Damage Mechanisms

Description of Damage

Temperature Range

Affected Materials

Prevention

Inspection

Appearance

Graphitization

It is a change in the microstructure of certin carbon steels and 0.5 Mo steels after long term operation in the 800 800F - 1100F; Graphitization before to 1100 F range may cause a loss in Spheroidization < 1025F strength, ductility and/or creep resistance.

Some grades of CS and 0.5Mo steels

Addition of 0.7% Cr

Full thickness sample metallography

N/A

850F - 1400F; May cause a loss in strength Spheroidization before and/or creep resistance. Graphitization > 1025F May Softening (Spheroidization) Cause a loss in strength and or creep resistance.

CS and low alloys

Minimize exposure to elevated temps Pressurization sequence MPT of 350F for older steels and 150F newer; Heat treat to 1150F and cool rapidly for temporary reverse; Limit J and X factors.

Field metallography or removal of samples

N/A

Temper Embrittlement

reduction in toughness. This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. (by Charpy impact testing)

650F - 1100F; Quicker at 900F but more severe in long- term exposure at 850F

Primarily 2.25Cr; Older 2.25Cr manuf. prior to 1972 particularly susceptible

Impact test sample blocks from original heat

N / A

Strain Aging

found in most older vintage steels and 0-0.5 Mo low alloy steels under the combined effects of deformation and aging at an intermediate Intermediate Temperature temperature. This results in an increase in hardness and strength with a reduction in ductility and toughness

No issue for newer steels with enough Al for Mostly pre-1980s carbon deoxidizer; BOF better than steels with large grain size None older Bessemer; and C-0.5 Mo low alloy steel Pressurization sequence; PWHT or "Butter"

N/A

885F Embrittlement

is a loss in toughness due to a metallurgical change that occurs in alloys containing a ferrite phase, as a result of exposure in the temeratur range 600 to 1100.

600F - 1000F

Alloys containing a ferrite phase; 400 SS and Duplex SS

Use low ferrite or nonferritic alloys; Heat treat to 1100F and cool rapidly

Impact/bend test samples; Cracking during t/a or when below 200F; Increase in hardness

N/A

Sigma Phase Embrittlement

1000F - 1750F

Ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, and duplex SS

SS with sigma may have lack of toughness below 500F; Minimize weld metal Testing of samples; Cracking ferrite content; Solution during t/a or when below anneal at 500F 1950F and water quench to reverse

Cracking particularly at welds or areas of high restraint

Brittle Fracture

Temperatures below ductile-to- brittle transition temp SEE Table 4-2 for ThresholdTemp: C.S. --> 700F C-1/2 Mo --> 750F 1.25Cr thru 9Cr --> 800F 304H --> 900F 347H --> 1000F

CS and low alloys esp. prior to 1987; 400 SS also susceptible

Material selection; Minimize pressure at ambient None to minimize; Susceptible temperatures; PWHT; vessels inspect for pre"Warm" pre-stress hydro existing flaws test

Cracks typically straight, nonbranching, with no plastic deformation; Limited intergranular cracking

Creep and Stress Rupture

Minimize temperatures; Higher PWHT All metals and alloys may help; Minimize hot spots in heaters

Combination of techniques; Tubes bulging, sagging, diametric growth

Noticeable deformation may be observed; May have significant bulging before final fracture occurs

Temp swings exceeding 200F Thermal Fatigue

All materials of construction

Design and operation; Liner VT, MT/PT, SWUT for to prevent cold liquid from cracking contacting hot surface

Cracks propagate transverse to the stress and usually daggershaped, transgranular, and oxide filled; May stop and restart; May be axial or circumferential, or both, at the same location; "fishmouth"

Short Term Overheating Stress Rupture

Local overheating above design temperature

All fired heater tube materials Minimize temperature excursions; Visual; IR monitoring; Tubeskin and common materials of Burner management thermocouples construction Tube rupture quickly follows DNB; BurnerVisual for bulging on tubes and management; BFW burners treatment

Steam Blanketing

Short-term, high-temp failures.

