when either skin friction or form drag is
predominant is a function only of e and t.
o
If both forms of resistance are of comparable
magnitudes, the Reynolds Group is significant
in addition to e, and tand
where k is a constant for a given particle shape.
The resistance per unit area is thus independent
of the viscosity of the fluid and the diameter of
the particle except in so far as the latter influences
the effect of the walls. Equation 20 therefore
becomes
forces becomes negligible. Under these conditions,
Newton's law is applicable and
7Td
2
F = R- = kpV
2
d
2
(25)
4
The above relations (22, 24, 27) have been deve-
loped for spherical particles but are applicable to
non-spherical particles if a dimensionless coeffi-
cient is introduced as a criterion of shape.
Each of the quantities in equations 22, 24, 27
must be separately determined to establish the
. V V. dp d
form of relatlOn between v.
C
and _0-, e, D
o tt
and the shape factor. d, p, p, e and diD can be
directly measured and the terminal falling velocity
of a given particle can either be measured or it can
be calculated from the published experimental
data such as the relation between R
V
2 and Vodp
p 0 tt
for particles of various shapes.
Rbeing independent of p, the density of the fluid.
Equation 20 then becomes
=/13(tt, d, Re,
Now, tt, d, R
e
cannot be arranged in a dimension-
less group and therefore must be independent
o
of these variables under conditions of streamline
flow so that
In this derivation no assumptions have been
made concerning the nature of the flow past the
particles.
Viscous conditions
Stokes' equation is based on the assumption
that the relative velocity is sufficiently low for
inertial effects to be negligible so that the whole
resistance may be attributed to skin friction.
Under these conditions,
1Td
2
F=R. -=37TttVd
4
R
pV
0
2
is a unique function of
For a particle of a given shape,
Vodp is the Reynolds Group with respect to
It the particle.
and
(/V
0
2)
where is a resistance coefficient,
p 0
is equal to
Vodp
tt
and therefore equation 21 can be rewritten as
e) . (22)
(24)
Turbulent conditions
As the relative velocity is increased, the effect
of the inertia of the fluid becomes of greater signi-
ficance and at high velocities the effect of viscous
Equipment and Experimental Methods
Sedimentation tests
The sedimentation experiments were made with
suspensions contained in vertical flat-bottomed
Pyrex tubes (Fig. 2) about 70 em. high and with
internal diameters of 1 9, 2 8, 32, 4 8 and 5
em.; paper scales graduated to one millimetre
JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChemE, Vol 75, December 1997 S87
Fig. 2-Diagrammatic arrangement for holding sedimentation tube
in the controlled temperature chamber
were fixed to the tubes. A controlled temperature
chamber was used to keep the viscosity and den-
sity of the liquids constant and to avoid convec-
tion currents.
After a tube and its contents had attained the
temperature of the chamber, the suspension was
agitated by means of the handle H (Fig. 2), and the
tube was then set vertical. The rate of fall of the
sludge line was observed through the glass
window.
Fluidisation apparatus
The apparatus used in the fluidisation experi-
ments is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Circulation
through the apparatus was effected by a centri-
fugal pump (c), connected to a 25-gal. galvanised
iron feed tank (F). The pump discharged through
one of three Rotameters (R), and the metered
H
S-Paper scale
T-Sedimentation tube
W-Glass window
G-Bag filter
M-Manometers
P-Expansion section
R
1
R
s
' R3-Rotameters
T-Test section
I
c ~ [}=l
s
"{
0
1
--
.. p
I
=
q
~ { }
I
I
'-J
c
T
w
B-By-pass to reed tank
C-Centrifugal pump
D-By-pass to drain
E-Equalising section
F-Feed-tank
C-Clamps
D-Fixed dial
H-Handle
P-Spring pivot
1
p
h
:;;
~
r-
r--I--
R R R
J I Z
-
I--
'-
T
-I....
B
~
0
1
I
I
E
(';G
~
F
L .....
-w,
M
Fig. 3-Diagram of f/uidisation apparatus
Fig. 4-Fluidisation apparatus
-02Z -oz -0-18 -0'16 -014 -OIZ -01 o ~ -0i)6 -1l'O4 -o.OZ -04
LOG E
Fig. S-Sedimentation of glass ballotini (I mm.) in
bromoform
equalising section were made of I! in. i.d. Perspex
tube of lengths 4 ft. 9 in. and 1 ft. 3 in. respect-
ively, with the supporting screen in a recess bet-
ween them. A galvanised iron straightening sec-
tion, It in. i.d., and 2 ft. long, was connected to
the top of the test section. Suitable pressure taps
were located immediately above the supporting
screen and at distances of 10 in., 2 ft. 2 in., and
4 ft. 6 in. from the bottom of the test section.
Scales graduated to one millimetre were fixed to
both columns.
At the beginning of each run sufficient solid
particles were introduced into the test section;
the height of the bed and the pressure drop across
the entire column were measured over a range of
velocities and the quantity of solids was then
liquid passed through the column which consisted
of an equalising section (E), a test section (T) and
an expansion section (p). The return line dis-
charged into the feed tank through a bag filter (G),
with a by-pass to the drain.
The temperature of the liquid was maintained at
20 C. When using water a continuous flow of
mains water was maintained through the feed
tank; for the other liquids a cooling coil was
used.
Two columns were used. The test section of the
larger column was a perspex tube 244 in. i.d.,
and 6 ft. long, held between two brass flanges.
The bed of particles was supported on a 70-mesh
screen reinforced on both sides by a perforated
brass disc. The equalising section at the bottom of
the test section was a brass pipe 2t in. i.d., 7 in.
long, It was fitted with 6 50-mesh screens to
ensure a uniform velocity profile in the test sec-
tion. An expansion section, consisting of an iron
pipe, 3 in. i.d. and 1 ft. long, was flanged to the
top of the test section. This reduced end effects
and avoided the risk of carry-over of particles to
the feed tank.
The pressure distribution in the test section was
measured with air-liquid manometers, which were
connected to pressure taps located immediately
above the supporting screen, and at distances
of 10 in., 2 ft. 2 in., and 4 ft. 7 in., from the
bottom of the test section.
In the smaller column, the test section and the
SEDIMENTATION - RUN I.
