Section 1:

Solder Reflow Basics

applied and the components are placed on
Introduction the board, the only way to create a
functioning circuit board is an effective
Electronics assembly is the general term for solder reflow process.
joining electrical components to printed
circuit boards (PCB). Surface mount
technology (SMT) is the electronics
assembly process where electrical
component leads are joined to the PCB via
individual pad connections located on the
board surface.

The basic SMT process consists of the

following steps:

1. Solder paste is applied to the PCB using

a screen printer. Stencils designed with
holes over individual pads control the A high-volume SMT assembly line.
solder application to the board.
2. Electronic components are positioned on Reflow Know-How: Prevent and Resolve
the PCB using placement equipment
SMT Process Problems
(pick-and-place machines, chip shooters,
etc.). Component leads are placed in
direct contact with the solder-pasted The reflow oven is the key to the soldering
pads. process. Properly working ovens should be
3. The solder paste is heated until liquidus ” invisible„ to line operators. Yet if process
(reflowed) then cooled until the solder problems occur during board production, the
hardens and creates permanent reflow oven is often the first place
interconnection between the component manufacturing engineers look to find
leads and the PCB. This process is answers. Knowing the reflow process and
performed in a SOLDER REFLOW ways the oven effects soldering results is
OVEN. critical to consistent SMT production.
4. After reflow, the assembled circuit
board can be cleaned, tested or
The purpose of the Reflow Technology
assembled into a final product.
Handbook is to explain the reflow process
in a way that answers basic soldering
High-volume SMT lines use automated
questions. The handbook also helps qualify
equipment to perform these steps. These
the performance factors you should consider
lines can typically produce a completed
to find a reflow oven to best suit your
circuit board in less than 20 seconds, with
process needs.
placement machines that can position
upwards of 40,000 components per hour on
the PCB. However, once the solder paste is

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook

Solder Alloys
The vast majority of electronic
interconnections are accomplished with tin-
lead alloy solders.
Tin
Pure tin is a soft, shiny metal that is most
often found in ore form rather than metallic
form. It is easily shaped and molded
without breaking.
The essence of the solder process is the
ability of molten tin to dissolve nearly any
other metal. Copper is one of those metals,
and copper is used extensively in the
manufacture of printed circuit boards. In the
next subsection we will discuss the role of
compounds formed when surface copper is
dissolved by tin.
Lead
Lead, when exposed to air, has a dull gray
appearance. Like tin, lead is an easy metal
to work with because it is both soft and
flexible.
Lead does very little to aid the bonding of
metal to metal during soldering. However,
when lead is combined with tin at a ratio of
63% tin to 37% lead, the melting point of
the resultant alloy becomes lower than that
of either pure tin or pure lead. The
abbreviation for tin in chemistry is Sn and
for lead is Pb, so this alloy is usually written
Sn63Pb37.
This type of alloy is called a eutectic
composition. Pure tin melts at 232°C
(449°F) and pure lead melts at 327°C
(621°F). The melting temperature of
Sn63Pb37, however, is 183°C (361°F). At
this temperature, the alloy goes from a
completely solid to a completely liquid state
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without going through a ” pasty„ stage. This
is called the eutectic temperature.
When eutectic tin/lead is heated to a
temperature higher than 183°C it is said to
be in its liquidus stage. The relatively low
melting temperature has made eutectic
tin/lead the solder alloy of choice for printed
circuit board assembly because circuit
boards made of FR4 substrate or similar
materials can be safely processed at this
temperature.
In addition, the low melting temperature
means that the equipment that solders the
boards does not have to operate at higher
temperatures. Finally, a benefit most
managers and accountants appreciate is the
low cost of tin/lead compared with other
alloys.
Intermetallic Compounds
As mentioned above, molten tin dissolves
most metals. During the solder process, the
primary metals in the solder form
compounds with the metals in component
leads and circuit board pads at boundaries
between the solder and the pad or lead.
(Figure 1-1).
Sn63\Pb37 solder
One to two
micron
intermetallic
layer: Cu3Sn
and Cu6Sn5
Copper
pad
Figure 1-1. The intermetallic layer at the
boundary of the solder and copper surfaces.
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These intermetallic compounds form a
boundary layer that is extremely strong
when it is no thicker than one to two
microns. At this thickness the natural
brittleness of the intermetallic layer is not a
problem.
As the intermetallic layer thickens, it
becomes more susceptible to cracking. The
cracking is caused by expansion and
contraction of the circuit board substrate as
it heats and cools during normal operation of
the electrical device in which it operates.
The thickness of the intermetallic layer is
controlled primarily by controlling the
liquidus time of the solder. Most solder
manufacturers recommend a liquidus time
between 45 and 60 seconds. (See Section 3
Profiling for additional information.)
Other Solder Compounds
Some special applications require alloys
other than eutectic tin/lead solder. A
common application for other solder
compounds is double sided surface mount
assembly. To solder on both sides of the
board requires bottom side components be
soldered with an alloy that has a melting
temperature higher than eutectic tin/lead.
Then, the board is flipped over and top side
components are soldered with an alloy that
has a melting temperature lower than that of
eutectic tin/lead. The higher melting
temperature allows the solder used for the
bottom side components to stay solid during
the top side reflow, reducing the risk of
intermetallic growth.
Bismuth and Low Temperature Soldering
The addition of bismuth to tin/lead solder
reduces the melting temperature
significantly without adding serious
solderability problems. A typical
tin/bismuth/lead alloy is Sn43/Bi14/Pb43.
This alloy has a pasty stage from 143°C-
Page 3
163°C (289°F-325°F). The pasty stage
means the solder is no longer completely
solid at 143°C, but not yet completely liquid
until it reaches 163°C.
The lower melting temperature of this and
similar alloys means that the flux used in the
solder paste must also be different from that
used in eutectic tin/lead. This may change
the shape of the thermal profile. Consult
your solder paste supplier for the
recommended thermal profile for the
particular low temperature solder you use.
Another matter to consider when you use
low temperature solder is that the melting
temperature of the solder is affected by any
metals dissolved from leads or pads that
were plated to prevent oxidation. Usually
these contaminant metals raise the melting
point of the solder. If this becomes a
problem in your process, it might be
necessary to strip the plating just prior to the
low temperature soldering operation.
Silver
Some printed circuit boards have
components with silver plated leads. As
noted in the section on tin above, molten tin
dissolves most metals, including the silver in
silver plated leads.
One way to reduce the amount of plated
silver that dissolves in the molten tin/lead is
to add a small quantity of silver to the solder
itself. The alloy Sn62/Pb36/Ag02 (62% tin,
36% lead, 2% silver) is good for this
application.
Another popular silver alloy Sn96/Ag04
melts at 221°C (430°F) and is sometimes
used for double sided reflow.
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Lead Free Solder
Among the most discussed topics in the late-
1990s is the effort to remove lead from
electronic products. Concerns about ground
water lead contamination are forcing the
debate. Many governments are demanding
that Tin/Lead alloys be phased out and
replaced with lead-free solders. Solder paste
manufacturers are working to create new
alloys to meet what is likely to become a
new regulatory requirement for SMT
assemblers.
According to Phil Zarrow of ITM
Consulting, the most promising lead-free
alloys are in the Tin-Silver family with
variations incorporating relatively low
amounts of copper of bismuth. (Circuits
Assembly ’ August 1999). These alloys cost
about the same as Sn63/Pb37, but the 221°C
melting temperature means that electronic
components must be exposed to reflow
temperatures as high as 240°C for effective
soldering.
Another reflow alloy being considered is
Sn91.8/Ag3.4/Bi4.8. Adding bismuth
results in a melting range between 208°C
and 215°C (Phil Zarrow: Circuits Assembly
’ August 1999).
Lead-free alloys are being evaluated to
verify their performance to standard Tin-
Lead compounds. Anyone involved in SMT
production should be prepared to convert
their lines to lead-free soldering by the mid-
2000s.
Flux
Oxygen in the air combines with metal on
circuit board pads and surface mount
component leads and forms oxides. This
oxidation blocks the molecular attraction
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
between the solder and the metal at the
surface of the pad or lead.
Flux removes oxides from pad and lead
surfaces, as well as from the surfaces of the
solder particles themselves. Molten solder
then can flow evenly over the surface of
pads and leads and form intermetallic bonds
with them.
Surface Tension and Wetting
Surface tension is the attraction that
molecules at the surface of a drop of liquid
have for each other. If that attraction is
greater than the attraction for the material
which the liquid touches, the liquid will not
spread, but will remain in drop form.
Surface tension explains why a drop of
rainwater on a waxed car stays in drop form.
The wax surface is intended to repel water
and keep it from bonding to the car s
surface.
The earth s gravity works against surface
tension and tries to flatten the raindrop into
an oval. If the attraction of the molecules of
rainwater for each other is greater than the
pull of gravity and the attraction of the car s
surface, the drop will remain somewhat
round and self contained. If gravity is
stronger and the wax is worn down, the drop
will disperse.
Wetting is the word used to describe the
extent that solder flows over the surfaces to
be bonded. Poor wetting is the result of
solder particles in the paste bonding to
themselves to form a sphere, so the edges of
a poorly wetted solder joint are rounded
rather than flat.
Wetting is measured by the angle made
where the edge of a layer of solder paste
meets the pad on a circuit board. Poor
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wetting leaves a thick edge and a large angle To make rosin based flux more aggressive
(Figure 1-2). when removing oxides, activator substances
are added. Many different substances are
used as activators, but it is not as important
to know exactly what the activator is, as to
Poor wetting:
know:
>90° angle to
Strong
Attraction
pad · at what temperature the activator
begins to work, because this affects
the thermal profile in the reflow
Acceptable
wetting: <90°
oven, and
Weakened angle to pad
Attraction · how corrosive the activator is, which
determines whether the board needs
Ideal wetting: to be cleaned and what cleaning
<45° angle to solution is necessary. Your solder
pad paste supplier can give you this
information.

