Proceedings of The National Conference On Undergraduate Research (NCUR) 2013 University of Wisconsin La Crosse, WI April 11 13, 2013

Remote Sensor Technology and UAVs in the Analysis of Unwanted Environment Effects of Aerially Applied Chemicals
David John Neiferd, John Will Mechanical Engineering Wright State University- Lake Campus 7600 Lake Campus Drive Celina, Ohio, 45822 USA Faculty Advisors: Dr. P. Ruby Mawasha, Dennis Hance Abstract This study, investigates the analysis of the effects of wind to determine effects of chemicals and to optimize the application of the product to the target farm area. The effects of wind currents on the dispersion of aerially applied agricultural chemicals to non-targeted areas are investigated through the use of remote sensor technology and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Wind currents can create overspray introducing unwanted environmental effects. Analysis of the effects of wind is used to determine the ideal conditions for the application of chemicals to minimize overspray and maximize the application of the product to the target. A UAV will crop dust a target area. A second aircraft, equipped with sensors, will follow the crop duster, making multiple passes through the test area. The sensors will monitor humidity, temperature, wind speed, and chemical composition. Also, the second aircraft will monitor regions outside the spray area. These tests will provide an understanding of the amount of chemical deposited on the target area and the estimated chemical lost outside the target region. The distribution of chemicals is used to predict any unwanted environmental effects from overspray. Further, parametric studies are conducted to investigate the effects of humidity, temperature, wind speed, and chemicals with respect to time over the target area using the sensor voltage.
Keywords: Environmental, Agriculture, Aircraft

Introduction
This paper presents the current status of our multi-year research project to investigate the effect of wind currents on the dispersion of aerially applied agricultural chemicals. Readers should note this paper presents findings from the initial phase of a three year research effort focused towards the determination of a cost effective, commercially viable solution for regional agricultural applications. Allowing pilots access to dispersion data in real time will allow them to adjust their crop dusting technique immediately for maximum efficiency and minimized overspray. A remote control (R/C) scale aircraft is equipped with sensors to simulate an actual crop dusting plane taking readings. The R/C plane is controlled using an autopilot microcontroller system to eliminate the human error associated with manual control of the planes. The authors recognize proven commercial autopilot systems and open source systems are available. However, these systems represent a major expense well over $300,000 for typical agricultural applications in Ohio. This research aims to create a model economical and beneficial to small agricultural businesses. Therefore, an open source system was selected through engineering decision matrices to minimize cost. ArduPilot was chosen as the

autopilot system because it is based on the Arduino programming language, is affordable at $250 per unit, and has strong technical support due to its large installation base. For the purposes of this project, two R/C planes are constructed. The first aircraft makes one pass dispersing the test chemical. The second plane equipped with sensors makes multiple passes throughout the test area at fixed altitudes and specific time intervals. The second plane serves as the data collection platform. It measures the concentration of chemicals in and outside the target application region. Over the course of the entire project, timed data collection events in diverse weather conditions will be performed. The data will be analyzed to create a predictive model of chemical dispersion based on temperature, velocity, humidity, and dispersal altitude. This model can be used to predict the expected amount of overspray and any adverse effects it may have on the environment.