03
oz
0'1
>"
o 9
-01
-o-z
-03
-1'17 4'9
-1-16 4,79
-1-16 4'76
Plot of log V.
versus.log
~ t e r e e P t
at. = 1 Slope
-1'178
Log" V.
d
Jj
Tube
dia-
meter,
D
ems.
1'9
2,8
48
Reynolds
number
V.1l1I
IJ
1,001 1'53 0'5%
Sodium
Chloride
solution
1'058
.
II,
gIIl./
en. em.
TABLE I.-Summal'lf of 1M RuulU Obtainellfrom SedifMl'ItalionEzperifMnts(ReynoldsNumber <0'2).
Terminal
falling
velocity
IJ II Stokes'
Centl- gIIl./ law
poise cu. em. V. em./see.
Il
em.
Particles
.
181x 10-' B D1v:!nyl
A Benzene
C
Bun
Num-
ber
P _ D1v:!nyl 181xlO- 1'068 M- 20-8 1034 206xl0-' 186xl0- 19 9-63xlo-' -2-68 -2-66 49
Q _ Benzene Cresol 4-8 3'77x1O-' -2'66 479
D D1v:!nyl 2'63x1O-' 1-058 40% 291 0936 1'476xl0-' 1,2 x 10-' 19 1-33xI0-' -0,831 -0,84 4'94
E . Benzene Ethyl 2'8 904 x 10-' -0,83 4'9
Alcohol
-2,08 4'92
-2'08 489
-1'32 476
-1'32 4'72
-1-32 469
-2,093
-1,342
1-89x 10-'
1'28x1O-'
5'8xlO-'
3'45 x 10-'
2'01 x 10-'
8'07x 10-' 1-43x 10-' 1-9
28
4-65 x 10-' 2'18x 10-' 1-9
28
48
1034
1'208 1'39xlO-' 261xl0- 28 3'45xlO-' -1'857 -1'83 4-76
48 201xlO-' -1,83 4'65
208
20'8
M-
Cresol
M-
Cresol
2923
1'068
9-6xlO-'
3'58x 10-' r D1v:!nyl
G _ Benzene
H . Ballotlnl
I
1
K . Ballotlnl 9'6x10-' 2'923 80% 62'0
L _ Glycerol
N _ Ballotlnl 9' 6 x 10-' 2 923 Ethylene
o _ D1-
bromide
1-612 217 2'34xlO-' 3'02x10-' 1-9 5'8x1O-' -0'632 -0,625 4'74
32 3'01 x 10-' -0,625 465
T _ Ballotlnl l'28xlO-' 2-96 Bromo- 189
form
B Ballotlnl 2. 3 x 10-' 2 .623 80% 62 .0
8 Glycerol
X Ballotlnl 1'029 x 10-' 2'976 85% 112'9
Y Glycerol
289 3307 x 10-' 6'47 x 10-' 19 6'7x10-' -1'481 -1-48 484
3'2 4xlO-' -1'48 4'72
1208 659 x 10-' 2'95xlO-' 1'9 l'22x10-' -1'181 -1'175 485
3'2 6-97 x 10-' -1'175 48
1221 8'91xlO-' 9'95xlO-' 28 367xlO- -0'0501 -0'06 53
38 2'7x10-' -0'06 52
JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChernE, Vol 75, December 1997
S89
TABLE n.-Summary of Result. Obtained from the Sedimentation Experiment. (Reynold. Number> 0- 2).
Particles L1,uid Plot oflog Vc
.
Reynolds Tube versus log.
Run
e.

Q Terminal Number dill.'

Num- d gm.j gm.j falllng Vode meter d Intercept
ber em. ell. em. poise cu_ sec. velocity
J.l
D
15 Log.. Vo at e = 1 Slope
8 . Ballotini 2'3 x 10-
1
2-623 Bromo- 1-89 2-89 (;-349 1-227 2-7 8-52x 10-' -0-457 -0-457 4'45
9 form 1-9 1-21 x 10-
1
-0-457 4-52
12 4-ll 4'79x 10-' 0-45 4-41
10. Ballotini 2-3 x 10-
1
2-623 Ethylene 1-612 2'17 0-6525 2-021 2-7 8-52x 10-
1
-0-185 -0-185 4-3
11 Di- 1-9 1-21 x 10-
1
-0-185 4-35
13 bromide 4'8 4-79xl0-
1
-0-185 4-24
14 -. Ballotini 1-029x 10-' 2-976 60% 10-96 1-153 6-03 6'53 2-8 3'67 x 10-' 0-78 0-78 4-3
15 . Glycerol 4-8 2'14x 10-
1
0-78 4-07
16 . 6-2 1'66x 10-' 0-78 4-0
2 . Ballotini 1-029x 10-
1
2-976 Bromo- 1-89 2-89 1-16 18-18 3-2 3-21 x 10-
1
0-0644 0-064 3-8
5 form 4-8 2-14x 10-
1
0-064 3-64
6 . 2-8 3-67 x 10-' 0-064 3-86
4 . Ballotini 1-029 x 10-
1
2'976 Mixture 1839 2-745 2-48 38'26 5-0 2-056x 10-
1
0-3944 0-394 3-34
3 . of 2-8 3'675 x 10-' 0-394 3-56
1 Bromo- 3-2 3 -21 x 10-' 0-394 3-5
form
S.G_ and
Bromo
form
RP.C.
NOTE.-In Runs Number 8, 9 and 12 the particles are rising in the fluid.
I

increased in stages so that a series of readings was
obtained with each material.
Experimental Results
80 fm".
70 --
? 60 __
- 7S0GM" ..
