OVERVIEW OF THE ENGLISH VERB

1.. The Grammatical Hierarchy:

ILLUSTRATION:

1 Sentence If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it

2 Clauses If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it

If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it

7 Phrases

If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it

12 Words

If I wash up all this stuff some body else can dry it

13 Morphemes

Phonemes

Graphemes

2. At each level
level of the hierarchy we need to describe :

• STRUCTURE / FORM

• ROLE WITHIN SYNTAX / WORD ORDER

• MEANING (SEMANTICS)
(SEMANTICS)

• USE (DISCOURSE FUNCTION)

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3. SENTENCES: Aim of a grammar - to describe the way a language's sentences are constructed.

4 . MULTIPLE SENTENCES
SENTENCES
Sentences, then, may consist of just one clause, or more than one clause. A one-clause sentence is called a
simple sentence. A sentence which can be immediately analysed into more than one clause is called a
multiple sentence.

5.MULTIPLE SENTENCES – Compound sentences (COORDINATION), Complex Sentences

(SUBORDINATION) and combinations of both processes
When clauses are combined by coordination we have a compound sentence. Coordination is between two
clauses that are syntactically equivalent. The main coordinators are and,
and but and or.
Eg The cat chased the dog and the cow jumped over the moon and the man sailed to sea in a tub

When the combination involves the embedding of one clause within another (an unequal relationship) we
have subordination and a complex sentence. There are dozens of subordinators – when, if, whether, that
which, etc.
Eg. I answered the door when Jack rang the bell

And, of course, we can have sentences that have both coordinated and subordinated clauses.

6. FOUR TYPES OF BASIC SENTENCES WITH RESPECT TO MAJOR USES IN COMMUNICATION :

DECLARATIVES – statements - The dog is called Snoopy.

INTERROGATIVES – questions - Where is the dog?
IMPERATIVES – directives – Bring Snoopy to me.
EXCLAMATIVES – exclamations – He’s so cute!

7. POLARITY : Positive and Negative Sentences

Snoopy is here / Snoopy isn’t here

8. VOICE : Active and Passive Sentences

The president cut the cut.

The cake was cut by the president.

9. LOOKING CLOSELY AT CLAUSES – TYPICAL CLAUSE FEATURES

FEATURES

Typically:
• Finite verb form (bearing tense)
• Declarative
• Active Voice
• Positive
• Without recursive and embedded structures.

The teacher / has called / me / a fool / twice

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10: WHAT IS A CLAUSE MADE OF? CLAUSE ELEMENTS:

All clauses are made up of elements, each expressing a particular kind of meaning.
There are just five types of clause element. All five appear in this sentence:

1. The first element in this sentence is the subject (S). The subject usually identifies the theme or topic
of the clause.
2. The second element is the verb (V). The verb expresses a wide range of meanings, such as actions,
sensations, or states of being.
3. The third element is the object (0).
(0). Objects identify who or what has been directly affected by the
action of the verb.
4. The fourth element is the complement (C). (C Complements give further information about another
clause element. In the above sentence, a fool adds to the meaning of me.
5. The fifth element is the adverbial (A). Adverbials usually add information about the situation, such
as the time of an action, or (as in the above sentence) its frequency.

11. What are Clause Elements made of?

A clause element is NOT the same as a word. An element may be a single word, or several words. In
multiple sentences some clause elements can consist of a whole clause or whole clauses

I left when the sun rose and after I had a good meal
12. TYPES OF CLAUSES: How Clause Elements can combine:
Clause elements combine usually in only seven basic clause types. Each type consists of two, three, or four
elements.

The seven basic clause types

S: subject, V: verb, 0: object, C: complement, A: adverbial

1. S + V - Julia / yawned

2. S + V + 0 - Julia / cooked / a meal

3. S + V + C - Julia /is / pretty

4. S + V + A - Julia / cooks / well

5. S +V + 0 + O - Julia / gave /me / a cake

6. S + V + O + C - Julia / got /her apron /dirty.

7. S + V + O + A - Julia / put / the cake /on the table

NOTE : A number of optional adverbials such

– luckily, already, later, twice, perhaps –

Can be added to any of these basic clause types.