Investigative Approach
A test area is divided into cubic elements by latitude, longitude, and altitude. Each element is designated as a cell. The sensor plane makes five passes through each cell before any chemicals are dispersed. It will collect data including: temperature, humidity, air quality, wind velocity, particles per cubic meter, alcohol concentration of the air, and three dimensional location. Statistical analysis will be performed on this data to establish a range of expected values at a specific confidence level. The initial data set will serve at the comparison point for future data collection events over the three year project. After the initial conditions have been established, the chemical dispersal plane flies through the target area dispersing the test chemical in the same manner as a typical commercial crop dusting plane. Three test chemicals are used to simulate actual agricultural chemicals. For the purposes of our study, we chose to avoid commercial chemicals and selected representative replacements. A solution of 90% isopropyl alcohol and 10% water is dispersed as a mist to simulate the application of liquid chemicals. Smoke bombs are used to simulate the application of a fogging chemical. Baking soda is used to simulate powdered chemicals used for dusting. After the dispersal plane has completed its pass, the sensor plane makes five more passes through each cell of the target. This allows the chemical levels to be measured until they are no longer detectable. For all forms of chemical investigated, the same type of data is collected as during the establishment of initial conditions. The data types are weighted differently during analysis depending on the form of the chemical investigated. The primary sensor is the sensor given the most weight during data analysis because this sensor is affected most by the chemical. The alcohol concentration sensor is the primary sensor for liquid type chemicals because isopropyl alcohol is the test fluid. The smoke sensor is the primary sensor for fogging type chemicals because the smoke generated from smoke bombs is the test chemical. The particle sensor is the primary sensor for powder type chemicals. Alcohol has a high rate of vaporization and will increase the relative humidity of the air. Therefore, the humidity sensor is given the second highest weighted average for liquid chemicals. The water level sensor is used with liquid chemicals as well to measure the amount of chemical in the air remaining in liquid form. The smoke generated from smoke bombs is rich in various solid particles, making the particle sensor the second ideal sensor for measuring air quality for fogging based chemicals. The secondary sensors used in the measurement of all chemical types include temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, and air quality. The air quality sensor is a gas sensor with sensitivity to several common air pollutants. It is used as a qualitive sensor and descibes the air quality as fresh air, low pollution, moderate pollution, or high pollution. This procedure is repeated over several weeks with defined parameters as shown in Table 1. Table 1. test matrix for verifcation for dispersion variation Test # 0 1 2 3 4 5 Description Initial Conditions Test - No Chemicals First Chemical Application Varied Wind Velocity 1 Varied Temperature 1 Varied Humidity 1 Varied Altitude Wind Velocity 0 0 1 0 0 0 Temperature 0 0 0 1 0 0 Humidity 0 0 0 0 1 0 Altitude 0 0 0 0 0 1 Iterations 5 5 5 5 5 5

Each test is conducted five times. A statistical analysis is conducted on the data from each individual sensor to determine the arithmetic mean and range of values at a 95% confidence level. An ANOVA table is constructed to determine there is a significant difference between each test and the initial condition test. Also, an ANOVA table is constructed to ensure there is a significant difference between each test as the parameters are varied. Upon verification there is a statistically significant difference between all data sets, additional tests will be conducted to determine how the dispersion of aerially applied chemicals is affected by temperature, wind velocity, and humidity. Table 2 below shows the tests conducted to determine if there is a relationship between the parameter and the chemical concentration. Table 2. test matrix for relationship determination Test # 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Description Varied Wind Velocity 2 Varied Wind Velocity 3 Varied Wind Velocity 4 Varied Wind Velocity 5 Varied Temperature 2 Varied Temperature 3 Varied Temperature 4 Varied Temperature 5 Varied Humidity 2 Varied Humidity 3 Varied Humidity 4 Varied Humidity 5 Varied Altitude 2 Varied Altitude 3 Varied Altitude 4 Varied Altitude 5 Wind Velocity 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Temperature 0 0 0 0 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Humidity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 Altitude 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4 5 Iterations 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

The arithmetic mean of each test for a specific parameter is plotted and a trend line is fitted to the data points. This signifies there is a relationship between the parameter and the chemical concentration inside the target area. A determination is made if the possibility of a pattern exists based on the R-squared value of the trend line. If the possibility of a pattern is present, continuous testing will continue over a period of at least two years. A minimum of fifty data points will be generated for a more accurate trend line and equation to describe the behavior. Upon verification of a relationship, a finite element analysis is conducted to determine the dispersion of the chemicals within the target area. An element is defined as a cell as described above. A three dimensional graph is constructed detailing the concentration of chemical within each cell. Additional tests are conducted to measure the chemical concentration outside the target area. The dispersal plane follows the same procedures described above. The perimeter around the target area is divided into multiple cells at various distances from the target area. The chemical plane flies through each cell in the surrounding perimeter collecting sensor data. Five calibration tests are performed where chemical is dispersed and the sensor plane flies in an outward spiral from the target area. The data collected is used to determine the maximum distance from the target area chemicals can be detected. This telemetry data is used to reconstruct the trajectory of the sensor plane. The same tests are performed as above in Tables 1 and 2. An identical analysis of the data is conducted as described above. The data from inside the target area is compared against the data from the outside of the target area. Theoretically, the sum of the chemical amount detected inside and outside the target area should be equal to the total amount of chemical released by the dispersal plane. An error analysis between the actual and theoretical values is performed in order to establish an estimated error within the experiment. Once a model has been established for the predictive behavior of chemical dispersion, theoretical values from the model will be compared against the physical values measured in the tests shown in Table 3. This is done in order to verify the valadidty of the model.

