Preferred Citation: Janzen, John M. Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa.

Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft#%%9n&vf

Ngoma
Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa John M. Janzen
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

1992 The Regen ! o" he Un#$e%!# & o" Ca'#"o%n#a

Preferred Citation: Janzen, John M. Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft#%%9n&vf

P%e"a(e
'isco(rse is central to the constr(ction of kno)led"e a!o(t *isfort(ne and healin". +n Central and ,o(thern -frica, disco(rses of healin" take a n(*!er of for*s: the evocation of distress and hope !efore others. prayers to /od, ancestors, and spirits. son"s !oth o(t of the c(lt(ral stock at hand as )ell as ori"inal co*positions fro* the )ellsprin"s of individ(al e*otion. hi"hly codified dress. instr(*ental acco*pani*ent and dance. the creation and (se of *ateria *edica. -ll co*e to"ether in the 0doin" of n"o*a0 that is the s(!1ect of this !ook. 'isco(rse is the descriptive ter* of choice for this action 0doin"0 !eca(se at iss(e is the *(t(al e2pression of feelin"s and ideas and the *arshalin" of kno)led"e and social net)orks re3(ired to !rin" a!o(t an accepta!le sol(tion to the ran"e of ills addressed !y n"o*a4type *ove*ents and instit(tions. 5he s(!1ect has !een *(ch e2a*ined in Central and ,o(thern -frica !y *any a(thors (nder r(!rics as diverse as divination, healin", health care, reli"ion, epide*ics, *a"ic, rit(al, c(lt activity, dance, son", folklore, and *ore. 5his !ook e2plores for the first ti*e the possi!ility that so*e of this activity *ay in fact !e a (ni3(e historical instit(tion. ,(ch a proposition is s(""ested a!ove all !y the presence, over a vast re"ion, of si*ilar )ords, na*es, proced(res, and types of !ehaviors6disco(rses, in short6aro(nd the interpretation of *isfort(ne and the treat*ent of affliction. 7or so*e ti*e the (se of lan"(a"e history has !een a tantalizin" vehicle for the st(dy of the history of c(lt(ral do4

8 2ii 8 *ains. 9here the co*pilation of le2ica and "ra**ars has pro"ressed far eno("h, it is possi!le to sin"le o(t for special st(dy ter*s and str(ct(res in lan"(a"e aro(nd partic(lar do*ains. +n the present s(rvey )ork this analysis is applied in a relatively si*ple *anner to so*e co"nate ter*s of health and healin" that are )idely (sed in n"o*a. 5he ri"oro(s analysis needed a)aits f(rther collection of detailed local voca!(laries and the identification of practices. this has not !een done very )idely. :o)ever, as this !ook "oes to press, the horizon of ne) research that )ill s(persede it is already apparent. /reat strides have !een *ade )ith the (se of lin"(istic history as applied to the history of selected c(lt(ral do*ains. 5he para"on of s(ch )ork is J. ;ansina<s recent Paths in the Rainforest =199$>, on the evol(tion of political instit(tions in the rainforests of 9estern ?3(atorial -frica. @e) research on n"o*a is already in pro"ress, incl(din" field)ork of n"o*a in 5anzania, the doc(*entation of revivalist n"o*a in the after*ath of the civil )ar in Ai*!a!)e, and the *appin" of the instit(tion in ter*s of layers of historical lan"(a"e for*ation. 5he res(lt of this )ork )ill take its place )ithin a "ro)in" !ody of self4conscio(s literat(re on the s(!1ect. 5he present pro1ect is the first co*prehensive st(dy of the disco(rse on *isfort(ne and healin" in Central and ,o(thern -frica in connection )ith the instit(tion @"o*a. + *(st ackno)led"e *any and varied individ(als and a"encies )ho *ade possi!le, and facilitated, this pro1ect. 5he University of Bansas sa!!atical f(nd per*itted *e to take a leave fro* teachin" for research travel in -frica. - senior research fello)ship fro* the C+?,47(l!ri"ht Pro"ra* *ade it possi!le for *e to travel to the fo(r cities that the research plan s(""ested )o(ld !e opport(ne. 5he University of Cape 5o)n invited *e to its distin"(ished professor series, )hich opened doors and *ade contacts possi!le that + other)ise )o(ld not have !een per*itted. Cesearch in Aaire, 5anzania, and ,)aziland )as "reatly facilitated !y C+?, sponsorship. +n Binshasa, this incl(ded s(ch necessary privile"es as !ein" picked (p fro* and taken to the @1ili +nternational -irport and !ein" helped in a variety of other )ays !y the people of the C(lt(ral -ffairs Dffice at the U.,. ?*!assy, -ctin" Dfficer Phyllis Dakley and @s(*!( @don"a!i Masa*!a. @siala Miaka Maken"o of the @ational Cesearch Dffice, and Ma!iala Mandela of the Centre de MEdecine des /(Erisse(rs "ranted *e *(ch hospitality, ti*e, and attention, as did 7ather Joseph Cornet and Fe*a /(ete of the @ational 8 2iii 8 M(se(* of Aaire. + a* also inde!ted to Ba*anda ,a Cin"(*!a and @zi*!i @sadisi for their friendship and assistance. +n 5anzania, ?**an(el Mshi( and 'r. +. -. J. ,e*ali of the 5raditional Medicine Cesearch Unit at M(hi*!ili :ospital )ere *y for*al sponsors. 5he @ational Cesearch Co(ncil a(thorized the pro1ect, for )hich + a* "ratef(l. ?. B. Makala, of the M(sic 'ivision of the Ministry of C(lt(re, and his collea"(e Gesia F(ther Bin" assisted "reatly in *akin" a n(*!er of contacts and !y sharin" their (nderstandin" of the research topic. Professor ?rnest 9a*!a and 7idelis Mtatifikolo of the University of 'ar es ,alaa* )ere friends to *e )hile + )as in 'ar. +n ,)aziland + had an e2cellent introd(ction and acco*pani*ent to *y stay fro* 5ed /reen, )ho )as at the ti*e )orkin" )ith the Ministry of :ealth and colla!oratin" )ith Fydia Makh(!( of the (niversity in research on indi"eno(s health4care reso(rces, incl(din" tangoma =pl(ral for sangoma : 0healer0>. :arriet @"(!ane, a ,o(th -frican anthropolo"ist )ho has )orked )ith A(l( diviner4healers in @atal, introd(ced *e in a *arvelo(s )ay to *any individ(als in M!a!ane and provided e2tensive

interpretative help for *y research. + a* deeply inde!ted to these t)o friends. 7or *y s(rvey research on n"o*a in the 9estern Cape + a* inde!ted to *any people, incl(din" Professor Martin 9est, head of the 'epart*ent of ,ocial -nthropolo"y of the University of Cape 5o)n, and the *e*!ers of the (niversity ad*inistration )ho helped *e d(rin" *y ti*e in Cape 5o)n as a visitin" distin"(ished professor. Janet Mills, )hose ac3(aintances )ith n(*ero(s amagqira helped *e to *ake 3(ick contact. -delheid @dika, igqira =igqira is 0healer0. amagqira , 0healers0 in Hhosa>, )ho "racio(sly invited *e to the nthlombe =feast> sessions of her cell, enco(ra"ed *e to photo"raph and record the events, and e2plained )hat )as occ(rrin". 7ollo)in" a policy !e"(n in earlier )ritin", + have (sed the na*es of healers and other p(!lic fi"(res associated )ith the rit(als and s(!1ects of this )ork, insofar as they "ranted per*ission for this. :o)ever, altho("h the therapy sessions descri!ed are often open to the p(!lic, and in that sense very different fro* the confidential character of 9estern healin", + have (sed pse(dony*s for the s(fferer4 novices of the n"o*a therapies. Beca(se they )ere sick or deeply tro(!led at the ti*e of *y enco(nter )ith the*, they )ere often not in a condition to consider the 3(estion of per*ission. Parts of this )ork, or perspectives for)arded in it, have had the !enefit of reaction fro* a variety of scholarly p(!lics. 5he section 8 2iv 8 0Fe2icon of a Classical ,(!4,aharan 5herape(tics0 in chapter 2 )as first p(t for)ard in a paper prepared for the :a*!(r", /er*any, conference on 0?thno*edicine and Medical :istory,0 May, 19&$, or"anized !y Joachi* ,terly and :ans Mor"enthaeler, and s(!se3(ently p(!lished as 05o)ards a :istorical Perspective on -frican Medicine and :ealth0 in Ethnomedizin und edizingeschichte =19&#>. 5he present interpretation of the Bant( le2ical data !enefits fro* an additional decade of i*portant ne) analysis. 5he perspectives presented in the section of chapter 2 called 0,ocial and Political ;aria!les of a Co*ple2 +nstit(tion0 )ere presented in t)o papers. 5he *andate to sharpen the ontolo"ical identification of n"o*a ca*e fro* ,tan Goder<s disc(ssion of *y paper 0C(lts of -ffliction: Ceal Pheno*enon or ,cholarly Chi*eraI0 in 5o* Blakeley<s conference on -frican Celi"ion at Bri"ha* Go(n" University, Dcto!er 2#, 19&J. -nother perspective in that section )as aired in a paper entitled 0:o) Fe*!a 9orked, or, the 5rickster<s 5ransfor*ation0 at the -frican ,t(dies -ssociation, @e) Drleans, @ove*!er, 19&K. +deas fro* this paper also appear in chapter K, 0:o) @"o*a 9orks: Df Codes and Conscio(sness.0 ,o*e of the *aterial in chapter L, 0'oin" @"o*a: 5he 5e2t(re of Personal 5ransfor*ation0 )as first "iven on 7e!r(ary 9, 19&%, !efore the 'epart*ent of -nthropolo"y at the University of Chica"o, in a Monday collo3(i(* entitled 09ords, Beats, 5(nes: 5he 7a!ric of Personal 5ransfor*ation in @"o*a Cit(al 5herapy.0 5he relationship !et)een kin, or linea"e4!ased, and e2tra4kin strate"ies of health seekin" )ere e2plored in a presentation to the :ealth 5ransitions conference or"anized !y the Cockefeller 7o(ndation and the :ealth 5ransitions Centre at -(stralian @ational University in May, 19&9. 5he n(cle(s for the !ook )as set forth in a set of (np(!lished papers called 0+ndicators and Concepts of :ealth in -nthropolo"y: 5he Case for a <,ocial Ceprod(ction< -nalysis of :ealth0 and 0Dn the Co*parative ,t(dy of Medical ,yste*s: @"o*a, a Collective 5herapy Mode in Central and ,o(thern -frica.0 5hese )ere circ(lated in vario(s )ays as 05)o Papers on Medical -nthropolo"y.0 Chapter J "re) o(t of the first of these papers, and f(rther colla!orative )ritin" and thinkin" on the s(!1ect of the !asis of health )ith ,teven 7eier*an in preparation for an edited vol(*e, !he Social "asis of Health and Healing in Africa . 5he reader )ill find echoes of the perspective p(t forth here in several p(!lished articles, incl(din": 0Chan"in" Concepts of -frican 5herape(tics: -n :istorical Perspective,0

in African Healing Strategies , edited !y Brian M. d( 5oit and +s*ail :. -!dalla, 19&K. 0C(lts of -f4 8 2v 8 fliction in -frican Celi"ion,0 !he Enc#clo$edia of Religion , edited !y Mircea ?liade, 19&J. 0:ealth, Celi"ion and Medicine in Central and ,o(thern -frican 5raditions,0 in Caring and Curing: Health and edicine in %orld Religious !raditions , edited !y Farry ,(llivan, 19&9. 0,trate"ies of :ealth4,eekin" and ,tr(ct(res of ,ocial ,(pport in Central and ,o(thern -frica,0 in %hat %e &no' about Health !ransition: !he Cultural( Social and "eha)ioural Determinants of Health , edited !y John C. Cald)ell, et al., 199$. + re*ain inde!ted to n(*ero(s others )ho have listened to *y ar"(*ents or pointed o(t i*portant iss(es as this )ork has pro"ressed. ,pecial thanks "o to @els Johnson, )ho re*inded *e of Mary 'o("las<s (se of Bernstein<s analysis as it appears in chapter #. 5he*!inkosi 'yeyi of ?ast Fondon, ,o(th -frica, )ho interpreted the intricacies of the 0doin" n"o*a0 session presented in chapter L and translated its te2t into ?n"lish. ,tan Goder, Cichard 9er!ner, 5erence Can"er, :enny Blokland, and several other anony*o(s readers )ho offered constr(ctive criticis*s. ,(e ,ch(essler, )ho disc(ssed n"o*a in *any conversations, and )hose o)n )ork on this s(!1ect has helped *e (nderstand so*e of the iss(es in the literat(re. /esine Janzen, )ho dre) the *aps and fi"(res. and Finda Benefield, )ho copyedited the *an(script. 7inally, + a*, as al)ays, inde!ted to Ceinhild for her critical enco(ra"e*ent of *y research and )ritin", and to Bernd, /esine, and Marike for their end(rin" interest in their father<s see*in"ly endless pro1ect on -frican health and healin". 818

In %o)*( #on
5hat )hich )as a stitch of pain, has !eco*e the path to the priesthood. Fe*!a son" te2t, Bon"o society, 191$ -n i*portant feat(re of ,(!4,aharan -frican reli"ion and healin", historically and in the t)entieth cent(ry, has !een the interpretation of adversity, parado2, and chan"e )ithin the fra*e)ork of specialized co**(nities, cells, and net)orks. +n Central -frica these co**(nities have co*e to !e called rit(als or c(lts of affliction, defined !y ;ictor 5(rner, a *a1or a(thor on the s(!1ect, as 0the interpretation of *isfort(ne in ter*s of do*ination !y a specific non4h(*an a"ent and the atte*pt to co*e to ter*s )ith the *isfort(ne !y havin" the afflicted individ(al, (nder the "(idance of a <doctor< of that *ode, 1oin the c(lt association veneratin" that specific a"ent0 =5(rner 19J&:1KM1J>. +n so*e circles these co**(nities are called 0dr(*s of affliction,0 reflectin" the si"nificance of their (se of dr(**in" and rhyth*ic son"4dancin", and the collo3(ial desi"nation in *any societies of the re"ion of the )hole "a*(t of e2pressive di*ensions !y the ter* ngoma =dr(*>. 5he dr(**in" is considered to !e the voice or infl(ence of the ancestral shades or other spirits that visit the s(fferer and offer the treat*ent. 5his )ork is concerned )ith instit(tions carryin" the desi"nation ngoma and related ter*s. By enterin" -frican reli"io(s and therape(tic e2pression thro("h its o)n lan"(a"e, )e are identifyin" so*e

i*portant (nderlyin", and possi!ly historic, co**onalities and connections. 9e can also esta!lish the !asis for variants and transfor*ations *ore intelli"i!ly. - n(*!er of *odern scholars have looked at this instit(tion in Cen4 828 tral and ,o(thern -frica, altho("h not al)ays thro("h the indi"eno(sly la!eled cate"ories. 7or e2a*ple, :ans Cory, in the thirties, st(died the constellation of n"o*a "ro(ps a*on" the ,(k(*a in colonial )estern 5an"anyika and on the +sla*ized coast. :is )ork for the British colonial "overn*ent )as concerned )ith the potential of these "ro(ps for social (nrest. 5his )ork today provides a (sef(l cross section of ethno"raphic and historic interest at one *o*ent in ti*e =Cory 19#J>. 5he reference point of scholarship on -frican rit(als or 0dr(*s of affliction0 contin(es to !e ;ictor 5(rner<s )ork a*on" the @de*!( of northern Aa*!ia in the fifties. he introd(ced the ter* as a translation for the indi"eno(s )ord and concept ngoma =5(rner 19J&, 19%K>. 5(rner<s in4depth st(dies on several of the t)enty4three @de*!( c(lts of affliction sho)ed their inner )orkin"s and social conte2ts, intricate rit(al sy*!olis*s, therape(tic *otivations, and societal s(pport syste*s. -t the sa*e ti*e, altho("h he p(t forth the @de*!( as (niversal persons )ith !elieva!le aches, pains, and e2pressions, )e no) see that his acco(nt of the* )as lar"ely ahistorical, localized in its covera"e to the villa"es in )hich he did field)ork, and presented in a lar"ely static analysis characteristic of the prevailin" str(ct(ral4f(nctionalist paradi"* of the ti*e. +t )as not clear in his )ork ho) )idespread this "enre of instit(tion *i"ht !e, nor )hether it )as partic(lar to the @de*!( of Aa*!ia on the ,o(thern ,avanna. - variety of a(thors, researchin" and )ritin" a!o(t the central and so(thern re"ions of the continent, descri!ed si*ilar feat(res in connection )ith the ver!al co"nate ngoma , !(t they (s(ally did not *ake the connection !et)een their o)n )ork and that of other scholars in other re"ions. +n the era of str(ct(ral4f(nctionalis* and colonial do*ination, the local 0tri!e0 )as the (nit of st(dy. Carely )ere co*parisons, or concerns for historical directions, artic(lated. :o)ever, (sef(l )ork )as acc(*(latin" )hich )o(ld *ake the task of historical co*parison possi!le later on. J. Clyde Mitchell =19KJ>, a collea"(e of 5(rner<s, follo)ed the Beni4@"o*a *ove*ent into the *i"rant la!or ca*ps of the copper!elt. 5erence Can"er fo(nd, in coastal and historic trade4ro(te 5anzania, that the revivalist and dance di*ensions of n"o*a had follo)ed the trade ro(tes and pop(lation *ove*ents !et)een early colonial settle*ents =Can"er 19%K>. Maria Fisa ,)antz =19%$, 19%J, 19%%a , 19%%b , 19%9> and Floyd ,)antz =19%L> st(died n"o*a and related rit(al heatin" on the ,)ahili coast in connection )ith social chan"e and develop*ent. 9i*. ;an Bins!er"en, /)yn Prins, and -nita ,prin" 8#8 st(died n"o*a in Aa*!ia. ,prin"<s )ork added co*parative ethno"raphic data fro* the 0n"o*a *ode0 of healin" a*on" F(vale )o*en =19%&, 19&K>. Prins and ;an Bins!er"en contri!(ted to the history of )estern Aa*!ian n"o*a, the first to the co"nitive fra*e)ork of n"o*alike therape(tic rit(al =Prins 19%9>, the second to the linka"e !et)een n(*ero(s c(lts in the history of a re"ion as an e2pression of differin" *odes of prod(ction and forces of historical chan"e =;an Bins!er"en 19%%, 19&1>. Monica 9ilson =19#J>, :arriet @"(!ane =19&1>, and others st(died the therape(tic n"o*a settin"s in ,o(thern -frica, )here it )as perceived as havin" lar"ely to do )ith divination =especially a*on" the @"(ni4 speakin" societies>. 'espite the val(e of these a(thors< )ritin"s on the s(!1ect of the c(lt of affliction, none has looked at

