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Differential Vector
Calculus
_
`

28.2
Introduction
A vector eld or a scalar eld can be dierentiated with respect to position in three ways to produce
another vector eld or scalar eld. This Section studies the three derivatives, that is: (i) the gradient
of a scalar eld (ii) the divergence of a vector eld and (iii) the curl of a vector eld.
_

Prerequisites
Before starting this Section you should . . .
be familiar with the concept of a function of
two variables
be familiar with the concept of partial
dierentiation
be familiar with scalar and vector elds
_
`

Learning Outcomes
On completion you should be able to . . .
nd the divergence, gradient or curl of a
vector or scalar eld.
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
17
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1. The gradient of a scalar eld
Consider the height above sea level at various points on a hill. Some contours for such a hill are
shown in Figure 14.
A
B
C
D
E
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 14
We are interested in how changes from one point to another. Starting from A and making
a displacement d the change in height ( ) depends on the direction of the displacement. The
magnitude of each d is the same.
Displacement Change in
AB 40 30 = 10
AC 40 30 = 10
AD 30 30 = 0
AE 20 30 = 10
The change in clearly depends on the direction of the displacement. For the paths shown
increases most rapidly along AB, does not increase at all along AD (as A and D are both on the
same contour and so are both at the same height) and decreases along AE.
The direction in which changes fastest is along the line of greatest slope and orthogonal (i.e.
perpendicular) to the contours. Hence, at each point of a scalar eld we can dene a vector eld
giving the magnitude and direction of the greatest rate of change of locally.
A vector eld, called the gradient, written grad , can be associated with a scalar eld so that
at every point the direction of the vector eld is orthogonal to the scalar eld contour and is the
direction of the maximum rate of change of .
For a second example consider a metal plate heated at one corner and cooled by an ice bag at the
opposite corner. All edges and surfaces are insulated. After a while a steady state situation exists in
which the temperature at any point remains the same. Some temperature contours are shown in
Figure 15.
heat source
ice bag
5
10
15 20
25
30
35
heat source
ice bag
5
10
15 20
25
30
35
(a) (b)
Figure 15
18 HELM (2005):
Workbook 28: Dierential Vector Calculus
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The direction of the heat ow is along ow lines which are orthogonal to the contours (see the dashed
lines in Figure 15(b)); this heat ow is measured by F = grad .
Denition
The gradient of the scalar eld = f(x, y, z) is grad = =

x
i +

y
j +

z
k
Often, instead of grad , the notation is used. ( is a vector dierential operator called del or
nabla dened by

x
i +

y
j +

z
k. As a vector dierential operator, it retains the characteristics
of a vector while also carrying out dierentiation.)
The vector grad gives the magnitude and direction of the greatest rate of change of at any
point, and is always orthogonal to the contours of . For example, in Figure 14, grad points in
the direction of AB while the contour line is parallel to AD i.e. perpendicular to AB. Similarly, in
Figure 15(b), the various intersections of the contours with the lines representing grad occur at
right-angles.
For the hill considered earlier the direction of grad is shown at various points in Figure 16. Note
that the magnitude of grad is greatest when the hill is at its steepest.
10
20
30
40 50
60
Figure 16
Key Point 3
is a scalar eld but grad is a vector eld.
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
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Example 9
Find grad for
(a) = x
2
3y (b) = xy
2
z
3
Solution
(a) grad =