Table 3. test matrix for chemical dispersion model verification Test # 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Description Wind Velocity Model Temperature Model Humidity Model Altitude Model Complete Model Complete Model Complete Model Wind Velocity 6 0 0 0 7 8 9 Temperature 0 6 0 0 7 8 9 Humidity 0 0 6 0 7 8 9 Altitude 0 0 0 6 7 8 9 Iterations 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Each test is conducted twice, once with data being collected within the target area and once with data being collected outside the target area.

Equipment Configuration
Table 4. aircraft equipment Item Aircraft Motor Propeller Speed Controller Battery Model Super Cub EP NTM Prop Drive 3548 Brushless E-Flite Pro SB ESC Turnigy Nanotech Specification 1 1.870m Wingspan 900Kv Specification 2 570 Watts (@ 11.1 Volts) 6000 mAh Specification 3 815 Watts (@ 14.8 Volts) Lithium-Polymer

60-Amp 14.8 Volt

The flight is controlled by six Blue Bird BMS-616DMG+HS standard size digital servos. These servos were selected by employing decision matrices for their high torque and holding power and their fast response time. A total of six servos are used in the planes operation. Two servos control each aileron independently, two servos control each flap independently, one servo controls the rudder, and one servo controls the elevators. The plane can be controlled via a remote control or the autopilot system. The radio control system utilizes a Spektrum DX6i 6-channel radio and a Spektrum AR6255 6-channel receiver. These operate on the 2.4GHz band. Six sensors and one microcontroller are employed in the autonomous functioning of the aircraft. The control system for flight system is based on the ArduPilot Mega 2.5 (APM 2.5) autopilot system designed by 3D Robotics. The APM 2.5 features a wide variety of integrated oritentation sensors interfaced with an ATmega 2560 microcontroller. The navigation, orientation, and stabilization of the aircraft during flight are maintained by five primary sensors. These sensors include a gyroscope, accelerometer, digital compass, altimeter, and GPS1. The MPU-6000, from InvenSense, features an integrated 3-axis gyroscope and 3-axis accelerometer2. The digital compass is a 3-axis HMC5883L integrated circuit (IC) by Honeywell. This allows compass heading accuracy of 23. The altimeter is a MS5611-01BA03 barometric pressure sensor by Measurement Specialities. This sensor has a range of 10 to 1200 millibar with a resolution of 0.027 millibar. The typical accuracy of this sensor over the operating range is 2.5 millibar4. The primary sensor used for navigation is the GPS unit. APM 2.5 is available for use with two GPS units, the MediaTek MT3329 V2.0 and the higher accuracy uBlox LEA-6H module. This project utilizes the uBlox LEA-6H GPS equipped with a Taoglas GP.1575.25.4.A.02 ceramic patch type atenna5. This unit has an update rate of 5 Hz and a position accuracy of 2 meters6. An airspeed sensor is utilized on the aircraft for better stabilization in windy conditions, slow flights, and for autonomous landings. The airspeed sensor is constructed from a MPXV7002DP piezoresistive transducer pressure sensor and Pitot tube. This sensor acts as a differential pressure sensor and is capable of measuring pressures from 2 to 2 kPa. The sensor is temperature compensated over 10 to 60C and is low pass filtered to reduce noise. Without an airspeed sensor equipped, the aircraft velocity is derived from the GPS position information of the plane increasing the error of the measurement. The airspeed sensor allows the aircraft velocity to be calculated directly for higher accuracy7.