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13. DECLARATIVE STRUCTURE:
STRUCTURE All the clause types illustrated are statements. A statement is a
sentence whose purpose is primarily to convey information. Such sentences are said to have a declarative
structure.

A BRIEF
BRIEF RETURN TO BASIC SENTENCE TYPES:

14 . Questions : sentences which seek information.

There are four types, depending on the kind of reply they expect, and on how they are constructed. They
have an interrogative structure.

1. Yes-
Yes-no questions allow an affirmative or negative reply, often just yes or no. The subject follows an
auxiliary verb.
2. Wh-
Wh- questions allow a reply from a wide range of possibilities. They begin with a question word,
such as
what, why, where, or how.
3. Alternative questions require a reply which relates to the options given in the sentence. They
always contain the connecting word or.
4. Tag questions –the interrogative structure comes at the end of a sentence, as a tag. They also expect a
yes or no as reply.

Note : Interrogative structures also used for Exclamatory questions : Hasn’t she grown!
And Rhetorical questions : Who cares?

These sentences also resemble questions in their structure, but they are used as if they were emphatic
statements. The speaker does not expect an answer.

15. Directives are sentences which instruct someone to do something. They are often called commands, but
this term is somewhat misleading. Commanding is just one of the many uses of directive sentences.
Some common directive sentences:

Commanding Sit down!

Inviting Have a drink
Warning Mind your head on the beam
Pleading Help me!
Advising Take an aspirin!
Requesting Open the window please.
Expressing good wishes - Have a nice day!

In each case, the verb is in its basic form, with no endings and there is usually no subject element present.
Structures of this type are called imperatives. Directive sentences typically have an Imperative (Mood)
structure.

16. Exclamations are sentences whose main role is to express the extent to which speakers are impressed or
aroused by something.
They often take the form of a single word or short phrase - a minor sentence such as Gosh!, Oh dear, or Of
all the cheek!. But exclamations can also have a major sentence structure.

Their first element begins with what or how, and is followed by a subject and verb, in that order.

What a lovely day! How nice the weather is!

They also occur frequently in a reduced (or `elliptical`) form, using only the first element:
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Both types are said to have an exclamative structure.

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17. MOODS OF A VERB PHRASE: show whether a clause is expressing a factual, non-factual or directive
meaning. Functionally they express - through the finite verb phrase - the role that the speaker assigns
himself/herself in an interaction.

There are 3 Moods in English :

INDICATIVE (factual, for stating and questioning) – It’s sunny. Is John in?
IMPERATIVE ( directive) – Sit in the corner
SUBJUNCTIVE (nonfactual, expressing wishes, conditions) – I insist that he be punished.

HOMING IN ON THE VERBAL

VERBAL ELEMENT

18 . THE VERBAL ELEMENT

The verb element plays a central role in clause structure.

It is the most obligatory of all the clause elements, as can be seen from such clauses as

The old farmer drinks beer by the bucketful

S V 0 A

The verb is a predictable, dependable element of clause structure

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19. What affects the form of the Verb?

A: MOOD – INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE

B. MODALITY- Prediction, possibility, probability, volition, obligation, necessity, advisability,

ability, permission

C. TENSE - Present
Past

D. ASPECT - Perfective (anteriority)

Progressive

E. VOICE - ACTIVE
PASSIVE

F. FINITE-NESS FINITE
NON-FINITE

G. POLARITY Positive
Negative

H. Emphasis Contrastive
Non-Contrastive

I. NUMBER - singular, plural ( I, we; she, they)

J. PERSON - 1st , 2nd , 3rd person (I, you, he)

20. VALENCY AND VERB TYPES: INTRANSITIVE-

INTRANSITIVE-TRANSITIVE (Mono/Di)
The choice of the verb actually determines, to a large extent, what other elements can be used in the clause.
This is referred to as its VALENCY

Intransitive verbs can be used without an object:

Appear, die, fall, go, wait

If we pick enjoy, an object element has to follow. Such verbs are transitive verbs.
verbs.