the lar"er pict(re. 5hey do not tell (s ho) far4reachin" the instit(tion, as a c(lt(rally partic(lar instit(tion, *i"ht !e. F(c de :e(sch and Jan ;ansina have !een a*on" the fe) to atte*pt !roader s(rveys of possession c(lts in Central and ,o(thern -frica. 'eCrae*er, )ith ;ansina and 7o2 =19%J>, offered a s(**ary profile of Central -frican reli"io(s *ove*ents, )hich they s(""ested )ere part of a c(lt(ral e2pression reachin" !ack a *illenni(* or *ore. B(t this article, s(""estive in its "eneral lines, did not provide a le2ical or str(ct(ral handle on ho) to st(dy it f(rther. 'e :e(sch =19%1> esta!lished a str(ct(ralist co*parison of types of possession c(lts and relationships thro("ho(t the 9est -frican and Central -frican re"ion that had far4reachin" ra*ifications in s(ch scholarship of the area. :e e*phasized, for e2a*ple, the i*portant contrast !et)een possession c(lts, )hich entailed healin" and e2orcis*, and c(lts that venerated shades and spirits, on the one hand, and c(lts that (tilized *edi(*ship for the interpretation of *isfort(ne, on the other. +an Fe)is, )ith a scholarly foc(s in the :orn of -frica, has offered i*portant hypotheses on the nat(re of -frican c(lts and reli"ions, first )ith his 0peripheralization0 or 0deprivation0 approach =19%%>, *ore recently )ith e*phasis on the e2tent of 0controlled0 and 0(ncontrolled0 po)er in society, and the relationship of )itchcraft patterns to patterns of possession =19&J>. Most recently, 'eMaret =19&$, 19&L> has (sed archaeolo"ical and lin"(istic findin"s to atte*pt an overvie) of Central and ,o(thern -frican reli"io(s and social feat(res. + )ill have occasion to co*e !ack to these a(thors and their )ork. 5his !rief revie) of so*e of the scholarship relatin" to healin" in co**(nity settin"s in Central and ,o(thern -frica s(ffices to de*onstrate that the field is not )ell defined, nor is it clear )here one !e"ins. 8L8 C(rrent scholarship tends to !reak do)n into a distinction !et)een reli"ion and healin", !(t this distinction is not so (sef(l in the present settin". - f(nda*ental a*!i"(ity that )ill need to !e )orked o(t in this st(dy is that !et)een the indi"eno(s cate"ories and ter*s, on the one hand, and the analytical *odels )e devise for s(ch an instit(tion as the rite, c(lt, or dr(* of affliction, on the other hand. 5he ter* ngoma has !een identified as the indi"eno(s )ord for an instit(tion. -nd yet, in *any re"ions it is not necessarily (sed, nor e2cl(sively (sed, to descri!e collective rites of healin". +n the co(rse of this st(dy, therefore, the layered ontolo"y of the 0(nit of st(dy0 )ill need to !e clarified and variations aro(nd the*es e2plained. 5his )ill !e done ethno"raphically or conte2t(ally, c(lt(re historically, ethnolo"ically, and analytically, in se3(ential chapters. My o)n concern for the (nderstandin" of the shape and character of -frican therape(tics !e"an, like that of other scholars, )ith very local )ork6in Bon"o society of coastal Aaire =19J9, 19%&a , 19%&b > 6and has "rad(ally *oved to increasin"ly e2pansive covera"e of instit(tional arran"e*ents =19%9b >, therape(tic dyna*ics =19&J, 19&%>, and historical processes =19&#, 19&K>. 7ollo)in" intensive field)ork in Bon"o society on the 03(est for therapy0 and the str(ct(re of local instit(tions, + looked at a *a1or historic c(lt, Fe*!a, )hich had e*er"ed in the conte2t of the coastal trade in the seventeenth cent(ry, and )hich had *ediated the disinte"rative *ercantile forces of the overland caravan ro(tes in that trade )ith the local linea"e4!ased co**(nities =19&2>. +t !eca*e clear that local descriptions and e2planations *ade little sense of the contin(ities and variations in Fe*!a. Dne had to take !oth the re"ional vie) of the c(lt pheno*enon and a lon"4ter* historical perspective of the econo*ic, political, and social cli*ate to (nderstand its e*er"ence and d(ration. -fter e2tensive readin" in connection )ith *y o)n local field)ork and after historical st(dy, it has !eco*e apparent that the c(lt of affliction and the n"o*a desi"nation of it is )idespread thro("ho(t Central and ,o(thern -frica, altho("h there are *any instit(tional and ter*inolo"ical variations. 5he

scholarly task of the present *o*ent, therefore, is to sit(ate this )ork in )ider re"ional, societal, and s(!continental conte2t, and in the process to ask ho) )idespread this instit(tion *i"ht !e, )hether its *any *anifestations are transfor*ations of an (nderlyin" co**on instit(tion, )hy partic(lar for*s of it rise and decline, and ho) it relates in a dyna*ic relationship to other feat(res of society and reli"ion. - *a1or lac(na in st(dyin" the )ider pheno*e4 8K8 non of the c(lt or dr(* of affliction across its appearance in Central and ,o(thern -frica has !een the a!sence of a set of co*para!le st(dies. ,cholars have either done local ethno"raphic st(dies )ith caref(l attention to the str(ct(re of c(sto*s and lan"(a"es and have done little to seek !roader "eneralizations, or they have atte*pted !roader "eneralizations )itho(t caref(l attention to the c(lt(ral partic(lars. +n 19&2M&# + (ndertook to re*edy this sit(ation for *yself )ith an e2tensive field s(rvey of n"o*a *anifestations in fo(r settin"s of ,(!4,aharan -frica )here the literat(re s(""ested it occ(rred. + )as especially interested in ho) n"o*a i*p(lses and or"anizations )ere represented in *a1or (r!an settin"s. 5he sites + visited in this )ork )ere Binshasa, a h(! of 9estern Bant( societies, incl(din" Bon"o, in the Aairian national capital. 'ar es ,alaa*, )here ?astern Bant( and national 5anzanian c(lt(res co*e to"ether, )ith a stron" +sla*ic presence. the M!a!ane4Manzini corridor in ,)aziland, at the northern end of @"(ni4speakin" societies, in a stron" traditional kin"do*. and Cape 5o)n, in )hose !lack to)nships all ,o(thern -frican traditions *er"e in the (nderside of a society torn !y apartheid. 9hy )ere (r!an settin"s selected, )hich tended to feat(re i**i"rants to cities and transplanted practitioners fro* ho*e areas in the co(ntrysideI 7irst, the (r!an capitals st(died offered *(ch *ore accessi!ility to re"ional traditions than sin"le r(ral areas. +ndeed, one co(ld find all re"ional traditions represented in these cities. 7(rther, it )as easy to identify on"oin" local scholarship on these traditions and to converse )ith scholars and practitioners a!o(t the (nfoldin" direction of the therapies. Dn"oin" practice in the (r!an settin" )o(ld de*onstrate contin(in" life, altho("h chan"in", of the instit(tion. 7inally, it )as virt(ally i*possi!le for *e to do 1(stice to the s(!continental s(rvey short of visitin" a selective set of points on the *ap, s(ch as Binshasa, 'ar es ,alaa*, M!a!ane4Manzini, and Cape 5o)n. Df co(rse, other capitals co(ld have served e3(ally )ell, incl(din" :arare in Ai*!a!)e or F(saka in Aa*!ia. 5he co*parative s(rvey e*phasized ei"ht points re"ardin" the therape(tic di*ension of c(lts of affliction: =1> the na*es of principle rites, their re"ions of ori"in, and ter*inolo"ies. =2> *odes of affliction =follo)in" 5(rner: sy*pto*atolo"ical si"ns> and etiolo"ies =spirits, social forces>. =#> the characteristic therapy of a rite. =L> the social scale of the affliction =)hether individ(al, "ro(p, or co*!ination>. =K> the socio4c(lt(ral conte2t6class and stat(s, ethnic "ro(p, "ender6of the afflicted and of the healer. =J> characteristic devices and *(sical instr(4 8J8 *ents, dances, and son"s of the rites. =%> profile of individ(al=s> in char"e of the therape(tic rite6 fa*ily, diviner, other specialists, association *e*!ers. =&> percepti!le chan"es in the last decade. 5hese 3(eries provided the (nderlyin" thr(st of the investi"ation and )ere ans)ered in each of the fo(r re"ions, insofar as possi!le. -ltho("h this )ork )ill address a partic(lar type of instit(tion in concrete historical settin"s and is in

*any )ays si*ply a strai"htfor)ard atte*pt to (nderstand and to portray this instit(tion, the fra*e)ork of the in3(iry is intended to !e (niversally applica!le. +n other )ords, there is a theoretical s(!a"enda to this )ork, for )hich n"o*a is the case st(dy. + present this a"enda in the for* of three iss(es6health, healin", and efficacy. 5hey *(st !e approached, theoretically, in this order. 5his order *ay see* reversed to so*e. ho)ever, it ste*s fro* a "ro)in" concern in *edical anthropolo"y that this field is not effectively applied to health iss(es =:ar)ood 19&%:L>. + contend this is the case !eca(se of a lack of concern for the )ays in )hich healin", or *edicine, affects health, that is, the s(!1ect of efficacy, or ho) the therapy 0)orks.0 +ncreasin"ly, in social science and *edical )ritin", definitions of health provide the point of depart(re for the analysis and action of specific interventions. 5his "ets (s s3(arely into the de!ate on conceptions of health, )hich a(thors approach fro* a variety of vie)points. Most of the ti*e )e (se the ne"ative 0a!sence of disease0 definition of health, or the de*o"rapher<s profile of *ortality, natality, and *or!idity. :o)ever, definitions of health *ay also !e philosophical =e."., Boorse 19%%>, ecolo"ical ='(!os 19J&>, political econo*ic ='oyal 19%9. ,ava"e 19%9. Morsy 19&1>, sociolo"ical nor*ativist =Parsons 19K1. 7reidson 19%1. Aola 19JJ>, or rit(alistic, disc(rsive, and interpretative. ?2ploration of definitions of health s(ita!le for the analysis of -frican n"o*a therapy )ill !e addressed in so*e len"th in the final chapters of this )ork. 5he application of a concept of 0social reprod(ction0 see*s partic(larly s(ita!le here. /iven the )idespread net)ork relationship !(ildin" that "oes on in n"o*a, 0health0 *ay !e seen as a society or social (nit<s a!ility to re"enerate itself =i.e., socially reprod(ce>. 5his approach is inspired !y the )ork in ,o(thern -frica of Colin M(rray on la!or *i"ration in Fesotho and the o(tflo) of la!or capital, res(ltin" in a crisis of social reprod(ction =19%9, 19&1>. Dther a(thors )ho have developed a social reprod(ction analysis incl(de Pierre Bo(rdie( =19%%>. 5his approach overco*es the chronic pro!le* in classical *edical anthropol4 8%8 o"y and other disciplines of not !ein" a!le to co*pletely e2plain the deterioration of health in a society or a sector of society and the )ay in )hich *e*!ers of society cope )ith this sit(ation. 5he perspective of health as social reprod(ction )ill set the sta"e for an analysis of the collective therapies of Central and ,o(thern -frica. ?sta!lishin" the character of the conscio(s therape(tic intervention as the !asis for the co*parative st(dy of *edical syste*s and traditions is the second *a1or theoretical iss(e in this )ork. 9hat )ill !e the fra*e)ork )ith )hich to analyze, in co**on ter*s, varied pheno*enaI 9hat are the criteria of the 0co**on,0 the 0co*para!le0I -re they that )hich is la!eled in indi"eno(s practice and parlanceI Dr do they have to do )ith !ehaviorsI +n the case of Central and ,o(thern -frica, do the co**on co"nates of Bant( lan"(a"es play a *a1or role in deter*inin" )hat is the core of the historic and conte*porary therape(tic syste*I 5hen there are the 0instit(tional0 3(estions, havin" to do )ith the pri*acy of the individ(al vers(s the collective, or societal. Central and ,o(thern -frican therapies s(ch as n"o*a are so different, and differ in so *any )ays, fro* 9estern therapy, that )e *(st first ask ho) the !o(ndaries of researcha!le reality are to !e dra)n to identify this as *edicine, or as healin", in order for it to have anythin" in co**on )ith the instit(tions the 9estern ind(strial )orld identifies !y these ter*s. Criteria of efficacy in therapy )ill need to !e for*(lated, !oth in ter*s of specific therapies and interventions fo(nd in n"o*a and in ter*s of the *ore "eneral 3(estion of )hether, and ho), they *ay contri!(te to health. Both individ(al =psycholo"ical, sy*!olic, phar*acolo"ical, *(sical> as )ell as

social *echanis*s =enterin" and e2tendin" a net)ork, creatin" s(pport "ro(ps and redistri!(tive chains, social co*petence> need to !e st(died as therape(tic *echanis*s that *ay have "eneraliza!le 3(alities. Many of these *eas(res enhance the a!ility of individ(als and societies to contain tra(*a and to deal appropriately )ith diffic(lties, there!y contri!(tin" to social reprod(ction in the *ar"inalized, alienated, or stressed sectors of a society, )hich n"o*a therape(tics appears to address. +n order to acco*plish the !asic ethno"raphic4historical task of presentin" n"o*a and to open the theoretical disc(ssions raised a!ove, this !ook has the follo)in" str(ct(re. Chapter 1, 0,ettin"s and ,a*ples,0 is a strai"htfor)ard co*parative st(dy of fo(r re"ional settin"s: 9estern Bant(, as fo(nd in Binshasa, Aaire. eastern -frica, as fo(nd in 'ar es ,alaa*, 5anzania. so(thern -frica, foc(sin" on M!a!ane in ,)azi4 8&8 land, )hich is one of the @orth @"(ni4speakin" societies. and the to)nships of Cape 5o)n, ,o(th -frica, predo*inately Hhosa, or ,o(th @"(ni, !(t also a cos*opolitan synthesis of all of ,o(thern -frica. 5his s(rvey is lar"ely a presentation of *y field research of 19&2M&#, and th(s it has all the stren"ths and )eaknesses of a sin"le scholar<s )ork: li*itin", in that it is only one individ(al travelin" vast distances. enhancin", in that a trained eye can see *(ch and *ake connections that a cas(al o!server *isses. +n the )estern settin" =Binshasa, Aaire> + concentrate on the partic(lar c(lts of affliction called Fe*!a and @kita, of Fo)er Con"o ori"in. Ae!ola, of the ?3(ator ori"in. and Bil(*!(, of F(!a, or Basai ori"in. Most of these are co(ched )ithin the linea"e settin" or are desi"ned to !(ttress the linea"e. +n ?ast -frica ='ar es ,alaa*, 5anzania>, !eca(se of the early )ork of :ans Cory on historic ,(k(*a rit(al or"anizations, it is possi!le to offer a profile of !oth )estern 5anzanian n"o*a and coastal ,)ahili, +sla*ized society, and n"o*a e2pressions. 7ro* ,o(thern -frica =M!a!ane, ,)aziland, and Cape 5o)n, ,o(th -frica> co*e so*e of *y !est f(ll acco(nts of n"o*a, partly !eca(se of field)ork l(ck and also !eca(se the instit(tion *ay !e less specialized there and *ay represent a *ore "eneric *anifestation. Chapter 2, 0+dentifyin" @"o*a: :istorical and Co*parative Perspectives,0 raises the possi!ility that n"o*a is indeed a classical *anifestation of Central and ,o(thern -frican rit(al. 5his chapter sit(ates the !ook<s s(!1ect in the conte2t of research on the ori"ins and dispersions of Bant( lan"(a"es and c(lt(res and the distri!(tions of co"nate le2ica for n"o*a and other -frican therape(tic4reli"io(s instit(tions. 9hat is the evidence for c(lt(rally ho*o"eneo(s do*ains !eyond the lin"(istic ta"sI :o) do )e acco(nt for the i**ense variations aro(nd the lin"(istic co**onalities in this vast s(!continental re"ionI Chapter #, 0Core 7eat(res in @"o*a 5herapy,0 develops a description of the *ain characteristics in n"o*a therapy (nderlyin" the *yriad *anifestations of the instit(tion thro("ho(t the re"ion. 5hese feat(res incl(de a phased rite of passa"e in )hich the s(fferer, follo)in" identification of a sponsorin" healer, *oves "rad(ally thro("h the therape(tic initiation to *e*!ership in the order. a si*ilar pattern of definin" and interpretin" *isfort(ne thro("h the invocation of, and possession !y, ancestor shades, nat(re spirits, and other spirits. a co**on sy*!olis* definin" the stat(s of the s(fferer4novice *ovin" thro("h 0the )hite,0 the rit(al stat(s of !ein" 0in process0. the role of sacrifice and e2chan"e. and the e*po)er*ent of the novice thro("h the transfor*ation of the self and the co*position and (se of *edicinal s(!stances. 898

Perhaps the *ost i*portant core feat(re, ho)ever, is the s(!1ect to )hich the ne2t chapter is devoted. Chapter L, 0'oin" @"o*a: 5he 5e2t(re of Personal 5ransfor*ation,0 *oves !eyond the !ehavioral and sy*!olic feat(res of therape(tic initiation to the conscio(s, ver!al di*ension fo(nd in the n"o*a sessions. - sin"le session is descri!ed and analyzed in depth. +t provides the !asis for a )ider co*parison )ith other e2a*ples. 5he centrality of son" to n"o*a !eco*es apparent here. 5he variations in co**(nicative str(ct(re of n"o*a provide i*portant cl(es to the (nderstandin" of the instit(tion. Chapter K, 0:o) @"o*a 9orks: Df Codes and Conscio(sness,0 proceeds )ith a presentation of the indi"eno(s theory of this for* of healin". 7ro* there it *oves to the application of several acade*ic analytic eval(ations of n"o*a, incl(din" the role of *etaphor shapin", of consens(s, and of the ran"e of *anip(lations that shape affect of s(fferer and therapists alike. Chapter J, 05he ,ocial Ceprod(ction of :ealth,0 looks at n"o*a fro* the standpoint of its contri!(tion to society<s fa!ric, atte*ptin" to ans)er the 3(estion of n"o*a<s contri!(tion to health as (nderstood in today<s )orld. 5his chapter, of necessity, opens )ith a disc(ssion of vario(s health definitions, to deter*ine )hich set *i"ht !e appropriate for an (nderstandin" of n"o*a<s contri!(tion to health in a conte*porary conte2t. - pro1ect s(ch as this is at once a(dacio(s and precario(s. +t is an atte*pt to de*onstrate so*ethin" that has not heretofore !een kno)n, essentially a *appin" o(t of the core feat(re of a classic civilizational healin" syste* in Central and ,o(thern -frica, or at least a *a1or feat(re of it. +t is precario(s !eca(se the ass(*ptions that *(st !e *ade in atte*ptin" this are not )ell validated. 9orkin" )ith lin"(istic reconstr(ctions and variations aro(nd core !ehaviors often leads to interpretations of local evidence collected !y others. Dne scholar, lookin" 0over the sho(lders0 of others, is !o(nd to !e )ron" so*e of the ti*e in others< ethno"raphic !ackyards. 5o *ake *atters *ore co*plicated, *y ethno"raphic 0ho*e territory,0 Fo)er Aaire, in the 9estern Bant(speakin" re"ion, fits the "eneralizations on n"o*a least )ell, in so*e respects. :o)ever, it )ill have !een )orth the risk if the end res(lt, if only thro("h criticis*, provides the sti*(lation of ne) ideas and !etter research, especially that )hich "oes !eyond the confines of tri!e and territory in -frica. 8 1$ 8

1 Se #ng! an) Sam+'e! #n A"%#(an C*' ! o" A""'#( #on

'o yo( intend to spend yo(r sa!!atical in airport )aitin" roo*sI - skeptical collea"(e Fa"os airport, a)aitin" ni"ht fli"ht to Binshasa: +t<s #L ho(rs since +<ve slept. + )onder if there are any kola n(ts to !e had. :o) )o(ld one find a kola n(t in Fa"os airportI +s this still @i"eria, or -fricaI +n the so(venir sales area + approach a "ro(p of "athered *en and tell the* +<ve !een travelin" a lon" ti*e and need to stay a)ake6any kolaI ,everal reach into their ro!es and p(ll o(t kola n(ts. Dne shares )ith *e, !itin" off the end of a n(t and handin" it to *e. 5hey are deli"hted. + feel at ho*e, officially, in -frica. 7ield Jo(rnal, J(ly 2, 19&2

-t a 0)ashin" of !eads0 in a Cape 5o)n to)nship: - cross section of !lack Cape 5o)n, sho)in" "reat kindness and hospitality to)ard (s. +ndeed, it see*ed they )ere seekin" approval of the o(tside )orld. 9e heard (n(s(al state*ents s(ch as 0)e<re not canni!als, dr(nkards, and (ncivilized people0 as the "overn*ent )o(ld have everyone !elieve. 5hey (r"ed (s not to !e afraid of the*. 9e ass(red the* )e )eren<t, other)ise )e )o(ld not have co*e. 5hey kept askin" (s if )e )ere happy, and offered (s chairs, drinks, food to )elco*e (s ... the *en so("ht constant physical contact, to to(ch, hold or shake hands, as if to indicate their h(*anity thro("h vicario(s reco"nition. 7ield Jo(rnal, @ove*!er 1L, 19&2 5his ethno"raphic s(rvey is intended to sketch an i*pressionistic pict(re of c(lts of affliction in Central and ,o(thern -frica, partic(larly in the conte*porary (r!an settin"s of Binshasa, Aaire. 'ar es ,alaa*, 5anzania. M!a!ane4Manzini, ,)aziland. and Cape 5o)n, ,o(th -frica. 5hese national capitals represent the (r!an syntheses of fo(r *a1or re"ions of -frica respectively: the Con"o !asin, partic(larly 9estern Bant(4speakin" societies. ?ast -frica, partic(larly the ,)ahili4speakin" settin". the northern @"(ni4speakin" settin". and societies infl(enced !y @"(ni, ,otho45s)ana, and Bhoisan and !y ,o(th -frican (r!an 8 11 8 societies of the 9estern Cape. +n each settin" so*e attention )ill !e "iven to the historical !ackdrop of c(lt4of4affliction ori"ins in these re"ions. 5he i*pressions asse*!led here can hardly !e e2pected to !e syste*atic. :o)ever, they are firsthand a(thentic portrayals of the s(!1ect of the !ook. 5hro("h the conversations )ith healers and patients, officials and scholars, they reflect so*e of the thinkin" on the role of Central -frica<s affliction c(lts in !earin" the load of the carin" vocations.