x
(x
2
3y)i +

y
(x
2
3y)j +

z
(x
2
3y)k = 2xi +(3)j +0k = 2xi 3j
(b) grad =

x
(xy
2
z
3
)i +

y
(xy
2
z
3
)j +

z
(xy
2
z
3
)k = y
2
z
3
i + 2xyz
3
j + 3xy
2
z
2
k
Example 10
For f = x
2
+y
2
nd grad f at the point A(1, 2). Show that the direction of grad
f is orthogonal to the contour at this point.
Solution
grad f =
f
x
i +
f
y
j +
f
z
k = 2xi + 2yj + 0k = 2xi + 2yj
and at A(1, 2), this equals 2 1i + 2 2j = 2i + 4j.
Since f = x
2
+ y
2
then the contours are dened by x
2
+ y
2
= constant, so the contours are circles
centered at the origin. The vector grad f at A(1, 2) points directly away from the origin and hence
grad f and the contour are orthogonal; see Figure 17.
grad
f
A
1
2
O
x
y
Figure 17
To nd the change in a function in a given direction (given in terms of a unit vector a) take the
scalar product, (grad ) a.
20 HELM (2005):
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Task
Given = x
2
y
2
z
2
, nd
(a) grad
(b) grad at (1, 1, 1) and a unit vector in this direction.
(c) the derivative of at (2, 1, 1) in the direction of
(i) i (ii) d =
3
5
i +
4
5
k.
Your solution
Answer
(a) grad =

x
i +

y
j +

z
k = 2xy
2
z
2
i + 2x
2
yz
2
j + 2x
2
y
2
zk
(b) At (1, 1, 1), grad = 2i + 2j + 2k
A unit vector in this direction is
grad
|grad |
=
2i + 2j + 2k
_
(2)
2
+ 2
2
+ 2
2
=
1
2

3
(2i + 2j + 2k) =
1

3
i +
1

3
j +
1

3
k
(c) At (2, 1, 1), grad = 4i + 8j 8k
(i) To nd the derivative of in the direction of i take the scalar product
(4i + 8j 8k) i = 4 1 + 0 + 0 = 4. So the derivative in the direction of d is 4.
(ii) To nd the derivative of in the direction of d =
3
5
i +
4
5
k take the scalar product
(4i + 8j 8k) (
3
5
i +
4
5
k) = 4
3
5
+ 0 + (8)
4
5
=
12
5

32
5
= 4.
So the derivative in the direction of d is 4.
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
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Exercises
1. Find grad for the following scalar elds
(a) = y x. (b) = y x
2
, (c) = x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
, (d) = x
3
y
2
z.
2. Find grad for each of the following two-dimensional scalar elds given that r = xi + yj and
r =
_
x
2
+ y
2
(you should express your answer in terms of r).
(a) = r, (b) = ln r, (c) =
1
r
, (d) = r
n
.
3. If = x
3
y
2
z, nd,
(a)
(b) a unit vector normal to the contour at the point (1, 1, 1).
(c) the rate of change of at (1, 1, 1) in the direction of i.
(d) the rate of change of at (1, 1, 1) in the direction of the unit vector n =
1

3
(i + j + k).
4. Find a unit vector which is normal to the sphere x
2
+ (y 1)
2
+ (z + 1)
2
= 2 at the point
(0, 0, 0).
5. Find unit vectors normal to
1
= y x
2
and
2
= x + y 2. Hence nd the angle between
the curves y = x
2
and y = 2 x at their point of intersection in the rst quadrant.
Answers
1. (a)

x
(y x)i +

y
(y x)j = i + j
(b) 2xi + j
(c) [

x
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
)]i + [

y
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
)]j + [

z
(x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
)]k = 2xi + 2yj + 2zk,
(d) 3x
2
y
2
zi + 2x
2
yzj + x
3
y
2
k
2. (a)
r
r
, (b)
r
r
2
, (c)
r
r
3
, (d) nr
n2
r
3. (a) 3x
2
y
2
zi + 2x
3
yzj + x
3
y
2
k, (b)
1

14
(3i + 2j + k), (c) 3, (d) 2

3
4. (a) The vector eld where = x
2
+ (y 1)
2
+ (z + 1)
2
is 2xi + 2(y 1)j + 2(z + 1)k
(b) The value that this vector eld takes at the point (0, 0, 0) is 2j +2k which is a vector
normal to the sphere.
(c) Dividing this vector by its magnitude forms a unit vector:
1

2
(j + k)
5. 108

or 72

(intersect at (1, 1))