Fig. 7-Fluidisation of lead shot
I
I i I 1 I I I I ,
60
SO BOO''''
40 lOOOGH
30 lSOOGN
>GOGH
20
250GM
10
I 1 I 1 I
0-3S 0-4S OSS 0-65
so
Sedimentation
The constant rate of settling was measured and,
for each liquid-solid system, log V
e
was plotted
against log e. The intercept on the log V
e
axis
corresponding to e = 1 (infinite dilution) was then
compared with the terminal falling velocity of the
particles. A typical curve is shown in Fig. 5 and
the results are summarised in Tables I and II, in
which the slopes of the curves and the intercepts
are given for various values of diD and
Re =
Fluidisation
In Figs. 6-10 the variation of pressure differ-
ence with velocity is shown as a plot of difference
in head (h) against log Ve' Liquid velocities corres-
ponding to the loosest stable arrangement for
spheres (the cubical with = O 48) are indicated
by lines parallel to the h axis and the values of h
corresponding to the weight per unit area of the
bed by lines parallel to the log V
e
axis. Lines
corresponding to e = 048 are also indicated on
the curves for non-spherical particles. In some
cases higher flow rates were required before the
pressure drop attained a value equal to the weight
per unit area of bed. This effect is attributable to
channelling which resulted in fluidisation taking
place simultaneously at a number of isolated
I
70
1
30)]'"
60
l527SCNC
l
:
:.
50
40
lO2ZC;flt
o I
co

e IS
-, 0
"
0
:: :0:
0 "VG
lSOGMCl
0
r 0 0
10
0
I
,
I
-0-) -0-2 -0-1 01 0-2 -0 OS 0-6 07 08 09
LOG v
c
Fig. 6-Fluidisation of glass ballotin;
S90 JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChemE, Vol 75, December 1997
RICHARDSON AND ZAKJ. SEDIMENTATION AND FLUJDJSATION: PART I
-
eo -
;:::'"00'"4
1
---
i
40!- i _ - -
:--SOOGM-
---
_ J-'
10' I I I I I L. __
10 11 ,,2 13 14 1-5 1'6 1'7 1'8 19
LOG V
c
Fig. IO-Fluidisation of t in. ball bearings
Fig. II-Formation of hollow structure by t in. steel cubes
behne'en the density of solid and liquid. This is
shown by the head loss CHITes for ballotini and
lead shot of the same particle size (Figs. (j and 7),
and head loss cnews for in. X I in. glass cylin-
ders and in. X 1in. steel cylinders (Figs. 8 and
0). The greater tendency to channelling with non-
spherical particles can be shown hy comparing
the curves for in. ball bearings with those for
in. X 1 in. f'teel cylinders (Figs. HI and 9). It
\vas also noticed that channelling was more pro-
nounced with tubes of large diameter: this is
shown by the curws for lead shot and :l: in. ball
bearings in the 2 H in. D and 1;") in. D columns
(Figs. 7 and 10).
For each experiment on Huidisation, curves of
log V
c
against log f. were plotted and these were
similar to those obtained in the experiments on
o
70,
points, even though the measured differences in
head were less than those expected. The most
extreme effects of channelling were obtained with
steel cubes and steel cylinders i in. X i in. At
liquid velocities sufficient to cause re-arrangement
of the bed, the particles tended to build up a
hollow structure one particle deep round the
walls of the tube (Fig. 11). This phenomenon
occurred whether the requisite liquid velocities
were gradually approached either from the
expanded fluidised state or from the static con-
dition of the bed. Once this arrangement was
attained, the particles maintained their position
whatever the liquid velocity and could be dis-
lodged only by shaking the tube. However, if the
region of relatively small flow rates is passed
quickly, the particles become uniformly dispersed
in the fluid.
Channelling at relatively low liquid velocities
appears to be favoured by a large difference
S9l
-------l--l-L_--'--_-'-----'_--'-_-'-_-'---_'----:"-:-:-' .0
-0,}4 -o} -0,26 -0-22 -0-18 -0-14 -0,1 -0-06 -0-02
LOG
Fig. 12-FJuidisation of t in. ball bearings in 2.44 in. tube
sedimentation. A typical curve is shown in Fig. 12
and the slopes and intercepts obtained are given
in Tables III, IV and V.
For high values of dID, groups of particles
tended to arrange themselves in horizontal layers
forming bridges from wall to wall. These particles
would then rise through the tubes with the bridges
ultimately breaking up and the particles falling
back individually. At relatively high expansions,
however, this effect was no longer obtained. In
Fig. 13, point .A corresponded with the expansion
at which bridging disappeared. Figs. 12 and 13
BALL BEARINGS )4"0
o - J 000 GM
" - 2 000 GM
o - 3000 GM
o = 244 ,
'--
.. )
o
20
19
18
1'6 u
>
',5 8
..J
14
,.}
',2
H
relate to the same material (1 in. ball bearings) in
the large and small diameter columns.
In order to compare the rate of sedimentation
with the velocity required to maintain a fluidised
suspension of the same concentration, experiments
were made with divinyl benzene particles in water;
the rates of sedimentation were observed by
shutting off the flow of liquid and timing the fall
of the fluidised bed. The experimental results were
plotted as log V
c
against log e (Fig. 14a),
where V
c
= falling velocity of the suspension or
the liquid velocity in the fluidisa-
tion experiments.
The results of sedimentation after agitation in
the small tube (Fig. 14b) are also given on the
graph of log V
c
against log e for the runs carried
out with the 1 5 in. D column. It is seen that the
results for sedimentation and fluidisation are cor-
related by the same line.
The effect of using particles of mixed sizes was
investigated in a bed composed of equal weights
of glass ballotini of diameters 0103 em. and
O' 051 em. When dynamic equilibrium was estab-
lished, the smaller particles were at the top of the
bed, with the larger particles below them. The
results are plotted as log V
c
against log e in Fig.
15, which may be compared with Figs. 16 and 17
obtained with the two sizes separately. An attempt
was made to predict the relation between the
porosity e and liquid velocity Vc for the bed of
mixed sizes on the basis of the expansion of each
TABLE III.-Summal"1/ of Re,ult, ObtlJimd from 1M Fluidilation of Spherical Particlel in Water.