The ,-%an)! R# e!, O" .#n!ha!a

Binshasa, -frica<s lar"est city !elo) the ?3(ator, )ith a!o(t #.K *illion inha!itants, covers over t)o h(ndred s3(are kilo*eters on the !anks of the Aaire Civer. Focal scholarship speaks of 0les "rands rites,0 representin" n(*ero(s re"ional and ethnic traditions fro* aro(nd the Con"o !asin. 5he local society of Binshasa, and appro2i*ately half of its inha!itants, are of the Bon"o4speakin" =or Bikon"o> society, of Fo)er Con"o, or Aaire. 7ro* its !e"innin" as the villa"e of Binshasa, then as the capital of the Bel"ian Con"o, and after independence in 19J$, as the capital of Aaire, Binshasa has dra)n residents fro* the entire re"ion. 5he civil )ars of the postindependence era and the deterioration of r(ral infrastr(ct(re and standard of livin", to"ether )ith the l(re of the city, have led to the *i"ration of *any people to the city to seek their livelihood. Pop(lation e2pansion far !eyond the a!ility of the city to provide an infrastr(ct(re of electricity, se)era"e, and even )ater, has "iven rise to enor*o(s s(!(r!an villa"elike settle*ents. 5hese pop(lation *ove*ents into the capital have !ro("ht )ith the* the reli"io(s, therape(tic, and social for*s of the re"ional c(lt(res. 7ro* the F(!a area of the Basai re"ion, one finds Bil(*!(. fro* the (priver Mai4@do*!e re"ion of Band(nd(, Bad1( and Mpo*!o. fro* (priver in ?3(ate(r Province aro(nd M!andaka, Ae!ola and ?li*a =or Bili*a>. fro* the Upper Aaire and Biv(, Mikanda4Mikanda. fro* Bas4Aaire and Band(nd( provinces, @kita. and fro* ?ast -frica and Biv(, Miz(ka.

/* %e!!#ng The L#neage In 0e! e%n /an * So(#e &

Df the *a1or c(lts of affliction represented in Binshasa, the *ost characteristic of 9estern Bant( society6coastal Bon"o, east)ard into 8 12 8 Band(nd(6is (ndo(!tedly @kita. @ot only is the foc(s of its therape(tic rit(al, the linea"e, at the core of the society, !(t it is ancient. +t is *entioned in early historical doc(*entation on the Con"o coast, as )ell as in acco(nts fro* :aiti, )here it has !eco*e an ele*ent in the loa syste*. @kita is associated )ith bisimbi nat(re spirits, and, as a linea"e c(lt, is often involved in the re"eneration and *aintenance of linea"e "overn*ent. 5he bisimbi invest, or validate, linea"e a(thority, )hich in *any re"ions is e*!odied in po)erf(l *edicinal and reli"io(s co*positions, the min*isi . @kita concentrates on the dyna*ics of the *atrilinea"e and the individ(al affliction !elieved to ori"inate fro* linea"e pro!le*s. 5he c(lt cell is )ithin the linea"e itself, fre3(ently ori"inatin" in the crises of se"*entation and the need to rene) leadership =Bi!ea( et al. 19%%. Janzen 19%&. Fe*a 19%&. @siala 19%9, 19&2. 'evisch 19&L>. 5he history of linea"e and p(!lic c(lts of affliction is si"nificant in coastal and 9estern Bant( society. /iven the pro*inence of fairly fi2ed settle*ents, landed a"rarian linea"es, and of *arkets and trade, and of6especially coastal and ,o(thern ,avanna6chiefdo*s, this is not s(rprisin". :o)ever, fe) of the early instit(tional for*s have !een ade3(ately st(died. 5he close artic(lation of e*!le*s of a(thority, social rene)al, and healin" is co**on. My )ork on the historic Fe*!a c(lt that e*er"ed in the seventeenth cent(ry in the conte2t of the "reat coastal trade !ears this o(t =Janzen 19&2>. Fe*!a represented a rit(alized concern for several di*ensions of society6the *aintenance and protection of alliances !et)een landed and pro*inent linea"es. protection of the *ercantile elite fro* the threat of envy !y their s(!ordinates d(e to their acc(*(lation of )ealth. the *aintenance of trade ro(tes overland !et)een the -tlantic coast and the !i" *arkets of the interior. finally, the resol(tion of contradictions that res(lted fro* the social (pheavals ca(sed !y the "reat trade. 5here )ill !e occasion to ret(rn to Fe*!a as an e2a*ple of a p(!lic c(lt of affliction later in this !ook. -s in *any c(lts of affliction, n*ita is at once the na*e of the illness, the spirit !ehind it, and the therape(tic rite. 5he si"n of affliction in @kita is fre3(ently e2pressed in diff(se psycholo"ical distress, drea*s, and fevers, or threat to the contin(ity of the linea"e in the for* of children<s illnesses or deaths, the !arrenness of )o*en or co(ples, or lin"erin" sickness of *ale leaders. 5hese pro!le*s are often associated )ith the s(spicion of inade3(ate leadership, or at any rate a loss of contact )ith the bisimbi or n*ita spirits in )hich linea"e a(thority is vested. -n individ(alized version of @kita therapy concentrates on partic(lar 8 1# 8 cases that, if c(*(lative and serio(s, *ay tri""er a collective therapy that seeks to rene) leadership thro("h the resol(tion of conflicts and the reesta!lish*ent of har*onio(s relationships )ith ancestors and nat(re spirits. 5he @kita rite, follo)in" the identification of the individ(al or collective dia"nosis of the ca(se of the *isfort(ne, re3(ires the 03(est for n*ita spirits0 in a river at the o(tset of the secl(sion of the s(fferer. 5hese spirit forces are (s(ally represented in s*ooth stones or l(*ps of coral resin fo(nd in appropriate strea*!eds, and they !eco*e the foc(s of the identification of the s(fferer )ith the spirits. 5he secl(sion of the s(fferer4novice and instr(ction in the esoteric learnin" of @kita is the first sta"e of

teachin" !y the @kita leader. 5he site or do*ain of this secl(sion, a co**on feat(re of all n"o*a initiations, is in Bikon"o called )'ela and refers to the forest clearin" or the enclos(re of pal* !ranches, set apart and sacralized for this p(rpose. Beca(se of the linea"e foc(s of @kita and simbi spirit *ediation, the rites attendant to @kita have a close connection to, or arc done conc(rrently )ith, other rites that perpet(ate collective linea"e sy*!ols, s(ch as shrines !earin" ancestors< *ortal re*ains =nails, hair, !its of !one>, leopard skins, chiefly staffs, sa!ers, or other si"ns considered to !ear the spirit and office of past leaders. +n so*e of these parallel rites, cere*onial co(ples, s(ch as the F(sansa *ale and fe*ale priests, provide the personification of the contin(o(s spirit(al line. +nstances of sickness or infertility in linea"es associated )ith these rites *ay precipitate the no*ination of ne) priestly co(ples. +n (r!an Binshasa, accordin" to psycholo"ist @siala Miaka Maken"o, )ho s(rveyed @kita e2tensively in the *id419%$s =19%9, 19&2>, there are an esti*ated forty to fifty 0p(re0 @kita practitioners, a fi"(re that does not, ho)ever, incl(de those )hose practice is li*ited to their o)n linea"es. 5he f(ll rites, done )ith a f(ll4fled"ed nganga N*ita are e2pensive and co*ple2, th(s !eyond the reach of *any fa*ilies. Cost and availa!ility of dr(**ers, *(sicians, s(pportin" personnel, transport to the site, and coordinatin" the )hole rit(al have !eco*e pro!le*atic. 5h(s, @kita practitioners have tended to !eco*e "eneralized therapists for Bon"o and non4Bon"o people, in )hich non4kin 1oin the seances, and the rit(als !eco*e "eneralized for a ran"e of conditions. @siala fo(nd that these @kita healers receive on avera"e five cases per day that re3(ire hospitalization, either in their co*po(nds or another hospital, and (p to a dozen cases that can !e treated and released =19%9:11>. Df these, L$ percent )ere *ale, J$ percent fe*ale. 5hey 8 1L 8 ca*e in all a"es, distri!(ted as follo)s: Children fro* !irth to five years =1K percent>, yo(ths (p to si2teen years =K$ percent>. ad(lts =#K percent>. 'espite the apparent trend for the @kita healers to !eco*e "eneric (r!an healers, their )ork contin(es to reflect the d(al levels of the individ(al and the collectivity. -ltho("h the *a1ority of cases are individ(als, (ni3(e fa*ily or linea"e therapies have evolved in the (r!an settin". 5hese incl(de *(t(al confessions, the "ro(p confessin" to the s(fferer, liftin" the potential har* of *alefic *edicines, and holdin" verita!le 0psychopalavers0 to vent the a""ressions that e2ist )ithin the "ro(p. 5hese *echanis*s of "ro(p rene)al are fre3(ently interspersed )ith divination to seek f(rther (nderstandin" as to the internal "ro(p reasons for *isfort(nes.

-o)1 Je!*!1 The An(e! o%!1 An) Jane In L*2a 3#$#na #on
Bil(*!(, of F(!a4Basai ori"in, reflects the sa*e e*phasis on the core points of the social str(ct(re, in this case the patrilinea"e. Fike @kita, it has e2perienced si"nificant chan"es )ith the (r!anization of its clientele. 5he *ilumbu =sin"(lar of bilumbu > is a *edi(* of the spirits )ho interprets the *isfort(nes of others. Bil(*!( *edi(*s enter this role after havin" their o)n possession or dist(r!ances, and havin" !een told !y diviners that they have bulumbu , that is, the "ift of prophecy or divination. 5he !il(*!(, as )ell as the chiefs =balo$'e > in F(!a society, are the individ(als )ho le"iti*ately interpret bu)id#e , the 3(ality associated )ith ba)id#e , the fo(ndin" spirits of the F(!a nation =Booth 19%%:KJ. Co!erts 19&&>. D!servation of a Maken"a variant60to )ork for those )ho need it06of the Bil(*!( rite in Binshasa in 19&2, ho)ever, *akes very plain that the (r!an rite, at least this one, has chan"ed si"nificantly fro* )hat it )as earlier. -fter *any "enerations of *ale *edi(*s in a partic(lar patrilinea"e, a )o*an had !eco*e the central *edi(* of this partic(lar cell. 5he 0"eneralization0 of divination and therape(tics,

)hich has already !een *entioned in connection )ith @kita healers, )as also evident in this instance of Bil(*!(. Bishi @ze*!ela, a )o*an of a!o(t si2ty years, *other of ei"ht, "rand*other of t)enty4t)o, carried on her linea"e<s F(!a divinatory and therape(tic tradition. Aairian psycholo"ist Ma!iala *a @dela, )ho acco*panied *e on this visit, had kno)n @ze*!ela for so*e ti*e and re"arded her )ork as so*e)hat atypical )ithin this tradition. 8 1K 8 @ze*!ela 0o)ned0 or 0*ana"ed0 the spirit of her deceased da("hter Janet, altho("h all bu)id#e holders )ithin the @ze*!ela line of *edi(*s and spirits had !een *ales for at least fo(r "enerations !efore her. @ze*!ela prefaced o(r disc(ssion of her ancestors, and her da("hter Janet, )ith e*phatic affir*ations that she )as a devo(t Catholic and !elieved in /od and Jes(s, and that these *(st !e na*ed !efore any ancestors in an invocation. 5he )alls of her s*all chapel feat(red t)o painted portraits, one of the Christian 5rinity, the other of her da("hter Janet. @ze*!ela<s entry into this )ork had !e"(n in 19KJ, ei"ht years after the death of her da("hter Janet at a"e ei"hteen. Janet, a cripple, had !een a talented, dyna*ic person and a leader, havin" !een elected to head a "ro(p of handicapped children. ,he )as also a "ifted sin"er and had )anted to p(rs(e a career as a sin"er. ,he had !een possessed !y spirits and clai*ed the "ift of spirit(al healin", as )ell. -t ei"hteen, in the co(rse of a pre"nancy that see*ed to the fa*ily to "o on inter*ina!ly, she died of co*plications. 5he fa*ily had also at that ti*e had tro(!le )ith the police at the *arket. Janet<s spirit visited the fa*ily in 19KJ, )hen her !rother, a soldier in trainin" in 7rance, )as possessed follo)in" a sickness he co(ld not overco*e )ith help in hospitals. +n his drea*s, Janet instr(cted the fa*ily to "ive her a proper !(rial, to constr(ct a !ea(tif(l to*!. :er !rother did not )ish to !eco*e a *edi(*, so @ze*!ela, the *other, offered to do it for hi*. +n a fa*ily cele!ration, a !ea(tif(l to*! )as dedicated =in the b#ombela rite )ith the n"o*a dr(*>, and a feast )as held follo)in" the sacrifice of a "oat and fo(r chickens. :avin" done this, Bishi @ze*!ela received a vision in )hich her *other, Madila, told her there )as no conflict !et)een the )ork of Janet and *e*!ership in the Catholic ch(rch. ,he )as instr(cted to contin(e attendin" ch(rch, altho("h on hearin" of her possession, the ch(rch threatened her )ith e2co**(nication. ,he )ent to the priest )ith her dile**a. -fter her presentation of her visions, and the priest<s affir*ation of ho) !ea(tif(l they had !een, she received his !lessin". +f her )ork )as evil, it )o(ld destroy her. if it )as "ood, she )o(ld !e !lessed.N1O ,he has contin(ed )orkin" )ith the spirit of Janet and has had *any *ostly F(!a clients fro* )ithin and o(tside the fa*ily, incl(din" a fe) )hites. @ze*!ela does not divine and heal on ,(ndays, the days she prays and )orships. 9eekdays, she is very !(sy. ,o*e clients enter into trance 3(ickly, others need $emba , )hite po)der, sprinkled on the* to achieve it. @ze*!ela offered that her o)n !ehavior *ay affect the 8 1J 8 de"ree to )hich Janet )ill co*e to clients. +f, for e2a*ple, she has done )ron", Janet )ill hesitate. ,o*eti*es Janet 1o(rneys to ?(rope to visit her si!lin"s, in )hich case she )ill not respond to sin"in" and chantin" in @ze*!ela<s seances. -s )e arrived to visit @ze*!ela, she )as sin"in" and shakin" t)o rattles. 7ive other persons )ere

seated on the floor inside the chapel, either sin"in" or in trance =fi". 1>. @ze*!ela had already taken care of one healin" case earlier in the *ornin". Ma!iala and + )ere invited to 1oin those seated !efore her. -ll present )ere "iven )hite po)der to p(t on their foreheads and at each te*ple, so as to !e a!le to 0see clearly0 the thin"s of the spirit. @ze*!ela and an assistant )ere )earin" )hite coats )ith a red cross on the lapel. -s the sin"in" and rattle shakin" !eca*e *ore intense and @ze*!ela distri!(ted dried t(fts of an aro*atic plant to inhale, several of the participants !e"an )avin" their hands a!o(t. @ze*!ela )as leadin" the rhyth*, !(t it )as her yo(n" assistant )ho first !eca*e f(lly entranced and provided the central *edi(*ship role for the seance. 5his )o*an )as a client of several *onths, a!o(t t)enty years old. ,he had !een *arried, !(t her h(s!and had not paid her fa*ily the !ride price, and he had left her )ith a yo(n" child. :er fa*ily )as an"ry )ith her and the yo(n" *an. ,he )as (nder "reat stress. @ze*!ela had taken her in to )ork and co(nsel )ith her. 9hen the yo(n" assistant, follo)in" the sin"in", !eca*e possessed )ith Janet, she anno(nced6in an altered voice6Janet<s "reetin". 5hereafter, 0Janet,0 in a painf(lly distorted voice, spoke a!o(t each case !efore her, in t(rn, interspersin" her co**ents )ith addresses to 0Ma*a0 @ze*!ela, tellin" her )hat she )as seein" in the cases. 5he case of another yo(n" )o*an<s affliction, she said, res(lted fro* her 0)itchcraft0 of havin" l(red her sister to Binshasa. :er a!andon*ent of her r(ral parents had "enerated conflict in the fa*ily. ,he )o(ld need to !e cleansed and reconciled )ith her parents to !e )hole a"ain. 5he yo(n" *edi(*, possessed )ith Janet, t(rned to *e and asked a!o(t *y *arria"e. 9hen + ass(red her it )as "ood, she )anted to kno) )ith )hat pro!le* + had co*e. + decided on the sp(r of the *o*ent to *ention a )ork4related pro!le*. 0Janet0 said, and this )as confir*ed !y @ze*!ela, that there )ere indeed persons or spirits )ho )ere tryin" to h(rt *e, even tho("h they had not s(cceeded in doin" so. 5he *edi(* "ave *e so*e $emba po)der to p(t on *y forehead and te*ples, and (nder *y feet and (nder *y pillo), to help *e in drea*s to see the tr(th a!o(t *y sit(ation. 5his )o(ld also ret(rn the evil intentions !ack (pon their perpetrators. 8 1% 8

7i"(re 1. Bishi @ze*!ela<s co*po(nd in Binshasa, Aaire: =a> @ze*!ela<s therape(tic chapel decorated )ith paintin"s of Jes(s and the an"els, and da("hter Janet. =!> storeroo*. =c> patrilineal ancestors< shrine )ith )ooden fi"(res depictin" partic(lar persons. =d> *atrilateral fe*ale ancestors< shrine. =e> tree shrine )ith !ase painted )ith )hite and red dots. =f> )ater tap. ="> latrines. =h> livin" 3(arters. -nother seance !e"an )ith @ze*!ela, shakin" the rattle, sin"in" her hy*nlike son" a!o(t Jes(s and /od )ho had saved (s and Janet )ho )o(ld !rin" solace. - yo(n" *an )as in deep prayer, as if tryin" to enter trance to see his pro!le*s. @ze*!ela picked (p a second rattle to intensify the rhyth* and to !rin" the yo(n" *an into trance, !(t he did not co*e. Fater she took (p his case in a se*iprivate co(nselin" session and listened to his co*plaints and *iseries. Presently the yo(n" )o*an assistant entered trance, 0Janet0 a"ain "reeted 0Ma*a0 and the others and then t(rned to the yo(n" *an to divine his case. 5hro("h the assistant, 0Janet0 said she co(ld not see his pro!le* !ehind his dizziness and loss of *e*ory. ,he then t(rned to her o)n child. 0Janet0

8 1& 8 !e"an th(*pin" on the child, holdin" it !et)een her le"s, rollin" aro(nd, )hile the child screa*ed. 0Janet0 said the child had a !ad spirit of death in it. 5he child<s *other =in trance> )as evil, and the child )as in terri!le shape. + feared that this o(t!(rst of self4ne"ation !y the yo(n" )o*an )o(ld h(rt or even kill her infant. :o)ever, this did not happen. 7(rther cases )ere *ore *(ndane. 5here )as the )o*an )ho )anted to find o(t )hy her h(s!and<s Mercedes had crashed. :e had seen !ad spirits, said @ze*!ela. - )o*an )hose h(s!and )as roa*in" aro(nd (nfaithf(lly, 0Janet0 acc(sed of )ron" actions to)ard her h(s!and. 5he voice of 0Janet0 lapsed and @ze*!ela, as herself, !e"an listenin", occasionally offerin" advice, to the 3(iet yo(n" *an )ho had !een sittin" in the corner thro("ho(t all this. ,he *oved close to hi*, 0in therapy0 no), and spoke softly to hi*, prohi!itin" hi* fro* thinkin" of s(icide. ,he enco(ra"ed hi* to pray, to take )hite po)der, and to ret(rn ne2t day for cleansin". 5he others present also received si*ilar co(nsel and attention fro* @ze*!ela. ,he also told of a case of a )hite *an<s fa*ily that had co*e to her for the presentation of their pro!le*: his failin" !(siness and a *arria"e that )as !reakin" (p. '(rin" the divinin" and therapy session the fa*ily<s da("hter )ent into trance and revealed that her h(s!and, a Fatin or +talian, )as fro* a people )ho had so*ethin" a"ainst her o)n people, the 7le*ish. :er ancestors )ere a"ainst her *arria"e to hi*. -fter so*e confessions and the revelation of other pro!le*s, this fa*ily )as helped to resolve their differences. -part fro* the yo(n" apprentice )ho had entered possession several ti*es, it )as (nclear ho) *any of these clients )o(ld event(ally !e dra)n into a net)ork of si*ilar Bil(*!( *edi(*4healers. 5he session ended )hen all the clients had !een dealt )ith for the *ornin".