Figure 1-2. The effect of surface tension on
wetting.
What Flux Cannot Do
Even the strongest flux does not remove
thick layers of oxidation. At most, flux
removes the oxide a few molecules thick
from a metallic surface.
Flux Chemistry
The basis of flux is usually a solid that has
been dissolved by a solvent. The most
commonly used solid for many years in PCB
assembly was rosin. Rosin is derived from
pine trees, and is an inert substance, which
does not conduct electricity at room
temperature. Rosin becomes liquid between
125°C and 130°C (257°F -266°F).
A substance known as water white flux
(abbreviated w/w) is pure rosin dissolved in
isopropyl alcohol. Water white is mild and
able to remove only the thinnest layers of
oxide during soldering.
RMA and RA are the most common
activator fluxes. RMA is mildly activated
rosin based flux, and is much stronger in
removing oxidation than water white. RA is
activated rosin based flux, and is more
aggressive than RMA.
Flux Residue and Cleaning
Water white and RMA fluxes leave a
residue after soldering that is not corrosive
or electrically conductive at levels high
enough to affect the function or life of a
circuit board. Residue from these fluxes has
often been removed by washing, however,
for aesthetic reasons, or because it is non-
conductive it interferes with bed of nails
testing devices.
The residue from RA fluxes can be more
corrosive, and usually needs to be cleaned
from the board. RA fluxes require two types
of cleaning:
1. A nonpolar solvent to remove the
rosin, as well as any oils or waxes
that may have contaminated the
board during handling. Nonpolar
solvents such as chlorofluorocarbons

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 (CFCs) were used for years, but
environmental concerns eliminated
them from consideration. Semi-
aqueous cleaning systems use a
terpene as the nonpolar solvent. The
terpene is then removed by a
surfactant, which makes the terpene
soluble in water.
2. A polar solvent, which is usually
very pure water, removes the
activator, as well as salts and other
water-soluble contaminants that may
have gotten onto the circuit board
during handling.
A substance called a saponifier can be used
to clean PCBs also. One way to understand
and remember what a saponifier does is to
know that the root word is sapo, which is
Latin for soap. A saponifier acts like soap in
reacting with substances that are not water
soluble (oils, for example) so that they
become water soluble and can be washed
off.
Water Soluble Flux
Water soluble fluxes usually are based on
the oxidation removing qualities of an
organic acid such as citric or glutamic acid.
Organic acid fluxes are more aggressive
than RMA, so they provide good cleaning,
but they are usually corrosive as well.
Because of the corrosiveness of these fluxes,
a thorough water wash following solder
reflow is necessary. Boards stored without
washing for more than an hour after exiting
the reflow oven may have serious oxidation
buildup.
No Clean Fluxes
Millions of printed circuit boards are
manufactured that are never cleaned
following solder reflow. This is especially
true in consumer product electronic
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
assemblies, primarily to save money. Inert,
non-corrosive flux residues are left on the
boards and do not cause problems.
By virtue of the fact that the boards are not
cleaned, it can be said the fluxes used are no
clean fluxes. However, in recent years the
term no clean has come to refer to a type of
flux specifically designed so flux residues
are minimized. No clean fluxes generally
have the same aggressiveness as RMA
fluxes.
Lower residue is achieved in no clean fluxes
by using a lower solids content than in other
fluxes. Solids content refers to the ratio of
solvent thinner to solid component in the
flux. A typical no clean flux now has less
than 15% solids, compared with 50% in
other types of flux.
Since the solids in a flux are the basis for its
effectiveness, reducing the solids content
tightens the process window for no clean
fluxes. Flux density control thus is more
important than with other fluxes.
No clean fluxes can be either rosin or resin
based. The most noticeable difference is
that rosin based no clean flux produces a
thin layer of sticky residue that can be
removed if desired. Resin based no clean
flux produces a thin residue that is hard and
not sticky, but cannot be removed by water
or other solvents. This can occasionally be a
consideration if rework is necessary.
Nitrogen gas inert atmosphere solder reflow
is often helpful when no clean flux is being
used, especially when it is used with fine
pitch surface mount devices. Nitrogen gas
eliminates oxygen from the heat chamber of
the reflow oven so that oxidation is
minimized. (See Section 4 Inert
Atmosphere Soldering for additional
information.)
Page 6
 Section 2:
Printed Circuit Board Fabrication & Solderability
Good Boards = Results
Board fabrication is one aspect of the
electronics production industry that SMT
assembly engineers often know little about.
It cannot be stressed enough that poorly
fabricated boards WILL cause solderability
problems during assembly.
This section covers PCB production basic
steps as it effects the assembly of populated
circuit boards. In addition, this section will
describe how to apply this knowledge to
prevent board solderability problems
BEFORE the boards ever get to the
assembly line.
Soldered boards exiting a reflow oven.
Pad Oxidation and Board Storage
Circuit board fabricators prefer to produce
large numbers of boards in a single run.
This reduces setup time and offers the
benefits of economy of scale when ordering
Page 7
laminate, copper foil, prepreg, and other raw
materials of printed circuit boards. These
purchasing and manufacturing issues cause
them to offer lower per board costs to
assemblers if the assembler buys in large
lots.
However, even in the era of just-in-time
manufacturing, many companies keep
boards on the shelf too long. If the
assembler goes for the low per board cost
and does not populate and solder the boards
in a reasonably short time, oxidation buildup
on pads, even if they have been plated, can
cause solderability problems. Often
reworking boards that exhibit poor
solderability is more expensive than the
savings gained by buying larger lots of
cheaper PCBs.
Therefore, it is important for the processing
engineer in a surface mount assembly line to
work with purchasing and management to
determine the safe shelf life of bare boards.
Solderability tests can determine the safe
time limit. Ensuring a good raw material of
boards is one of the most important parts of
high yield surface mount assembly. What
makes board oxidation particularly critical is
that it dooms the process before solder even
touches the PCB.
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PCB Manufacturing
Substrate Manufacturing
Substrate is manufactured from thin sheets
of a dielectric material bonded to a sheet of
electrically conductive material. Figure 2-1
illustrates the first three steps of circuit
board fabrication.
1-Substrate: 2-Drilling and 3-Transfer of
copper foil deburring circuit pattern to
bonded to copper foil on
fiberglass substrate
Figure 2-1. The first three steps in circuit
board fabrication.
FR4 is the most common substrate used in
printed circuit boards. Epoxy resin is used
to bond fiberglass to copper foil in the
creation of FR4. A fire retardant is added so
the substrate can be safely soldered in later
processes.
Some other substrates are:
· polyimide/fiberglass, which can sustain
higher temperatures and is much harder
than FR4
· FR2-fire retardant coated
phenolic/paper, which is cheap and used
mainly in low cost consumer electronics
· Flex circuits, usually polyimide, in some
cases polyester, used in automotive and
other applications where space and
weight are at a premium. New
technology allows adhesiveless material
for even thinner flex circuits.
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Problems that occur during substrate
production usually have little impact on
solderability during SMT assembly.
The Subtractive Process
After the substrate has been made, drilling
machines bore holes of different diameters
in the exact locations on the board. These
holes are called vias. These vias are where
circuits electrical connections are created
between different layers of the board.
Next, an image of the circuit pattern is
transferred to the copper foil on the surface
of the board with either a UV photoresist
film or an ink screening process. In the UV
process, another step is required to remove
the resist material from areas where the
circuit will be. Incomplete removal of this
resist material can cause solderability
problems later. Resist residue on the copper
will not allow solder to bond to the pad.
Then 0.0000150 - 0.000020 inches of copper
is chemically deposited (called electroless
plating) in the drilled holes. This plating
provides a base on which more copper can
be electrically plated. (See Figure 2-2.)
4-Electroless 5-Add plating 6-Electroplate
copper plating resist; tin/lead over
in drilled holes electroplate copper plating
copper to protect from
next etching
Figure 2-2. The next three steps in
producing a PCB.
Then, a 0.0010 - 0.0020 inch layer of
electroplated copper is added to the
Page 8
chemically deposited layer. Tin/lead
plating---not solder, because the metals are
still discrete---covers the copper to protect it
from oxidation and the subsequent etching
solution step.
Now it is necessary to etch off the plating
resist which again exposes the copper foil on
the board surface that remains from the very
first step of the process. Then the tin/lead
can be etched off the circuit traces and pads.
xxx-xxxxxx-x xxx-xxxxxx-x
xxxxxx-x
7-Etch off 8-Apply solder
resist material; mask to protect
then etch board, and
tin/lead from legend ink with
circuits & pads part no. & other
information
Figure 2-3. Final steps of PCB fabrication
Figure 2-3. The finishing steps PCB
fabrication.
The Protective Process
When the electroplated tin/lead (Figure 2-2)
has been removed, the board is electrically
complete. Solder mask is applied to seal out
contaminants.
Applying Solder Mask; Hot Air Surface
Leveling (HASL) or Organic Coating
Solder mask can be dry film or liquid. Both
are photoimageable and require a very clean
environment. After mask is applied over the
entire board surface, UV-blocking artwork is
placed over the board. The artwork blocks
UV radiation from those places where solder
mask must be removed so that the pads can
be exposed for component placement during
assembly.
Page 9
UV radiation is then applied to the board.
The mask that is protected by the UV-
blocking artwork remains soft. The mask
not protected by the artwork is exposed to
UV, which begins polymerization of the
mask. Polymerization is the linking of the
polymer molecules so the mask becomes
hard enough to protect the board surface
from scratches and contaminants.
The mask that was protected by UV
radiation is still soft, and is removed by high
pressure water spray in a machine called a
developer. After this, the board is heat
cured to harden the mask to its final form.
Then the pads must be coated for a last time
xxxxxx-x
9-Apply solder
or organic to prevent oxidation. For about a decade
coating to pads this usually was done with a hot air leveler,
(HASL, fuser,
or chemical
which dips the board into a solder pot for
bath) 3-10 seconds.
As the board comes out of the solder, air
knives blast it on both sides, leveling the
solder on the pads.
This, however, can cause problems during
assembly:
· Bad air knives leave an uneven pad
surface so components cannot lay
flat.
· The solder in the hot air leveler is
contaminated by a tiny amount of
copper from each board. The solder
left on the pads thus becomes less
solderable.
· Too much time in the solder pot
creates a thick layer of intermetallic
alloy, which weakens joints made in
assembly.
To overcome these issues, some board
fabricators are applying an organic
compound that protects the pads, but
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
without the thermal and mechanical stress
that happens during hot air leveling.
Solderability Testing
PCB fabrication can be a source of assembly
problems, particularly with regards to
oxidation and misapplication of solder mask.
Engineers and machine operators who
understand fabrication learn to make careful
inspection of the raw board as the first step
in troubleshooting SMT solderability
problems.
Several solderability test methods are
commonly practiced. Regardless of the test
method you use, the process engineer should
evaluate the test”s level of complexity, the
time required and cost compared to the
negative impact of the solderability problem.
Here are some quick and easy test
approaches that have proven useful for basic
troubleshooting.
A Simple and Fast Test for Determining
Pad Solderability on Bare Boards
If solderability is in doubt, a simple test is to
stencil solder paste on a bare board and then
reflow it without components. If the joints
look good, but there is still doubt, have a
testing lab do an X-ray to determine
Notes:
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
copper content of the solder or other
potential causes of poor solderability. If the
pads exhibit proper adhesion, then check the
electronic components themselves. The
following tests measure solderability of both
component leads.
The Dip and Look Test for Component
Leads
The dip and look test is similar in its ease
and simplicity to the pad test. It requires a
few pieces of equipment and some work
space, but can be done quickly without
interrupting production.
If you have established that solderability of
the pads is good, take a board that has been
through the screen printer, but has no
components on it, to use for this test. Heat
the board on a hot plate, or by whatever
means are available that can be controlled.
With a thermocouple attached to one of the
leads, use a tweezer to place the surface
mount component on its pad. Some kapton
tape placed over the component to hold it in
place helps secure the part.
Heat the assembly through the thermal cycle
(See Section 3 Reflow Profiling)
appropriate for the solder paste, using the
thermocouple as a guide. Let the assembly
cool, remove flux residue if necessary, and
then inspect the lead for wetting.
Page 10
Wetting Balance: A More Involved
Component Lead Test
sensor. A solder pot with molten solder is
raised so that the lead goes at least 1/8„
Wetting balance is good test because its
(3mm) into the solder.
accuracy relies on instruments rather than
the judgment of the person doing the test.
Leave the lead in the solder for 5 seconds.
The drawback is that those instruments are
Remove the lead. The force pushing against
often not readily available and they require
the lead should be reduced as the flux
training for proper use. In addition, this test
activates and cleans the surface of the lead if
requires a comparison against a known
the flux is working and the lead is not too
specification established on a component
corroded for it to work. This reduction of
with proven solderable leads.
force will be recorded on the force sensor,
and is compared with force results from the
To perform the wetting balance test, attach a
lead on the good solderability component.
lead with a clamp to the arm of a force