22 HELM (2005):
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2. The divergence of a vector eld
Consider the vector eld F = F
1
i + F
2
j + F
3
k.
The divergence of F is dened to be
div F =
F
1
x
+
F
2
y
+
F
3
z
.
Note that F is a vector eld but div F is a scalar.
In terms of the dierential operator , div F = F since
F = (i

x
+ j

y
+ k

z
) (F
1
i + F
2
j + F
3
k) =
F
1
x
+
F
2
y
+
F
3
z
.
Physical Signicance of the Divergence
The implication of the divergence is most easily understood by considering the behaviour of a uid
and hence is relevant to engineering topics such as thermodynamics. The divergence (of the vector
eld representing velocity) at a point in a uid (liquid or gas) is a measure of the rate per unit volume
at which the uid is owing away from the point. A negative divergence is a convergence indicating
a ow towards the point. Physically divergence means that either the uid is expanding or that uid
is being supplied by a source external to the eld. Conversely convergence means a contraction or
the presence of a sink through which uid is removed from the eld. The lines of ow diverge from
a source and converge to a sink.
If there is no gain or loss of uid anywhere then div v = 0 which is the equation of continuity
for an incompressible uid.
The divergence also enters engineering topics such as magnetic elds. A magnetic eld (denoted by
B) has the property B = 0, that is there are no sources or sinks of magnetic eld.
Key Point 4
F is a vector eld but div F is a scalar eld.
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
23
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Example 11
Find the divergence of the following vector elds.
(a) F = x
2
i + y
2
j + z
2
k
(b) r = xi + yj + zk
(c) v = xi + yj + 2k
Solution
(a) div F =

x
(x
2
) +

y
(y
2
) +

z
(z
2
) = 2x + 2y + 2z
(b) div r =

x
(x) +

y
(y) +

z
(z) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
(c) div v =

x
(x) +

y
(y) +

z
(2) = 1 + 1 + 0 = 0
Example 12
Find the value of a for which F = (2x
2
y +z
2
)i +(xy
2
x
2
z)j +(axyz 2x
2
y
2
)k
is incompressible.
Solution
F is incompressible if div F = 0.
div F =

x
(2x
2
y + z
2
) +

y
(xy
2
x
2
z) +

z
(axyz 2x
2
y
2
) = 4xy + 2xy + axy
which is zero if a = 6.
Task
Find the divergence of the following vector eld, in general terms and at the point
(1, 0, 3).
F
1
= x
3
i + y
3
j + z
3
k
Your solution
Answer
(a) 3x
2
+ 3y
2
+ 3z
2
, 30
24 HELM (2005):
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Task
Find the divergence of F
2
= x
2
yi 2xy
2
j, in general terms and at (1, 0, 3).
Your solution
Answer
2xy, 0,
Task
Find the divergence of F
3
= x
2
zi 2y
3
z
3
j + xyz
2
k, in general terms and at the
point (1, 0, 3).
Your solution
Answer
2xz 6y
2
z
3
+ 2xyz, 6
3. The curl of a vector eld
The curl of the vector eld given by F = F
1
i + F
2
j + F
3
k is dened as the vector eld
curl F = F =

i j k

z
F
1
F
2
F
3

=
_
F
3
y

F
2
z
_
i +
_
F
1
z

F
3
x
_
j +
_
F
2
x

F
1
y
_
k
Physical signicance of curl
The divergence of a vector eld represents the outow rate from a point; however the curl of a vector
eld represents the rotation at a point.
Consider the ow of water down a river (Figure 18). The surface velocity v of the water is revealed
by watching a light oating object such as a leaf. You will notice two types of motion. First the
leaf oats down the river following the streamlines of v, but it may also rotate. This rotation may
be quite fast near the bank but slow or zero in midstream. Rotation occurs when the velocity, and
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
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hence the drag, is greater on one side of the leaf than the other.
bank bank
Figure 18
Note that for a two-dimensional vector eld, such as v described here, curl v is perpendicular to the
motion, and this is the direction of the axis about which the leaf rotates. The magnitude of curl v
is related to the speed of rotation.
For motion in three dimensions a particle will tend to rotate about the axis that points in the direction
of curl v, with its magnitude measuring the speed of rotation.
If, at any point P, curl v = 0 then there is no rotation at P and v is said to be irrotational at P. If
curl v = 0 at all points of the domain of v then the vector eld is an irrotational vector eld.
Key Point 5
Note that F is a vector eld and that curl F is also a vector eld.
Example 13
Find curl v for the following two-dimensional vector elds
(a) v = xi + 2j (b) v = yi + xj
If v represents the surface velocity of the ow of water, describe the motion of a
oating leaf.
Solution
(a) v =