U%2an Change! In C*' ! O" A""'#( #on

5his !rief acco(nt of t)o (r!an c(lts of affliction fro* the 9estern Bant( settin", !oth e*phasizin" linea"e or fa*ily *ediation, does not e2ha(st the ran"e of types and re"ions represented in Binshasa. +t hints of so*e of the chan"es that c(lts of affliction (nder"o )ith (r!anization. Ae!ola, )hich ori"inated in the (priver ?3(ator re"ion, *anifests itself in physiolo"ical and psycholo"ical sicknesses of individ(al *en and )o*en. +n its historic r(ral conte2t, Ae!ola affliction is (s(ally traced 8 19 8 !ack to possession !y nat(re spirits. - re"i*en of secl(sion, co(nselin", and rit(al therapy !rin"s the clients, *ostly fe*ale, !ack to health thro("h therape(tic initiation in the Ae!ola order. +n its (r!an settin", especially Binshasa, Ae!ola possession is fre3(ently dia"nosed in cases of )o*en )ho are patholo"ically affected !y isolation fro* their peers or fa*ilies in their (r!an ho(seholds. Beco*in" a Ae!ola s(fferer and neophyte p(ts the individ(al into per*anent association )ith a peer "ro(p of fello) s(fferers, and thro("h therape(tic initiation, event(ally "ives the individ(al a leadership role in the )ider Ae!ola co**(nity and net)ork. ?llen Corin<s penetratin" st(dy of Ae!ola =19%9>, !oth in ?3(ate(r Province and in Binshasa, de*onstrates that the )o*en and =a fe)> *en )ho enter Ae!ola are increasin"ly fro* a variety of c(lt(ral !ack"ro(nds !eyond the (priver ?3(ator re"ion. ,he notes that the therape(tic initiation, )hich lasts for *onths or years, !rin"s the isolated individ(al into close !ondin" )ith others, and fro*

o!sc(rity to a reco"niza!le rit(al position in the society. 5rancelike !ehavior inspired !y Ae!ola spirits is less *arked in the city than in the co(ntryside. Mpo*!o and Bad1( =Baz(> ori"inate fro* the Mai4@do*!e re"ion a fe) h(ndred kilo*eters (priver. Aairian psycholo"ist Ma!iala, )ho is st(dyin" these c(lts, notes that a variety of ill4defined si"ns and sy*pto*s are the *odes of affliction here, incl(din" dizziness, headache, lack of *ental presence, skin rash, lack of appetite, diffic(lty in !reathin", heart!(rn )ith an2iety, rapid or arhyth*ic heart!eat, fever )ith shivers, se2(al i*potence, drea*s of str(""les, or !ein" follo)ed !y threatenin" ani*als. )ei"ht loss or e2cessive )ei"ht, especially if acco*panied !y spirit visitations. and a variety of "ynecolo"ical and o!stetrical diffic(lties. 5herape(tic initiation also characterizes the entry into the c(lt of the afflicted. Miz(ka in Binshasa is a c(lt of affliction !ro("ht to the city and represented lar"ely in the ,)ahili4 speakin" co**(nity. Men and )o*en are initiated follo)in" psychic crises, hall(cinations, nervo(sness, )ei"ht loss, )eakness, dizziness, and !ad l(ck =Bi!ea( et al. 19%9>. Dther c(lts of affliction in Binshasa incl(de @zondo, @k(ndo or ?li*a of northern py"*y infl(ence, Mikanda4 Mikanda, and 5e*!(. Ma!iala =19&2> has s(**arized the recent trends in Binshasa c(lts of affliction in !oth ne"ative and positive ter*s. 5he hi"h cost of livin" in the city has driven *any people to !eco*e healers to earn an inco*e. Many of these individ(als are not )ell trained and have pro*oted )idespread charlatanis*. +n the villa"e, )here *ost people kne) one another and )here a(thority )as *ore intact, this )as not so co**on. 8 2$ 8 Many people, seekin" sol(tions to their pro!le*s, fall victi* to the charlatans )ho hide their inco*petence !ehind a *ask of anony*ity and fakery, clai*in" to !e co*petent in )hatever their clientele see*s to need. 5his )illin"ness to !roaden the co*petence of the therape(tic foc(s for increased !(siness, Ma!iala and others call 0e2cessive "eneralis*.0 5his, ho)ever, also reflects the contin(ed adapta!ility of traditional *edicine in the face of a chan"in" variety of pro!le*s, incl(din" the !road and va"(e conditions that *ay lie !ehind specific or"anic sy*pto*s. 5he i*portation of a therape(tic tradition into an (r!an settin" far fro* )here it has !een learned or ori"inated *ay lead, in certain circ(*stances, to a "reater de"ree of a!straction of the principles involved in the selection and co*!ination of *edicines and techni3(es. +f specific plants or *aterials called for in the recipe are not availa!le in the city, s(!stit(tes *ay !e selected !ased on the dictates of (nderlyin" principles. - final, ne"ative develop*ent Ma!iala sees is the trend of -frican healers to *i*ic 9estern *edicine. 5hey *ay *odify their practice )ith technical ite*s s(ch as stethoscopes, *icroscopes, syrin"es, and of co(rse the )hite coat and the 0doctor0 title. Dn the positive side, Ma!iala notes the pro"ressive detri!alization of therape(tic rites. Clients< )illin"ness to cons(lt healers of lan"(a"e and c(lt(ral traditions other than their o)n per*its a "reater adapta!ility to (r!an conditions and circ(*stances. 5he e2chan"es of therape(tic kno)led"e that res(lt fro* healers the*selves receivin" treat*ent in c(lt(ral conte2ts other than their o)n, or !ein" in 0isolation0 )ith another tradition<s care, has the effect of spreadin" and enrichin" the kno)led"e !ase availa!le for all. -t the sa*e ti*e, there tends to !e a re1ection of those techni3(es that see* irrelevant or o!solete. - very positive develop*ent in -frican therape(tics is the addition, to this therape(tic !ase, of ideas of hy"iene ac3(ired !y readin", fro* *ass *edia, or thro("h *ore foc(sed pro"ra*s !y a"encies pro*otin" p(!lic health. 5he enco(ra"e*ent of healers< or"anizations !y the "overn*ent and the for*ation of a variety of s(ch "ro(ps has also !een a positive develop*ent, "ivin" "reater visi!ility

to healers and !rin"in" reco"nition !y scientists and health4care a"encies.

Ngoma On The S4ah#'# Coa!

Dne of the fore*ost co**on characteristics of the c(lts of affliction of Binshasa and 'ar es ,alaa* is that they are rit(als i*ported !y i**i"rants fro* all re"ions of the nation. +n 5anzania these c(lts of afflic4 8 21 8 tion fro* the coast and the interior are differentiated aro(nd partic(lar the*es and iss(es. they are also ethnically diversified. +n the (r!an settin", their practitioners contin(e the partic(lar e*phasis of the classic rite. B(t they also are sensitive to the chan"in" e2pectations (pon healers in the (r!an settin" and *ay shift their e*phasis to ne) iss(es. 'espite the diversity of c(lts fro* across 5anzania and the tendency for the* to !eco*e "eneralized to the (r!an settin", there is a sense in )hich c(lts of affliction are *ore ho*o"eneo(s in 'ar es ,alaa* than in Binshasa. 5he ter* ngoma is )idely reco"nized as connotin" perfor*ance, dr(**in", dancin", cele!ration, and rit(al therapy. 5his (nderstandin" of n"o*a *eans that the perfor*ances are independent of the healin" f(nctions, leadin" to a distinction !et)een n"o*a of entertain*ent and of healin" =ngoma za *utibu >. 5he do*inant co**(nity of n"o*a therapies in 'ar is that of the coastal Aara*o and Ai"(a peoples. -n i*portant )ork devoted to the s(!1ect !y 7innish ethno"rapher Mar1a4Fisa ,)antz =19%9> identifies the *a1or indi"eno(s n"o*a as C(n"(, Mado"oli, Billin"e, and C(hani. Many other distinctive n"o*a rites have !een identified a*on" i**i"rants to 'ar fro* coastal cities and the islands. - Bil)a healer practices n"o*a Manian"a and M!(n"i. -nother n"o*a cell "ro(p of healers practices Msa"hiro and @<an"a. +n addition to these n"o*a of coastal societies, one also finds n"o*a of inland "ro(ps in 'ar. 5he B(C)ezi c(lt of the lake re"ion is fo(nd in the city, as are those of other 9estern 5anzanian societies s(ch as the @ya*)ezi, the ,(k(*a, and even so*e @ilotic "ro(ps s(ch as the Maasai. 5he e2tensive )ritin" on n"o*a in ,(k(*a society near Fake ;ictoria *ay !e s(**arized !riefly for its e2cellent portrayal of a !ackdrop to so*e of the national activities that occ(r in n"o*a today.

A C'a!!#( P%o"#'e O" Ngoma In S*5*ma'an)1 0e! e%n Tanzan#a

5he ,(k(*a people, st(died e2tensively !y :ans Cory earlier in this cent(ry, offer a rich and ela!orate array of historic n"o*a co*para!le to that descri!ed a*on" the @de*!( !y ;ictor 5(rner. Cory, an -(strian ethnolo"ist )ho )orked for the British colonial "overn*ent, left !oth e2tensive p(!lished and (np(!lished archival notes, no) ho(sed in the -frican ,t(dies Center Fi!rary of the University of 'ar es ,alaa*. 5hese doc(*ents ill(strate varied approaches to classify and (nderstand the n"o*a associations. 8 22 8 -ccordin" to Cory, so*e n"o*a )ere devoted to ancestor )orship and divination: Uf(*(, on the paternal side. U*an"a, on the *aternal side. Ul(n"( and F()a*!o specifically !elon"ed to partic(lar clans. 5hese n"o*a Cory called 0non4sectarian ch(rches,0 since individ(als co(ld !elon" to several at once, and they )ere never intolerant of one another. Ma!asa )as 1oined !y parents of t)ins and )as concerned )ith the cere*onial cleansin" of t)in children. Dther n"o*a Cory sa) as "(ilds for the

st(dy and practice of partic(lar arts and occ(pations. 5hey for*ed stron", disciplined fraternities, involved in *(t(al assistance and the protection or perpet(ation of professional and technical secrets and o!li"ations. 5hese incl(ded: Uye"e, for !o)4and4arro) h(nters of elephants, )hich had evolved into a fraternity and dance society. Utand(, a type of "(ild for rifle h(nters of elephants. Uyeye and U"oyan"i, for snake handlin" and treatin" of snake !ites. Un(n"(li, for porc(pine h(nters. Ukonikoni, a "(ild of *edicine *en devoted to )itch findin". and Usa*!o, a thievin" or thief4catchin" society. U"(*ha =or U"ar(> and U"ika )ere n"o*a societies )itho(t discerni!le f(nction other than perfor*ance in dance co*petitions. ,alen"e )as a *(t(al aid and dance society into )hich only the leader )as f(lly initiated. Uz)ezi =or B(c)ezi>, )hich had co*e to the ,(k(*a fro* Us(*!ara, and Mi"a!o, )hich had co*e fro* the ,)ahili coast, had, after !ein" concerned )ith the ancestor )orship of certain clans, evolved into "eneralized dance societies =Cory 19#&>. Cory, the colonial ethnolo"ist, tho("ht that the n"o*a orders a*on" the ,(k(*a had a positive role !eca(se they did not *eddle in politics. +n the a!sence of other ,(k(*a initiations, they instr(cted the yo(th in respect for elders, provided social solidarity, and instilled fear of the conse3(ences of ne"lected social o!li"ations. 5h(s they contri!(ted to social sta!ility. 5hey also offered o(tlets for artistic and histrionic e2pression. 5he dance co*petitions he sa) as "enerally positive, altho("h they took *(ch ti*e a)ay fro* the peoples< )ork in the fields.

Ngoma O" The Lan)1 Ngoma O" The Coa!

5he partic(laris* of na*in" in the ,(k(*a n"o*a settin" s(""ests that there is *(ch innovation and adaptation in the overall idio*. +n n"o*a of the 'ar es ,alaa* ,)ahili coast, the proliferation of orders arises at least as *(ch fro* specific spirit classes as fro* partic(lar f(nctional specializations. 9hereas the n"o*a association na*es appear to offer a partic(larized vie) of n"o*a, spirit classes dia"nosed 8 2# 8 to possess afflicted individ(als are "eneralized into t)o or three "ro(ps. -*on" the coastal +sla*ized peoples, spirits are called *asheitani or *a1ini, !oth -ra!ic4,)ahili )ords. 5he distinction !et)een the t)o is not as i*portant, apparently, as that distin"(ishin" spirits of the )ater fro* those of the land, )ith so*e occasionally identified )ith the !each or coast. 5h(s, Msa"hiro is an n"o*a for s(fferers of chronic and severe headache ca(sed !y a co*!ination of Mar(hani, ,(!izani, and Mz(ka spirits, all coastal or !each spirits. ?ach of these classes is s(!divided. 5he ,(!izani, of )ho* there are ten, are !each or rock spirits. so*e are *ale, so*e fe*ale, )ho have to do )ith children, !oth *akin" the* ill and helpin" to raise the* to health. @<an"a n"o*a is a *anifestation of 9ar(n"( spirits of the land, hills, !ao!a! trees, and *o(ntains. their *ode of affliction is chronic severe headaches. 7re3(ently each spirit type )ill !e 0played0 in an n"o*a rit(al !y a partic(lar type of instr(*ent. @ot s(rprisin"ly, it is the *a1or inland spirits that are (s(ally represented !y the classic sin"le *e*!rane n"o*a dr(*s. ?**an(el Mshi( and +. -. J. ,e*ali of the 5raditional Medicine Cesearch Unit had arran"ed for *e to see Botoli Faie, a healer they kne) fro* their s(rveys, to )ork )ith n"o*a. Botoli )as a M(t(*!e fro* coastal Bil)a )ho lived in the Manzese locality of so(th)est 'ar es ,alaa*, not far fro* the *ain road !(t !ack in the villa"elike area filled )ith ho(ses s(rro(nded !y !anana and pal* trees and l(sh "ardens. Botoli )as ho*e, )ith his t)o )ives and children, and yes, he )o(ld "ladly talk. -nd yes, he did )ork )ith n"o*a: Manian"a and M!(n"i. :is ho(se )as lar"e for the area, )ith a raised co(rtyard s(ita!le for n"o*a perfor*ances and a mazimu ancestor shrine in one corner =see fi". 2>. Botoli had !eco*e an mganga =healer> in 19K2 and had o!tained the n"o*a di*ension of his )ork

apparently )itho(t sickness havin" dra)n hi* into it. + asked hi* )hether he had s(ffered prior to his initiation. 0@o,0 he said, he hadn<t !een sick, !(t he )as called to do n"o*a Manian"a and M!(n"i after he )as in practice. :e resisted it, !(t then )ent ahead any)ay. Botoli )as a vi"oro(s *an )ho talked in an a(thoritative voice. :e )illin"ly ans)ered *y 3(estions, ready to sho) *e the !asic lines of his )ork )ith n"o*a. :e )as a f(ll4ti*e healer, esta!lished )ith a )ell4!(ilt ho(se, e2(din" a cohesive a*!ience. :is children and t)o )ives listened attentively to o(r conversation. 0@"o*a Manian"a,0 he said, is (sed to deal )ith spirits of the interior of the co(ntry, that is, fro* 5a!ora and other re"ions across 8 2L 8

7i"(re 2. Co*po(nd of Botoli Faie in 'ar es ,alaa*. =a> ho(se. =!> n"o*a dr(*s kept here. =c> n"o*a perfor*ance area. =d> *azi*( ancestral shrine. =e> to*!. =f> cons(ltation and *edicine roo*. ="> strea* lined )ith !anana trees. 5anzania and ?ast -frica. 5hese *asheitani are ten in n(*!er: Mako"ila, -li Faka, -kia*(, -kolokoto, -ki*!(n"a, -*iyaka, -kiten"a, -nanditi, Chipila, and @d)e!e. 9hen people are affected )ith these *asheitani, they have !odily )eakness, loss of )ei"ht, or "eneral !odily s)ellin". they "et shakin" of the !ody, headache, and loss of appetite. 5hey need then to !e treated, to !e taken thro("h the co(rse of treat*ent incl(din" specific *ateria *edica fro* the m*obe =*edicine !asket>, as )ell as dancin". 7or his )ork )ith n"o*a Manian"a, Botoli (ses a si*ple cost(*e consistin" of a red !lo(se and *atchin" skirt, )ith desi"ns se)n on the !lo(se =see plate %>. :is paraphernalia incl(de a s*all n"o*a dr(* =musondo , also (sed in p(!erty rites> so*eti*es a s*aller do(!le *e*!rane dr(*, and a!o(t ten sets of "o(rd shakers. 5here )ere also sets of cloths in red, !lack, and other colors, associated )ith vario(s spirits. 5he strin"s Botoli )ore aro(nd his sho(lders had red, )hite, and !lack !a"s se)n onto the*, )hich sy*!olically artic(lated cos*olo"ical oppositions s(ch as the do*estic vers(s the )ild and land vers(s )ater. ?ach of his n"o*a incl(ded a *edicine !asket =m*obe >, in )hich he 8 2K 8 kept a collection of a dozen or so s*all 1ars and tins of *edicines specific to the n"o*a. =5his set of rit(al ite*s is stron"ly re*iniscent of the n*obe of )estern Bon"o.> @"o*a M!(n"i has *(ch the sa*e paraphernalia: dr(*s, shakers, and m*obe . 5he five n"o*a dr(*s of M!(n"i represent five (p4co(ntry *asheitani: Mchola, Mati*!(na, M!on"oloni, Chen1el(, and Bi*!an"al("o*i, each of )hich is ro(sed and *anip(lated !y its o)n dr(*. 5he instr(*entation also incl(des t)o )ooden do(!le "on"s, )hich Botoli de*onstrated. 5he rese*!lance !et)een this n"o*a kit and those of the ,o(thern ,avanna4to4Bon"o re"ion is strikin" and raises 3(estions a!o(t their co**on history. 7(rther research is needed to esta!lish the appro2i*ate historical connection in the spread of these rit(als across the *id4continent. 9ere they prod(cts of the coast =Bil)a>45a!ora4 Bi"o*a trade ro(te in the nineteenth cent(ry and earlierI Dr )ere they the prod(ct of an even earlier

co**on fra*e)orkI Botoli said he )orks )ith five to seven other 'aganga =healers> in the n"o*a rites )hen the perfor*ance is at his ho(se and he is the leader. else)here the host for that event is the leader. :e noted that he has had *any novices and )as still in to(ch )ith the* thro("h n"o*a events, altho("h he co(ld not "ive their precise n(*!er. -ltho("h Botoli o)ns the instr(*ents that are part of the paraphernalia of each n"o*a of )hich he is healer, he is not the e2pert dr(**er in the rites. 7or *a1or rites he hires dr(**ers )ho are noted for their skill. they need not !e novices or patients. 5he perfor*ers )ho do therape(tic n"o*a are th(s the sa*e as those doin" sec(lar n"o*a, or n"o*a for circ(*cision, or any other festival or cere*ony. +t is the conte2t and content of the son"s, then, that identifies n"o*a as therape(tic.