Notes:

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Section 3:
Reflow Profiling

What is a Temperature
or Thermal Profile?
High quality, low defect soldering requires
identifying the optimum temperature profile
for reflowing the solder paste. Achieving
SMT process consistency means repeating
this profile over and over. Every solder
joint on every board needs to be heated
similarly if the desired soldering results are
to be accomplished. From the solder“s point
of view, it does not matter what the heat
source to the solder joint is.
What does matter is that the heat is applied
to the solder joint in a controlled manner.
The heating and cooling rise rates must be
compatible with the solder paste and
components. The amount of time that the
assembly is exposed to certain temperatures
must be defined and maintained. In other
words, the solder reflow profile must first be
defined and then maintained.
225
PEAK TEMPERATURE
200
SOLDER LIQUIDOUS
175
150 RATE WETTING
OF TIME
T( oC) 125 RISE
100
The Typical Profile
The reflow profile is defined by the
relationship of temperature versus time
during heating. A typical profile consists of
three heating slopes (the time vs temperature
relationship or rate of temperature rise)
defined by Figure 3-1. This ” three step„
profiling approach has been commonly used
since the early days of SMT.
Each solder paste defines the heating slopes
and time and temperature limits within each
slope. It is best to consult your solder paste
supplier to determine the exact heating
condition required for the paste you are
using. For the purpose of discussion, we
will use the traditional three step profile,
which is typical of RMA pastes.
The three step heating profile slopes are
called preheat, dryout, and reflow.
Preheat
In the preheat section, the goal is to fully
preheat the entire SMT assembly to
temperatures between 100耐C and 150耐C.
183
The most critical parameter in the preheat
section is to control the rate of rise to
between 1-4耐C/second.

75
The main concern is minimizing thermal
50
shock on the components of the assembly.
25
Preheat Dryout Reflow Cooling For example, multilayer ceramic chip
Time (Sec.)
capacitors can be vulnerable to cracking if
heated too fast. In addition, rapid heating
can cause the solder paste to spatter.
Figure 3-1. A typical
thermal profile.

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Dryout
The second heating section, referred to as
the dryout, soak, or preflow zone, is used
primarily to ensure that the solder paste is
fully dried before hitting reflow
temperatures. It is characterized by a
consistent temperature (often between
150耐C - 170耐C) for an extensive (60-120
second) time period.
The dryout portion of the profile acts as a
flux activation zone for RMA solder pastes.
Dryout provides thermal stabilization of
large and small components to ensure
uniform heating as the SMT assembly enters
the reflow zone. Convection ovens have
reduced the need for the thermal
stabilization, as the entire profile tends to be
uniform (referred to as ” Delta T„ defined as
the temperature difference between the
warmest and coldest component lead on the
board).
have water-cooled or refrigerated cooling
sections so the timeover and cooling rates
can be precisely controlled.
What are the Profile Control
Limits?
The profile is not a simple line graph
between time and temperature, but rather a
band or process window as defined by upper
and lower control limits. Heating within the
limits will result in high quality solder joints
providing all other aspects of the process are
in control.
The size of the reflow profile band is
defined by the range of temperature
deviation (thermal tolerance) that can occur
during while yielding high quality solder
joints.

Reflow In Figure 3-2, the profile band size is

The reflow section of the profile elevates the indicated as 25耐C. The actual limits of the
solder paste to a temperature greater than the band will vary depending upon solder paste,
its melting point. For Sn63/Pb37 eutectic component type, and circuit board material.
solder, the melting temperature is 183耐C.
This temperature must be exceeded by PROFILE PROCESS WINDOW
approximately 20耐C to ensure quality reflow BURNT BOARDS
225 EXCESSIVE
for every solder joint lead. LIQUIDOUS
200 TIME
COLD 183
175 SOLDER
The amount of time the solder joint is above 150
GOOD
the melting point is referred to as the wetting THERMAL
SHOCK INCOMPLETE
T( oC) 125 DRYING
time or timeover. The wetting time is 30 to 100
60 seconds for most pastes. If the wetting 75
time is excessive, intermetallic layer may 50
form in the joint, which result in brittle 25
solder joints. Preheat Dryout Reflow Cooling

Time (Sec.)
Excessively slow cooldown while the paste
is liquidous can also cause the solder joint to
Figure 3-2. A graphical representation of
consist of a larger grain structure, resulting a 25 C reflow profile process band.
in a potentially weaker solder joint.
Common cooling rates are controlled
between 1-2耐C/second. Many reflow ovens

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It should be noted that the band width is
defined by the temperature and time axis. If
the product temperature profile is not
maintained within the control limits, a defect
will occur. Figure 3-3 indicates some
of the production problems from improper
profiling and possible causes.
One should note that these problems may
also be caused by non-reflow processes as
well.

Figure 3-3. Basic Solder Reflow Troubleshooting.

Problem Possible Cause (Profile Related)

Cracked chip capacitors Excessive rise rate in the preheat zone

Solder balls Incomplete drying before reflow

(dryout section too cool and too short a duration)
Excessive drying temperature (fluxes skin over)
Improper gas atmosphere (nitrogen versus air)

Cold solder joints Insufficient time over reflow temperature

Solder not wetting to leads Excessive drying time causing fluxes to deteriorate
Excessive reflow temperature/time causing oxidation

Solder not wet on pad Lead is heating faster than board (too much airflow)

Component/board burning Excessive reflow temperature

Notes:

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Defining the Profile Control
Limits
The profile control limits need to be defined
for the given SMT assembly. To define
these limits, one should be aware of not only
the solder paste requirements, but also any
specific requirements of components or the
circuit board material. The process band
width is defined as the total deviation in
temperature that can occur and yield reliable
results.
To determine the profile control limits,
thermocouples are attached to a sample
board populated with components.
The Thermocouple Attachment
Process
NOTE: This section contains information from KIC
Application Note #00001, Rev: 98-05. The entire
document is found at www.kicthemal.com.
It is strongly recommended to attach TCs
with high-temperature solder for best
results. An alloy like Indium #228
(88Pb/10Sn/2Ag) with a 267耐C solidus
temperature is a good solder for TC
attachment.
TC Locations
TC location is usually determined by
identifying critical or sensitive components
and attaching the TC“s to the appropriate
pads. Additionally, it is best to place the
TC“s so that you receive temperature
readings from the hottest and coldest points
on the board. The measurements received
from these three to twelve TC“s (depending
on the size of the board) will allow you to
determine whether the thermal profile is
consistent throughout the product, and also
to measure the heating and cooling profiles
of heat sensitive components. In placing
Page 15
your TC“s, it is important to keep in mind
that areas that are densely populated or have
larger components will take longer to heat
up and also will hold heat longer. It is also
important to place TC“s at the edges of the
board and in any areas with small or non-
existent components that will heat up faster
than the rest of the board.
Thermocouple placement for determining profile control
limits. (Photo courtesy of KIC Thermal Profiling.)
Surface Preparation
Thoroughly clean your selected TC
locations, taking care to remove any residual
low temperature solder and other
contaminants that might prevent complete
high temperature solder wetting.
Use alcohol or a suitable solvent to scrub the
attachment surface. Then place the solder
wick on the surface and press the soldering
iron into the wick, heating both the wick and
the surface to be cleaned. Use as much wick
as necessary to remove all free flowing
solder droplets. When solder has been
completely removed, re-scrub the
attachment surface to remove any remaining
contaminants.
Attachment
Do not attempt to attach the TC by melting
solder into the spot and then shoving in the
bead. Place the TC bead on the attachment
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
surface and heat both evenly, then touch the
solder to the heated TC bead and let the heat
from the TC bead melt the solder. This
method gives you superior wetting and a
stronger solder attachment to the pad or
lead.