Plot of log Vc Plot of log Vc
versus log versus log
2-44 in. 1'5 in_
Particles DColumn DColumn
. . .
d e. gill'./ intercept Ii.tercept
em. cu. em. Re V. Log.. V, at. = 1 Slope at 0 = 1 Slope
Ball Bearings 1in. D 6-35 x 10-
1
7-74 7150 112'7 2'052 198 2-38 1'95 2'52
Glass spheres 4-2 x 10-
1
2-89 2041 48-6 1-687 I-56 2-39 1'54 2'33
Ballbearings lin. D 3-175x 10-
1
7-73 2530 79-7 1-001 1-815 2-36 1-81 2'36
Lead shot 1-029x 10-
1
10-6 488'7 47-5 1-677 1-69 2-43 1'63 2-43
Ballotinl 1-029 x 10-
1
2-745 171-0 16-64 1-22 1-16 2-68 1'1 2-765
Ballotini 5-1 x 10-' 2'745 41'72 8-1 0'009 0-91 3'11 081 3-18
Ballotini 2-53 x 10-' 2'78 8-971 3-55 0-55 0-61 3-59 0'53 3-64
Dlvlnyl Benzene 2-53xlO-' 1'06 0-49 0'194 -0-713 -0-7 4-53 -0,71 4'58
Where Where
= 2-441n. = 1'5 In.
10-25 x 10-' 16'68 x 10-'
6'77x10-' 11-0x10-'
5'12x 10-' 8-33x 10-'
1-66 x 10-' 2'7 x 10-'
l'66x10-' 2-7xlO-'
8-23 x 10-' 1'34 x 10-'
4-08x10-' 6'65x10-'
4-08 x 10-' 6'65X 10-'
TABLE IV.-Summary Of Results ObtlJimd from the Fluidisation of Spherical Partiel.. with Liquids Other than Water.
Plot oflog Vc Plot oflog.V
c
versus log versus log.
Particles 2 -44 in. D Column 1 -5 in. D Column

e. e I' V, Inter Inter
d gm.1 gm./ centi- cm./ cept at cept at diD diD
em. cu. em. cu. em. poises Re sec. Log" V. 0=1 Slope = 1 Slope (D = 2-44in_)(D = lSin.)
Ballotinl 253 x 10-' 278 Gly 1'135 6-075 0391 0-827-0'0825 -0-115 4'65 6 65 x 10'"
Ballotinl 51 x 10-' 2-745 cerol 2745 289 0'461 0-41 4'22 l' 34 x 10'"
BallotIni l'029x 10-
1
2-745 Water 1445 7'35 0'877 0-85 378 2'7x10-l
Glass spheres 42 x 15-
1
2'89 267 34'05 1'532 147 258 1'39 2'62 6-77 110 x 10'"
Lead shot 1'029 x 10-
1
10-6 Oil 0-818 3-81 79-8 36'15 1'558 153 3'08 1-66x 10-
1
02
Lead shot l'029x 10-
1
106 Oil 0-875 1501 1175 196 1292 126 372 1-24 383 1-66 x 10-' 27 X 10-'
Lead shot 2466x 10-
1
1125 R.r 8035 58'1 1'764 1'69 3'39 3-98 x 10-'
Glass spheres 42 x 15-
1
289 78-25 319 1'503 1'43 334 1'39 3-21 6'77 x 10-' 110 x 10'"
lin. Ball bearing 3175x10-
1
7'73 101-2 547 1'738 1665 317 163 2-95 5-12 x 10-' 8'33x10'"
TABLE V.-Summary oflhe &amla Oblainedfrom lhe Fluidiaation of Non-8pherical Particlea in waler.
Calcu- Experi- Plot of log V
c
Plot of log V.
lated mental versus e versus 6
Particles terminal terminal 2'44 in. column 1 . 5 in. column
~
falling falling & ,.---'-----, ,.---'-----,
dplD dpiD
U,
velocity velocity V'f
d
, Inter- Inter-
d, gin. I d" v" V., p
Log Log cept at cept at
= 2 ~ 4 inJ = 1 ~ in.) cm. cu.cm. Shape S cm. K cm.lsec. cm.lsec.
V'I
V., 6=1 Slope 6=1 Slope
O'iS 2'51 Glass 0'874 0717 0'517 368 34'1 2650 1366 1533 1'55 2'4 1'51 2'4 115 x lO-' 8'84xlO-'
cylinders
lXl!n.
0874 0717 0517 78'4 74'4 5650 1894 1871 188 2'4 185
O'l! 7'85 Steel 2'41 l1'5X10-' 18'84x 10-'
cylinders
lXl!n.
08467 0577 0'564 65'19 675 3670 1'814 1'829 183 2'51 181
O'lIS! 7'79 Steel 2'52 93 x lO-' 15'11 x 10-'
hexagonal
prism
-ilrx-ilrin.
66 1819 1'815 2'55 0158 7'785 Steel 0'832 0507 0'71 1'8 2'61 8'18x10-
1
13'3x 10-
1
cylinder
lxl!n.
0'806 0717 0'694 71'1 69'3 5600 1'852 184 1845 2'5 182 0;87. 7'74 Steel 2'5 l1'5x 10-
1
18'8x 10-'
cubes
1 in..
0'717 645 181 181
01M5 782 Steel 064 0'1737 2'01 18 2'16 11'5 x 10-
1
188x 10-'
plates
lxlx to in.
d
a
= Diameter of sphere of equal volume to particles.
d
p
= Diameter of a circle of the same area as the projected profile of the particle when lying in its most stable position.
S = Surface area of a sphere of the same volume as particle.
Surface area of the non-spherical particle
"
da'
K
~ 6
dp
log V
c
= n log e +log Vi (28)
- 06
-0,8
- 12
- ',0
-1,4 ~
'" S
-I 8
- ',6
-20
-22
-08
- 10
- 12
.: ',4
~
'" S
- 16
- 18
- 20
- 22
I I I I I I
- 06
0- fLUIOIZATION
G> - SEDIMENTATlON AfTER FLUIOIZATION
[;l - SEDIMENTATION AfTER AGITATION
D= 1'5'
+-500 GM }
0-750 GM fLUIDIZATION
A-IOOO GM
[;l- SEDIMENTATION
D= 2'44'
-0'38 -0'34 -0'3 -0'26 -0'22 -0'18 -0'14 -0" -0'06 -0,02
LOG
Fig. 14a-Sedimentation and (luidisation of divinyl benzene particles
in large tube
-0'34 -0'3 -0'26 -0'22 -0-18 -0"4 -0" -0,06 -0-02
lOG
Fig. 14b-Sedimentation and (luidisation of divinyl benzene particles
in small tube
/.g
20
/8
',6 v
>
15 g
...J
12
II
14
BALL BEARINGS )00'-'0
0- 250 GM
A - 500 GM
Dc' y;'
.l- I I ---L- J-()
038 -0'34 -0,30 -026 -022 -0,18 -0'14 -01 -0,06 -0'02
log E
Fig. 13-Fluidisation of *in. ball bearings in It in. tube
size separately. As can be seen from Fig. 15 there
is good agreement between the calculated and
experimental results.
where n is the slope of the curve and log Vi is the
Correlation of Results
Spherical particles
The curves of log Vc against log e can be repre-
sented by an equation of the form
I
O-EXPERIMENTAL POINTS
D- CALCULATED POINTS
D- 1-5'

/ -00
.;
0-2 '-'
9
-02
-0-4
= flS(Vodp, ,
o fl '
then
.
