Experimental Aerodynamics

Lecture 2: Wind Tunnel Instrumentation G. Dimitriadis and T. Andrianne

Experimental Aerodynamics

Introduction
! The ability to simulate a real flow in a wind tunnel is not useful in itself ! The simulated flow must be observed for the experiment to have some use ! The simplest type of observation is by just looking at the experiment ! More precise observations can be obtained using several types of instrumentation
Experimental Aerodynamics

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement ! Flow visualization
! Pitot tube ! Hot wire anemometry

! Force measurement

! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement ! Flow visualization
! Pitot tube ! Hot wire anemometry

! Force measurement

! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Working section airspeed

! The most basic parameter in the wind tunnel working section is the airspeed ! The airspeed can be measured using a Pitot-static tube (developed in the 18th century by Henri Pitot) ! The Pitot-static tube measures the total and static pressure in the wind tunnel working section ! The difference between these two pressures is the dynamic pressure
Experimental Aerodynamics

Pitot-static Tube
16D 8D D 3D 8 holes equally spaced on the periphery Air velocity, V

Static connection, p

V=

2( pt ! p) "

Total head connection pt = p + !V 2

Experimental Aerodynamics

1 2

Pitot-static tube accuracy

! Pitot-static tubes can be accurate to 0.1%. ! Some corrections must be made for Reynolds number and proximity to a wall. ! The total head measurement is accurate as long as the angle between the tube and the flow is less than 3o. ! The leading edge of the pitot affects the static pressure downstream. The static pressure holes must be placed sufficiently downstream to avoid this effect.
Experimental Aerodynamics

Speed setting
! In some cases it is not practical to use a pitot-static tube in the working section. ! The model may interfere with the pitot measurement or vice versa ! In such cases the pitot-static tube can be placed in the settling chamber (ahead of the contraction cone) or just ahead of the working section. ! The pitot-static tube placed in these positions can be calibrated to yield the correct working section airspeed using calibration runs (no model) and a second pitot-static tube in the working section.
Experimental Aerodynamics

! The calculation of the test section airspeed from pitot-static tube data requires V = 2( p ! p) " knowledge of the air density ! The density can be obtained from the state equation if the static pressure and temperature are known. ! The temperature can be measured using a wall-mounted thermometer or other temperature probe (static temperature is constant in a boundary layer)
t

Working section static temperature

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Other uses of Pitot tubes

! Static pressure measurement ! Flow direction measurement ! Boundary layer measurement
! Total head rake ! 5-hole probe ! Long static tube

Hot wire

5-hole probe

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Total head rake

Other uses of Pitot tubes

And of course ! Aircraft airspeed

Hot wire

5-hole probe

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Supersonic > corrections needed ! Total head rake

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement
! Pitot tube

! Flow visualization

! Hot wire anemometry ! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

! Force measurement

Experimental Aerodynamics

Hot wire anemometry

! Blowing on hot food decreases its temperature ! Same principle for HW 5-hole probe ! Tungsten wire ! Different types:
! CCA (current) ! CVA (voltage) ! CTA (temperature)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Total head rake

Hot wire anemometry

Convective heat exchange
where

Q = (Tw-T0) Aw h = A + B Un

(n ~ 0.5)

Tw = HW temperature 5-hole probe T0 = Fluid temperature Aw = HW surface h = heat transfer coefficient (depends on fluid and wire characteristics

Experimental Aerodynamics

Total head rake

Hot wire anemometry

CTA principle
!Servo amplifier keeps the bridge in balance (by controlling the current) !Temperature is kept constant !Bridge voltage (E) represents the heat transfer = direct measure of the fluid velocity Thermal inertia of HW << High gain of the servo amplifier
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> Very fast response Total head rake

Hot wire anemometry

Source: Dantec Dynamics Posters

5-hole probe

+ High frequency response > Study of boundary layers, turbulence of a flow field - Intrusive, accurate but small spatial resolution
Experimental Aerodynamics

Total head rake

Hot wire anemometry

Calibration

5-hole probe

Experimental Aerodynamics

Total head rake

Hot wire anemometry

Calibration
U = C0 + C1E + C2E2 + C3E3 + C4E4 + C5E5
" Tw ! T0 % ECORR = E $ ' # Tw ! Tmeas &
0,5

5-hole probe
Voltage (V)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Calibrated Airspeed (m/s)

Total head rake

Hot wire anemometry

Different types of probes

1D

2D

3D

5-hole probe

1 mm long and 5 "m in diameter

Experimental Aerodynamics

Total head rake

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement ! Flow visualization
! Pitot tube ! Hot wire anemometry

! Force measurement

! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Flow visualization
! It is often interesting to observe the simulated flow around the model in the wind tunnel. ! Unfortunately air is colorless and transparent ! Several different methods exist:
Qualitative methods
Wool (cotton) tufts China clay Oil film Smoke

Quantitative methods
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV and Tr-PIV) Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP), Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) !