Your temperature reading will come from

the first point of contact between the two
wires leading from the TC. To insure
accurate readings, it is critical to carefully
separate the two wires all the way up to the
TC bead after soldering.

High temperature solder is an efficient heat

conductor, so if a tiny bit gets between the
TC bead and the lead or pad, you will still
get an accurate reading. However, too much
solder at the measurement point will
increase the heat capacity of the TC and Each of the curved lines is the temperature as sensed by a
thermocouple attached to a product as it passes through
cause your peak temperature measurement the oven. (Graph courtesy of KIC Thermal Profiling.)
to read low.

Oven Setup How Does Oven Performance

Once the thermocouples are placed on the
test board, the reflow oven is set up to create
a three step thermal profile on the board.
Common oven parameters that are adjusted
to create the thermal profile are:
· Zone setpoint temperatures
· Conveyor speed
· Fan speed
· Refrigerated cooling rates (if
applicable)
Profiling then becomes essentially an
iterative process comparing the test board
temperature results to the desired profile. If
the results differ, oven parameters are
adjusted and the test is rerun.
Relate to the Reflow Profile
Control Band?
Once the three step profile is defined and the
oven parameters are determined, the reflow
oven must be able to produce consistent
results within the reflow profile band. The
user should be aware of all variables that
influence the band. To achieve high quality,
low defect soldering results, the sum of all
the non-uniformities must fall within the
defined reflow profile band. These variables
may be defined as product related and oven
related.
Product Related Variables
By far the most critical product related non-
uniformity is that created by large mass
differences on the product. Since it is easier
to heat an area that has no components as

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
compared with an area with large
components, temperature differentials will
exist on the product.
Oven Related Variables
Consistent thermal repeatability under
product load (oven temperature changes due
to mass variation) and edge-to-center and
front-to-back product heating uniformity are
the two most common factors that effect the
reflow process.
The mass (M) times the specific heat (Cp ) is
often referred to as thermal mass. Greater
thermal mass requires more heat to achieve
a given temperature rise.
In Figure 3-4, the area populated with the
PLCCs has considerably more thermal mass
per unit area than the area with the discrete
components.
HIGH MASS DIFFERENTIAL LOW MASS DIFFERENTIAL

The following sections describe these three

main causes of non-uniform heating in the
SMT reflow process: board mass
differential (product related variables),
conveyor and heater edge effects and
product loading (oven related variables).

Mass Differential
The amount of temperature rise of a product
as it travels through an oven heating zone
depends upon a number of variables. The Figure 3-4. Comparison of high mass
temperature rise of an object subjected to versus low mass differential boards.
heat is determined by the following
equation:
The high mass area will be more difficult to
DT = Q x A x t / (M x Cp ) heat. The non-uniformity caused by thermal
mass differential may be measured by
WHERE: thermocoupling a lead on the largest and
DT = Product Temperature Rise (耐C)
Q = Heat Absorbed (W/cm2) smallest device, and running a profile. (As
A = Exposed Area (cm2) described previously.)
t = Heating Dwell Time (seconds)
M = Mass of Object (kg)
Cp = Specific Heat (W-sec/kg-耐C)

Notes:

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Oven Uniformity
A second main cause of non-uniform
product heating is the oven heating pattern.
This can be caused by edge effects on the
heaters (less heat at the end) or by heat
sinking of the conveyor system. The edge
effect may be caused by insufficient airflow
around the edges of the machine, or by non-
uniformities that are inherent in the heaters.
The heat sinking of the conveyor is really a
mass effect, similar to the one described
above. The oven uniformity may be
measured by thermocoupling a bare board
over a matrix of points, and running a
profile. The matrix should include points on
the board edges (front, back, left, and right),
and the center of he board.
Oven Repeatability
Repeatability refers to the oven“s capability
to repeat a given profile. Repeatability is
affected by machine loading (number of
boards in the oven). Figure 3-5 shows a
typical product loading condition. The
loading factor is defined in the figure.
The higher the value of the loading factor,
the more difficult it is for any oven to give
Notes:
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
repeatable results. Ovens will generally
specify a maximum loading factor (ranging
from 0.5 to 0.9).
The loading factor becomes an important
consideration when sizing an oven. (See
Section 7 Choosing Your Reflow Oven.)
The non-uniformity caused by repeatability
can be measured by running a profile on a
test board, then loading the oven down.
Periodically, run the test board within the
oven load and compare with the unloaded
profile.
Board
Length Space
Board Length
Load Factor =
Board Length + Space
Figure 3-5: Load factor calculation
combines board length and the space
between the boards.
Page 18
 Section 4:
Nitrogen Inert Atmosphere Reflow
Reflow soldering in a nitrogen atmosphere is
a common process consideration in SMT
assembly. The issue is not the ability to
reflow in nitrogen, but rather the ability to
reflow in the absence of oxygen. Heating
solder in the presence of oxygen will create
oxides, which are generally non-solderable
surfaces.
Oxidation is effected by temperature,
surface area, flux content, metal content and
condition, and oxygen levels around the
solder joint. Lets take a look at the variables
that effect oxidation and discuss their
impact.
Temperature
Oxidation is directly related to temperature.
Higher temperatures mean faster rates of
oxidation. Thus, reflowing at the lowest
possible temperature reduces the amount of
oxidation created during the reflow process.
Convection technology helps (as compared
with IR) in that heating uniformity is better
and thus the maximum temperature on the
product may be reduced.
Surface Area
More surface area means more area
available for oxidation. As the pitch
between leads becomes finer and finer, the
tin/lead solder particles in the paste must
become smaller to obtain good paste print
definition.
Page 19
As solder particles become smaller, the ratio
of surface area to volume of the particles
increases. This can be shown by:
Ratio = (p * D2 ) / (1/6 * p * D3)
Ratio = 6 / D
Where: D = Particle Diameter
Thus, as solder particle size decreases, the
surface area to volume ratio increases.
SMALLER PARTICLES HAVE
GREATER SURFACE AREA
PER UNIT VOLUME THAN
LARGE PARTICLES
Figure 4-1. Surface area of solder particles.
With more available surface area in the
solder paste, there is a greater tendency
towards oxidation.
Flux Content
In the early days of reflow soldering, solder
paste contained aggressive enough fluxes to
easily remove oxides. Often CFC solvent
cleaning was used to remove any remaining
residue from the board.
As CFC“s were phased out, so has the most
effective means of cleaning rosin based
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
pastes from the board. Today, water-soluble
Organic Acid (OA) fluxes are used, and the
cleaning process has changed to a water
wash system.
Many companies have eliminated cleaning
completely and have gone to a no-clean
process. The term ” no-clean„ is misleading,
as it only implies that water wash cleaning
has been eliminated. Some people have
changed nothing in their process, except
they no longer clean the product.
This is satisfactory providing the desired
functional life of the end product is not high,
which may be the case with many consumer
products. After several years of operation
and thermal cycling, the residues that were
left on the board can cause short circuits, or
simply corrode the circuit away. If the
desired long term reliability of the product is
important, then this is not satisfactory.
The amount of residues left on the product
will determine its long-term reliability. The
bottom line is that higher residue pastes are
more solderable in air. Although the line is
moving, the low residue pastes (<2.5%) may
Oxidation Variable Variable Trend
Temperature Hotter
Air Velocity Higher
Oxygen Content Lower
Exposed Area More
Metal Content Non-Tinned
Flux Activity Less
Figure 4-2. Variables that effect oxidation.
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
not be air reflowable. Thus, the weaker the
flux, the greater the chance for oxidation.
No-clean soldering requires tight control of
the process. All of the components and
boards must be highly solderable. Since the
board is not washed to remove any solder
balls from the product, the reflow process
must prevent solder ball build up. Solder
balls can create short circuits on the product
if they are not removed.
Metal Content and Condition
Some metals are more solderable than
others. It is much easier to solder to a board
that has a tin/lead coating on it as compared
to a bare copper board. The condition of the
metal to be soldered also has an impact on
solderability. If boards have been sitting on
the shelf unprotected for many months, a
coating of oxidation will be over the metal.
This will make the reflow job more difficult.
Double sided reflow can also be more
difficult when reflowing the second side.
The second side has already been heated
once, which may have created surface
oxidation.
Reflow Result
Worse
Worse
Better
Worse
Worse
Worse
Page 20
Oxygen Levels
None of the variables in Figure 4-2 by itself
is enough reason to use a pure nitrogen
environment in the reflow process.
However, if several of these combine (such
as a fine pitch, low residue paste), then an
atmosphere void of oxygen may be required
in order to accomplish satisfactory reflow.
This requires an oven that can run at low
levels of oxygen. The oxygen level is
measured in parts per million, or ppm. Air
atmosphere is 21% oxygen, which is
210,000 ppm. Most ovens have the option
to operate at less than 100 ppm oxygen
environment.
Notes:
Page 21
The purity level required (if any) is dictated
by the process variables discussed
previously. There is no magic number of
purity that is required for a given board.
Solder pastes are continuously changing in
the quest towards air reflowable pastes that
leave no residue. While the perfect paste
does not exist, solder pastes have
continually improved to the point where one
should experimentally determine whether
nitrogen has any significant impact on your
process. If it does not, do not use nitrogen!
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Section 5:
Reflow Oven Heat Transfer
The Three Heat
Transfer Modes in
Reflow Soldering
There are three different heating modes
involved with most SMT reflow processes:
conduction, convection, and infrared
radiation (IR). All three of these heating
modes occur naturally in our daily lives.
Perhaps the easiest way to understand each
of these heating modes is through example.
Conduction
Hot Cold
Spot Heat Spot
Heat Flows From Hot to Cold
To Help Equalize Temperatures
Figure 5-1. Example of conduction
heat transfer.
Conduction
Conduction heat transfer occurs when two
solid masses of different temperatures are in
contact with each other. A good example is
when a pan is placed on an electric burner.
Most of the heat is transferred to the pan by
the contact between the pan and the burner.
Conduction also occurs within the same
mass if a temperature differential exists
within the mass.
Conduction can both help and hinder the
SMT reflow process. Conduction helps in
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
uniform product heating, as heat will
conduct from a hot spot to a cold spot in the
product. Thus, if a product is difficult to
reflow, often a good solution is to reduce the
oven heater setpoint temperatures and
conveyor speed. This allows more time for
the conductive flow to occur and the product
will heat more uniformly.
Conduction hinders the process if an edge
conveyor in contact with the board is cooler
or hotter than the product. Conduction heat
transfer can result in a hot or cool spot along
the edge of the product, preventing uniform
solder joints on the outer fringes of the PCB.
Infrared
Infrared Radiation (IR) occurs when two
bodies of different temperatures are in sight
of each other. The best example of IR is the
heating of the earth by the sun. Dull, rough
surfaces absorb the sun°s rays better than
shiny, smooth surfaces. An object in the
direct sun light will become hotter than if in
the shade.
Radiation
Sun
Radiant Energy
From The Sun
Heats The Earth
Figure 5-2. Example of infrared
radiation.
Page 22
IR in SMT applications works similarly. Forced convection requires an external force
Fluxes, plastic components, and epoxy glass that pushes or pulls the flow over the object.
laminate absorb IR very well. Shiny, A common house fan is a good example.
reflowed solder will reflect the IR energy
away. Solder joints around small packages Convection
(such as chip resistors, capacitors, and
SOIC°s) are in sight of the IR energy and
heat very well. Solder joints around larger Cold Object Is
Hot
Heated By
devices (such as PLCC°s) are shaded, and do Air
Convection
not heat as well. Flow
From The Hot
Air Flow