Thus, substituting from equation 29,
110 -f (Vod
P
d)
- 17 #' e, Jj ,
(22)
(30)
-04Z -0-38 -0:14 -03 -0-Z6 -0-Z2 -0-18 -0-14 -0-1 -0-06 -(hJ2 -ot! and, since n is independent of
LOG
Fig. 15-Fluidisatian of glass ballotini of mixed sizes (0.103 and n = f Dd)
0.051 em.} r
(31)
0-2
-0-2
(32)
0-4
Q.6
O-Z
" o g
-044 -0_4 -0->6 -0-)1 -0-Z8 -a-24 -0-2 -a_Ie -0-11 -0_8 -0-4
LOG f
Fig. 17-Fluidisation of glass ballotini (0.051 em.)
For each of the experiments with spherical
particles the slope n has been plotted against the
diameter ratio diD (Fig. 18) and the points corres-
ponding to a given value of the Reynolds Group
Further, since is independent of the Reynolds
o
group provided that either the viscous or the
inertia forces can be neglected,
(29)
0-6
0-4"
g
o

- 0-48 -044 -04 -0-16 -0-12 -0-Z8 -0-Z4 -0-2 -0-16 -0-12 -0-08 -0-04
LOG
Fig. I6-Fluidisation of glass ballotini (0.103 em.)
1-2
Vc n
-=
Vi
Now the ratio of Vii V
o
(the settling velocity at
infinite dilution to that of a single particle in an
infinite medium) will be a function of diD, and
since
intercept on the log V
c
axis corresponding to
a value of e equal to unity. Therefore,
[;l LEWIS ET AL RESULTS.(g)
5TE/NOUR'S RESUL
<:> AUTHORS' RESULTS.
REOS&'2S
..e ----------il
ilD-_ - - R';a' 1,20
- - - --....
[_------------RE.'71
__________________________________.
o -rq
I:,

n !T
Fig. Ia-Slope n as function of for various values of Re
d
o
have been joined. The results of Steinour on sedi-
mentation and Lewis, Gilliland, and Bauer on
fluidisation were plotted as log Vc against log e
and the slopes correlated in Fig. 18. Where the
Reynolds number is less than O 2, corresponding
to conditions under which the inertia forces are
negligible, the results are correlated by a single
line with the equation
n = 465 + 195 diD (33)
At Reynolds numbers greater than about 500, n
is independent both of diD and Reynolds number
and has a constant value of 2 39, i.e.,
n = 239 (34)
06
055 0
c
L?
o
....J
05
045
04
Reynolds numbers between 200 and 500, n is
almost independent of ;.
'="5
LOG R.
Fig. 19-0
0
os function of Re
2 36 X10-
1
2 33 X 10-
1
2 65 X 10-
1
2 62 X 10-
1
256x 10-
1
248x 10-
1
234x 10-
1
218xlO-
1
22 X10-
1
2 15 X 10-
1
3 16 X 10-
1
Be
TABLE ft-'" 0 as a Function of Re.
Slope of the lines
on the graph of
n against .;
1965
1922
1632
1593
147
143
142
140
1362
1332
805
00
02
049
123
202
653
945
182
3825
417
800
1710
4890
TABLE Vr.-n
o
as a Function of Re.
Re = Vode no
I" log Be
=
log no
039 -0409 452 0655
049 -0309 445 0648
076 -0119 442 0645
123 009 433 0636
202 0305 4 17 01;2
235 0371 414 0617
275 0439 402 0604
653 0815 376 0575
945 0975 354 0549
1445 116 339 053
182 126 333 0522
275 144 3 19 0504
3825 1583 305 0484
417 162 30 0477
800 1903 286 0456
1710 2233 255 0406
267 0 2426 25 0398
4890 2689 239 0378
For intermediate conditions n is found to be
dependent both on Re and on diD and separate
curves are obtained for each value of Re. The
curves were extrapolated to diD = 0 and the cor-
responding values of n (= no, say) were recorded
(see Table VI).
When Re lies between 02 and 500, n can be
calculated for the following equations.
For 02 < Re < 1
435 d
n = Re-
O
03
_ +435 Re-
O
03
25 X 10-
1
D '
i.e.. n = (4.35 + Re-
0
.
03
(37)
For 1 < Re < 200
445 d
n = Re-O.
1
_ + 445 Re-
O
1
25 X 10-
1
D '
n = (4.45 + 18;) Re-
O
1
(38)
i.e.,
(35)
(36)
Log nO was plotted against log Re, Fig. 19, and
it is seen that the curve can be divided into two
portions.
For 02 < Re < 1
no = 4 35 Re-
O
03
and for 1 < Re < 500
no = 4 45 Re-
O
1
The slopes of the curves in Fig. 18 were measured
and the intercepts at n = 0 were calculated and
recorded in Table VII; ( ;) is approximately
constant, with a mean value of - 025 for
595
Equations 37, 38, 39 give n as a function of
and Re over a range of Reynolds number from
d
2 X 10-4 up to 7 X 10
3
, and ofDfrom zero up to
4 X 10-
2
Some of the experimental results at
higher values of i do not follow the correlations
given previously but they were obtained with oil,
which caused the smaller glass spheres to agglo-
merate into floes and to adhere to the tube walls.