i j k

z
x 2 0

=
_

y
(0)

z
(2)
_
i +
_

z
(x)

x
(0)
_
j +
_

x
(2)

y
(x)
_
k = 0
A oating leaf will travel along the streamlines without rotating.
26 HELM (2005):
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Solution (contd.)
(b)
v =

i j k

z
y x 0

=
_

y
(0)

z
(x)
_
i +
_

z
(y)

x
(0)
_
j +
_

x
(x)

y
(y)
_
k
= 0i + 0j + 2k = 2k
A oating leaf will travel along the streamlines (anti-clockwise around the origin ) and will rotate
anticlockwise (as seen from above).
Example 14
(a) Find the curl of u = x
2
i + y
2
j. When is u irrotational?
(b) Given F = (xy xz)i + 3x
2
j +yzk, nd curl F at the origin (0, 0, 0)
and at the point P = (1, 2, 3).
Solution
(a)
curl u = F =

i j k

z
x
2
y
2
0

=
_

y
(0)

z
(y
2
)
_
i +
_

z
(x
2
)

x
(0)
_
j +
_

x
(y
2
)

y
(x
2
)
_
k
= 0i + 0j + 0k = 0
curl u = 0 so u is irrotational everywhere.
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
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Solution (contd.)
(b)
curl F = F =

i j k

z
xy xz 3x
2
yz

=
_

y
(yz)

z
(3x
2
)
_
i +
_

z
(xy xz)

x
(yz)
_
j
+
_

x
(3x
2
)

y
(xy xz)
_
k
= zi xj + 5xk
At the point (0, 0, 0), curl F = 0. At the point (1, 2, 3), curl F = 3i j + 5k.
Engineering Example 1
Current associated with a magnetic eld
Introduction
In a magnetic eld B, an associated current is given by:
I =
1

0
(B)
Problem in words
Given the magnetic eld B = B
0
xk nd the associated current I.
x
y
Figure 19
Mathematical statement of problem
We need to evaluate the curl of B.
28 HELM (2005):
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Mathematical analysis
B =

i j k

z
0 0 B
0
x

= 0i B
0
j + 0k
= B
0
j
and so I =
B
0

0
j.
Interpretation
The current is perpendicular to the eld and to the direction of variation of the eld.
Task
Find the curl of the following two-dimensional vector eld (a) in general terms and
(b) at the point (1, 2).
F
2
= y
2
i + xyj
Your solution
Answer
(a) F
2
=

i j k

z
y
2
xy 0

= 0i + 0j + (y 2y)k = yk
(b) 2k
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
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Exercises
1. Find the curl of each of the following two-dimensional vector elds. Give each in general terms
and also at the point (1, 2).
(a) F
1
= 2xi + 2yj
(b) F
3
= x
2
y
3
i x
3
y
2
j
2. Find the curl of each of the following three-dimensional vector elds. Give each in general
terms and also at the point (2, 1, 3).
(a) F
1
= y
2
z
3
i + 2xyz
3
j + 3xy
2
z
2
k
(b) F
2
= (xy + z
2
)i + x
2
j + (xz 2)k
3. The surface water velocity on a straight uniform river 20 metres wide is modelled by the vector
v =
1
50
x(20 x)j where x is the distance from the west bank (see diagram).
i
j
x
20 m
(a) Find the velocity v at each bank and at midstream.
(b) Find v at each bank and at midstream.
4. The velocity eld on the surface of an emptying bathroom sink can be modelled by two
functions, the rst describing the swirling vortex of radius a near the plughole and the second
describing the more gently rotating uid outside the vortex region. These functions are
u(x, y) = w(yi + xj),
_
_
x
2
+ y
2
a
_
v(x, y) =
wa
2
(yi + xj)
x
2
+ y
2
_
_
x
2
+ y
2
a
_
Find (a) curl u and (b)curl v.
Answers
1. (a) 0; (b) 6x
2
y
2
k, 24k
2. (a) 0; (b) zj + xk, 3j + 2k
3. (a) 0; (b) 2j, 0.4k, 0
4. (a) 2wk; (b) 0
30 HELM (2005):
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4. The Laplacian
The Laplacian of a function is written as
2
and is dened as: Laplacian = div grad , that is