Ngoma 3#!+en!a%#e!1 Fee6Fo%6Se%$#(e R# *a'

7(rther insi"ht into the or"anization of n"o*a in 'ar es ,alaa* )as afforded !y a visit in 5e*eke 'istrict of 'ar es ,alaa* )ith the :assan !rothers, )ho are pro*inent in the ,hirika la Mada)a ya Biasili, a coastal or"anization of healers. + )as acco*panied !y ?. B. Makala of the Ministry of C(lt(re, )hose *(sic and dance section not only sponsors n"o*a dance co*petitions aro(nd the co(ntry !(t also is cond(ctin" research on the son"4dance aspects of therape(tic n"o*a. Mzee D*ari :assan<s ho(se is also his clinic. 5he *ain hall and sev4 8 2J 8 eral side roo*s and the !ack co(rt )ere loosely filled )ith sick people and D*ari<s fa*ily. +n this fa*ily all three )ives helped care for the sick, as )ell as the t)o sons. 5he )ives )ere introd(ced at one point, then disappeared. the sons )ere allo)ed to participate in the talks and even asked 3(estions later. D*ari<s !rother +sa, )ho is also a healer, ca*e !y at one point to say hello. 5his partic(lar tradition had !een trans*itted fro* one "eneration to the ne2t in the patriline for a lon" ti*e, )ell !efore the ti*e fo(r "enerations a"o )hen the fa*ily had converted to +sla*. D*ari and fa*ily are of the 9azi"(a tri!e, of the Ba"a*oyo 'istrict. :e had *oved to 'ar in the 19L$s. D*ari :assan spoke of the )ay he had learned the teachin"s of healin" fro* his father. :is father, like hi*self, had involved his children in the )ork. 5he children )o(ld "o alon" )ith hi* to search for *edicines in the forest, and he )o(ld e2plain details to the*. ,i*ilarly, D*ari involved his fa*ily. the children play the n"o*a dr(*s in the rites. -s in the case of Botoli, D*ari<s n"o*a techni3(es had !een picked (p as part of his occ(pation, rather than in connection )ith an ordeal of sickness and possession. :e specifically denied havin" !een sick )ith the diseases that )ere treated thro("h the n"o*a he kne). -ll si2 had !een learned fro* his father, and )ere very old: Msa"hiro, for persons s(fferin" chronic headache, if no other c(re is forthco*in" =s*all dr(*s rese*!lin" to(rist dr(*s are (sed>. Mado"oli, for treatin" *ental dist(r!ances in persons )ith a hi"h state of a"itation. @<"an"a =or @<an"a> for incessant, severe, *i"rainelike headaches. Manian"a, for persons )ith n(*! or paralyzed li*!s, especially on one side of the !ody =shakers are the instr(*ent here>. Fichindika, for lo)er4!ack pains, )hen persistent. and Binya*(kera, for those s(fferin" fro* an affliction )hose si"ns incl(de partial loss of eyesi"ht and t)isted *o(th or face. 9hen asked ho) *any n"o*a he had perfor*ed the previo(s )eek, D*ari indicated that it had !een a!o(t fifteen, that is, several per day. 5his occ(rred in the conte2t of (p to fifty patients per day fre3(entin" his clinic.

5his pict(re of n"o*a differed fro* the one + had enco(ntered earlier. Cather than a s(fferer4novice !ein" initiated to a cell or net)ork, this style of treat*ent rese*!led a clinic )ith a doctor and *any p(!lic clients. 9as this the res(lt of (r!an co*ple2 society, or of professionalization, in )hich the rit(als are taken over !y a specialist and dispensed to patientsI 8 2% 8 D*ari treats a variety of cases )ith her!s and *ineral *edicines. 9hen asked )hat his *ost fre3(ent cases are, he *entioned cancer, dia!etes, asth*a, "onorrhea, he*orrhoids, headaches, !ackaches, *ental dist(r!ances6in other )ords, he tries his hand at a!o(t anythin". Makala told of ho) D*ari :assan had treated a !oy )ith a distended eye!all, after this child had !een to the ,tate :ospital at M(hi*!ili and they co(ld not do anythin" for hi*. - pict(re taken !y 'r. ?**an(el Mshi( had !een in the ne)spaper )ith a )rite4(p of traditional *edicine as a reso(rce. 5he eye had !een p(t !ack, or had retreated !ack into its socket, follo)in" D*ari<s treat*ent. 9hen asked )hat cases he )o(ld refer to hospitals, he said, 0ordinary sickness0 !(t not sheitani =spirit> sicknesses. + tried to deter*ine ho) D*ari related his )ork as *"an"a n"o*a to +sla*. :e had st(died in Boranic school, as had so*e of his sons. 9hen asked )hich order he !elon"ed to, he said 0M(ha**adiyya,0 (n)illin" to co**it hi*self on )hether he )as ,(nni, ,hi<ia, or ,(fi. 9hen asked a!o(t those M(sli*s )ho !elieve their +sla*ic !elief )ill not per*it the* to practice n"o*a rit(als, he said that )as an indication of their not !ein" )ell trained. 5hey do not kno) a!o(t n"o*a. - co*petent M(sli* doctor has to (se n"o*a, if one is confronted )ith sheitani 4ca(sed illnesses. @"o*a, he said, helps the patients to e2press their an2ieties and to perceive treat*ent *ethods fro* the sheitani as they speak thro("h the s(fferers. D*ari<s "(idance for his therape(tic )ork ca*e fro* another so(rce, an -ra!ic te2t. :e sho)ed *e a thick !ook, 0fro* ?"ypt,0 )itho(t title or a(thor =it had !een re!o(nd and started on pa"e 1K>. :e also kept note!ooks in )hich he recorded so*e of his o)n techni3(es and interpreted the* for his sons. :e said that he had not added to the very old n"o*a his father had ta("ht hi*, !(t that he had i*proved on so*e of the *ethods. :e also sho)ed *e note!ooks =,)ahili in -ra!ic script> in )hich he copied and interpreted *edical practices fro* the !ook, as )ell as his findin"s a!o(t plants and n"o*a techni3(es. 5his "ave evidence of the active codification of -frican her!al and rit(al therapy in interpretative )ritin", alon"side )hatever version of +sla*ic *edicine this !ook offered. D*ari<s involve*ent in the Dr"anization of 5raditional Medicine, ,hirika la Mada)a ya Biasili, *eant that he co(ld practice in an a(thorized n"o*a dispensary. 5he or"anization, )ith !ranches in 'ar, Ba"a*oyo, and Moro"oro, (tilized these dispensaries for their *eetin"s and their therape(tic sessions. D*ari sho)ed *e a file of corre4 8 2& 8 spondence )ith the "overn*ent, dealin" )ith the ,hirika<s or"anization and )ith "overn*ent a(thorization. Dne letter a(thorized hi* to practice on condition his place !e checked ann(ally !y so*eone fro* the Ministry of :ealth. '(rin" another visit + )as )itness to perfor*ances of n"o*a Msa"hiro and @<an"a. 9e received the sa*e )elco*e as !efore. little children ca*e to *eet (s and took o(r !a"s fro* (s for the last part of the )alk. 9e a"ain received Pepsis. D*ari ca*e in and )elco*ed (s, altho("h he dashed off a"ain to *ake preparations for Msa"hiro and @<an"a. 9e sat for a ti*e, and Makala of the *(sic section of the Ministry of C(lt(re chatted )ith an Ms(k(*a fello) and )ith another *an, dressed in a s(it and dark

"lasses, )ho said he represented the political party in po)er. -nother individ(al )as a patient, and a second said he, too, )as a patient, !(t he also t(rned o(t to !e involved in a healers< or"anization )ith the :assan !rothers. Presently )e )ere (shered several ho(ses a)ay )here a!o(t t)enty4five to thirty *en and )o*en and *any children )ere seated or stood aro(nd the open co(rtyard that led to the roofed and partially enclosed n"o*a dispensary. Dne part of this area )as a dance or perfor*ance area. Beyond this, accessi!le !y a door fro* the perfor*ance area, )as a *edicine roo* on )hose door )as posted the doctor<s hand4painted shin"le =see fi". #>. 9hen Makala and + entered the co(rtyard )e shook hands )ith nearly everyone, a*idst *(ch e2cited p(shin" and positionin". 5hen they !e"an Msa"hiro, an n"o*a for s(fferers of chronic and severe headache ca(sed !y a co*!ination of Mar(hani, ,(!iyani, and Mzika spirits, all coastal or !each sheitani . 5he ,(!iyani, of )ho* there are ten, are 0!each0 or 0rock0 spirits. 5hey are *ale and fe*ale, and have to do )ith children, !oth )ith *akin" the* ill and helpin" to raise the* to health. +f a *ale spirit appears, the healer treats the ri"ht side of the !ody. if fe*ale, the left side. 5he fe*ale patient of this session )as told to sit on a s*all stool, !efore )hich )ere placed three s*all "o(rd *edicine containers covered )ith strands of red, )hite, !l(e, and yello) !eads. D*ari<s !rother +sa took one of these and spread the *edicine, )ith a for* of s)a! or t(!e, atop her head, and at several sy**etrical points on her face, and do)n her li*!s, and on front and !ack, th(s 0o(tlinin"0 her person. -s the sin"in" contin(ed, )ith five s*all do(!le *e*!rane dr(*s and a rattle, the *en and )o*en danced and san" in p(lsatin" *ove*ent to)ard and a)ay fro* the patient =see fi". #>. 5hen +sa !ro("ht o(t a 8 29 8

7i"(re #. @"o*a dispensary in 'ar es ,alaa*, as (sed !y +sa and D*ari :assan of the healers< or"anization ,hirika la Mada)a. =a> street entrance. =!> open co(rtyard. =c> ho(sehold roo*s. =d> roofed n"o*a perfor*ance sta"e. =e> *edicine roo*. ,ta"e sho)s locations of perfor*ers in session )itnessed !y a(thor and descri!ed in te2t. !i" antelope4horn container, and circled it aro(nd the patient several ti*es co(nterclock)ise =lookin" do)n>. 7ollo)in" Msa"hiro, they anno(nced they )o(ld do a traditional "reetin" of the visitor, first one of the* !ein" the s(!1ect of attention, to sho) ho) it )ent, then it )o(ld !e *e. 5he "reetin" pattern, si*ilar to the therape(tic rit(al, )as that all ad(lts present )o(ld dance4sh(ffle to)ard *e, first a ro) of *en, then )o*en, and thr(st the*selves close to *e, then !ack off in the sa*e sh(ffle. -fter a n(*!er of these "ro(p advances, each one in the ro) shook *y hand three ti*es. +t *ade *e feel + had !eco*e the event<s center, that they )ere affir*in" *e. + felt stren"thened and foc(sed !y their attention. ,(rely there )as iconic po)er in the healin" dances aro(nd a s(fferer, altho("h it )as diffic(lt to analyze the co*ponents or even the so(rce of this po)er. 5hen ca*e the @<"an"a =prono(nced 0n<an"a0> dance, a"ain for chronic severe headache, a *anifestation of 9ar(n"( sheitani , spirits

8 #$ 8 of the land, hills, !ao!a! trees, and the *o(ntains. 5he instr(*entation )as li*ited to shakers this ti*e. ,in"in" )as led !y +sa, in a call4and4response *anner. 5he patient )as the foc(s of the dance. 5he short 0fee for service0 dance )as a hi"hly eliptical version of n"o*a co*pared to )hat + had seen in ,o(thern -frica, or in the historic 9estern ?3(atorial -frican e2a*ples. +t )as closest in co*parison to one n"o*a (nit + o!served in the 9estern Cape =see chapter L>. 5he patient did not enter trance, altho("h this had pro!a!ly !een done previo(sly. ?vidently each of the n"o*a sessions follo)s a divination that identifies the spirit (tterance and that then leads into the therape(tic response. M. F. ,)antz speaks of the healin" rite in the coastal n"o*a as 0e2orcis*.0 5his *ay )ell fit the sit(ation in )hich there is no initiatory follo)4thro("h. 5his *ay !e related to the very lo) rate of persons treated =e2orcised> "oin" on to !e trained as )a"an"a, )hich, accordin" to +sa :assan, is only three to fo(r per h(ndred, a rate confir*ed !y Floyd ,)antz =19%L>. 5he i*plications of this pattern for professional control of the reso(rce, as )ell as of the *odel of therapy, are taken (p a"ain in chapter J.

Ngoma An) I!'am

@ot far a)ay in Manzese4B)ad1on"o lives *"an"a Maha*o(d Bin"iri4n"iri, a ,(fi M(sli* of the Mat(*!e people fro* Bil)a. Unlike *"an"a Botoli, descri!ed earlier in this chapter, Maha*o(d )orks )ith &itabu =the !ook>, magi =)ater>, and nzizi =roots>, and )ith C(hani and Ma1ini spirits of the sea. Unlike *"an"a D*ari :assan, )ho is M(sli* and (ses n"o*a, as does non4M(sli* Botoli, Maha*o(d does not (se or relate to n"o*a, on "ro(nds of his adherence to ,(fis*. 5he *atrices of Bant(4-frican and M(sli* c(lt(re, and the (se and non(se of n"o*a !y )a"an"a, are clearly ill(strated !y these three healers. Maha*o(d has a )ell4!(ilt ho(se near a strea*, )ith !anana and pal* trees s(rro(ndin" it. 5he t)o4 story ho(se contains his st(dy, )here he has his !ooks. it also feat(res a cons(ltation !ench, a place of prayer, a p(rification4!athin" roo*, and an o(tdoor treatin" area. 9hen + visited hi* )ith a "(ide fro* the 5raditional Medicine Cesearch Unit, several of his fo(r )ives )ere seated in the hall)ay, )ith children on their laps. Maha*o(d has had fifteen children, t)elve of )ho* s(rvive. :e i*pressed *e as an a*!itio(s, intelli"ent, reli"io(s *an, )ho took his )ork serio(sly and cared for his fa*ily. 9hen asked )hether he had !een to Mecca on a pil"ri*a"e, he said no, he co(ld 8 #1 8 not leave his )ives and children that lon", they needed hi*. any)ay, he did not have the *oney. 9ith his several interrelated treat*ents, Maha*o(d )orks )ith afflictions as diverse as polio =for )hich he has a co*po(nd of t)enty4one *edicines, to !e taken )ith )ater over three days>, e2cessive or irre"(lar *enstr(ation =+ o!served hi* treatin" one s(ch patient. he read to her fro* a !ook>, conv(lsive fevers, diarrhea and vo*itin", and the preparation of aphrodisiacs for the i*potent. :e also )orks )ith Ma1ini =of )hich seven are "ood and help treat, and five are !ad and !rin" disease>, and Mar(hani =all seven of )hich are "ood and help treat>. 5hese spirits all stay in the ocean, !(t they co*e o(t or are fo(nd in other places. the Mar(hani at clean places, the Ma1ini at dirty places like latrines. 9hen he treats, he !e"ins )ith the na*e and other aspects of the life of the patient !ased on the !irth date. 7ollo)in" a readin" of his -ra!ic ="eo*ancyI> te2ts, he "oes to sacred places, starts to pray, and the spirits co*e for)ard, tellin" hi* )hat to do )ith the patient.

5he -ra!ic te2t Maha*o(d (ses *ost is !y the ?"yptian -!d(l Pattah of Macina. +t tells of all types of diseases and treat*ents, incl(din" Mar(hani and Ma1ini. :e also (ses the Boran and has n(*ero(s other -ra!ic !ooks in his st(dy. :e spoke ,)ahili and ?n"lish. :is father had insisted on sendin" his three sons to Boranic school, !(t he )as the only one )ho had follo)ed this line of )ork in the fa*ily tradition fro* his father and "randfather. Dne of his sons )as !ein" "roo*ed to s(cceed hi*. 5he fa*ily =patrilineal> therape(tic tradition !e"an in the conte2t of villa"e protection d(rin" the Ma1i4 Ma1i revolt earlier in this cent(ry a"ainst the /er*an colonialists. Maha*o(d<s "reat4"reat "randfather had !een head of a Mat(*!e villa"e near Bil)a. +n the thick of the Ma1i4Ma1i str(""le, his "randfather )as sent to the -ra!s to learn of !etter *edicine, for they felt inade3(ately protected. 9hen his "randfather died, the )ork )as passed on to Maha*o(d<s father, then to hi*. 9hen Maha*o(d !eca*e *"an"a, he locked hi*self in a roo* and read !ooks. 5h(s in isolation, the Mar(hani ca*e to hi* and asked, 09hat do yo( )antI0 05o !e mganga ,0 he replied. 5he Mar(hani e2plained cleanliness and e*phasized p(rification )ith )ater. :is ho(se, especially the areas for prayer and healin", )as i**ac(lately clean. a floor of )hite porcelain tile )as visi!le !eside the 0!ath t(!.0 + asked Maha*o(d Bin"iri4n"iri )hy he did not (se n"o*a, )hen so*e others6Aara*o, reported in ,)antz, and Ai"(a s(ch as +sa :assan6did, especially )ith C(hani spirits. :e e*phasized +sla*ic restric4 8 #2 8 tions !(t also that n"o*a )as 1(st 0happiness,0 not real *edicine. Perhaps a f(rther ans)er lies in his !ein" part of a ,(fi !rotherhood, )hich is in effect a rit(al co**(nity that f(nctionally s(!stit(tes for n"o*a. 5his ,(fi !rotherhood did not have a saint, he said, !(t they had a tradition of sheikhs. 5he three 5anzanian )a"an"a profiled here represent a contin((* fro* classical n"o*a practitioners to de"rees of +sla*ization. +n the coastal association in )hich the :assan !rothers are instr(*ental, +sla*ic !rotherhood str(ct(re and (r!an professionalis* have chan"ed the n"o*a tradition. 5he sy*!olis* and the rit(als have !een affected less. 9ith Maha*o(d Bin"iri4n"iri, the etiolo"y of n"o*a is addressed fro* )ithin an +sla*ic fra*e)ork. Plant lore has !een retained, !(t the le"iti*ation has !eco*e that of folk +sla* and *ysticis*. - si*ilar contin((* co(ld !e traced fro* classic n"o*a to independent Christian ch(rches in 5anzania, )hich, ho)ever, + co(ld not p(rs(e.