In the curves of log V
c
against log e, for the
sedimentation experiments, the intercepts on the
log V
c
axis at e = 1 agree with those calculated
for the terminal falling velocity of the particles in
an infinite medium (see Fig. 20) so that
12 10
o
19
'8
'7
1.6 I- 0
o 0
'5
'.4
I.' r-o-'O-__
'2 I--v-.__
,.,
10
09
>v 0.8
C) 07
g 06
05
04
0'
02
01
00
- 0'
=
- (>7 fb--;-
- 0.8 L---L._..J.......--.JL--....L_..L..--.J
o 2 6 8
d 2-
j)XIO
Fig. 21-Vj as function for f1uidisation experiments
Non-spherical particles
The fluidisation experiments (typical curves-
Fig. 22) with non-spherical particles are all within
the region of turbulent flow. For spherical part-
icles, it was found that the slopes n are independent
d
of Re and Dand have a constant value of 2 39.
(39)
(40)
and for 200 < Re < 500
n = 445 Re-
O
1
-17
-1,3
07
-0,1
-21
,.,
-13
-Z'3 -1'9 -,., -1-1 - 07 -0'3 -0'1 01 U 13
LOG Vi
Fig. 2{}-Re/ation between V
o
and Vi for sedimentation experiments
On the other hand, the ratio appears import-
ant in the fluidisation experiments. H log Vi is
plotted against a series of parallel lines is ob-
tained; these lines cut the log Vi axis (at i = 0),
giving intercepts of approximately log V
o
(Fig. 21).
The equation of the series of lines is given by :
0-250 GM
6=500 GM
0=I
Y
2"
12
d
log V
o
= log Vi +D .
(41)
G A
1 0
This difference is attributable to the fact that in
fluidisation a velocity gradient is created in the
liquid because of the drag exerted by the walls.
09
-034 -0') -026 -022 -016 -014 -01 -0,06 -002
LOG
Fig. 22a-F/uidisation of steel hexagonal prisms (,\- in. X -to in.)
in small tube
19
:-:-"-:"::---:"::-:----:-'::-:-----'-_----'-_----'-_----'-_----'---' 0'9
-034 -03 -026 -022 -0'18 -014 -01 -006 -002
LOG
Fig. 22b-Fluidisation of steel hexagonal prians (-II- x -II- in.) in
large tube
The variation in n for the non-spherical particles
is therefore attributable solely to their shape.
The shape of a non-spherical particle can be
defined in a number of ways, such as by a spheri-
city factor (8), or by a volumetric shape factor
(K) as suggested by Heywood,13 Here
(
surface area of a sphere of )
the same volume as particle
S =
surface area of the non-spherical particle
Summary and Conclusions
It has previously been assumed that the effective
gravitational force acting on a particle in a sus-
pension is determined by the density of the sus-
pension and that the drag on the particles is a
function of the apparent viscosity. It has been
shown in the present paper that this cannot be
true for a suspension of uniform particles. Similar
assumptions have frequently been made to
account for the behaviour of a fluidised system.
It has been shown that the falling velocity of a
suspension relative to a fixed horizontal plane is
equal to the upward velocity of liquid (based on
the empty tube) required to maintain a suspension
at the same concentration. Experimental evidence
has been given to substantiate the above con-
clusion. From measurements of the difference in
pressure across a bed of fluidised solids, it has
been established that provided uniform fluidisa-
tion is obtained, the pressure difference is approxi-
mately equal to the weight of particles per unit
area of bed.
When either viscous or inertia forces predomi-
nate, the ratio of the apparent rate of sedi-
mentation, or the liquid velocity based on the
empty tube, to the settling velocity of a single
particle, is, in fluidisation, a function of
the porosity e and i only. On the other hand,
when both viscous and inertial terms are signi-
ficant, the ratio is dependent, in addition, on
o
Re =
The relations obtained permit the calculation of
the settling velocity of any given suspension of
uniformly dispersed spheres, and the liquid velo-
city required to produce a given expansion of a
fluidised bed. From the knowledge of the physical
properties of the solid and liquid, the terminal
falling velocity, V
o
, of a single particle is calculated (42)
15
16
17
1'2
11
n = 27 KO.I6
1000 GM
[3 2000 GM
0=2'44
11
o
K =!'.- d
s
3
6 . d 3
P
dB being the diameter of a sphere with the same
volume as the particle, and d
p
the diameter of a
circle of the same area as the projected profile of
the particle, when lying in its most stable position.
. Log n was plotted against both log K and log 8
(Table VIII); the results are better correlated in
terms of K. The relation between nand K is given
by:
and
LogS
00
-00585
-00585
-00718
-0 0799
-00937
-01938
LogK
-02807
-0 2865
-02865
-02487
-01487
-0 1586
-0,7603
S
10
0874
0874
08467
0832
0806
064
K
0524
0517
0517
0564
071
0694
01737
n
238
24
24
251
255
25
201
1!-in.
TABLE VnI.-Values of n, K and Sfor the Non-spherical Particles.
Re = Vode
,..
7150
2650
5650
3670
3020
5600
3200
Particles
Ball bearings, 1- in. D. .
Glass cylinders, 1- in. X 1- in.
Steel cylinders, 1- in. X 1- in. .
Steel hexagonal prisms, 1!- in. X
Steel cylinders, t in. X 1- in.
Steel cubes, 1- in. . . .
Steel plates, 1- in. X 1- in. X * in.
'DlANS. INSTN CHEM. ENGRS, Vol. 32, 1954
E
and, hence, the value of Vi is obtained (equations
(40), (41)). The Reynolds number
Vodp,
p
is then computed and the index (n) is obtained
from the appropriate equation (33, 34, 37, 38, 39).
On substituting in the expression
V
= e n
Vi
the relation is obtained between V
e
, the sedi-
mentation or fluidisation velocity, and the poro-
sity, e.
The effect of particle shape on the charac-
teristics of liquid-solid fluidised systems has been
investigated for turbulent flow, and the following
relation obtained between n and the volumetric
shape factor, K.
n = 27 KO.16 (42)
expression for the rate of sedimentation of a sus-
pension of spherical particles under streamline
conditions. This work is reported in detail else-
where
13
Two configurations have been considered, in

both of which the particles are arranged in a
hexagonal pattern in horizontal layers as shown
in Fig. 23. In the first arrangement the vertical
distances between the layers are the same as the
distances between the particles in each layer,
while in the other the particles in adjacent hori-
zontallayers are arranged so as to offer the largest
free cross-sectional area, thus giving the maximum
rate of settling. The sedimentation rate has then
been derived by considering the equilibrium of a
" representative" particle of the suspension and
applying the appropriate boundary conditions
arising from the presence of the other particles.