Experimental Aerodynamics

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement ! Flow visualization
! Pitot tube ! Hot wire anemometry

! Force measurement

! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Oil flow visualization

! Lubricating oil is applied in small dabs on several locations on the model. ! When the wind is turned on, the oil will follow the local streamlines. ! Oil flows will indicate the boundary of flow separation, since the oil cannot cross the separation boundary. ! Thinning down the oil can also indicate the laminar-turbulent flow transition boundary. ! Often, color pigments are added to the oil in order to aid visualization. Sometimes the paint is fluorescent and can be lit by a UV light.
Experimental Aerodynamics

Smoke Flow Visualization

! Producing smoke is not easy. Burning stuff is not recommended. ! The most popular smoke production methods are:
! Fog generators, such as those used in night clubs. These are good for thick smoke streaks ! Smoke wire

Experimental Aerodynamics

Smoke Wire
Smoke wires only work in low speed and low turbulence conditions! Airspeed < 10m/s

Source: Sharul Sham Dol et al. at 4th WSEAS International Conference on Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics
Experimental Aerodynamics

Smoke Wire

Source: Sharul Sham Dol et al. at 4th WSEAS International Conference on Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics
Experimental Aerodynamics

Smoke flow visualization examples

Car

Circular cylinder

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Stalled wing

Smoke visualization videos

! Flow around Delta wing and ducted fan at low speed ! Flow unsteadiness due to:
! High angle of attack ! Wind tunnel turbulence ! Smoke generator quality

Experimental Aerodynamics

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement ! Flow visualization
! Pitot tube ! Hot wire anemometry

! Force measurement

! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Particle Image Velocimetry

! PIV works on the principle of lighting up small particles in the airflow using a laser light. ! A laser surface is created in the working section and a camera is focused on this surface. ! Particles are injected in the flow. These are light, small and invisible. They can be tiny was droplets ! When the particles pass under the laser they are lit up and can be photographed by the camera ! PIV can be also performed in 3D (Stereo PIV)
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PIV principle

2D PIV
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3D (Stereo) PIV

Tr-PIV principle )#
34*56 #
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!'$%&# !(# !($%&#

*++,+, # -./012 #

7(# Experimental Aerodynamics

Image 1

Tr-PIV image analysis

Sub-Image 1 Cross-Correlation Area of search

Image 2 Sub-Image 2

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77#

PIV Examples

Guerney flap

Circular Cylinder

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Helicopter rotor

ULg Tr-PIV example

Rectangular cylinder undergoing pitch flutter oscillations

Tr-PIV (slow motion)

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Advantages and disadvantages

! Tufts:
! Advantages: easy to install, cheap ! Disadvantages: can affect other measurements, need to choose the right length/rigidity of fabric, may need strong light and high speed camera, discrete surface-only flow visualization ! Advantages: flow visualization of entire sections of the flowfield, beautiful pictures and movies ! Disadvantages: More suitable for low Reynolds number flows, turbulence mixes the smoke, can be corrosive and pollutant. ! Advantages: easy to apply, cheap, can take pictures after wind has been turned off. ! Disadvantages: surface-only flow visualization, need a lot of experience to mix and apply correctly, oil requires cleaning. ! Advantages: flow visualization of entire sections of the flowfield, high speed, can extract quantitative data ! Disadvantages: expensive instrumentation, many parameters to set, requires a lot of experience, visualization window is small at high frame rates.

Smoke:

! !

Clay/Oil:

PIV:

Experimental Aerodynamics

Scope of the lecture

! Airspeed measurement ! Flow visualization
! Pitot tube ! Hot wire anemometry

! Force measurement

! Qualitative (wool, clay, oil, smoke, !) ! Quantitative (PIV, PSP, LDA,!)

Experimental Aerodynamics

Aerodynamic load measurements

! One of the most important functions of wind tunnels is to provide estimates of the aerodynamic loads acting on bodies moving through air. ! The first such measurement were obtained using actual balances. ! Since then, aerodynamic load measurement devices are called aerodynamic balances.

Experimental Aerodynamics

Wind tunnel balances

! There are several types of wind tunnel balance:
! Internal balances: They are placed inside the model. ! External balances: They are placed around or under the working section. ! Strain gauge balances: Most modern balances feature strain gauges ! Rotary balances: for propellers and other rotating models

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Internal balance
! They usually come in the form of stingers ! They can measure six loads (three forces and three moments) ! They must be attached near the models centre of gravity

Experimental Aerodynamics

External balance
! External balances come in several degrees of complexity and size. ! The complexity depends on the number of loads that the balance must measure (maximum of 6). ! The most advanced type of external balance currently in use is the pyramidal balance.
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External balance design

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VKI, 6-comp balance for L-2A

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1-component balance
! The ULg wind tunnel has a very simple 1-component balance mounted under the turntable. ! It measures lift only using a load cell. ! Drag and side force can be measured using a strain gauged support on which the model can be attached
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Horizontal axis balance

! The ULg wind tunnel also features a horizontal axis balance. ! The balance features four vertical force sensors, two horizontal force sensors and a moment sensor. ! It can measure all 6 aerodynamic loads but the model must be mounted on the horizontal axis.
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ULg horizontal axis balance

Force sensor

Torque sensor Horizontal axis balance

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! For helicopter rotors, propellers, wind turbine rotors etc

Rotating balances

Experimental Aerodynamics