The chemical concentration data collection is handled by an Arduino UNO microcontroller and the position data collection is handled by Ardupilot. Arduino UNO is based on the ATmega 328 microcontroller. Arduino UNO is programmed using its own unique programming language based on C programming language. The ability to write customized programs for the Arduino UNO makes it compatible with digital, analog, serial, serial peripheral interface (SPI), and inter-integrated circuit (IC) based sensors8. The chemical concentration of the air is measured with seven sensors. These sensors include: temperature sensor, humidity sensor, water sensor, alcohol sensor, smoke sensor, air quality sensor, and particle sensor. The water sensor is an Electronic Brick ELB145D2P. It is used to detect the buildup of liquid particles from a mist on its surface. The output voltage varies based on the amount of liquid buildup on the surface9. The alcohol sensor is a Grove SEN21723P based on the MQ303A semiconductor alcohol sensor. This sensor is used for detecting the presense of alcohol liquid and vapor. It is capable of detecting alcohol concentrations of 201000 ppm. The respone time of this sensor is nearly instantaneous when exposed to alocohol. When the presense of alcohol is removed, the sensor slowly decreases in value9. This slow response time in the absense of alcohol is accounted for in the data analysis. The smoke sensor is an Electronic Brick ELB126E4P based on the MQ2 semiconductor sensor. Although this sensor is used primarily to detect smoke, it can detect a wide range of combustable gases in general. It has particularly high sensitivity to LPG, propane, and hydrogen gases. The detection range is 300 10000 ppm9. The air quality sensor detects a wide variety of chemicals. The main gases detected are alcohol, acetone, paint thinner, and formaldehyde. This sensor is designed for a qualitative output rather than a quantitative output. The outputs using the manufaturer supplied code yield four results inducating: fresh air, low pollution, moderate pollution, or high pollution9. This sensor is used for supplemental data only and is not a primary sensor. The Grove Dust Sensor is used as a quantitative air quality sensor by measuring the amount of particles in the air. The smallest particles this sensor is capable of detecting are 1 micrometer9. Flight data is remotely sent back to the Mission Planner control software via a 3D Robotics Radio Air Module operating at a frequency of 915 MHz. This radio has a range of approximately one mile. Data rates up to 250 kbps are possible and data integrity is ensured through the built in error correcting code correcting up to 25% data bit errors10. A point-of-view camera has been equipped to allow the operator to have a pilots view. This is useful for ensuring the plane is behaving as desired in autonomous mode and makes piloting the plane manually via remote control much easier. The camera used for this is a Hero2 by GoPro equipped with the WiFi BacPac. This camera is capable of feeding live video to devices based on the Android operating system. The camera can record video in full 1080p high definition or record rapid motions at 120 frames per second in standard definition. The Hero2 can function as a digital camera and permits the operator to obtain photographs remotely11. The programming for autonomous operation and data acqusition is accomplished with two primary programs. For data acqusition, the Arduino IDE program is used for programming the Arduino UNO. Many of the sensors have sample code available from the manufacturer for use on their respective microcontroller system. This sample code is used as the basis for programming the sensors for operation with the Arduino UNO. Mission Planner, the software developed by 3D Robotics for use with ArduPilot, is used to program the autonomous flight controls and flight path. ArduPilot programming is based on the Arduino programming language and is capable of being programmed using the Arduino IDE. Given the length of the code and many interdependencies between customized functions, it is difficult and time consuming to program ArduPilot with this method. Mission Planner is essentially a graphical user interface (GUI) used to translate simple user defined options and commands into a customized code uploaded to ArduPilot.

Results of Initial Testing

Component level tests are being conducted on all sensors involved in the measurement of chemical dispersion. The purpose of these tests is to determine the random error, the distribution type of random error, and determine the rise and fall times of the sensor in response to a step input. The data collection for analog sensors uses LabVIEW 2011 and a NI USB-6211 data acquisition card (DAQ). Data collection for serial and digital sensors uses Arduino IDE and the serial monitor. The analysis of the data uses both LabVIEW and Excel. The block diagram for the program used to collect sensor data is shown below.