The force (F) on a constituent sphere of the sus-
pension has been found to be
(43)
where Pe = experimental correction factor.
Hence,
V = d
2
(ps - p) g ~ = Vo (45)
e 18 . R (J'
# Pe e
dJ
T
[
~ r - 1 ]
1a
4
4a
2
4 l'
1 +- (-) - - (-) - - log -
3 r 3 r 3 e a
1
~ f
where the theoretical correction factor,

(44)
l' = radius of cylinder of fluid round a particle,
b = radius of sphere,
J = distance from centre of sphere in direction of
flow.
anda
2
= b
2
- J2.
Equation (44) has been evaluated graphically
for various values of il, representing a range of
r
concentration from zero up to O 6, for the two
particle configurations considered.
The force on a constituent particle of the sus-
pension (F) is given by
fig. 23-Hexagonal arrangement of particles
The present study has been confined to relatively
large particles (d> 100 microns) and further
work is required with smaller sizes in order to
test the range of applicability of the expressions
obtained. The sedimentation tests have all been
carried out with uniform particles and it is pro-
posed in future to examine the effect of using
mixed sizes and mixed shapes. Preliminaryexperi-
ments on the fluidisation of a mixture of two sizes
have shown that the particles separate with the
smaller ones on top, and that the two parts of the
system can be considered quite independently.
During the course of the present work an
attempt has been made to derive a theoretical
MLT-2
LT-2
L
L
M
Dimensions
Nomenclature
Symbol
A = cross-sectional area of bed. L2
a = ..j(b
2
- J2). L
b = radius of spherical particle. L
D = tube diameter. L
d = particle diameter. L
d
s
= diameter of sphere of same L
volume as particle.
d
p
= diameter of circle of area equal L
to projected area of particle.
F = drag force.
I = function of.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
H = height of the fluidised bed.
h = loss in head across a bed of par-
ticles.
J = distance from centre of sphere L
in vertical direction.
K = volumetric shape factor.
k = a constant.
M = mass of bed.
n = slopes obtained from the plots
of log V
c
versus log e.
d
no = value ofnat D = 0.
0.5 04
II II II
I)
v
II
01 o
9
/9
II

17
21
02 03

Fig. H-Experimental and theoretical correction factors as func-
tion of concentration
2) 0-COHCENTRATION V. FACTOR
A- II V. II II
23 ]J
From the experimental results, the sedimentation
rate of a suspension under viscous conditions
of flow is represented by the relationships = 0,
V
c
= V
o
e4.65 (see equations (29) and (33)).
Acknowledgment
The authors are indebted to Professor D. M.
Newitt, F.R.S., in whose laboratories the present
work was carried out, for his constant help and
encouragement with the investigation.
Values for the experimental correction factor
and the theoretical correction factors for the two
particle configurations considered have been
plotted against the concentration (Fig. 24). The
experimental curve lies between the two theoreti-
cal curves so that some intermediate configuration
would result in the identity of the theoretical and
experimental factors. As the concentration is
increased, conditions are represented more closely
by the second configuration.
Hence,
fl. = e-
4
.
65
(46)
p
= pressure drop.
ML-IT-2
R = resistance force per unit cross-
ML-IT-2
sectional area of particle.
R
t
= resistance force per unit cross-
ML-IT-2
sectional area of particle at
the terminal falling velocity.
Re = Reynolds number with respect
to particle = VodP.
It
Re
c
= modified Reynolds group
_ VflP
---.
It
r = the radius of the cylinder of L
fluid surrounding a particle.
S = sphericity factor.
V = velocity of particle relative to
LT-l
fluid.
V
o
= terminal falling velocity of a
LT-l
single particle.
V
c
= falling velocity of suspension
LT-l
with respect to a fixed hori-
zontal plane or the velocity
of the fluid based on the
empty tube in the fluidisa-
tion experiments.
V
s
= relative velocity between fluid
LT-l
and solid.
S99
Discussion
ML-IT-l
ML-IT-l
ML-3
ML-3
ML-3
Symbol Dimension
Vi = antilog of the intercept on the LT-l
log V
c
axis at (> = l.
P
e
, Pi = experimental and theoretical
factors to Stokes' Law.
(> = porosity.
ft = viscosity of fluid.
ftc = viscosity of suspension.
P = density of the fluid.
Pc = average density of suspension.
ps = density of solids.
</> = function of.
References
1 Stokes, G. G. Mathematical and physical papers, 1901.
2 Coe, H. S., and Clevenger, G. H. Trans. Amer. Inst. min.
(metall.) Engrs., 1916, 55, 356.
3 Robinson, C. S. Industr. Engng. Ohem., 1926, 18, 869.
4 Steinour, H. H. Industr. Engng. Ohem., 1944,36,618.
5 Hawksley, P. G. W. Symposium," Some Aspects of Fluid
Flow." Edward Arnold & Co., London.
Wilhelm, R. H., and Kwauk, M. Chem. Engng. Progr.,
1948,44,201.
7 Johnson, E. Inst. Gas Research Fellowship Report, 1949-
50.
Jottrand, R. J. Appl. Ohem. (Supp. Issue I), 1952,2, 17.
Lewis, W. K., Gilliland, E. R., and Bauer, W. C. Industr.
Engng. Chem., 1949, 41, 1104.
10 McCune, L. K., and Wilhelm, R. H. Industr. Engng. Chem.,
1949,41, 1124.
11 Lewis, E. W., and Bowerman, E. W. Chem. Engng. Progr.,
1952,48,603.
12 Heywood, H. J. Imp. Oollege Chem. Eng. Soc., 1948,4,17.
13 Richardson, J. F., and Zaki, W. N. Chem. Eng. Sci. 1954,
3,65.
The manuscript of this paper was received on 23 December,
1953, and the paper was presented at a meeting of the Institution
held in London on 2 February, 1954.