Convection
Convection heat transfer occurs when a fluid
(such as air, nitrogen, or water) passes over Figure 5-3. Example of convection heat
an object (such as an SMT assembly). A transfer.
cool breeze on a hot sunny day provides
convective cooling. Hot air from a hair Typically, forced convection heating or
dryer provides convective heating. cooling rates are higher than natural con-
vection rates. Most reflow ovens today use
Convection heating or cooling requires forced convection as the primary heat
contact of the flow with the solid part. Only transfer mode.
the layer of the flow that is in contact with
the part is actually transferring heat.
Convection may be classified as natural or
forced.

Natural convection occurs when no flow is

being forced over the object. Temperature
differences between the object and the
environment create the convective heat
transfer. Perhaps the best example is the
chimney effect, where a strong convective
current rises away from the hot embers to Research International won the 1998 SMT Magazine
the cooler outdoors. Vision Award for advances in Soldering Equipment.

Notes:

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook

Heat Transfer Equations
Conduction
In order to understand what parameters are
important in conduction heat transfer, one
can consider the variables in the general
conduction heat transfer equation.
Q = K * A * ( T1 - T2 ) / DX
Where:
Q = Conduction heat transfer (W )
A = Cross sectional area (cm2 )
K = Thermal conductivity (W/cm - C)
T1 = Temperature at point 1 ( C)
T2 = Temperature at point 2 ( C)
DX = Thickness of material between
points 1 and 2 (cm)
The thermal conductivity (K) is a measure
of how well the object conducts heat.
Insulators (such as epoxy glass) have very
low thermal conductivity and permit very
low amounts of conductive heat transfer.
Conductors (such as copper) have a very
high thermal conductivity and permit high
amounts of conductive heat transfer. Thus,
an SMT assembly with high amounts of
copper will heat more uniformly than one
without much copper. Conduction through
the circuit board during the reflow process
improves heating uniformity, as the heat
conducts from the hot spots to the cold
spots.
k = Therm a l
C onductivity
t
1
Surface 1
D x
Figure 5-4. Conduction heat transfer model.
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Conductive heat transfer is proportional to
the cross sectional area (A) between point 1
and point 2. In SMT reflow, a thicker board
will provide greater populated uniformity
than a thin board since the cross sectional
area is greater.
Conductive heat transfer is also dependent
upon the distance between point 1 and point
2 (DX). The greater the distance, the less
the heat transfer. Thus, a thicker board has a
better chance of maintaining a higher
temperature difference between the top and
bottom side of the board than a thin board.
IR - Infrared
Infrared (IR) heat transfer occurs when two
objects at different temperatures are in sight
of each other. The heat is transferred by
electromagnetic waves of 0.78 to 1000
micron wavelengths. All objects emit some
level of infrared energy.
The quantity of infrared energy emitted and
the wavelength of the emission are both
dependent upon the absolute temperature of
the object. As the source temperature
increases, the heat transfer output increases
exponentially to the fourth power.
Increasing the source temperature results in
shorter wavelengths. Decreasing the source
temperature results in longer wavelengths.
In order to understand what parameters are
important in infrared heating, one can
consider the general equation for heat
transfer between the heat source and the
object being heated. The purpose is not to
Surface 2
memorize the equation, but rather to point
out the significance of what is involved.
t
2
Page 24
The general equation for infrared heat
transfer is:
Q/A = Fv * es * at * s * ( Ts4 - Tt4 )
Where:
Q/A = Infrared heat transfer (W/cm2)
Fv = Geometric view factor (0 - 1)
es = Emmissivity of the source (0 - 1)
at = Absorptivity of the target (0 - 1)
s = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
(5.67 x 10-12 W/cm2/ K4)
Ts = Source temperature ( K)
Tt = Target temperature ( K)
IR Source
This Area is Shaded by Adjacent Components
Resulting in a Lower View Factor
Figure 5-5. IR view factor.
The geometric view factor Fv is the fraction
of energy that leaves the source that hits the
target. In SMT reflow, the oven chamber
designs yield very high view factors in the
range of 0.90 to 0.95. An important aspect
of the view factor comes in product design.
If two very large components are in close
proximity to each other, the view factor to a
solder joint between them is decreased,
which makes it more difficult to reflow.
The source emissivity (es ) and the target
absorptivity factors (at ) are in the range of
0.90 to 0.95 for most SMT applications.
Solder paste is an excellent absorber of
infrared energy. Shiny gold components
may be difficult to heat, as they tend to be
reflective. Most often, however, the board
material, solder paste, and the components
all absorb quite well.
Page 25
Control of infrared is generally done by
controlling the source temperature.
Providing that the overall source emission
can be regulated, IR energy provides high
levels of repeatability.
Convection
Convection heat transfer occurs when a fluid
at a given temperature contacts a solid mass
at a different temperature. If the fluid is
hotter than the mass, the mass will be
heated. If the fluid is cooler than the mass,
the mass will be cooled. Perhaps the easiest
way to understand convection is to look at
the convection equation and note the
significance of each variable.
The following is the general equation for
convection heating or cooling:
Q/A = H * (Ta - Tt )
Where:
Q/A = Convection heat transfer per unit area (W/cm2)
H = Convective film coefficient
(W/cm2- C)
Ta = Fluid temperature ( C)
Tt = Target temperature ( C)
The amount of heat transfer can be modified
by either changing the convective
coefficient (H) or the temperature difference
(Ta - Tt ). Increasing the fluid temperature
will increase the temperature difference, and
thus the amount of heat transfer will
increase proportionally.
The convective coefficient (H) can have a
significant impact on the heat transfer. The
value of H is related to a number of
variables, including velocity of the flow and
angle of attack of the flow. Increasing the
flow velocity will increase the value of H.
For example, when one is outside in the
wind, a low velocity cool breeze on a warm
day will feel quite nice. However, a strong
wind on that same day may feel very cold.
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
That is because the higher velocity wind has
a higher convective coefficient, and thus
removes heat more effectively from your
skin.
In SMT reflow applications, increasing the
velocity of the flow also improves the
amount of convection heat transfer. There
are practical limits to this, as too high
velocity may cause components to shift
around.
Parallel Flow
Air
Velocity
(V)
At Surface, V=0
Perpendicular Flow
Surface Air Velocity (V)
Agitation
Prevents
Boundary
Layer
Buildup
Figure 5-6. Fluid flow patterns.
The flow direction also has a significant
impact on H. Convection heat transfer relies
on contact between the flow and the object.
Parallel flow can result in a stagnation or
boundary layer in which the heat transfer is
diminished. Perpendicular flow can break
up formation of a boundary layer and
enhance the convective heat transfer.
Perpendicular flow thus provides higher
heat transfer rates than parallel flow.
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Heat Transfer Mode
Interaction and their
Effect on SMT Reflow
In SMT reflow applications, there is no such
thing as pure convection or pure IR. The
only way to achieve a 100% convection
system would be to have gas flowing over
the product with no chamber walls inside the
reflow oven. Obviously the reflow oven is a
mechanical device with walls that absorb or
emit heat, so 100% convection is a physical
impossbility.
Boundary
Layer
Thickness To have a 100% IR reflow system, the
chamber would need to be operated in a
vacuum (no air fluid heat transfer). Most
reflow processes currently occur in some
process gas whether air, nitrogen or vapor
phase techniques.
However, reflow oven heat transfer designs
utilize a greater convection component,
while others utilize IR as the primary heat
source. For the sake of simplicity, this text
will refer to a convection dominate heat
transfer machine as a convection machine,
and an IR dominated machine as an IR
machine.
In SMT reflow applications (with the
exception of vapor phase), convection,
conduction, and IR all play a role in the
heating process. Referring to a system as
100% convection or 100% IR is an error in
terminology. An oven may be dominated by
convection or IR, but the other heat transfer
is always present. IR dominant systems
usually range in the convection/IR ratio of
60/40 to 40/60. Convection dominant
systems have ratios in the range of 70/30 to
90/10.
Page 26
 Section 6:
Reflow Oven Convection Methods
Research International DeltaFlo 10LN Low Nitrogen Convection Oven
Convection Oven
Technologies
While convection is a relatively simple
technology, there are several technical
aspects to consider. This section discusses
some of the key differences including:
· Forced convection versus natural
convection
· Turbulent flow versus laminar flow
· Fresh gas input versus recirculated gas
input
· Defined convection flow path versus
uncontrolled flow path
· Methods of forcing convection gas flow
Natural convection occurs when the air (or
nitrogen) surrounding an object is at a
different temperature than the object. The
density differences between the hot and cool
air causes a physical motion to occur, which
assists in heat transfer. Forced convection
Page 27
occurs when an independent device (such as
a fan) forces the air over the product.
Typically the convective coefficient is
greater with forced convection than with
natural convection, which results in
improved heating of the product. Early
infrared/convection ovens relied on natural
convection to help improve heating
uniformity. Forced convection ovens
usually have better heating uniformity than
the infrared/convection ovens.
Forced convection can be either laminar or
turbulent. Laminar flow is characterized by
very stable flow patterns. Convection heat
transfer requires contact between the air and
the object. (See Figure 6-1.)
Thus, a stable gas jet allows more air to
come in contact with the object. Because of
this contact, laminar forced convection can
have heating efficiencies of greater than 30
percent. Turbulent flow is characterized by
vortices, eddy currents, and high heating
rates. Thermal efficiencies are typically
only 10 to 15 percent.
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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Turbulent Flow
The non-defined flow path ovens (Figure 6-
Air Jets are Unstable.
Most of the Air Flow Does Not 3) do not direct the flow from zone to zone.
Contact Object
Low Heating Efficiencies Gas eventually reaches the exhaust and
(5 - 15%)
High Heat Transfer Rates leaves the oven.
Laminar Flow
Air Velocity (V)
These ovens work satisfactorily thermally,
Air Jets Remain Stable.
however they usually have oven flux
Most of the Air Flow Contacts
the Object
cleaning issues associated with high-volume
High Efficiencies (25 - 35%)
Medium Heat Transfer Rates
PCB production.
Exhaust Fresh Air Input Exhaust