Figure 1: LabVIEW block diagram for sensor analysis A total of 10,000 samples was collected over a period of ten seconds using a sampling rate of 10 Hz. A graph was generated for the sensor voltage versus time, a histogram of the voltage readings, a plot of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the root mean square (RMS) voltage, and the RMS phase of the FFT. For sensors having a formula to convert the output voltage to the units of the measurand, such as temperature and humidity, a graph and histogram was generated for their units. The FFT and phase plots were not used in the analysis of random error but were included for future tests to determine the ringing frequency, if any, of the sensors. The mean, standard deviation, and mode of the output voltage and measurand were calculated. The table below summarizes the results of component level testing for random error. Table 5. analysis of random noise in sensors Sensor Type Temperature Relative Humidity Water Level Water Level Manufacturer Part # Phidget 1125 Phidget 1125 Electronic Brick Electronic Brick Signal Type Analog Analog Analog Analog Random Error 0.041648 (95%) 0.010078 (95%) 0.000681 (95%) 0.003388 (95%) Units Kelvin % Volts Volts Error Distribution Type Bimodal Bimodal Normal Normal

The random error of the temperature and humidity sensor can be seen in figures 2 and 3 in the repeating waveform of the signals.

Figure 2. temperature sensor voltage waveform

Figure 3. relative humidity (%) waveform

The random error of water level sensor is significantly greater when it is completely submerged than when it is dry. This is due to the electrolysis occuring when the sensor is submerged. The current passing through the water causes the bonds in the water molecules to break forming oxygen and hydrogen bubbles on the metallic sensing strips of the sensor. This reduces the surface area in contact with the water and decreases the output voltage of the sensor. As the bubbles break away from the sensor the surface area exposed to water is increased causing the output voltage to increase. Our initial test flight resulted in serious equipment failure. The equipment failure resulted in an aircraft crash destroying most of the structure. Limited data, temperature and humidity measurements, was obtained during the initial test run. Temperature measurements ranged from 282.15 to 287.15 Kelvin with an average of 284.32 K and a standard deviation of 1.32 K. The relative humidity ranged from 32% to 49% with an average of 40.78% and a standard deviation of 3.79%.

Next Phases
The most significant part of this research is to obtain quality data for practical use by reducing the effects of extraneous variables as much as possible. The flight of the aircraft needs to be farther stabilized. This will be accomplished via two methods. First, an analysis of the center of gravity of the plane will be conducted to find a more optimal position. Components of the aircraft will be relocated within the plane and securely fixed into position. This will allow the center of gravity to be moved to the ideal location and ensure the center of gravity does not shift during sharp maneuvers of the aircraft. Second, adjustments will be made to various flight parameters in the autopilots code to allow for smoother and more stabilized transitions in the flight path. The chemical concentration of the air is time and position dependent. This makes discovery of a function describing chemical concentration difficult with moving sensors alone. Static ground-based sensors will be located at various positions within the test. The use of static sensors will provide a control the planes sensor can be compared to. This will allow the plane sensors to be calibrated to a higher accuracy level allowing for a more accurate model of the chemical dispersion. The largest factor affecting the duration of this research are weather conditions. Weather conditions are an extraneous variable unable to be controlled due to the research being conducted outdoors. The testing described above cannot be completed on any particular schedule. Also, this research is not limited to the tests in Tables 1-3. A variety of tests in different environmental conditions will be conducted over a period of at least two years to collect more data to improve the accuracy of the model and to verify the applicability of the model in various environmental conditions.

Conclusion
The most significant finding is the need for continued data collection with structurally sound airborne platforms, static collection systems, and repeated data collection in diverse weather. The majority of component level testing has been completed for this research. An estimate of the error for the sensors has been generated and compared against the specifications from the components data sheets. The use of manually controlled R/C aircraft has been determined to be impractical due to the difficult in maintain repeating the

same flight path accurate for each test. The autopilot is a feasible method but requires additional testing and adjustment of the aircrafts center of gravity in order to stabilize the flight path. Component level testing has revealed the need for a static ground based sensors. These sensors act as a control for the plane sensors allowing their accuracy to be improved and a model determined more quickly. Once the corrections to the aircraft system have been implemented and static sensors installed in the test area testing will commence. Repeated data collection in diverse weather conditions will be conducted during the testing phase over a period of at least two years. During these two years, the model and equations describing the model will continuously be improved and tested to track the accuracy of the model until an accurate equation has been obtained.

Acknowledgements
The authors of this paper express their gratitude toward NASA and the Ohio Space Grant Consortium for their continued support of this project and for granting Wright State University the funds that made this research project possible.

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