CS and low alloys

Open burst with edges drawn to a near knife-edge

Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking

> 510F

Ni based fillers; 300 SS rods Widely differing thermal Visual and MT/PT for OD used in low temp location expansion coefficients; Most cracks; UT only; Pup piece with for ID cracks common CS to Austenitic SS intermediate coefficient Minimize flow interruptions, severe restraint, rain/fire water deluge; Review All metals and alloys injection points; Thermal sleeves Design; Erosion - harder alloys; Corrosion corrosion resistant alloys; Impingement plates; Tube ferrules Mechanical, design, or operational change; Sufficient NPSH; Streamline flow; Remove air; Decrease velocities; Fluid additives

Cracks at the toe of weld in the HAZ of the ferritic material

Thermal Shock

Significant Temperature Differential s

Highly localized; MT/PT to confirm cracking only

Surface initiating cracks may appear as craze cracks Localized loss in thickness; Pits, grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes and valleys; Often with a directional pattern Sharp-edged pitting but may have a gouged appearance in rotational components

Erosion/Erosion Corrosion

N/A

All metals, alloys and refractories

VT, UT, RT; Corrosion coupons; IR scans for refractory Accoustic monitoring; Pumps may sound like pebbles being thrashed around; VT, UT, RT for loss of thickness

Cavitation

More likely at temps approaching the boiling point of the liquid

Most common materials of construction

Mechanical Fatigue

N/A

All alloys; Stress levels and number of cycles to failure vary by material

Good design; Material selection; Minimize stress risers

MT, PT, SWUT for cracks; Vibration monitoring

clam shell type fingerprint with concentric rings called beach marks

Vibration-Induced Fatigue

N/A

All engineering materials

Design; Supports and vibration dampeners; Stiffeners on small bore; Branch sizing

Visual/Audible signs of vibration

Crack initiating at a point of high stress or discontinuity

Refractory Degradation

N/A

Refractory materials

Cracking, spalling or liftoff from the substrate, softening or general degradation from exposure to moisture; Selection; Design; Installation VT during shutdown; IR online Erosive services: washed away or thinned

Reheat Cracking

During PWHT or at elevated temps.

low alloys, 300 SS, and Ni base alloys; High Strength Low Alloys (HSLA)

Joint configurations in heavy walls; Minimize stress risers

UT and MT/PT for surface cracks; UT for embedded cracks

Intergranular and can be surface breaking or embedded

Galvanic Corrosion

N/A

All metals with the exception of most noble metals; SEE Table 4-4 for Galvanic Series

Design; Differing alloys not in intimate contact; Coatings

Visual and UT Thickness

More active material can suffer generalized loss in thickness or crevice, groove or pitting corrosion

Atmospheric Corrosion

Corrosion rates increase with temp up to about 250F.

CS, low alloys, and copper alloyed Al

Surface prep and proper VT and UT coating

General or localized; Normally a distinctive iron oxide (red rust) scale forms

Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

More severe 212F - 250F for CS

Selection of insulation type; CS, low alloys, 300 SS and Maintain coatings and duplex SS insulation

Strip insulation; VT, UT, IR, etc.

May be highly localized; Loose, flaky scale covering the corroded component

Cooling Water Corrosion

Process side > 140F; Brackish and salt water outlet > 115F

CS, all grades of SS, copper, Al, titanium and Ni base alloys

Design process inlet < 135F; Operation; Chemical treatment; Maintain water velocities; Avoid ERW tubes

pH; Oxygen content; Outlet temps; EC/IRIS tubes

General corrosion, localized underdeposit, pitting, MIC, SCC, fouling, grooving along ERW tubes

Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion

N/A

Primarily CS; Some low alloy, scavenging treatment; Amine Water analysis; Dearator Oxygen 300 SS and copper based cracking inhibitor treatment alloys WFMT