Bring, carry, make, keep, get

NOTE : A few verbs can be transitive or intransitive without a change of meaning: compare
I'm eating cake and I'm eating.

The test for transitivity is to try the verb with various objects. If the sentences are possible, the verb is being
used transitively. If not, it is being used intransitively. In idioms, transitive verbs can be intransitive as in

I say! Look what Mervyn is wearing!

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21. The Structure of the VERB PHRASE

Main verb plus upto FOUR auxiliaries

AUXILIARY VERBS MAIN VERB

eat/eats/ate
is /was eating
has/had eaten
Has/had been eating
Might/ may have been eating
Might/may have been being eaten

(The structure is rare)

Also represented by :

Tense (Modal) (PERF. (PROG (PASSIVE

(PASSIVE VERB
ASPECT) ASPECT) PART.)
Pres/ Past (Will,can, may…) (HAVE- en/ed) (BE –ing ) (BE –en/ed) Full/lexical verb

NOTE : A verb phrase consisting of only one verb is still known as a phrase. The main verb is seen as the
nucleus, or head, of the potentially larger phrase.

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22.Finite and Non-
Non-finite (Infinitives) Verb phrase

Verb phrases are also classified into two broad types, based on the kind of contrast in meaning expressed by
the verb: finite and non-
non-finite.
finite The finite forms of the verb are those which signal contrasts of number,
tense, person, and mood; the -s form, the past form, and some uses of the base form.

The non-finite forms do not vary in this way. They do not express contrasts of tense, number, person, or
mood. These forms therefore stay the same in a clause, regardless of any grammatical variation which may
be taking place alongside them.

Non-finite verbs can however express the meanings of the perfective and progressive aspects, and of the
passive voice.

VERB PARTS and VERBS

23. PRIMARY VERBS : BE, HAVE, DO

The primary verbs – BE,

BE HAVE and DO can function as main verbs or as auxiliaries.

24. OPERATORS:
OPERATORS The first Auxiliary in the Verb Phrase. It bears the tense, and has a special role in
NEGATIVE, and INTERROGATIVE, sentences, and in conveying EMPHASIS.

OPERATORS and NEGATIVES:

NEGATIVES Negatives are formed by adding NOT after the opearator-

It was not Bill Gates who bought Disneyland.

OPERATORS and INTERROGATIVES : The operator is placed before the subject.

Was it Bill Gates who bought Disneyland?

NOTE : When the main verb is BE or HAVE

HAV they can also function as operators. In the absence of an
Auxiliary in the verb phrase, DO becomes the operator for the formation of Negatives, interrogatives and
emphatic sentences.

25.
25. Regular and Irregular
Irregular verbs

The forms of a regular verb can be,predicted by rules. An irregular verb is one where some forms are
unpredictable. There are thousands of regular verbs, but less than 300 irregular ones.

26. The forms of the regular verb

Regular full verbs appear in four forms, each of which performs a different role in the clause .

1.The base form - a form with no endings,

endings as listed in a dictionary (sometimes called the `infinitive' form):
Eg. Go run look discover

2.The -s form,
form, made by adding an –s ending to the base (sometimes with a spelling change). The
pronunciation of the -s varies, depending on the preceding sound.
Examples : /-s/ in looks, cuts; /-z/ in runs, tries and /iz/ in passes, pushes

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 3. The -ing participle,
participle made by adding -ing to the base (often with a spelling change):

4. A form made by adding –ed to the base (often with a spelling change). In speech, the pronunciation of
the -ed varies, depending on the preceding sound: /-t/ in passed, stopped; /-d/ in died, barred; and /-id/ in
rented, funded. This ending is found in the past form and in the -ed participle form.