2
=
=
_

x
i +

y
j +

z
k
_
=

2

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
The equation
2
= 0, that is

2

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 is known as Laplaces equation and has
applications in many branches of engineering including Heat Flow, Electrical and Magnetic Fields
and Fluid Mechanics.
Example 15
Find the Laplacian of u = x
2
y
2
z + 2xz.
Solution

2
u =

2
u
x
2
+

2
u
y
2
+

2
u
z
2
= 2y
2
z + 2x
2
z + 0 = 2(x
2
+ y
2
)z
HELM (2005):
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5. Examples involving grad, div, curl and the Laplacian
The vector dierential operators can be combined in several ways as the following examples show.
Example 16
If A = 2yzi x
2
yj + xz
2
k, B = x
2
i + yzj xyk and = 2x
2
yz
3
, nd
(a) (A ) (b) A (c) B (d)
2

Solution
(a)
(A ) =
_
(2yzi x
2
yj + xz
2
k) (

x
i +

y
j +

z
k)
_

=
_
2yz

x
x
2
y

y
+ xz
2

z
_
2x
2
yz
3
= 2yz

x
(2x
2
yz
3
) x
2
y

y
(2x
2
yz
3
) + xz
2

z
(2x
2
yz
3
)
= 2yz(4xyz
3
) x
2
y(2x
2
y
3
) + xz
2
(6x
2
yz
2
)
= 8xy
2
z
4
2x
4
y
4
+ 6x
3
yz
4
(b)
=

x
(2x
2
yz
3
)i +

y
(2x
2
yz
3
)j +

z
(2x
2
yz
3
)k
= 4xyz
3
i + 2x
2
z
3
j + 6x
2
yz
2
k
So A =
_
2yzi x
2
yj + xz
2
k
_
(4xyz
3
i + 2x
2
z
3
j + 6x
2
yz
2
k)
= 8xy
2
z
4
2x
4
yz
3
+ 6x
3
yz
4
(c) = 4xyz
3
i + 2x
2
z
3
j + 6x
2
yz
2
k so
B =

i j k
x
2
yz xy
4xyz
3
2x
2
z
3
6x
2
yz
2

= i(6x
2
y
2
z
3
+ 2x
3
yz
3
) + j(4x
2
y
2
z
3
6x
4
yz
2
) + k(2x
4
z
3
4xy
2
z
4
)
(d)
2
=