Oxygen: pitting nywhere in the system; CO2: smooth grooving

CO2 Corrosion

Increasing corrosion with increasing temp up to dewpoint < 300F

CS and low alloys

Cr > 12% (SS); Corrosion inhibitors; Increase pH > 6; Operation problems; 400 SS and Duplex SS resistant; Water analysis

VT, UT, RT

Localized thinning and/or pitting; May be deep pitting and grooving in areas of turbulence

Flue-Gas Dew-Point Corrosion

Sulfuric acid dewpoint < 280F; Hydrochloric acid dewpoint < 130F; pH < 6

CS, low alloys and 300 SS

Maintain temps > 280F; Avoid 300 SS if chlorides present; Soda Ash wash to neutralize the acids

General wastage often with UT for wall loss; VT and PT for broad, shallow pits SCC

Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)

Most common materials of 0F to 235F; pH range 0 - 12 (Any) construction

Treat water with biocides; Maintain flow velocities; Empty hydrotest water; Maintain coatings

Localized pitting under VT; Measure biocide residual; deposits or tubercles; Operating conditions indicate Cup-shaped pits within fouling; Foul smelling water pits

Soil Corrosion

Corrosion rates increase with increasing metal temperature

Carbon steel, cast iron, and ductile iron

Most effective coatings and cathodic protection; Special backfill may help to lesser degree

Structure to soil potential; Soil resistivity; VT, guided UT, Pressure testing

External thinning with localized losses due to pitting

Caustic Corrosion

High solution strength caustic general corrosion of CS above 175F and very high CRates above 200F.

Design; Adequate water Primarily CS, low alloys and flooding; Burner 300 SS management; Dilution of caustic

UT Scans, RT, Injection points, Boroscope steam generating equipment

Localized metal loss as grooves in a boiler tube or thinned areas under insulating deposits;

Dealloying

N/A

Primarily copper alloys as well as Alloy 400 and cast iron

Difficult to predict; Addition of alloying elements may help; CP or coatings may help

VT (may change color but may require scale removal), Metallography, Loss of "metallic ring"

Often a color change or deep etched appearance; May be uniform through the cross-section or localized

Graphitic Corrosion

< 200F in the presence of moisture or an aqueous phase

Primarily gray cast iron, but also nodular and malleable cast irons which tend to crumble when attacked

Difficult to predict; Internal coatings/cement linings for internal graphitic corrosion; external coatings or CP in corrosive soils

Loss of "metallic ring"; Reduction in hardness

Widespread or localized; Damaged areas will be soft and easily gouged with a hand tool

Oxidation

Oxidation of CS significant >1000F; 300 Series SS susceptible to scaling > 1500F. SEE Table 4-6 for CR at elev.Temps

CS and low alloys; All 300 SS, 400 SS and Ni base alloys oxidize to varying degrees

Upgrade alloy; Addition of Cr primary element for oxidation resistance

Monitor process conditions and temperatures; UT for thickness loss

General thinning; Usually covered on the outside surface with an oxide scale

Sulfidation

> 500F

CS, low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS; Ni base alloys to varying degrees depending on Cr content; Copper base alloys at lower temps than CS

Upgrade to higher Cr; Al diffusion treatment of low alloys may reduce but not completely protect

Monitor process conditions and temperatures; UT for thickness loss; Proactive and retroactive PMI

Most often uniform thinning but may be localized; Sulfide scale will usually cover the surface

Carburization

> 1100F

CS and low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS, cast SS, Ni base alloys with significant Fe content and HK/HP alloys

Alloy selection (Si & Al oxidizers); Lower temperatures and higher oxygen/sulfur partial pressures.