27. The forms of the irregular verb

Irregular verbs make their -s form and -ing participle by adding an ending to the base, in the same way as
regular verbs.
But they have either an unpredictable past tense,
tense or an unpredictable -ed participle form,
form or both.
both Many
irregular verbs therefore appear in five forms.
forms

Two features of irregular verbs

Most verbs change the vowel of the base to make their past or -ed participle forms. This process is known
as vowel gradation.
gradation.

meet – met take -- took speak -- spoken

The -ed ending is never used in a regular way, and is often not used at all (as in cut, met, won). An
important pattern with some verbs is the use of a variant form, in which the /-d/ sound of the ending
changes to /-t/.
Burned/burnt spilled/split kneeled/knelt

28. ILLUSTRATON--FORMS OF VERBS

1. BASE prepare Make Put Write

2. -s Prepares Makes Puts Writes
3. -ing participle Preparing Making Putting Writing
4. Past Prepared Made Put Wrote
5. -ed /en participle prepared made put written

29. The seven classes of irregular verb

I About 20 verbs whose only irregular feature is the ending have/had

used for both their past and -ed participle forms. send/sent
burn/burnt - burned
II About 10 verbs whose past tense is regular, but whose -ed mow/mown – mowed
participle form has an -n ending, and a variant form in - sell /swollen -swelled
ed
III About 40 verbs which have the same ending for the past and - keep/kept
ed participle forms, but this is irregular. They also change the sleep /slept
vowel of the base form teach/taught Sell/Sold
IV About 75 verbs with an -n ending for the –ed participle form, Blow/blew/blown
and an irregular past form. The vowel of the base also changes. take/took/taken see/saw/seen
undo/undid/undone

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V About 40 verbs which have the same form throughout. cut let shut broadcast
outbid

VI About 70 verbs which have no ending, but use the same form Spin/spun, mislead/misled
for both past tense and –ed participle. The vowel changes from sit/sat Stand/Stood
that used in the base.
VII About 25 verbs, forming the most irregular type. There is no Swim/swam/swum;
ending the past and -ed participle forms differ; and the vowels begin/began/begun
change with go/went/gone each form. come/came/come
30 . The Formation of Verbs-
Verbs- Affixes:

• Verb prefixes (dislike, mislead, overcook, unzip) do not change the word class, i.e. the
new word remains a verb.
Common prefixes: re-, dis-, over-, under-, un-, out-,

• Verb suffixes Some nouns and adjectives can be made into verbs with suffixes
(computerize, simplify)
Common suffixes are : -ize/ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy

31. SOME SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF LEXICAL VERBS:

• COPULAR VERBS – (of BEING and BECOMING /STATES) be/is/are/were/was,
• CATENATIVE VERBS –(“Chain”, continuation phase)- appear to, fail to, happen to,
seem to, keep on, went on, tend to
• ACTIVITY VERBS - bring, buy, get, move, run, use, pay, show, work
• COMMUNICATION / REPORTING VERBS - ask, offer, claim, speak, insist, thank,
say, tell, suggest
• MENTAL / EMOTIONAL VERBS - think, know, love, want, prefer, believe, need,
suppose, wonder, consider
• CAUSATIVE VERBS – cause, enable, provoke, allow, precipatate
• OCCURRENCE VERBS – change, develop, become, grow, happen, occur
• EXISTENCE/RELATIONSHIP VERBS – appear, indicate, represent, contain, involve,
exist, live, include, stay, look, seem
• ASPECTUAL VERBS – begin, continue, keep, start, stop
32. Multi-
Multi-word verbs
Multi-word verbs are full verbs which consist of more than one word. The most common type consists of a
verb followed by one or two particles.
particles
Come in, sit down, look down on,
A few multi-word verbs have a less predictable structure, and thus have to be taken as idioms:
Take pride in, lie low.

Particles can include

Some spatial adverbs such as aback, ahead, aside, away, back, home, in front.
Some prepositions such as against, at, for, from, into, like, of, onto, with.
Some words which can act either as adverbs or prepositions, such as by, down, in, on, over.
NOTE : Verbs taking adverb particles are known as phrasal verbs.
verbs Those taking prepositional particles are
known as prepositional verbs.
verbs. (Sometimes the term `phrasal verb' is used in a general way, referring to both
types.)

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