Ngoma O" 7ea'#ng1 Ngoma O" En e% a#nmen

5he distinction !et)een 0therape(tic0 and 0entertain*ent0 n"o*a is an i*portant one in (nderstandin" the lar"er dyna*ics of reli"ion and rit(al in 'ar es ,alaa* society. 5his distinction already see*s to have e2isted in early t)entieth4cent(ry ,(k(*a n"o*a, as descri!ed !y Cory. +t )as i*plicit in the o!servation of Botoli Faie that the n"o*a dr(**in"4dancin" is distinct fro* the *edicines and is done for the e2orcistic or therape(tic initiatory seances !y hired *(sicians. :ere the definition of ngoma as 0perfor*ance0 co*es into its o)n. 5he sacrality or sec(larity of n"o*a depends not on the *(sic or dance for* as s(ch, !(t on its f(nction or (se, its conte2t. @"o*a perfor*ances in ni"ht cl(!s and folkloric events p(t on !y the national dance tro(pe do not, th(s, differ in their for* fro* possession or e2orcistic rit(als cond(cted !y )a"an"a. :o)ever, the sec(lar n"o*a 0for entertain*ent0 possi!ly reflects an evol(tion of the partic(lar rit(al fro* its ori"inal conte2t, foc(sed on a s(fferer in the *idst of personal crisis, to a *ore "eneralized perfor*ance o(tside that foc(s and the ti*in" of a crisis. Dn a partic(lar day d(rin" *y stay in 'ar es ,alaa* in 19&#, the follo)in" n"o*a, licensed !y the Ministry of C(lt(re, )ere perfor*ed. M(n"ano, its na*e derived fro* the ,(k(*a snake dance

n"o*a, )as perfor*ed in a !ar, and later in the )eek at the ;illa"e M(se(*. 5anita. Uta*ad(ni, an n"o*a "ro(p sponsored !y the 5anzania Cail4 8 ## 8 )ay Corporation. ''C Bi!isa. Ain1 'ancin" 5ro(pe. and Bik(ndi Cha ,anaa, sponsored !y the @ational 5e2tile Corporation. -t the (r"in" of the staff at the Ministry of C(lt(re, + attended a ,(nday evenin" perfor*ance of the Bara"(*a n"o*a "ro(p fro* Ba"a*oyo at the -l*ana +lala ni"htcl(! =see plate &>. Dver thirty s(ch "ro(ps )ere re"istered in 'ar es ,alaa* alone, in addition to dance !ands and 1azz "ro(ps =Martin 19&2>. 5his richness in entertain*ent *(sic reflects not only the *(sicians< openness to ne) idio*s s(ch as 1azz, !(t the diversity of *(sical offerin"s in the historical c(lt(re of ?ast -frica. ?. B. Makala at the dance section of the Ministry of C(lt(re, )ho concentrates on n"o*a, noted that n"o*a in the 0traditional0 settin" is (sed for a ran"e of occasions, incl(din" circ(*cisions, )eddin"s, and *o(rnin", not to *ention healin" and dance co*petitions. 5he son"s are a!o(t the occasion, th(s hi"hly conte2t(alized. ?very perfor*ance feat(res e2tensive i*provisation. 5he size of the "ro(p depends on the )ealth of the pro*oter or sponsor. Makala fo(nd it i*possi!le to speak of a 0typical0 n"o*a "ro(p. :o)ever, "ro(ps are distin"(isha!le !y criteria of son", dance step, distinct rhyth*, and so*eti*es cost(*e. +n the villa"e, he noted, one )o(ld hire a local "ro(p. in 'ar one *i"ht !e o!li"ed to hire one fro* another ethnic !ack"ro(nd. -ll of the thirty n"o*a "ro(ps in 'ar derive fro* r(ral areas. +n their hired events these "ro(ps *i"ht perfor* a son"4dance =his ter*> that had !een (sed for healin", s(ch as Manian"a, !(t this )o(ld !e a 0*istake,0 that is, a *isapplication or chan"e of the p(re for* of the rite fro* its ori"inal p(rpose. Makala feared that these kinds of chan"es *eant the real *eanin" of the dance )as "ettin" lost in the city. :e la*ented the lack of "ood teachers and a loss of a)areness of the dance<s history. :o)ever, the standard of sta"in" in the (r!an settin" is !etter, he tho("ht, )ith li"hts and a*plifiers for live perfor*ances, perfor*ances on Cadio 5anzania, and even pro*otion for overseas to(rs. +n 19&# the n"o*a "ro(ps rarely *ade recordin"s for resale. M(n"ano, the na*e of a historic ,(k(*a and @ya*)ezi n"o*a for snake handlin", had !een adopted !y @or!ert Chen"a of the Ministry of C(lt(re as the na*e of the n"o*a "ro(p he or"anized. :e had st(died )ith a ,(k(*a *"an"a for a!o(t si2 *onths !(t had not co*pleted his apprenticeship. :is M(n"ano tro(pe perfor*ed re"(larly at the national ;illa"e M(se(* in 'ar es ,alaa* for an a(dience of 'ar residents and a fe) to(rists and forei"ners. 5he tro(pe consisted of fifteen yo(n" *en and fifteen yo(n" )o*en, )ho donned a different cost(*e for each dance, *ainly arran"e*ents of colorf(l -frican print 8 #L 8 cloths. 5hey )ere acco*panied !y a!o(t t)elve6*ostly n"o*a6dr(*s and t)o 2ylophones. -n a*plifier )as ri""ed so that the *icrophone co(ld !e shifted fro* one instr(*ent to another. Prior to the perfor*ance, it )as propped a"ainst a cassette recorder playin" Con"o 1azz )ith Fin"ala lyrics. 5he tro(pe !e"an )ith n"o*a Mse)e, )hich ori"inated in Aanzi!ar, and it (sed to !e perfor*ed at +sla*ic festivals. 5he dress )as appropriately +sla*ic, )ith )hite caps for the *en and print aprons for the )o*en. Men and )o*en danced separately in t)o lon" lines. 5his )as follo)ed !y Mase)e, a dance ori"inatin" in the Findi re"ion of so(thern 5anzania, perfor*ed on 0happy occasions,0 for )hich the dancers )hitened their faces. Ukala, a 0h(ntin"0 dance fro* 5an"a, depicted a h(ntin" e2pedition and "lorified h(ntin" as a

rep(ta!le activity. +t )as preceded !y a panto*i*e of t)o h(nters stalkin" "a*e, shootin", c(ttin" (p the *eat, findin" honey. 5hen they )ere 1oined !y tro(pes of *en and )o*en )ith !o)s and arro)s and !askets. -fter an interl(de of acro!atics, the "ro(p perfor*ed n"o*a ,indi*!a fro* the Makonde re"ion of coastal 5anzania and Moza*!i3(e. ,indi*!a is done )hen the yo(th ret(rn fro* initiation ca*ps, havin" "rad(ated into ad(lthood. +t is a lively dance )ith se2(ally s(""estive *ove*ent. 5his )as follo)ed !y Chit(*!o, Fin")ele, and @"on"oti *asked stilt dancin". 5hen ca*e B("o!o"o!o, a 0social realis*0 n"o*a in )hich the dancers (sed hoes and !askets, shields and "(ns, as props. +t )as a ri"idly choreo"raphed depiction of )ork )ith these tools that took the n"o*a )ork4 son" idio* and applied it to national conscio(sness. ?veryone *(st take (p ar*s and !e vi"ilant, 1(st as far*ers )ork to"ether )ith hoes. 5he u+amaa cooperative spirit that has al)ays !een evident in prod(ctive )ork is pointedly applied in this dance. 5he !i" n"o*a dr(* (sed here is an ori"inal instr(*ent (sed as pacer in co**(nal far*in" a*on" the ,(k(*a, even today. 7inally, at the close, ca*e the snake4handlin" dance, M(n"ano, after )hich the tro(pe had !een na*ed. +t )as preceded !y skillf(l acro!atics !y *e*!ers of the 'irectorate of C(lt(re. -s the dr(*s !eat their special M(n"ano rhyth*, a lar"e chest )as opened in the p(!lic circle. 5)o pythons )ere taken o(t !y the dancers and released to slither aro(nd and fri"hten the cro)d. ;ol(nteers )ere so("ht to let the*selves !e !itten !y the snakes. - *an and a !oy ca*e for)ard, and )hen the lethar"ic python finally did strike the !oy in the !(ttocks, the 8 #K 8 cro)d roared. Chen"a, the director, told *e later that these snakes are very ta*e and have short teeth, and are not, of co(rse, poisono(s. 5he principle !ein" de*onstrated )as, ho)ever, a very serio(s one. +n )estern 5anzania, )here there are poisono(s vipers, this e2ercise is intended to ed(cate the p(!lic a!o(t snakes, and to teach the* not to fear snakes. 9ithin M(n"ano, *e*!ers of the n"o*a have kno)led"e of antidotes and are the*selves i**(nized )ith the veno*s. they allo) the*selves to !e !itten d(rin" the perfor*ances. 5he 0folklorization0 of n"o*a, as seen here, reflects the process of !rin"in" to"ether ethnically and re"ionally diverse dances that are perfor*ed in a rather different conte2t than ori"inally intended. 5his process is to so*e e2tent "(ided !y the "overn*ental (nits. Co*petitions are or"anized, 1(st as in earlier ti*es. son"4dance is so*eti*es (tilized, as in the B("o!o"o!o, for nationalistic e*phasis. ,o*e of these sa*e dances )ere perfor*ed !y Bara"(*a6act(ally the teachin" staff of a secondary school 6at the ni"ht cl(!, )here the a(dience had paid at the door to see the sho). 5herape(tic n"o*a are th(s, in 'ar es ,alaa*, a s*all part of all n"o*a, !(t a very central and for*ative part.

Sangoma8 3#$#n#ng The S %e!!e! O" Ra+#) In)*! %#a'#za #on In No% h Ng*n# So(#e &
7ar to the so(th, the 'rakens!er" ran"e divides the interior platea(s fro* the coastal flatlands, in )hat is no) ,o(th -frica, ,)aziland, and Fesotho. 5he *o(ntains also separate t)o *a1or c(lt(ral historical "ro(pin"s: the @"(ni4speakers of the )etter, *ore tropical settin". the ,otho45s)ana on the drier, hi"hland interior. Ma1or socioc(lt(ral distinctions separate these "ro(pin"s in a )ay that infl(ences o(r s(!1ect. 5he @"(ni4speakers, thro("h the ei"hteenth cent(ry, lived in decentralized s*all ho*estead settle*ents of c(ltivators )ho also kept livestock. 5heir social and political or"anization )as linea"e4 !ased. 5he ,otho45s)ana, !y contrast, had lar"er to)n settle*ents, )ith stron" centralized chiefdo*s. 5heir cattle re*ained at o(tposts in the and re"ions to the )est. their fields )ere arran"ed aro(nd the to)ns and c(ltivated seasonally. ,ocial life and *ost p(!lic affairs )ere cond(cted in the to)ns,

partic(larly in the chief<s co(rt, the *gotla . -t the !e"innin" of the nineteenth cent(ry social and political (p4heavals6kno)n as the Mfecane6 a*on" the @"(ni "ave rise to the centralized states of the A(l(, ,)azi, @de!ele, and Pedi, and those of 8 #J 8 the diaspora "ro(ps to the north in Ai*!a!)e, Aa*!ia, Mala)i, and 5anzania. 5hese states )ere not so deep4rooted as to offer the sta!le, co(rtlike conte2t and type of p(!lic life that had evolved "rad(ally a*on" the ,otho45s)ana. 5herefore, a*on" the @"(ni, n"o*a as it is !ein" st(died in this !ook )as the *a1or )ay of dealin" )ith adversity, *isfort(ne, and sickness. +t is lar"ely a*on" the @"(ni4 speakin" societies of so(thern -frica that this story *ay !e fo(nd. :o)ever, the settin" of n"o*a in ,o(thern -frica re3(ires f(ller conte2t(alization than si*ply a contrastin" of @"(ni )ith ,otho45s)ana. 5he Mfecane )as follo)ed shortly !y the inc(rsion of -frikaaner )a"on trains into )hat is no) the Dran"e 7ree ,tate and the 5ransvaal. 5he societies that had ne)ly for*ed as states )ere en"a"ed in !attle and defeated. their pro(d citizens )ere red(ced to servants of the -frikaaners on their o)n lands. 5his )as follo)ed, late in the nineteenth cent(ry, !y the discovery of "old and dia*onds and the e*er"ence of the *a1or la!or *i"ration pattern that en"(lfed the entire s(!continent. -fricans, deprived of their land, needed to )ork in the *ines and far*s of the )hite *an to *ake a livin". 5h(s the story of n"o*a in ,o(thern -frica also needs to !e sit(ated in the conte2t of a divided society, of !roken ho*es, of la!or ca*ps and *ines, and in the t)entieth cent(ry, of the (r!an settle*ents and the to)nships. 7or these reasons the t)o @"(ni4related sites that ca*e to !e of partic(lar interest in this s(rvey )ere the Manzini4M!a!ane corridor in ,)aziland, an ind(strializin", (r!anizin" settin" in an independent co(ntry, and the to)nships s(rro(ndin" Cape 5o)n, )here the vario(s c(lt(ral threads of ,o(th -frican society co*e to"ether in the conte2t of apartheid r(le. 5hese t)o settin"s allo) for co*parison !et)een several contrastin" sit(ations, !oth across the *iddle of the continent and in the re"ion of ,o(thern -frica. @"o*a in ,o(thern -frica is far *ore (nitary in its instit(tional or"anization than )hat )e have seen in Binshasa and 'ar es ,alaa*. +t is not or"anized into several dozen f(nctionally specific n"o*a orders as a*on" the @de*!( or the ,(k(*a. @or is it as fre3(ently, nor as e2tensively, (sed for entertain*ent. 5he (nitary str(ct(re of n"o*a in ,o(thern -frica co*!ines !oth divination and therape(tic net)ork !(ildin". 5he M!a!ane4Manzini and Cape 5o)n co*parison per*its (s to see contrasts !et)een a settin" o(tside ,o(th -frica and one inside ,o(th -frica6)ithin the fra*e)ork of a sin"le c(lt(ral4lin"(istic "ro(pin", 8 #% 8 the @"(ni4speakin" societies: ,han"ani, 5hon"a, @de!ele, ,)azi, A(l(, Hhosa, and Pedi. Dne of the *ost startlin" contrasts in n"o*a e2pression across this re"ion is the shift, fro* so(th to north, of increasin"ly ela!orate techni3(e and de*onstrative trance in divinin"4healin". -*on" the Hhosa, (ndra*atic *editative and co(nselin" techni3(es are (sed !et)een healers and their clients. 5he spirits )ho are called on are (s(ally ancestors, or va"(e evil or nat(re spirits. -*on" A(l( diviners, *echanistic !one4thro)in" techni3(es prevail. 5he ,)azi, ho)ever, altho("h the sa*e holds tr(e for a part of their )ork, have reco(rse re"(larly to far *ore de*onstrative possession trance !ehavior as they are visited !y a series of increasin"ly po)erf(l and distant nat(re and alien spirits. 5he reasons for this

*arked contrast in n"o*a )ithin a sin"le c(lt(ral4lin"(istic re"ion )ill !e addressed later in this chapter after the introd(ction of ethno"raphic *aterial.

A S4az# Co''ege Fo% 3#$#ne%67ea'e%!

My *a1or e2pos(re to n"o*a activities and instit(tions in the @orth @"(ni settin" ca*e thro("h several e2tended visits to the n"o*a trainin" colle"e and clinic of +da Ma!(za of Betani, *id)ay !et)een the ind(strial center of Manzini and the capital of M!a!ane. +da Ma!(za had trained in the 5shopo area of Moza*!i3(e. ,he en1oyed royal patrona"e fro* Bin" ,o!h(za ++ to follo) thro("h on her therape(tic initiation. 9hen she e2perienced *'etf'asa , the call fro* the ancestors to enter a life of n"o*a, she )as ill for five years !efore !e"innin" her trainin", s(fferin" fro* !ack pains and diffic(lty in )alkin", as )ell as other serio(s pro!le*s that incl(ded vo*itin" !lood. -s her illness pro"ressed, she !eca*e solitary, hostile, and )ithdra)n. ,he had *any drea*s of people )ith san"o*a4type hairdos. :er condition )orsened, leadin" event(ally to dayti*e visions, so that others and she herself feared she )o(ld !eco*e totally *ad. 9hen her condition !eca*e (n!eara!le, her h(s!and took necessary steps for her to !e healed. -s she !e"an to train, the spirit literally 0ca*e o(t0 in her dancin". a son" )as "iven to her !y the spirit. :er fa*ily and healer realized she )as possessed !y a 5hon"a spirit. indeed the spirit had anno(nced itself. +n d(e co(rse she, a ,)azi, !eca*e the channel of 5hon"a, A(l(, and ,han"ani spirits. 5hese spirits drive yo( a!o(t, she said, they possess =femba > yo(, speak thro("h yo(, partic(larly the Manza)e spirits. 5he Ben"(ni spirits are the *ain ones !ehind the div4 8 #& 8 ination )ith !ones. they are *ainly A(l( =victi*s of ,)azi )ars>, altho("h so*e are 5hon"a. Dthers "ive insi"ht as )ell, incl(din" 5hon"a and ,han"ani spirits. 5he *ain points here see* to !e that these shades that aid in divinin" and heatin" are alien @"(ni ancestors, and that they speak directly thro("h the *edicines and diviners. 5his is in contrast to *ost A(l( =and other> tan"o*a, )ho )ork )ith or in po)er of their o)n shades, and see*in"ly the Hhosa, )ho )ork si*ilarly. :arriet ,i!isi, )ho )as )ith *e and interpreted the intervie), pointed o(t that A(l( tan"o*a )o(ld try to "et rid of an alien spirit and try to !rin" in a person<s o)n shade to inspire divination )ork. 5hey )o(ld not )ork e2cl(sively )ith alien spirits. 5he contrasts !et)een A(l( tan"o*a and Ma!(za<s approach see*ed s(fficiently prono(nced that )hen + asked a!o(t the *eanin"s of the ter* ngoma she noted that, altho("h they accept the appellation san"o*a, technically they call the*selves ta*oza *edi(*s, distin"(isha!le !y their red ochred and oiled dreadlocks, )hereas tan"o*a )ear their hair !lack )ith !eads )oven in the*. -ccordin" to Ma!(za, the takoza have spirits speak directly thro("h the*, )hereas the tan"o*a listen to spirits =or so*eti*es their ancestors or deceased "randparents> and (se their o)n 1(d"*ent. 5h(s the difference is in *ethodolo"y. 5he takoza<s spirit sees ri"ht into the ca(se of illness. for e2a*ple, one *ay !e li*pin" today, !(t the ca(se is an ancient childhood in1(ry. 5an"o*a are *ore skilled at readin" the present, or they tend to restrict their )ork to present4day iss(es. 5he takoza, !eca(se they are *edi(*s, "et *(ch *ore e2cited, said Ma!(za, )ho sat there !efore (s )ith "reat co*pos(re, lookin" very professorial thro("h her "lasses. 5he takoza co*!ine *edi(*ship =u*ufemba > )ith !one4 thro)in", or inspire their !one4thro)in" )ith *edi(*ship fro* spirits directly. 5he tan"o*a learn divination fro* other tan"o*a. 5he tan"o*a fi"(re o(t the pro!le* and refer *ore readily to other types of practitioners. Dne of Ma!(za<s t)enty apprentices e2plained her o)n trainin" and her introd(ction to the hierarchy of

spirits. @ovices learn *any son"s, !oth those ta("ht !y their teacher Ma!(za, as )ell as their o)n, )hich they receive in visions and drea*s fro* the amadloti =ancestor shades>, the Manza)e spirits, and the Ben"(ni 0victi*s0 of )ars, killed !y one<s paternal fore!ears. 5hese several spirit or shade cate"ories )ere represented !y the !ead strin"s across the novices< sho(lders =see fi". L>. 9hite !eads represented the Ben"(ni a(tochthono(s victi*s. the red, the -*anza)e =nat(re spirits>. the *(d4 colored, the amadloti =lineal 8 #9 8