Hardness/Field metallography if process side accessible; RT, UT, MT for cracking in advanced stages

In advanced stage may be a volumetric increase

Decarburization

Elevated temperatures

CS and low alloys

Control chemistry of gas Field metallography; Hardness tests for phase; Cr and N/A softening Mo form more stable carbides

Metal Dusting

900F - 1500F

All; No known alloy immune under all conditions

Protective layer of sulfur (usually as H2S); Material selection for specific application; Al diffusion treatment

Compression wave UT for heater tubes; RT for pitting/thinning; VT if ID is accessible

Low alloys can be uniform but usually small pits filled with crumbly residue; SS and high alloys local, deep, round pits

Fuel Ash Corrosion

Metal temps above the melting point of liquid species: Oil ash - melting points below 1000F possible; Waterwall corrosion - melting points 700F; Coal ash - melting points 1030F to 1130F

Blend or change fuel source; Burner All conventional alloys for design/management; Low process heaters and boilers; excess oxygen; Alloy 50Cr-50Ni family show upgrade to 50Cr-50Ni for improved resistance hangers/supports

VT; UT for loss of thickness

alligatorhide

Nitriding

Carbon steels, low alloys, 300 SS and > 600F; Severe > 900F 400 SS; Ni based alloys more resistant

Alloy change to 30% 80% Ni

Change in color to dull gray; Hardness testing (400 - 500 BHN); Check 300 SS for magnetism; Metallography; ECT; PT, RT, or UT for cracking in advanced stages

"needle-like" particles of iron nitrides

Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (Cl-SCC)

> 140F

300 SS; Ni 8% - 12% most susceptible; Ni > 35% highly resistant, Ni > 45% nearly immune

Material selection; Low chloride water for hydrotest; Coatings under insulation; Avoid designs with stagnant areas where chlorides can concentrate

VT in some cases, PT (surface prep may be necessary), ECT, UT

"spider web"; Branched, transgranular, and may have "crazecracked" appearance

Corrosion Fatigue

N/A

Reduce corrosion (inhibitors, material selection, coatings, BFW chemical control, etc.); All metals and alloys PWHT; Controlled start-up (thermal expansion)

UT, MT

"rabbit ears"; Transgranular but not branched, often multiple parallel cracks

Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking (Caustic Embrittlement)

Increasing temps increase likelihood and severity

CS, low alloys and 300 SS; Ni base alloys more resistant.

PWHT at 1150F for CS; Alloy upgrade to Ni based alloys; Design/operation of injection system; Water wash equipment prior to steamout

WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM for crack detection; PT not effective (tight, scale filled cracks); SWUT for crack depth

"spider web"; Predominantly intergranular, parallel to weld in adjacent base metal but can occur in the weld or HAZ

Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking

Any temperature

Copper alloys with aqueous ammonia and/or ammonium compounds; CS in anhydrous ammonia

Copper - zinc content below 15%, 9010CuNi and 70-30CuNi nearly immune, prevent ingress of air, upgrade to 300 SS or Ni alloys; CS - PWHT or addition water (0.2%), weld < 225 BHN, prevent ingress of oxygen

Copper - monitor pH, ECT or VT on tubes for cracking; CS - WFMT, AET, or External SWUT

Cu: bluish corrosion products at surface cracks, single or highly branched, either trans or intergranular

Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME)

N/A

Many commonly used materials

Keep metal with low melting point away from other metal; MT or PT for cracks, RT for mercury Brittle cracks in an otherwise Grind out cracks not deposits inside tubes ductile material acceptable

Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE)

Ambient - 300F; Decreases with increasing temp; Not likely to occur above 160F to 180F

CS, low alloys, 400 SS, Precipitation Hardenable SS, some high strength Ni base alloys.