Defined vs Non-Defined Reflow Oven

Flow Patterns
There are two methods of directing the flow
within convection ovens. The defined flow
path oven (Figure 6-2) moves the gas from
zone to zone. It does not allow the same gas
to become trapped in a given zone, which Figure 6-3. Example of a non-defined flow
could become excessively contaminated pattern reflow process gas is recirculated
with fluxes. These ovens will typically stay within each zone. Flux is not removed from
the zone and builds-up in the heater cavity.
cleaner by preventing flux buildup.
Figure 6-1. Forced convection flow patterns.

PREHEAT DRYOUT ZONES REFLOW COOLING SECTION

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

LAMINAR FLOW CONVECTION TO BOARD FRESH GAS IN REFLOW ZONES

Figure 6-2. Example of a defined flow pattern process gas is recirculated to the
previous zone. Flux is removed via exhaust collectors. Fresh process gas keeps oven
clean (free of flux residue). Also see Figure 5-4.

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 How is the reflow process gas
recirculated to the previous zones?
Heater configuration continuously
cleans oven convection flow jets.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Highest pressure here

forces recirculated gas to
be constantly purged.

Fresh input gas into every bottom zone insures clean process
atmosphere and versatile bottom/top temperature control.
Figure 6-4. Positive pressure in the reflow zone purges flux laden gas to the exhausts.
This design feature creates the defined flow pattern within the reflow oven.

Recirculated Gas: Too Much

Recirculation Means Flux Cleaning
Air introduced into a heating zone may
either be fresh or recirculated. Fresh gas
input requires heating the air from ambient
to the zone temperature. In comparision,
recirculated gas input requires only heating
the air a small amount, since the gas is
already ” hot„ . Thus, an advantage of
recirculated flow is a lower power
requirement to heat the zone.
Recirculated flow has the disadvantage of
picking up contamination each time the air
is re-used. No-clean fluxes prevent solids
from building up on the PCB. These solids
end up in the reflow process gas and will
collect in the heater cavity if the oven is not
designed properly. The result is a dirty
process atmosphere or machine downtime
due to the need for oven flux cleaning.

Notes:

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook

Ways to Generate
Forced Convection in
Reflow Ovens
There are three methods of generating
forced convection in reflow ovens fans,
compressors and flow amplifiers.
Fans
Fans are an inexpensive and reliable method
of moving high volumes of air. Fans
typically have low pressure generating
capability, so exit velocities may be limited.
However for most board profiles this should
not be a problem. Most convection reflow
ovens use fan forced convection.
Figure 5-1. Forced convection flow patterns.
Convection fan in a preheat zone. Note that the fan motor
is outside the heater chamber for improved fan reliability.
Compressed Gas Sources
Compressed input gas sources (such as
compressed air or nitrogen) are also used to
create forced convection. The pressure must
be regulated in order to achieve constant
flow. Compressed sources have the
advantages of providing a controlled
atmosphere, which is free of particulate
contaminants.
If compressed air is used, the humidity can
be controlled using an inline dryer. Flow
velocity is easily controlled with flow
Research International
Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
meters. Compressed sources have high
pressures, allowing high velocities if
desired. An air compressor or compressed
nitrogen supply is required.
Compressed gas reflow is used when the
application requires an extremely accurate
thermal profile with filtered process gas.
Flow Amplifiers
The third common method used to create
convective flow is the flow amplifier. The
flow amplifier uses a compressed source to
induce flow. In a flow amplifier,
compressed gas flows through the inlet into
an annular chamber. The gas is then
throttled through a restriction at high
velocity. The compressed gas flow towards
the outlet adhering to the outside wall. A
low pressure area is created in the center,
which induces flow.
Inlet Gas(Compressed)
Flow is restricted
with small ring
nozzle causing
cold spot.
Entrained Exit
Air Flow
Compressed gas flow
through annulus
Figure 6-5. Schematic of a flow amplifier.
The advantage of a flow amplifier is that
flow volumes are similar to a fan without
any of the fan life issues. However, a major
drawback to the flow amplifier is that the
flow amplifiers tend to clog with fluxes.
The ring nozzle causes the gas to expand
and cool. The cooldown of the gases causes
flux to precipitate out of the flow. There is
also a thermal efficiency loss with the gas
cooldown.
Page 30
 Section 7:
Choosing Your Reflow Oven
What Size Oven do I
Need?
The basic requirement of any reflow oven is
to be able to consistently reflow the product
at the required speed to meet production
needs.
Selecting a reflow oven requires that the
profile process band has been defined and
the oven can successfully heat within the
band. Production throughput rates can be
met providing the oven has been sized
correctly.
Page 31
Size The Oven Properly
The oven must be sized to handle the
production rate of the pick-and-place
equipment. The calculation is shown below:
Line speed (minimum) =
Boards per minute x Length per board
Load Factor
(See Figure 3-5 for description of Load Factor.)
Operating the oven conveyor speed greater
than the line speed ensures that no product
jams will occur on the onload area of the
reflow oven.
Research International
Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
In order for the oven to be properly sized,
the process speed defined below must be
greater than the minimum calculated line
speed. This will ensure that bottlenecks will
not occur at the reflow oven. The process
speed should be determined through testing
or by the following equation:
Process speed =
Oven chamber heated length
Process dwell time
Example of Oven Sizing Calculation
An SMT assembler wants to produce 8-inch
boards at a rate of 180 per hour. The solder
paste manufacturer recommends a 4 minute,
three step profile. How long an oven do I
need to process boards at this throughput?
Boards per minute = 3 (180/hour)
Length per board = 8 inches
Load Factor = 90%
(2-inch space between boards)
Process Dwell Time = 4 minutes
Calculate Line Speed:
(3 boards/min) x (8 inches/board)
0.9
Line speed = 26.67 or 27 inches/minute
Therefore, the reflow oven must have a
process speed of at least 27 inches per
minute.
Determine oven chamber heated length with
process speed equation:
27 in/min = Oven chamber heated length
4 minutes
Oven heated length = 108 inches (9 feet)
Research International
Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
To meet process requirements of this
example, the reflow oven needs at least 9
feet of heated length so that an 8-inch board
can be processed at 27 inches/min conveyor
speed for a 4-minute profile.
Note that the overall length of the oven will
exceed 9 feet including the cooling section
and conveyor loading sections. The
calculation is for HEATED LENGTH NOT
OVERALL OVEN LENGTH needed.
Comparing Reflow
Ovens
When selecting reflow equipment, it is
important to take into consideration all
aspects that may affect the process and
production. Try to avoid becoming too
focussed on one issue, such as populated
uniformity, as it may not lead you to the
optimum decision. The recommended steps
in the selection process are described in the
following paragraphs.
Thermal Performance
Oven thermal performance is defined by the
sum of the temperature non-uniformities
caused by mass differential, oven
uniformity, and oven repeatability under
production loading conditions. A set of tests
must be conducted with the desired product
on the oven in question.
Page 32
Throughput
Oven throughput (in boards per unit time) is
defined by the following equation:

Throughput =

Conveyor Speed x Load Factor

Length per board

Note that in the previous example, the

throughput in boards per minute was a
given.

Process Gas Research International s patented tensioned

If a nitrogen atmosphere is required for
solderability or no-clean processing, one
needs to consider the purity required and the
gas consumption.
Be careful how the purity is measured, such
that it is not measured at the gas inlet.
Measure purity in an area representative of
what the board will see on the conveyor, not
the nitrogen inlet in the oven. Purity in
reflow is the most critical area since solder
is liquidus.
rail stays parallel over any temperature range.
Software
The best technically designed oven in the
world may be no better than the worst if the
software is difficult to operate. When
comparing software, keep the user in mind.
Consider file access and edit security. Ask
questions about networking machines to a
host.

Conveyor Design
One needs to define whether a mesh
conveyor or an edge-type conveyor is
required. Typically edge conveyors are used
for in-line processing or if double-sided
assembly is required.