2
x
2
(2x
2
yz
3
) +

2
y
2
(2x
2
yz
3
) +

2
z
2
(2x
2
yz
3
) = 4yz
3
+ 0 + 12x
2
yz
32 HELM (2005):
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Example 17
For each of the expressions below determine whether the quantity can be formed
and, if so, whether it is a scalar or a vector.
(a) grad(div A)
(b) grad(grad )
(c) curl(div F)
(d) div [ curl (Agrad ) ]
Solution
(a) A is a vector and divA can be calculated and is a scalar. Hence, grad(div A) can be
formed and is a vector.
(b) is a scalar so grad can be formed and is a vector. As grad is a vector, it is not
possible to take grad(grad ).
(c) F is a vector and hence div F is a scalar. It is not possible to take the curl of a scalar
so curl(div F) does not exist.
(d) is a scalar so grad exists and is a vector. Agrad exists and is also a vector as is
curl Agrad . The divergence can be taken of this last vector to give
div [ curl (Agrad ) ] which is a scalar.
6. Identities involving grad, div and curl
There are numerous identities involving the vector derivatives; a selection are given in Table 1.
Table 1
1 div(A) = grad A + div A or (A) = () A + ( A)
2 curl(A) = grad A + curl A or (A) = () A + (A)
3 div (A B) = B curl A A curl B or (A B) = B (A) A (B)
4 curl (A B) = (B grad ) A (A grad ) B or (A B) = (B )A (A )B
+A div B B div A +A B B A
5 grad (A B) = (B grad ) A + (A grad ) B or (A B) = (B )A + (A )B
+A curl B + B curl A +A (B) + B (A)
6 curl grad = 0 or () = 0
7 div curl A = 0 or (A) = 0
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
33
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Example 18
Show for any vector eld A = A
1
i + A
2
j + A
3
k, that div curl A = 0.
Solution
div curl A = div

i j j

z
A
1
A
2
A
3

= div
__
A
3
y

A
2
z
_
i +
_
A
1
z

A
3
x
_
j +
_
A
2
x

A
1
y
_
k
_
=

x
_
A
3
y

A
2
z
_
+

y
_
A
1
z

A
3
x
_
+

z
_
A
2
x

A
1
y
_
=

2
A
3
xy


2
A
2
zx
+

2
A
1
yz


2
A
3
yx
+

2
A
2
zx


2
A
1
zy
= 0
N.B. This assumes

2
A
3
xy
=

2
A
3
yx
etc.
Example 19
Verify identity 1 for the vector A = 2xyi 3zk and the function = xy
2
.
Solution
A = 2x
2
y
3
i 3xy
2
zk so
A =
_
2x
2
y
3
i 3xy
2
zk
_
=

x
(2x
2
y
3
) +

z
(3xy
2
z) = 4xy
3
3xy
2
So LHS = 4xy
3
3xy
2
.
=

x
(xy
2
)i +

y
(xy
2
)j +

z
(xy
2
)k = y
2
i + 2xyj so
() A = (y
2
i + 2xyj) (2xyi 3zk) = 2xy
3
A = (2xyi 3zk) = 2y 3 so A = 2xy
3
3xy
2
giving
() A + ( A) = 2xy
3
+ (2xy
3
3xy
2
) = 4xy
3
3xy
2
So RHS = 4xy
3
3xy
2
= LHS.
So (A) = () A + ( A) in this case.
34 HELM (2005):
Workbook 28: Dierential Vector Calculus
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Task
If F = x
2
yi 2xzj + 2yzk, nd
(a) F
(b) F
(c) ( F)
(d) (F)
(e) (F)
Your solution
Answer
(a) 2xy + 2y,
(b) (2x + 2z)i (x
2
+ 2z)k,
(c) 2yi + (2 + 2x)j (using answer to (a)),
(d) 0 (using answer to (b)),
(e) (2 + 2x)j (using answer to (b))
HELM (2005):
Section 28.2: Dierential Vector Calculus
35
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Task
If = 2xz y
2
z, nd
(a)
(b)
2
= ()
(c) ()
Your solution
Answer
(a) 2zi 2yzj + (2x y
2
)k, (b) 2z, (c) 0 where (b) and (c) use the answer to (a).
Exercise
Which of the following combinations of grad, div and curl can be formed? If a quantity can be
formed, state whether it is a scalar or a vector.
(a) div (grad )
(b) div (div A)
(c) curl (curl F)
(d) div (curl F)
(e) curl (grad )
(f) curl (div A)
(g) div (A B)
(h) grad (
1

2
)
(i) curl (div (A grad ))
Answers
(a), (d) are scalars;
(c), (e), (h) are vectors;
(b), (f), (g) and (i) are not dened.
36 HELM (2005):
Workbook 28: Dierential Vector Calculus
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