Use lower strength steels; PWHT; Low hydrogen, dry electrodes, and preheat for welding; Bake out at 400F or higher; Controlled pressurization sequence; Protective lining, SS cladding, or weld overlay

MT or PT for surface cracks; UT may be helpful; RT not sensitive enough

Can initiate subsurface, but in most cases is surface breaking; Higher strength steels cracking is often intergranular

Amine Corrosion

Increases with increasing temps; Above 220F can result in acid gas flashing and severe localized corrosion

Primarily CS; 300 SS highly resistant

Proper operation; Avoid buildup of HSAS; Design should control local pressure drop to minimize flashing; Avoid oxygen inleakage; Remove solids and hydrocarbons; Corrosion inhibibitors

VT and UT thickness internal; UT scans or profile RT for external; Corrosion coupons

General uniform thinning, localized corrosion or localized underdeposit attack

Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion (Alkaline Sour Water)

< 150F

CS; 300 SS, duplex SS, Al alloys and Ni base alloys more resistant

Symmetrical/balanced flow in and out of air cooled exchangers; Maintain Frequent UT and RT profile velocities 10 to 20 fps for thickness; IRIS and ECT CS, resistant materials > 20 tubes; Monitor water injection fps; Water wash injection and low oxygen

General loss in thickness with potential for high localized rates; Low velocities may have localized underdeposit corrosion

Ammonium Chloride Corrosion

All commonly used materials; Order of increasing resistance: CS, < 300F; May corrode well low alloys, 300 SS, Alloys above water dewpoint of 400, duplex SS, 300F 800, and 825, Alloys 625 and C276 and titanium.

Pitting resistant alloys more have improved resistance; Limit chlorides; Water wash; Filming inhibitors

RT or UT Thickness; Monitor feed streams; Corrosion coupons may be helpful if salts deposit on the element

Possible fouling or corrosion

Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion

Increases with increasing temp up to point where water vaporizes

All common materials of construction

Upgrade CS to Ni base can help; Remove chlorides (neutralize, water wash, absorb, etc.); Minimize carryover of water and salts

AUT or RT for thickness; Corrosion coupons; Check pH

General uniform thinning, localized corrosion or underdeposit attack

High Temp H2/H2S Corrosion

> 500F

Order of increasing resistance: CS, low alloys, 400 SS, and 300 SS

Use alloys with high chromium content; 300 SS are highly resistant at service temps

UT, VT and RT for thickness; Verify operating temps; Check process H2S levels periodically

Uniform loss in thickness from the process side with an iron sulfide scale

Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corrosion

Increase with increasing temp; High CRates observed > 150F

Low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS are generally not suitable; CS, Cu-Ni alloys, Alloy 400, an other Ni base alloys have been used in some applications

Monitor CS operating > 150F for thickness; Minimize water, oxygen, sulfur and other contaminants in feed; Alloy 400 (solid or clad) used to eliminate blistering/HIC/SOHIC. PWHT to minimize possibility of SCC.

RT or UT Thickness; Monitor small bore piping, flange face corrosion, blistering/HIC/SOHIC

Localized general or severe thinning of CS; May be accompanied by cracki ng due to hydrogen stress cracking, blistering and/or HIC/SOHIC damage

Naphthenic Acid Corrosion (NAC)

CS, low alloys, 300 SS, 400 425F - 750F; Has been SS, and reported from 350F - 800F Ni base alloys

2% - 2.5% molybdenum RT or UT Thickness; Monitor shows improved resistance; TAN, sulfur, Fe, and Ni Change or blend crudes; contents Inhibitors

Localized corrosion, pitting, or flow induced grooving in high velocity areas

Phenol (Carbolic Acid) Corrosion

Order of increasing Minimal below 250F; Rapid resistance: CS, CRates above 450F 304L, 316L and Alloy C276

Material selection; Velocity < RT or UT Thickness; 30 fps; Recovery ovhd temps Corrosion coupons at least 30F > dew point

General or localized corrosion of CS

Phosphoric Acid Corrosion

N/A

Order of increasing resistance: CS, 304L SS, 316L SS, and Alloy 20

304L satisfactory for concentration 100% and temp < 120F ; 316L required 120F - 225F; 316L and Alloy 20 effective at concentrations up to 85% at boiling temps