The most important issue with edge

conveyors is the ability for the conveyor to
remain straight to avoid dropping boards.
Find out how parallel the edge conveyors
will be during heating conditions avoid Research International StarWin 3.0 Software
simply taking measurements in a cold oven
only.

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Reliability/Serviceability/
Documentation
Once a machine is placed into service, it is
critical that it remains operational. Evaluate
the product design from a structural as well
as a functional standpoint.

Is the oven designed to withstand the rigors

of production? Review the product
manuals, drawings, and spare parts lists.
Find out where the nearest servicing center
is located. Is training available?

Maintenance Downtime
Maintenance downtime is perhaps the most
overlooked aspect of equipment selection.
The key to meeting throughput requirements
is a continuously operating reflow oven.
Flux cleaning downtime and frequent
scheduled maintenance will reduce the
number of hours available to solder boards.
Compare maintenance requirements
carefully before selecting an oven.

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Section 8:
Oven Price vs Cost of Ownership
When multiple oven vendors pass the
previous technical selection criteria listed,
then a proper cost evaluation should be used
to compare ovens. This is especially
important when comparing ovens that utilize
different heating technologies, as initial
price and operating costs can be
significantly different.
Often, the initial cost of the equipment is the
only cost considered when comparing
equipment. It is certainly important when
companies have tight budgets, BUT IT IS
OFTEN FAR LESS SIGNIFICANT
THAT THE OPERATING COSTS. To
make an informed comparison, all costs
should be analyzed with a common basis
based on an annual cost of ownership
approach.
As an example, compare two ovens with a
vast difference in sell price (Figure 8-2).
The expected oven life is 5 years, with a
discount (interest) rate of 10%. Assume the
oven is fully depreciated at the end of 5
years with no residual value (worth $0 “ the
worst case scenario).
The cost of ownership should reflect all the
operational and opportunity costs of running
the oven. Direct costs like electrical power
usage and process gas requirements (such as
nitrogen) are included. Indirect or lost
opportunity costs related to lost production
caused by maintenance downtime. Flux
cleaning and chain lubrication are examples
of machine downtime that will reduce board
production. Figure 8-1 gives a real world
example of these costs. When included in
the Cost of Ownership model (Figure 8-1), it
shows that when the impact of major cost of
ownership factors is analyzed, the ” cheaper„
oven actually costs TENS OF
THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS MORE
OVER JUST ONE YEAR OF
OPERATION!

The next 2 pages describe how for a typical high-volume SMT line:

· Oven purchase price differences of 20-25% are INSIGNIFICANT when

compared to increased cost of ownership

· Advanced ovens can payback 20-25% price premiums vs basic ovens IN THE
FIRST 6 WEEKS of operation, based on reduced maintenance and downtime
(opportunity) costs, even with a 10% cost of money factored in

· Advanced ovens improve profitability by NEARLY $170,000 PER YEAR based

on the Real World example described by Figure 6-1 and Figure 6-2

· Reflow oven downtime is the MOST SIGNIFICANT cost factor for high-volume
machine evaluation

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Figure 8-1. Maintenance cost scenario.

Real World Case Study: Flux Cleaning Creates ” Regularly Scheduled Bottlenecks
A large contract manufacturer operates four SMT assembly lines in a plant that runs approximately 22 hours per day
except for changeover and maintenance. The maintenance technician describes the reflow oven flux cleaning
maintenance procedure:

Every three weeks, two technicians disassemble each reflow oven for flux cleaning. Reusable c ondensers collect
flux in the cooling zones, and air jets require cleaning for the flux not collected by the heat exchanger. Newly
cleaned flux condensers replace soiled units in the oven so that the latter 슏s fins can be degreased off-line. The
cleaning process requires 10 hours/month for EACH REFLOW OVEN.

Based on its cost structure, the plant s per line annual maintenance expense for reflow oven is:

Labor: 2 people @ $40/hour (burdened) * (10 hours/month oven cleaning) * (12 months/year)
= $9600/year

Flux Condenser Defluxing Cost: $100/month covering degreasing solvent, using a commercially
available degreaser (not degreased by hand scrubbing) = $1200/year

Direct Maintenance Cost per Line = $10,800 excluding the cost of repl acement flux condensers

LOST BOARD THROUGHPUT MEANS LOST PROFIT

The cost is in lost production, however, is many times greater. For continuous board production, reflow oven
maintenance creates ” regularly scheduled bottlenecks„, i.e. the capacity of the plant is equal to the capacity of the
bottlenecks wherein each hour of reflow oven flux cleaning is a production hour lost for the entire plant (Goldratt, The
Goal, p. 157).

For example, a typical production line might include:

Board Sell Price: $100

Board Cycle Time: 0.3 minutes (180 boards per hour)
Board Bill of Material Cost (PCB and components): $90
Labor Cost per board (direct and overhead): $1

SOURCE: Lasky, Baldwin, Throughput: The Critical Cost Variable in DCA Assembly, SMTA National
Symposium, November 1996, p. 1.

Applying 10 maintenance hours per month imposes the following reductions in board production throughput (and
profitability) per assembly line:

Board Production Rate * Maintenance Downtime = Lost Throughput per Line

(180 boards/hour) * (10 hours/month * 12 months/year) = 21,600 boards/year lost per line

Lost Line Throughput * (Board Sell Price - Board Cost [Material & Labor]) = Lost Line Profit

(21,600 boards lost/year) * ($100 - 91) = $194,400 ANNUAL LOST PROFIT PER LINE

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Figure 8-2. Advanced reflow ovens cost more, but improve profitability by more than
$847,000 over the five-year life of the oven.

Reflow Oven Cost of Ownership Model

Assumptions (Figure 6-1)
Number of assembly hours/year 4160 4160
(2 shifts)
Board Cycle Time 180 boards/hour 180 boards/hour

Oven A (Advanced) Oven B (Average)

Purchase Price $95,000 $75,000

Capital Recovery Factor 0.2638 0.2638

10% Interest for 5 Years (A/P, 10, 5)
Annual Oven Cost $ 25,061 $ 19,785

Direct Costs
Nitrogen Gas Consumption 30 54
(cubic meters/hour)
Nitrogen Cost $0.19/cubic meter $0.19/cubic meter
Annual Nitrogen Cost $ 23,712 $ 42,682

Power Consumption (KVA) 43 38

Electrical Power Cost $0.16 KVA/hour $0.16 KVA/hour
Annual Power Cost $ 28,442 $ 25,292

Direct Maintenance Costs

(See Figure 6-1 for calculations)

Flux Cleaning Maintenance 1 8

(hours/month)
General Maintenance 2 2
(hours/month)
Annual Direct Maint. Costs $ 1,440 $ 4,800
(2 people @ $40 incl. Overhead)

ANNUAL DIRECT COST OF

OWNERSHIP $ 78,655 $ 92,559
(Oven + Nitrogen + Power + Maintenance)

Opportunity Costs
(See Figure 6-1 for calculations)

Board Profitability $ 9/board $ 9/board

($100 board sell price @ 9% Gross Margin)
Annual Production Lost $ 38,880 $ 194,400
($9/board x 180 bds/hour x Maint. Hours) (From Figure 6-1)

TOTAL ANNUAL COST OF

OWNERSHIP
(Direct cost + Opportunity Cost) $ 117,535 $ 286,959

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Section 9:
Vertical Reflow Multitasking PCB Production

requires a smooth mechanical motion, many

non-fluctuating temperature zones, exacting
timing for each zone, and a significant
cooling area. Modular vertical stationary
reflow (MVSR) oven operation is quite
different.

How Vertical Reflow Works

MVSR systems like TOWERTM by Research
International use individual chambers,
vertically stacked, to perform the entire
thermal profile without moving the board.
These chambers are self-contained and
computer controlled mini-ovens and each
provides the necessary heating and cooling
required for all reflow operations. Profiles
are generated by controlling the power of a
single heater instead of moving the board
through a series of heated zones at different
temperatures.

Vertical reflow is designed for SMT

assemblers who:

· Need to fit more high-volume lines into

an existing manufacturing plant
· Need to process jobs of varying board
types and profiles
· Need to convert SMT lines
IMMEDIATELY to a new board type Each one of these chambers performs the entire thermal
profile.

Current Reflow Approach

A typical conveyor oven reflows a board by Circuit boards entering the TOWERTM are
moving it laterally through a series of placed on an elevator and are moved to an
horizontal temperature zones to create the available chamber for reflow processing.
desired thermal profile. Proper reflow Those boards that have already been