7i"(re L. Body and neck strin"s as (sed in n"o*a to represent cate"ories of spirits. 5his e2a*ple is fro* ,)azi takoza *edi(*s: =a> a*adloti =lineal ancestor shades>, *(d4colored !eads. =!> -*anza)e =nat(re spirits>, red !eads. =c> a(tochthono(s Ben"(ni victi*s of ,)azi )ars, )hite !eads. =d> 5inz(nz( victi*s of dro)nin", )hite !eads. ancestor shades>. another )hite strin", 5inz(nz( =victi*s of dro)nin">. ,he had other necklaces and !eads that had !een donned at points in her trainin". 5he f(ller !ead !racelets and anklets indicated her co*pletion of trainin". 5eachin" and practice in this tradition, )hich co*!ined the san"o*a and takoza, appeared to consist of the t)o standard co*ponents, divinin" and sin"in" rit(als. 5he for*er *ainly consisted of 0thro)in" !ones0 =$engula >, the latter the sin"in"4prono(ncin" of the affliction or anno(nce*ent of spirits =u*ufemba > in )hich dr(*s )ere (sed. Ma Ma!(za had t)elve tigomene dr(*s for these u*ufemba sessions =see plate J>, altho("h not all )ere (sed at any one ti*e. 5he dr(*s, *ade of co)hide *e*!ranes on oil !arrels, )ere h("e and sonoro(s, recallin" the sacred royal dr(*s of the north ,otho, ;enda, and F(vedo, or the 8 L$ 8 F(vedo tigomene initiation dr(*s. +da Ma!(za<s o)n patron spirit )as a *ale iloti , )hich )as )hy )henever a re3(est )as *ade, the apprentice )ho )as o(r "(ide had to "o ask 0hi*0 =thro("h Ma*a Ma!(za> for per*ission. Ma!(za, )hen asked a!o(t the prevalence of types of cases !ro("ht to her, noted that daily she has a!o(t ten clients. ?ven tho("h she does not keep records, she noted the follo)in" types of iss(es !ro("ht to her in order of fre3(ency. 5here are !oth 0-frican0 and 0non4-frican0 pro!le*s. ,he has !oth -frican and )hite clients. 5he *ost co**on -frican pro!le* is va"(e pains and an2ieties, e2plained !y umbelelo or mego , har* or sorcery res(ltin" fro* interpersonal tensions. 5he ne2t *ost prevalent illness is ama*ubalo , res(ltin" fro* !roken social or *oral precepts, s(ch as illicit se2 )ith a protected *arried )o*an. 5he first type of pro!le* !rin"s !oth *en and )o*en, the second *ostly *en. 7(rther, there are *any yo(n" people )ho co*e to her )ishin" to learn of their fates, seekin" "ood fort(ne in 1o! applications, e2a*s, and love. 9hites< *ain concern, she said, is fear of poverty6that is, their ina!ility to hold on to their *oney and property. 5hey also co*e for help in pro*otions and other )ork4related *atters. 5hey co*e )ith illnesses not properly dia"nosed in the hospital or not effectively treated, s(ch as especially hi"h !lood press(re, )hose root ca(se fre3(ently can !e traced to tensions or conflicts )ith do*estic )orkers or

s(!ordinates )ho, they fear, have retaliated a"ainst the*. Ma!(za told (s of a case she had recently done that ill(strates her approach. - )hite )o*an ca*e in, acco*panyin" so*eone else. Ma!(za divined for her that she )as involved in a str(""le )ith her fa*ily. 5he )o*an did not !elieve it. 5)o )eeks later she ret(rned, ackno)led"in" that, indeed, in their p(rchase of a far*, pay*ents had !een e*!ezzled !y another fa*ily *e*!er, and they had !een do(!ly char"ed. Dne day as )e arrived )e sa) another car parked !elo) the co*po(nd. +t !elon"ed to a )ell4dressed ,)azi co(ple )ho had 1(st e*er"ed fro* one of the divination roo*s and a cons(ltation )ith Ma!(za or an apprentice. Fater, as )e )ere )aitin" on a *at o(tside the roo*s, another car drove (p )ith a "rand*otherly ,)azi )o*an at the )heel. ,he had co*e for a cons(ltation, either for herself or another fa*ily *e*!er. ,he )aited on a *at !eside (s )hile one of the staff prepared to see her. Clients )ho do not have their o)n vehicles, or )ho cannot 8 L1 8 )alk or take p(!lic transportation, *ay call Betani !y phone and !e picked (p in one of the center<s vehicles. ,ince Betani is *id)ay !et)een the ind(strial center of Manzini and the capital, M!a!ane, and not far fro* the royal ,)azi capital, Ma!(za<s )ork is tied into the vi!rant p(lses at the center of ,)azi society. 5he narro) line !et)een conventional clients and those )ho event(ally !eco*e apprentices is artic(lated !y the etiolo"ical cate"ory *'etf'asa , to !e called !y a spirit to enter the life of the san"o*a. -ltho("h she co**only dia"noses cases to !e of this type, it is an article of e*phasis in n"o*a circles that the *aster4novice relationship *(st !e entered vol(ntarily. 5he diviner4healer )ho *akes the dia"nosis is not necessarily the one )ith )ho* yo( apprentice. Clients are 3(ite free to "o else)here, )ith )ho*ever they feel co*forta!le. 5hose )ho do co*e to Ma!(za stay in residence five to si2 years. for the first fo(r they are co(nseled and participate in the sessions. 5hen they !eco*e involved in intensive trainin". '(rin" this ti*e she dele"ates responsi!ility in pen"(la !one4thro)in" divination and in the femba *edi(*ship. -nyone )ho is availa!le "ets an opport(nity to learn thro("h practice. +f one<s spirit cannot read a case, another helps o(t or takes over. 5he novices *(st !e se2(ally a!stinent thro("ho(t their stay )ith her. 5hey do not shake hands )ith others. they are rit(ally apart. Ma!(za )as s(rprised at the pict(res of the Cape 5o)n novices )ho held )a"e4la!or 1o!s, )onderin" ho) apprentices co(ld !e part4ti*e or inter*ittently in isolation. 5he presence of clients )ho stay in residence overni"ht or for lon"er periods =in addition to )ho* there are (p to t)enty apprentice diviner4heaters> s(""ests that Ma!(za<s esta!lish*ent at Betani is very *(ch an instit(tion, )ith any)here fro* thirty to fifty people 0in residence0 at a "iven ti*e. 5he instit(tional di*ension of n"o*a at this place )as apparent to (s one day )hen, drivin" (p the steep road to Betani, )e ca*e (pon t)o yo(n" apprentices )orkin" to "et the 'ats(n tr(ck, heavily laden )ith "roceries for the colle"e, (p the hill. 5hey had to (nload so*e of the flo(r sacks so the vehicle co(ld drive (p a partic(larly steep eroded passa"e. Fater, + sa) the* (nload thirty dozen e""s, a fifty kilo"ra* !a" of *ealie flo(r, !a"s of )heat flo(r, cartons of canned condensed *ilk, s("ar, and the like6food for t)enty novices and their fa*ilies, as )ell as the inpatients. ,i2 ti*es a *onth they send to to)n for s(ch a load of "roceries. +t )as reported that the tazoka 8 L2 8 novices, conspic(o(s in their red ochre and sand hair4dos and loin4cloths, are fre3(ently seen in the

!ank in M!a!ane dra)in" *oney fro* the Betani acco(nt for their shoppin".

Peng*'a8 3#$#na #on /& ,Th%o4#ng The /one!,

5hro("ho(t northern @"(ni society and a*on" ,hona and ,otho45s)ana society, the *ost co**on *ethod of divination is called 0thro)in" the !ones.0 5he diviner sits opposite the client, )ith a *at !et)een the* =plate 9>. +n a s*all !a" the diviner has a set of !ones, (s(ally verte!rae of an ani*al, )hich are thro)n o(t (pon the *at. 5he constellation of !ones, their relationships and profiles, are 0read0 in a *anner si*ilar to divination *ethods of the ,o(thern ,avanna @"o*!o !asket in"redients, or the +fa oracle<s shells )hen cast. Constellations identify areas of social life, personal pro!le*s, and c(lt(ral e*phases. -ccordin"ly, in Betani, divination 0!ones,0 )hich incl(de do*inoes, dice, coins, shells, stones, as )ell as the standard verte!rae, are interpreted to incl(de not only l(ck ="ood if do*inoes t(rn dots (p, !ad if do)n> and vario(s interpersonal relational profiles and !e)itch*ent =verte!rae in vario(s positions>, !(t also the presence of t(!erc(losis, dia!etes, and other conditions. Dne constellation of !ones refers people to the hospital. -nother constellation tells the diviner that the client has co*e in !ad faith. - third individ(al, in addition to the diviner and client, is often present in sessions of !one4thro)in" as a type of interpreter or *ediator. 5his individ(al *ay !e part of the divination staff, as )as tr(e in a n(*!er of cases at Betani, or *ay !e a friend of the client or a fa*ily *e*!er. 5he *ediator<s role is to kno) the case, to have "otten ac3(ainted )ith it, 1(st as the e2pectation (pon the diviner is that clairvoyance )ill !e (sed to 0see0 the tr(th of the case )ith the help of the !ones or the spirits. -s the !ones are thro)n and the diviner !e"ins to interpret, (sin" a for*at like 0t)enty 3(estions,0 the *ediator responds )ith 0+ a"ree0 =si #a )uma > or 0+ disa"ree.0 ,(ch se3(ences of 3(estionin" reveal )hether the iss(e is in the paternal or *aternal fa*ily, )hether it is a fa*ily4 or )ork4related iss(e, or )hether it has to do )ith the client<s o)n responsi!ility or )ith another<s involve*ent. +f the constellation does not see* appropriate, and the diviner reaches a dead4end in the incantation of 3(estions, another thro) *ay reveal a ne) constellation )ith another se3(ence of 3(estions. 8 L# 8 Clients )ho co*e to Betani for "ood fort(ne stay overni"ht to take e*etics, )hich Ma Ma!(za teaches the* ho) to ad*inister it the*selves. ?*etics and p(rification are i*portant for people )ho have taken in contrary *edicines =)hat Bon"o call into2ification>. 5he *edicine 0releases the*0. the spirits allo) the* to chan"e. 5hose )ho stay overni"ht receive free *eals prepared !y the apprentices or other staff. 5he overni"ht fee is fifteen emlangeni =Q12, in 19&2>, )hether the client is -frican or )hite. Pen"(la divination has "rades of ela!orateness, !e"innin" )ith the si*ple !one thro) for t)o e*lan"eni for a !asic o(tline of the iss(e, )hich tells )hether one can co(nt on chance or has no chance =as in a co(rt case>. ,o*eti*es len"thy co(nsel apart fro* the !one thro) *ay increase the rate. 5he *a2i*(* fee for pen"(la, an overni"ht stay )ith a *eal, and an e2tended femba possession session !y the entire hierarchy of spirits is thirty4five e*lan"eni. - diviner as skilled as Ma Ma!(za can earn a "ood livin" at these rates.

U5*"em2a8 3#$#na #on /& Me)#*m!h#+

9e had !een told that in Ma!(za<s school, divination !y *edi(*ship =u*ufemba > )as held a!o(t every other day. 5he e2act ti*in", ho)ever, depended on the spirits. Dne evenin" )e arrived at Betani (nanno(nced at a!o(t five o<clock. 5he resident novices )ere eatin" and drinkin" in front of Ma!(za<s ho(se. Dne of the* ca*e to (s and )elco*ed (s and spoke )ith (s, and another !ro("ht (s a )ell4

sifted container of !eer. -nother *ale novice ca*e )ith a si*ilar !(cket of *edicine =ubulau > to an area !efore the seance ho(se, and the entire "ro(p of a!o(t t)enty novices "athered aro(nd hi* and the (!(la(. :e raised the froth )ith his stirrin" stick, then knelt over to take so*e )ith his *o(th, spittin" it o(t in the fo(r cardinal directions as if for*in" a cos*o"ra*. 5he others did the sa*e one !y one as the leader san". 5hen they knelt in a circle and prayed. 9e contin(ed speakin" )ith the novice )ho had co*e to (s earlier. ,he spoke a!o(t her health =her sore foot, !ilharzia> and health ed(cation, a!o(t a"e =o(r "rayin" hair, her i*pression of o(r yo(thf(lness>, a!o(t doctoral de"rees, incl(din" her sister<s. - child )alked !y carryin" a shirt on its head. ,he o!served that )hen a child holds so*ethin" on its head in that )ay, 0so*eone )ill soon co*e.0 9e had no idea )hat she )as talkin" a!o(t. ,(ddenly one of the yo(n" takoza !ello)ed o(t fro* the seance ho(se in the no) fa*iliar so(nd of spirit trance.N2O 05here yo( are,0 said o(r co*panion, 0the amadloti NancestorsO have 8 LL 8 co*e.0 Dthers *oved to the seance ho(se and !e"an dr(**in" al*ost i**ediately. 9e )ere invited to sit do)n on a *at )ith the*. ,everal of the *ale novices )ere "r(ntin" and spl(tterin" and cryin" o(t, possessed, )e )ere told, !y the Ben"(ni spirits of the victi*s of ,)azi )ars. Presently, to dr(**in"4sin"in" of si2 tigomene , fo(r of the *en )ho had donned )hite )aist cloths and patterned loincloths over their other loincloths, !e"an to r(sh in and o(t of the door. +n the *in(tes that follo)ed these Ben"(ni4possessed *en )ent thro("h a threefold ro(tine: =1> initial trance *et !y dr(*4son" response. =2> s(ddenly r(shin" o(t and disappearin" =to present the*selves, )e )ere told, to 0hi*,0 i.e., Ma!(za>, then ret(rnin" to "reet those present. - definite call4and4response pattern )as apparent here. the dr(**in"4sin"in" occ(rred only )hile the possessed entered the roo*. 9hen this )as finished, fo(r )o*en follo)ed s(it in appro2i*ately the sa*e )ay, also possessed )ith Ben"(ni. ,everal other persons danced, incl(din" so*e very a"ile !oys and "irls, )ho apparently )ere not possessed. ?ach of the classes of spirits6the amadloti , Ben"(ni, Manza)e, and @z(nz(6is said to have its distinctive dances and son"s, altho("h + co(ld !arely discern the*. 5he dr(* rhyth* )as a heavy re"(lar !eat on si2 dr(*s. the dance )as a heavy po(ndin" step a little like that of Cape Hhosa a*a"3ira healers, only faster and *ore vi!rant, interspersed )ith leapin" 1(*ps. -t the very close there entered a 0senior0 "rad(ate san"o*a4takoza, the )o*an )ho had done the pen"(la divinations. ,he )as dressed in her f(ll set of !eads and carried her !eaded !aton and co)<s tail )hisk. ,he held a stick (nder one ar*pit and a kno!kerrie (nder the other. 5hen the session )as over and the "ro(p *oved o(tside to "o thro("h a seance )ith Manza)e spirits. 9e left. 5he ne2t afternoon )e drove to Ma!(za<s place a"ain to seek a !etter (nderstandin" of the relationship !et)een individ(alized pen"(la !one4thro)in" and the collective *edi(*istic u*ufemba approach. 5he case )e )o(ld see treated )as that of a s*all child, several *onths old, )ho had !een sickly and )eak. Mother and "rand*other )ere present )ith the child and all necessary diaper !a"s, aprons, clothin", even a !ottle of diaper softener. 5hey had taken the child to the hospital, as )ell as to an -frican independent Christian faith healer, !(t it )as still sick and )eak. 5hey had co*e to deter*ine )hat )as ca(sin" its affliction, since hospital *edicine in their eyes had failed. -nother case ca*e to o(r attention after the fe*!a session !e"an. - yo(n" )o*an, a (niversity st(dent, offered to translate the proceed4 8 LK 8

in"s for (s. ,he had had a nervo(s !reakdo)n shortly after the ter* !e"an. 5he hospital doctors had dia"nosed her persistent headache, nose!leedin", vo*itin", and na(sea as d(e to 0nerves0 and 0heart fail(re,0 altho("h a f(rther cons(ltation )ith another doctor had revealed 0nothin" )ron".0 ,he ca*e to Ma!(za feelin" *isera!le. -fter divination and treat*ent in residence she !e"an to feel *(ch !etter, sayin" she )as no) fine, altho("h she contin(ed stayin" at the center. 5he sick infant )as the final case of the evenin", after several cases that kept the* !(sy (ntil a!o(t ei"ht o<clock. 5hen the floor )as covered )ith *attin" and the dr(*s )ere !ro("ht in fro* the co(rtyard )here they had !een ti"htenin" in the s(nli"ht. Children ca*e in and sat do)n alon" the )all opposite the door. - press(re la*p had !een !ro("ht in to ill(*inate the roo*. 9hile another femba session )as contin(in" in the other ho(se, the *other, infant, and "rand*other entered )ith their !a""a"e and sat do)n. - yo(n" *ale takoza fro* Moza*!i3(e !ro("ht in the stra) !asket of *edicines )ith )hich he )o(ld femba the case =fi". K>. -ltho("h the !ook definition of femba is that of trance or possession to identify the spirit ca(se of an illness, the !e"innin" process here see*ed *ore like positive *edicine to prepare the patient. -t first the infant )as held on the "rand*other<s lap. the *other sat aside a"ainst the )all, lookin" on. 5he diviner4healer !e"an !y kneelin" !efore the !asket of *edicines. 9hile prayin", he took off his !ody !eads and donned another set of necklace !eads. he donned a ne) cloth and over all this p(t on a )aist!and of si2 co)rie shells, as )ell as a head!and of t)o ro)s of co)rie shells. 5hen he took several s*all *edicine containers o(t of the !asket. 7ro* one he took a "rease or oint*ent and r(!!ed his face )ith it. @ear!y he had a pottery shard )ith coals of fire thro("h )hich he passed so*e of the *edicine. 5hen he )ashed his face in a !o)l of )ater. 5hro("ho(t the ne2t sta"es he re"(larly partook of a sn(fflike s(!stance that *ay have !een hall(cino"enic. 5he diviner4healer then )ent to stand !efore the "rand*other, his !ack to the door. :e "est(red )ith his hands to the child, then at one point r(!!ed *edicine on vario(s parts of the child<s !ody soles of the feet, top of the head, te*ples, chest and !ack, )rists and ankles. :e p(lled the child<s li*!s o(t ta(t. :e repeated so*e of this for the "rand*other. 5hro("ho(t this se"*ent of the session a yo(n" fe*ale assistant !ro("ht hi* the oint*ent and helped hi* take the sn(ff s(!stance. 5hen he see*ed to "o into a se*itrance and "ave the follo)in" e2pla4 8 LJ 8

7i"(re K. 5he arran"e*ent of participants in the (k(fe*!a divination ses4 sion at Betani, descri!ed in te2t. Feft dia"ra*: =a> participants incl(din" novices, fa*ily, and "(ests. =!> active trance perfor*ers, )ho enter and leave as spirits. =c> ti"o*ene =dr(*s> in perfor*ance. Ci"ht dia"ra*, in sa*e space: =d> healer kneelin" !efore *edicines d(rin" case of sick child. =e> "rand*other )ith "randchild. =f> *other of child. nation of the ca(ses of the illness, as translated to (s !y an ?n"lish4speakin" patient. 5he first ca(se )as p(t in the for* of an e2e"esis of fa*ily history. 5he fa*ily cattle had strayed onto the fields of others, and those others had taken reven"e on the child. ;en"ef(l ancestors )ere )orkin" thro("h livin" persons, )ho )ere tryin" to h(rt the child and its *other. 5he falsetto voice in )hich the *edi(* spoke, possessed !y the spirit, )as said to i*personate the one )ho )as !ehind the in1(rio(s )ork. 5he clients )o(ld kno) fro* the so(nd of the voice )ho it )as. the person co(ld not !e

*entioned !y na*e. - f(rther ca(se )as the ven"eance of a )ar victi* killed !y a fa*ily *e*!er. 5hird, there )as the *atter of the (n*arried *other and displeas(re !y spirits over this. 5he ven"ef(l forces had already stolen the child<s 0so(l,0 and (nless the forces )ere ne(tralized the child )o(ld soon die. 5here follo)ed the !lessin" of the child<s effects, first piece !y piece, then a )hole !a" f(ll, and finally the !ottle of diaper softener. 5he child )as no) *oved to the *other<s lap, and )as "iven so*e e*etic fl(id to drink, as )ell as a !it of the sn(ff in its nose. -t one point there )as also a !rief e2orcis* near the door, )ith the co**ent that the spirits )ere not all )ill4 8 L% 8 in" to leave !(t )anted to hide in the roo*. 5hen for a )hile there see*ed to !e a cal*. - Manza)e spirit str(ck in the !ack corner of the roo* )ith a po)erf(l cry thro("h another yo(n" *edi(*, )ho r(shed (p to )here the *other )as seated )ith the child. ,everal other novices and o!servers took dr(*s in hand and 3(ickly provided rhyth*ic acco*pani*ent to the spirit<s son". 5his )as a 0)hite0 Manza)e, evidenced !y the possessed *edi(*<s controlled "est(re of donnin" a )hite cloth fro* the )ooden cross !ea* a!ove hi*, )here all the cloths )ere draped. -fter dancin" a!o(t for a )hile in his characteristic *anner, this 0spirit0 )ent o(t and ca*e in several ti*es. 5hen he ca*e !efore the *other of the sick child and haran"(ed her for several *in(tes, in a heavy, intense voice, a!o(t her case: ,he had so("ht help in vain fro* other places, incl(din" the hospital and 0ch(rch0. she )as the victi* of dissatisfied spirits !eca(se of the fa*ily affair and the cattle. there )as a victi* of the fa*ily<s involve*ent in past )ars. :e appeared to repeat so*e of the earlier findin"s. Perspiration po(red do)n his face and !ody. it )as a *ost i*pressive effort, for )hich another t)o or five e*lan"eni note )as prod(ced. 5hen this )hite Manza)e spirit left the roo* and the *edi(* ret(rned, co*posed. ,everal other *ale diviners took (p the )ork, donnin" this ti*e red cloths over their sho(lders. 5hese )ere a"ain Manza)e spirits, *ore !izarre and stran"e than the earlier ones. 5hey voiced very stran"e, inco*prehensi!le, ani*allike "r(nts. 5heir 0dance0 )as as odd as their appearance. they 0stood0 on all fo(rs !efore the door, tossin" their heads a!o(t )ildly, their lon" red clay dreadlocks thro)n this )ay and that. 5hese spirits left as they had co*e, thro("h the open door. ?ach ti*e a spirit4*edi(* )o(ld enter the door, the dr(**in" )o(ld !e"in ane). each ti*e it left, there )o(ld !e silence. ,o*eone said the dr(**in" )as needed to 0!rin" o(t the spirit.0 7inally, the t)o *edi(*s )ho had perfor*ed the 0red0 and the 0)hite0 Manza)e *oved on to host @z(nz( spirits of those )ho had dro)ned. 5his ti*e they danced (pri"ht, !(t their voices )ere so stran"e that o(r interpreter said, 0if yo( don<t kno) the )ords of the spirits yo( can<t (nderstand this.0 -fter a ti*e the dr(**in" ca*e to an end, and all present dispersed. + fo(nd interestin" the decreasin" involve*ent of the *edi(*s )ith the case at hand, as if the latter spirits *ade their appearance si*ply to artic(late their niches in the spirit cos*olo"y. +t )as a kind of 8 L& 8 0"loria0 to the farthest4o(t spirit )orld. -t an earlier point, the first Manza)e spirits had done !attle )ith the lin"erin" evil forces aro(nd the child. 5he final spirits proclai*ed an (ncontested victory over the*.