RT or UT Thickness; Sample Iron in water; Corrosion coupons

General or localized thinning of CS

Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)

N/A

Primarily CS; SS, Cu alloys, and Ni base alloys usually resistant

Material selection; 300 SS < RT or UT Thickness; Monitor 140F; Cu and Ni resistant, pH of ovhd accumulators; but Cu vulnerable in Corrosion coupons ammonia

General thinning; Localized corrosion or underdeposit attack can occur

Sulfuric Acid Corrosion

N/A

Order of increasing resistance: CS, 316L, Alloy 20, high Si cast iron, high Ni cast iron, Alloy B-2 and Alloy C276

Materials selection; Proper operation; Caustic wash to neutralize

UT or RT of turbulent zones and hottest areas; Corrosion coupons

General but attacks CS HAZ rapidly; Hydrogen grooving in low flow

Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking (PASCC)

Sensitization occurs 750F 1500F

Sensitized austenitic SS; 300 SS, Alloy 600/600H, and Alloy 800/800H

Material selection; Flush with alkaline or soda ash to neutralize or purge with nitrogen or nitrogen/ammonia; Keep firebox above dewpoint; Heat treatment at 1650F

Flapper disc sanding to remove deposits and PT

Intergranular; Quite localized; Typically next to welds, but may be in base metal

Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

N/A

CS and low alloys

PWHT all CS welds; Material selection (clad or solid); Water wash nonPWHT CS prior to welding, heat treatment or steam out

Surface cracking on ID primarily in HAZ, but Crack detection best with also in weld or adjacent WFMT or ACFM; PT to HAZ; Typically usually not effective; SWUT parallel to weld, but in crack depths; AET weld, either transverse or longitudinal

Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC )

Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC ambient to 300F or higher; SSC < 180F

CS and low alloys

Coatings or alloy cladding; Water wash to dilute HCN or inject ammonium polysulfide's to convert to thiocyanates; HIC-resistant steels; PWHT can prevent SSC and help with SOHIC; Inhibitors

Monitor free water phase; Crack detection best with WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM; SWUT for crack sizing; AET

Blistering, HIC "stepwise cracking", SOHIC stacked arrays, SSC through thickness potentially

Hydrogen Stress Cracking - HF

Aqueous HF environments

CS and low alloys

PWHT; Weld hardness < 200 HB and no localized zones > 237 HB; CS with Carbon Equivalent < 0.43; B7M Bolts; Coatings or alloy cladding

WFMT for cracks; Hardness testing

Surface breaking intergran ular cracks

Carbonate Stress Corrosion Cracking

Generally no temperature ranges; However, > 200F if CO > 2% in gas scrubbing units

CS and low alloys

PWHT at 1150F; Material selection; Coatings or alloy cladding; Water wash nonPWHT prior to steamout or heat treatment; Inhibitors

Monitoring of pH and CO -2 concentration; WFMT or ACFM for crack detection; SWUT for crack depth; AET

"spider web"; Parallel to weld in adjacent base, but also in weld or HAZ; Predominantly intergranular

High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)

Exposure to hydrogen at elevated temperatures

Order of increasing resistance: CS, C0.5Mo, Mn-0.5Mo, 1Cr, 1.25Cr, 2.25Cr-1Mo, 2.25Cr-1Mo-V, 3Cr, 5Cr

Alloys with Cr (> 5 Cr) and Mo or tungsten and vanadium; Use a 25F to 50F safety factor; 300 SS overlay and/or roll bond clad material

UT using combination of velocity ratio and backscatter (AUBT); In-situ metallography; VT for blistering; WFMT and RT in advanced stages with cracking

Intergranular and adjacent to iron carbide areas in CS; Some blistering may be visible to the naked eye

Titanium Hydriding

> 165F

Titanium alloys

No titanium in known hydriding services such as amine or sour water; Use all titanium if galvanic coupling may promote hydriding

ECT; Metallography; Crush/Bend test

N/A