Extracts adapted from : EXPLAINING ENGLISH GRAMMAR, George Yule, OUP, 1998

Summary Box - The meanings of may

Core concept: possible may

Circumstances Interpretation Examples

Source is human authority
or social regulations (personal) permission May I come in?

Source is speaker's knowledge

Situationally specified
Equals may not (epistemic) weak possibility The bus may be late.

Situation acknowledged, concession I may be old, but am not crazy!

(+ but) not marked
as relevant

Summary Box - The meanings of CAN

Core concept: potential can

Circumstances Interpretation Examples

Animate agent-subject as source

Physical action, mental activity ability Jim can speak Spanish.

Social authority as source

Social transaction (social) permission The teacher says you can leave.

Absence of agent-source
Situationally specified (logical) possibility Grammar can be fun!

Summary Box - The meanings of will

Core concept: likely will
Circumstances Interpretation Examples
Speaker as source
Planned future action
Desirable (= promise)
Undesirable (= threat) intention I will call the police!

Animate agent subject

Physical action/activity
Second person questions as requests
Aspect rare
Negation applies to modal
Social transaction (social) willingness Will you help me?

Non-animate subjects common

Third person, non-specific subjects
Aspect common
Logical statements (If A, then B.)
Common in technical texts
Negation applies to main verb
(logical) prediction The weather will be nice.
Summary Box The meanings of should

Core concept: required should

Circumstances Interpretation Examples

Expressing appropriate behavior,

correct ways of doing things,
suggestions, advice (personal) weak obligation You should think of
others.
Expressing reasonable
assumptions, probable
occurrences (logical) probability The work should soon
be finished.

Summary Box The meanings of must

Core concept: necessary must

Circumstances Interpretation Examples

Present and future actions

with animate subjects
Aspect is rare
Negation is common (personal) obligation You must wear a seatbelt.

Past and present states

and some actions
Also with non-animate subjects
Perfect and progressive aspect
Negation is rare (logical) conclusion It must be cold up there.

Summary Box -Modals and negatives

Modals Interpretations Examples

with negative

can (= potential) NOT able (action) I can’t dance. We couldn't swim.

NOT permit (action) You can't go. They couldn't eat here.
NOT possible (action) It can't happen. It couldn't be done.

may (= possibility) NOT permit (action) You may not leave.

possible (NOT action) They may not come.
concede (NOT action) It may not be finished, but...

must(= necessity) oblige (NOT action) You mustn't shout.

NOT oblige (action) You don't have to stay.
conclude (NOT action) She must not have much money or
She can't have much money.

will(= likelihood) NOT intend (action) They won't do it.

NOT willing (action) She won't help. He wouldn't listen.
predict (NOT action) He won’t win. You wouldn’t like it.

should oblige (NOT action) You shouldn’t smoke.

(= requirement) probable (NOT action) It shouldn't last long.