Dr. H. HEYWOOD said that he would like to
give his view on shape factors.
As Dr. Richardson had shown, for an equi-
dimensional particle such as a cube, the volume
coefficient had a maximum value of K = 0696.
If the cube was sliced to produce a flattened
particle then the coefficient was reduced; if the
thickness of the particle was halved the volume
coefficient became 0348. If however the cube
was elongated to a prism of length twice the side
of the cube, the value of K was reduced to only
0492. The important factor was that K was
always a maximum for equi-dimensional particles
and was reduced in the case of flattened or elon-
gated particles, though the change was not the
same for alterations in the two perpendicular
directions. Thus two shapes, one flat and one
elongated, could have the same value of K, but
as mineral particles were most frequently flattened
it was the value for flattened particles which
generally applied. In the case of special shapes,
however, such as rod-like particles, he was not
sure that the above method could be applied
without modification, and further investigation
would be necessary.
Dr. Richardson had given a very lucid descrip-
tion of the phenomena involved in the motion of
particles in fluids, starting with the case of a
sphere in an infinite quiescent medium, and pro-
ceeding to the case of dense suspensions. If the
process was reversed and one started with a bed
of particles through which a fluid was flowing,
then as the velocity increased the bed disrupted,
the particles became dispersed, and eventually the
system reverted to one of widely separated par-
ticles in a fluid, which though not infinite,
approached this condition.
The same general equations applied to sedimen-
tation as to fluidisation, and Dr. Heywood showed
two slides to indicate the similarity between the
action of a sedimenting dense suspension on the
one hand, and that of a filter bed on the other.
The experiment illustrated was concerned with
the properties of dense media for flotation. Four
suspensions were made of powdered galena in water
with particles of varying size. With a dilute sus-
pension of particles of varying size, the larger
particles fell through the suspension of finer ones,
as though the latter were not present, the con-
ditions being rather similar to that for mixtures of
gases, so that each grade of particles acted inde-
pendently of other grades. Some of the particles
were so fine that they had hardly settled at all.
In the cases of 30% and 25% suspensions, by
volume the particle pulp level was well defined;
above it the liquid was completely clear.
These dense suspensions therefore appeared to
act as a filter bed, carrying down with them all
the fine particles. At 15% concentration a trace of
fine material was left in the liquid above the pulp
level, so that there was a critical concentration at
which the properties of a suspension changed.
He also showed measurements of the velocity of
fall of the pulp level plotted against the mean
density of the unsettled pulp. There was a change
in conditions between concentrations of 171%
and 261 %by volume. Suspensions of the order of
25% and greater concentrations were stable, with
an approximately constant velocity of fall of the
pulp level. These suspensions had the proportion
of a heavy liquid, and could be used for mineral
separation by direct flotation.
These properties of dense suspensions, Dr. Hey-
SlOO JUBILEE SUPPLEMENT-Trans IChemE, Vol 75, December 1997
wood concluded, augmented the detailed investi-
gations of the authors.
Mr. W. L. LOM invited the authors to comment
on the effect of velocity on a fluidised bed. He
believed that in the case of gaseous fluidisation,
the increase of velocity eventually led to a change
in the characteristics of the bed, and disperse phase
fluidisation set in. This was of particular interest in
transfer line and similar reactions. He asked if
there were an analogy in the case of liquid fluidi-
sation, and whether it showed some similar
phenomenon to particulate fluidisation in gases.
Mr. ZAKI replied that the behaviour of gas-solid
and liquid-solid fluidised systems were similar up
to the point of incipient fluidisation, in so far as
the solids were uniformly distributed. In a gas
solid system however, there appeared to be a
tendency for the gases to rise through the bed
in the form of bubbles entraining a few particles
when the gas velocity increased above a certain
value. On the other hand, in liquid-solid fluidised
systems as the velocity increased the bed con-
tinued to expand with the particles uniformly
dispersed.
Mr. P. F. DALE REES asked what the maximum
velocity relative to the free falling velocity of the
particles was. In other words, could the curves of
V
c
and e be taken up to the point where the
particles were being carried out of the fluidisation
tube?
With gas fluidisation, it was true that with some
materials bubble formation or "slugging" oc-
curred as soon as fluidisation started, but with
other materials, especially those with a suitable
size range, smooth fluidisation occurred over quite
a wide range of gas velocity, and bubble formation
was very slight and indeed difficult to see with the
naked eye.
Mr. ZAKI said that liquid velocities were used
which resulted in expansion of the fluidised beds
corresponding to a porosity of the order of 095.
Mr. L. E. PROSSER said that the authors' work
would be most helpful in dealing with the question
of hydraulic transport on which the British Hydro-
mechanics Research Association was working. One
facet of that work was the hydraulic tranbport
of coal up a vertical pipe, which was the inverse
of sedimentation, while the fluidised bed was the
intermediate condition. Presumably the authors'
theory would be equally applicable to this upward
transport if allowance were made for the increased
circulation induced by wall friction. It might be
however, that when compared with the hovering
fluidised bed, the relative flow pattern inside a
rising column of material would be appreciably
modified, and it would be valuable if the authors
could extend their experiments into this region.
There were of course obvious experimental diffi-
culties in observing a continuously ascending
column, but it might be possible to adapt a method
used by the Research Association for measuring
the degradation of coal transported hydraulically
in long pipe lines. This comprised a transparent
annular pipe rotated about a horizontal axis and
partially filled with the suspension. On rotation,
the wall friction dragged the column upwards on
one side and downwards on the other until it was
balanced by the difference in static head. The
condition of flow in the annulus was then similar
to that in a pipe but could be observed optically.
Dr. RICHARDSON replied that the authors were
hoping to extend the work and to study vertical
hydraulic transport where, of course, the liquid
velocity would exceed the terminal falling velocity
of the particles. It would be interesting to see how
the results could be related to those obtained in
the present work. The effect of the turbulence of
the fluid on the velocity gradient in the tube was of
considerable importance: whereas Vi corres-
ponded exactly to V
o
in the work on sedimenta-
tion, there was a small correction in the fluidisation
work where the effect of the walls of the tube on
the velocity gradient became important at low
concentrations.

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Two configurations have been considered, in

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