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
processed are removed from the chambers
by the same elevator and then passed on to
the in-line conveyor.
The elevator feeds boards into each chamber.
Boards are in motion only when they are in
a cool (solder is non-liquidus) state.
Traditional Method
· Board passes through multi-zone oven to reflow
solder and cool board
· Convection minimizes Delta T caused by mass
differences
· Set point temperature, air flow, and belt speed are
typical profile variables
· User inputs zone setpoint temperatures to create
recipe
· Desired profile verified through trial and error
· Underboard support runs through one plane
· Large components on underside not possible due
to conveyor vibration
· Inert atmospheres created by purging oxygen
· Performance determined by initial capital
investment (buy large and nitrogen version)
· In-line oven operating costs incurred regardless of
boards produced
Page 39
Since the board is stationary during reflow ,
energy can be focused to high component
mass areas (like shielded connectors) and
shielded from low mass areas (populated by
capacitors, for example). In this way, each
component on the board is brought to reflow
temperature in a single step and temperature
gradients are minimized for even the most
difficult boards. These boards can
potentially be reflowed entirely instead of
having subsequent wave or hand soldering
processes post-reflow. For typical surface
mount boards, standard convection profiles
are used without focusing heat to high-mass
board regions.
TOWERTM is installed in a standard
production line just like an in-line
conveyorized reflow oven. Mechanical and
electrical interfaces to periphery equipment
are the same for both MVSR and conveyor
ovens. A comparison of the conventional
reflow versus MVSR is shown in Figure 9-1.
Figure 9-1. Traditional (in-line) reflow vs vertical reflow.
TOWERTM/MVSR Approach
· Board is stationary during reflow and cooling cycles
· Convection heat input optimized for different regions of
board (optional)
· Set point temperature and user defined time duration
controls profile
· User determines time/temperature profile and oven
automatically adjusts to create recipe
· Oven adjusts heat input automatically for test board
· Stationary board allows multi-point support
· Underside components do not vibrate since board is still
· Inert atmospheres can be created by purging oxygen OR
creating a vacuum
· Buy the capabilities you need today and expand/retrofit
as customer“s needs change
· Operating costs (nitrogen use and power consumption)
proportional to board production levels
Research International
Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 18-inch (46 cm) long board, at a 90% load
Vertical Oven factor (2-inch [5 cm] space between boards).
Throughput Besides a smaller footprint for equivalent
assembly volume, the impact of this MVSR
Board production rates are no longer tied to throughput on board production is the ability
the heated length of the reflow oven, but to multi-task PCB assembly.
rather to the number of chambers utilized for
the specific production run. More chambers
mean higher production volume. For
Multitasking Board
example, a typical 4-minute board cycle Production
consisting of a 3-minute heating profile, 30
seconds of in-chamber cooling (liquidus
Unlike dual-lane conveyors for in-line ovens
timeover) and 30 seconds of elevator
which can only process 2 types of thermally
transport/secondary board cooling means an
similar boards, MVSR ovens can reflow
individual chamber produces 15 boards per
thermally unique board types in each
hour (assuming the chamber is loaded with
chamber. Since each chamber is like a
only one board per cycle). If six chambers
” lane„ of a dual-lane conveyor, MVSR
are operational for this production run, the
provides the equivalent of 8 lanes each with
production rate is 6 chambers times 15
an independent profile and board size
board/hour/chamber = 90 boards per hour.
(length). Multiple pick-and-place lines
If higher volume is needed, activating 8
dedicated to each board type can be routed
chambers produces 120 boards per hour.
to a centralized MVSR oven (Figure 9-2)
instead of having separate reflow ovens
Compared to current reflow ovens, 120
throughout the plant.
boards/hour is the rate of a 10 foot heated
length in-line oven, running at 40 inches
(102 cm) per minute conveyor speed for an
Figure 9-2. Multiple SMT production lines can be routed
into a single TOWERTM.

Multiple Lines TOWER Reflow Oven Production Flexibility

Chamber 8
Dedicated
Board Stencil Chamber 7 to
Placement BOX BUILD ASSY
A Printer Board A
Chamber 6

Chamber 5
Board Stencil LOW VOLUME LINE
Placement Dedicated
B Printer COMBINATIONS
Chamber 4 to
Board B
Chamber 3

Board Stencil MAINTENANCE

Placement Chamber 2 WORK-AROUNDS
C Printer Dedicated
to
Chamber 1 Board C

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Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
 Section 10:
Semiconductor Reflow
Most SMT components use wire leads,
which extend from the edge of the package.
A new generation of chips relies on solder
ball leads instead of wire leads. Common
names for these semiconductor chips are ball
grid arrays (BGAs) and chip scale packages
(CSPs).
Reflow processes
are used to attach
solder balls to
BGAs.
Semiconductor
reflow has much
the same issues as SMT reflow. The
approach for profiling, determining inert
atmosphere purity requirements, cleaning
post-reflow flux residues, etc. are essentially
common to both types of products.
Solder Ball Attachment
Process
Solder ball attachment consists of three
primary processes.
· Solder ball placement
· Nitrogen convection reflow
· Aqueous cleaning
Solder Ball Placement
The solder ball placement process typically
begins by screen printing a layer of solder
paste onto the chip substrate. The paste
provides adhesion sites for the next step -
placing preformed solder spheres on the
Page 41
chip. These solder balls provide the
package-to-PCB connection in a CSP.
Common ball placement processing
techniques are gravity transfer and vacuum
transfer. Solder ball inspection is often the
final step in the placement process. Most
automated ball placement machines
accomplish all of these steps in a single
platform.
A solder ball attachment line: (L-R) Placement machine,
reflow oven, cleaner.
Nitrogen Convection Reflow
CSP ball attach reflow is usually performed
in a nitrogen atmospheres with purity levels
from 10-25ppm. For these purity levels,
nitrogen use should not exceed 900 SCFH.
A convection heat transfer technique is
critical for reaching high volume BGA
production rates. Other reflow methods like
conduction are simply too slow for mass
production of CSPs. For chip scale
packages on the order of 0.012-inch
(0.3mm) diameter, heat transfer must occur
in a low velocity nitrogen convection
(LVNC) environment. LVNC ensures
Research International
Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
solder balls will remain stationary on the
substrate during convection reflow. Fan
convection or air jets blowing excess
nitrogen onto small CSPs can dislodge
molten solder balls. Finally, the CSPs
should be cooled to maintain short timeover
at reflow temperature and to prevent thermal
shock when entering the cleaner.
ChipFlo solder ball attach reflow oven.
Notes:
Research International
Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Aqueous Cleaning Process
Flux removal is accomplished by
transporting CSPs through a cleaner that
achieves cleanliness without damaging the
product. As packages enter the cleaner a
prewash section with direct feed from tap
water supply removes gross contaminants
via upper and lower spray bars and a series
of nozzles. During the next phase the
product should be thoroughly washed with
60°C water, at pressures between 20 and 50
psi depending on the package configuration.
The final rinse flood should be deionized
(DI) water between 15 to 18 Meg Ohm to
assure cleanliness results less than
1mgram/square inch NaCl. Finally, the
package should be completely dried, cooled
and protected from excessive static levels.
Page 42
 Section 11:
Research International Thermal Solutions

Over the years, Research has produced a
variety of customized heating systems. We
developed furnaces for PCB fusing in the
1980s, and created the most innovative line
of surface mount solder reflow ovens during
the 1990s.
Research was the first major reflow oven
manufacturer certified to ISO 9001 quality
standards.
All our products are supplied with the CE
(Common European standard) mark for
safety.
A Customized Approach
to Reflow Oven Design
Research International offers a complete line
of solder reflow ovens. These ovens range
from low volume machines to vertical
reflow ovens.

Page 43 Research International

Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
Research International The Most Complete Reflow
Product Line
· TOWERTM Modular Vertical Stationary Reflow Oven
· DeltaFlo Low Nitrogen Convection for High-Volume Circuit Card Assembly
· MicriFlo Controlled Atmosphere Convection for High-Volume Circuit Card
Assembly
· ThermaFlo Fan Forced Convection for High-Volume Circuit Card Assembly
· ChipFlo Low Velocity Nitrogen Convection for BGA Solder Ball Attachment

Research International Guaranteed Reliability

No-Clean Reflow Ovens
Research International makes the only no-clean reflow oven. Our patented convection flow
circulation pattern eliminates heater cavity flux build-up. The result is constant production
without cleaning downtime expense.

Total Performance Guarantee

Our exclusive 90-day Total Performance Guarantee means complete
satisfaction with your DeltaFlo, MicriFlo or ThermaFlo purchase or
we“ll refund your money. That“s reliability with a guarantee.

Comprehensive Lifetime Warranty

Research International offers the first and only lifetime warranty covering the in-line conveyor
assembly, circulation fans and heating elements.

Research International Your Partner for Reflow

Solutions
The Research International commitment to our customers begins with responsive service. From
installation through its production lifetime, Research International is dedicated to the continuous
operation of each reflow oven delivered. Hundreds of customers worldwide depend on our
ovens for reliable reflow.

We think you“ll find Research International offers the best thermal solution for any type of
circuit card or semiconductor chip component assembly. Contact one of our dedicated reflow
specialists today!

Research International Page 44

Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
TOWERTM Modular Vertical Stationary Reflow

Features
· Eight vertically stacked ” miniovens„
· Stationary reflow
· Automated profiling

Benefits
· Process multiple board types simultaneously
· Rapid line changeover
· Small footprint

DeltaFlo Series Low Nitrogen Forced Convection

Features
· ConstantClean heater cavity flux
prevention
· Variable height heater cavity
· Automated nitrogen consumption
control
· Advanced cooling section
Benefits
· Flux cleaning maintenance eliminated
· Tall component reflow possible
· Lowest nitrogen use possible for large
boards
· Board cooling to room temperature

Page 45 Research International

Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
MicriFlo Series Controlled Atmosphere Convection

Features
· CoolClean heater cavity flux
prevention
· Dual processing roller chain conveyor
· Controlled atmosphere air or high
purity nitrogen operation

Benefits
· Flux cleaning maintenance eliminated
· No conveyor chain lubrication or
maintenance required
· Optimal profile control

ThermaFlo Series Fan Forced Convection

Features
· ConstantClean heater cavity flux
prevention
· Mesh belt or dual processing
conveyor
· Optimal temperature uniformity

Benefits
· Flux cleaning maintenance
eliminated
· No conveyor chain lubrication or
maintenance required

Research International Page 46

Solder Reflow Technology Handbook
ChipFlo Series BGA Solder Ball Attachment

Features
· Space saving 72-inch linear footprint
· No-clean heater cavity flux prevention
· Mesh belt or tape drive conveyor
· Low velocity nitrogen convection keeps
solder on the ship

Benefits
· Designed for clean room production
· Flux cleaning maintenance eliminated
· Nitrogen purity with low gas
consumption

ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Books

A Guide to Defect Free Soldering and A Guide to the Control of Solderability

Woodgate, Ralph. Woodcorp, Inc. Miller Freeman Books, San Francisco, California.

Solders and Soldering

Manko, Howard H. Manko Associates. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, New York.

SMT Consulting Services

ITM Consulting 긔 ” The SMT Process Specialists„

Phil Zarrow
P.O. Box 921
Durham, New Hampshire 03824 USA
Tel: (603) 868-1754 Fax: (603) 868-3623 Web: www.itm-smt.com

Internet Sites

Surface Mount Technology Association (non-profit) www.smta.org

KIC Thermal Profiling www.kicthermal.com
Research International www.research-intl.com

Page 47 Research International

Solder Reflow Technology Handbook