Me)#*m#! #( T%an(e Ve%!*! Me(han#! #( Te(hn#9*e

-s noted at the !e"innin" of this section on @orth @"(ni, this e2altation of the spirits and the e*phasis on a hierarchy of ancestral, alien, and nat(re spirits stands in sharp contrast to the a!sence of these feat(res in ,o(th @"(ni settin"s )ithin ,o(th -frica, that is, A(l(, Hhosa, and Pondo. + )ill not develop this iss(e in any "reat depth here, !(t )ill e2plore several hypotheses that )ill !e taken (p a"ain in s(!se3(ent chapters. Dne of the e2ternal factors that *ay infl(ence divination and healin" !ears on the contrast !et)een ,o(th -frican and ,)azi society, fro* the perspective of -fricans. +n the Cep(!lic of ,o(th -frica, la)s are clear4c(t, ri"id, and oppressive. ,o(th -frican pass la)s, )ork restrictions, and hardship have not s(cceeded in erodin" the !asic )orldvie) of people in -frican society. it has rather hardened it, so to speak. +n ,)aziland, on the other hand, )hich has an intri"(in" *i2t(re of sociopolitical or"anization co*!inin" an ancient kin"do* )ith *odern !(rea(cracy, and a per capita inco*e that is near the hi"hest in !lack -frica, there has !een a *iddle4class revol(tion of risin" e2pectations and realizations. 5he *iddle4class )ork force of !oth *en and )o*en is in an (p)ardly *o!ile c(rrent that has shaken fa*ily and reli"io(s val(es to their core. 5he !o(ndaries or li*its of society and )orldvie) have !een e2ploded open. 'ivination re"ardin" )ork opport(nities, social crises res(ltin" fro* individ(al decisions, and *arital or non4*arital arran"e*ents all lead to an enor*o(s clientele for the san"o*a =or the takoza, as they call the*selves>. 5his is the settin" in )hich n"o*a roles and activities are associated al*ost e2cl(sively )ith divinin". Fydia Mak!(!( =19%&>, )ho has !een a st(dent of ,)azi healin", e*phasizes that several decades a"o neither the san"o*a nor the takoza (sed dr(*s at all, and that there )as no possession or trance in connection )ith divination. 5he pro"ression fro* the pen"(la =!one4thro)in">, to the femba 0s*ellin" o(t0 *edi(*istic e2ercise provides a hierarchy of resort fro* dealin" )ith the kno)n, controlled )orld of the linea"e, to dealin" )ith the (nkno)n and (nclear real*s !eyond the fa*ily. 8 L9 8 5he ne) divinin" did not, ho)ever, appear fro* no)here. Dral reports and references fro* 5anzania, Moza*!i3(e, and ,)aziland trace the takoza *edi(*istic divinin", as )ell as the @<an"a n"o*a in 5anzania, to the 5hon"a in Moza*!i3(e, *ore specifically the ;anda(, a "ro(p that )as a part of the @"oni diaspora follo)in" the early nineteenth4cent(ry Mfecane. :arriet @"(!ane, a A(l( ,o(th -frican anthropolo"ist )ho has lived and )orked in ,)azi society, s(""ests that the distinctions !et)een the san"o*a, )ho practice only pen"(la, and the takoza, )ho practice pen"(la and u*ufemba =*edi(*ship>, are the si"ns of an ideolo"ical e*phasis in ,)azi divination rather than the res(lt of distinctive str(ct(ral characteristics in society and c(lt(re. -ltho("h *edi(*ship is e*phasized !y the takoza, like all @"(ni diviners their trainin" period is e2tensive6five to si2 years. Clearly the !one4 thro)in" and pen"(la 3(estionin" techni3(es are learned and re3(ire disciplined practice. -ccordin" to @"(!ane, this *edi(*istic divination and the e*phasis on the spirit )orld reflects an ideolo"ical e*phasis or predisposition in ,)azi tho("ht. Celiance on alien spirits in divination6alien @"(ni spirits6is in character )ith ,)azi reserve, )ith their pacific character, accordin" to @"(!ane. J(st as they have historically acco**odated stran"ers and are e2tre*ely charita!le to)ard stran"ers, so in the spirit )orld there is a very considerate *e*ory of those they killed in for*er )ars =Ben"(ni> and those )ho dro)ned or )ere not properly !(ried =@z(nz(>. 5he spirits are the c(ttin" ed"e of a sensitive )orldvie) that incl(des collective "(ilt to)ard )arfare<s victi*s and care for stran"ers a*on" the*. 5his vie) contrasts to that of the A(l(, )ho have a history of *(ch *ore !loodshed !(t )ho in their spirit )orldvie) try to replace alien spirits )ith their o)n, and in divination rely on their o)n spirits. 7(rther evidence of an ideolo"ical e*phasis in the ,)azi takoza approach to divinin" lies in the point

Ma!(za *ade a!o(t her o)n patron spirit. 9hen she !e"an her trainin", and her teacher !e"an to hide thin"s for her to find, the spirit4shade )ho took over for her )as that of an in#anga diviner, very *(ch a partic(lar ancestor. Medi(*ship is th(s for her an added ele*ent of her trainin" as a "eneral healer and diviner, not the pri*ary core of her practice. 5h(s, altho("h direct *edi(*ship is e*phasized in c(rrent ,)azi divination, there is plenty of evidence of str(ct(ral co*para!ility )ith A(l( and Hhosa divinin"4healin". 5his str(ct(ral co*para!ility !rid"es the apparent distinction !et)een spirit possession, on the one hand, and the learned skills of an apprenticeship, on the other hand. Ma!(za and 8 K$ 8 other takoza of ,)aziland are e3(ally adept in disco(rse on e2otic spirits and on types of cases, case load, *ethods of analysis, and other e*pirical iss(es. Dne has the i*pression, in visitin" n"o*a in ,)aziland, of an ancient instit(tion in the co(rse of constant evol(tion, very *(ch tied into national life and in t(ne )ith the stresses and strains of individ(als.

The Amag9#%a8 S*%$#$#ng The To4n!h#+! O" So* h A"%#(a

+n the to)nships of Cape 5o)n6/("(leto, Fan"a, @yan"a, Crossroads6are the scene of *(ch civil disorder and police and ar*y repression in recent years. 5he )ork of the a*a"3ira4san"o*a is to a far "reater e2tent than in the other (r!an settin"s that of providin" solace and enco(ra"e*ent and social net)ork s(pport to the *any )ho co*e to the*. -frican society of the to)nships has very little "en(ine a(thority. - s(rvey taken in /("(leto fo(nd one in fo(r ho(seholds )as involved in one )ay or another )ith an n"o*a net)ork: as s(fferer4novice, *id4co(rse4novice, or "rad(ated and practicin" healer4diviner =i"3ira4san"o*a>. +n addition to the ch(rches, trade (nions, le"al or ille"al political "ro(ps, and the *istr(sted to)nship co**ittees, the n"o*a str(ct(re is one of the *ost pervasive di*ensions of the social fa!ric. -s already noted, the instit(tional str(ct(re of n"o*a in Cape 5o)n is (nitary, that is, )itho(t disparate, na*ed n"o*a orders, as in Binshasa or 'ar es ,alaa*, despite the varied ethnic !ack"ro(nds of the Hhosa, A(l(, ,otho, or 5s)ana participants, and )itho(t the hierarchy of *odes of divinin" and possession, as in ,)aziland. 'ivination is done )itho(t any discerni!le paraphernalia, *ore as a 9estern social )orker intervie)s clients. 5he third party )ho 0a"rees0 or 0disa"rees0 )ith the divination is, ho)ever, on hand. 5he participants of n"o*a in Cape 5o)n, )hen intervie)ed a!o(t their o)n histories, reveal the (s(al acco(nts of headaches, )eakness, disorientation, and other afflictions. of drea*s of ancestors or of healer4dancers )ith f(rred and !eaded cost(*es. 5here are *any novices, !(t not all *ake it thro("h the therape(tic initiation to !eco*e !(ilders of personal net)orks. Get those )ho do *ake it thro("h the initiation, the 0co(rse thro("h the )hite,0 far fro* fittin" the classic i*a"e of the psychotic healer, strike one as very stron" individ(als )ho have overco*e psycholo"ical and social contradictions to act o(t their callin" and to !e pillars of society. 8 K1 8 5he follo)in" case ill(strates so*e of the characteristic stresses of life for !lacks in the 9estern Cape, )here there is chronic an2iety related to 1o!s, in vie) of the pass la)s and a L2 percent ille"al )orker presence. 5here is e2tensive t(!erc(losis in the !lack pop(lation. fre3(ently an o(t!reak of 5B acco*panies 1o!lessness and *aln(trition. 5he incidence of !roken or fra"*ented fa*ilies is very

hi"h, as is the rate of sin"le *others and )orkin" )o*en livin" alone.

A Ca!e S *)& In In# #a #on To Ngoma

5his )as @tete<s second initiation4therapy (ndertaken after a t)o4year lapse and *(ch s(fferin" since the first atte*pt to co*e to ter*s )ith his t'asa =call> and affliction. :e had "one to the north ,otho ho*eland P)a3)a to 0accept his illness0 =in)uma *ufa > and to take over his "rand*other<s !eads =i.e., the fa*ily line as healer>. :e had done the initial steps, the "oat sacrifice, !(t he contin(ed feelin" !ad. it had not )orked o(t. ,o he had ret(rned to Cape 5o)n, to his )ife and children, and his 1o! )ith a stainless4steel pots4and4pans co*pany, and6accordin"ly6a ho(se per*it. B(t sickness had follo)ed hi*. he co(ld not contin(e the instr(ctions and therapies. :eadaches, nose4!leedin", and *ost recently )hat he had feared )as a heart attack had !ro("ht hi* into the hospital. Get he contin(ed drea*in" of a partic(lar )o*an )ith !eads. -fter t)o years of this, he decided to take (p his case ane). :e had "one to ?lsie, an i"3ira =healer>, )hose 1(d"*ent )as that the fi"(re in his drea*s )as really i"3ira -delheid @dika. ,o he ca*e to her, and a )eek later they )ere holdin" the "oat sacrifice and the nthlombe cele!ration that ina("(rated his novitiate )ith her. -delheid, his sponsorin" i"3ira, )as acco*panied !y several other f(lly 3(alified healers. +n characteristic 9estern Cape *anner, they represented a cross section of ,o(thern -frican societies. Df the seven f(lly 3(alified healers present, fo(r )ere A(l(, three Hhosa. 5heir trainin" had !een )ith ,)azi, ,otho, Hhosa, and A(l( healers. @tete )as ,otho. Present also )ere the dozen or so novices of the head healer of this event. they )o(ld participate in n"o*a therapy sessions and in the )elco*in" of @tete to their cell "ro(p. 5his event, like *ost n"o*a activity in ,o(th -frica, had to !e fitted into the )ork sched(les of the participants. 9hereas c(sto* called for those enterin" their apprenticeship to !e in contin(o(s secl(sion, this )as not possi!le in (r!an ,o(th -frica. 5h(s the fra"*entation of life e2tended to this area as )ell. Cit(al *at4 8 K2 8 ters had to !e dealt )ith on )eekends )hen others co(ld "et free fro* their 1o!s and )hen the principal fi"(res the*selves had the ti*e to deal )ith their personal conditions. Df the )o*en present, so*e )ere do*estic )orkers in )hites< ho*es, n(rses, and teachers. 5he *en )ere factory )orkers, drivers, or in one case, the o)ner of a fleet of vehicles. 5his initiation nthlombe )as held in one of those standard ,o(th -frican "overn*ent ho(ses for !lacks )ith fo(r cra*ped roo*s and a s*all !ackyard =see fi". J>. 5his rectan"(lar space )as transfor*ed, accordin" to so*e infor*ants, into rit(al space correspondin" to the @"(ni ho*estead: the street !eca*e the co(rtyard, the front roo* the rondevaal ho(se, and the !ackyard the cattle kraal. 5he rit(al spaces also corresponded to Central and ,o(thern -frican cate"ories dividin" the h(*an or do*estic fro* the ancestral spaces. 5hro("ho(t the )eekend event, ne2t4door nei"h!ors i"nored the nthlo*!e, attended at ti*es !y (p to 1K$ people. 5he first sta"e of the event on ,at(rday *ornin", callin" on the ancestors and preparin" the novice for 0enterin" the )hite,0 )as held in the 0livin" roo*0 )ith the presidin" i"3ira and t)o collea"(es. ,everal si"ns of )hiteness )ere prepared. @tete )as dressed in a )hite to"a over his )hite (ndershirt. :is face )as s*eared )ith )hite kaolin. Medicine =ubulau > in a !(cket, *ade fro* several plants, )as stirred into a froth and s*eared on his face and !ody. 5his )as done d(rin" a series of son"s that invited the ancestors to co*e and !e )ith the initiate =plate 1J>. @o) thoro("hly 0)hite,0 the novice, led !y his sponsorin" i"3ira and his father, and follo)ed !y the

a*a"3ira and others present, proceeded to the !ackyard to constr(ct the cere*onial kraal o(t of old !oards and so*e t)i"s, !oth s(!stit(te *aterials, since the appropriate plants )ere not at hand. 5he "oat )as !ro("ht into the kraal !eside the kneelin" novice. 5he pails of *edicine and !eer )ere placed !efore the "oat. +t )as *ade to kneel and also drink fro* the li3(ids. 5he ani*al a!o(t to !e sacrificed )as takin" the sa*e s(!stance, takin" the s(fferer<s old person (pon itself, to die vicario(sly. -s the "oat )as held do)n it !ello)ed lo(dly, and the sin"in" increased in vol(*e and te*po. 5he "oat<s !ello) )as a "ood si"n, indicatin" its consent to die for the novice<s life and health. 5he "oat<s 1("(lar vein )as c(t and the !lood spilled o(t onto the "ro(nd. 9hen the "oat )as still, the dr(**in" and sin"in" stopped, and the skinnin" of the carcass !e"an. - fire )as lit near!y )ithin the enclos(re. strip of *eat )as c(t fro* the 8 K# 8

7i"(re J. Plan of ho(se, co*po(nd, and street in Cape 5o)n to)nship settin" )here @tete<s therape(tic initiation )as held, as descri!ed in te2t: =a> livin" roo* and inter*ediate rit(al space )here all n"o*a sessions are held, as )ell as 0callin" do)n ancestors0. =!> kitchen. =c> !edroo*. =d> stora"e roo*. =e> !ackyard and transfor*ed 0cattle kraal0 for *ost sacred site )here sacrifice is perfor*ed. =f> sec(lar p(!lic space )here 0co*in" o(t0 is held and )here darkness of poll(tion is 0thro)n a)ay.0 ri"ht side of the ani*al and roasted, representin" the umsh'amu , the last place to t)itch near the heart, indicatin" the life of the "oat. @tete ate !its of this *eat in a sole*n co**(nion )ith the sacrificed life. + had to leave shortly after this !eca(se d(sk )as failin" and it )as ille"al for *e, a )hite person, to re*ain in a !lack to)nship overni"ht. My hosts did not )ant an incident and (r"ed *e to drive to *y ho*e )itho(t stoppin" or openin" *y car )indo) or door in the to)nship. Fater the other novices )o(ld !e"in to 0do n"o*a0 to"ether, the short presentations follo)ed !y sin"in" in rapid se3(ences =disc(ssed at "reater len"th in chapter L>. 9hen + ret(rned late *ornin" of the follo)in" day, it )as apparent that they had "one on *ost of the ni"ht, for there )ere novices asleep in chairs. Dne )as sl(*ped !ack )ith feet 8 KL 8 on the dr(* and head a"ainst the )all. +n the kitchen three pots of "oat *eat and potatoes and ca!!a"e )ere cookin" over a "as fire, preparin" the sacrifice of yesterday for today<s feast. -t noon the presentation of novices and the dancin" contin(ed for a ti*e, as others ca*e: fa*ily of the novice, so*e nei"h!ors, other diviner4healers and their novices. @ovice @tete<s fa*ily spoke in "ratit(de and enco(ra"e*ent for the session. -"ain, the *edicine and !eer pails )ere p(t !efore the novice, )ho )as still dressed in a )hite !lanket )ith )hite face, hands, and feet. 5he entire "ro(p *oved in procession to the 0kraal0 for the first donnin" of the novice<s !eads and !its of the "oat<s hair. :e )o(ld also no) receive his ne) n"o*a na*e. 5he first strin" of )hite !eads )ent aro(nd his head. 5he "oat<s "all!ladder )as attached to the strin" at

the front of the forehead. J(st as the "all is !itter, so this !ladder )o(ld )ard off dan"er. - second strin" of !eads aro(nd the head )o(ld 0hold his head,0 for that is )here his sickness )as. - strin" of !eads and "oat hair aro(nd his neck represented his acceptance of his 0called0 =nt'asa > condition. Dther strin"s )ith "oat hair )ere p(t on his )rists and ankles. 5hese )ere the !e"innin"s of his i"3ira cost(*e, )hich )o(ld "ro) and !eco*e ela!orate over ti*e as he drea*ed and developed his o)n identity. :is stark, plain )hite ro!e and !eads contrasted *arkedly )ith the colorf(l !ead)ork of the f(ll a*a"3ira and their ela!orate )ild ani*al skin dresses. Mid4afternoon, ,(nday, the entire "ro(p *oved thro("h the ho(se onto the street to present the ne) novice to the p(!lic. 5he cro)d of onlookers "re) aro(nd the asse*!led f(ll a*a"3ira and novices, and the fa*ily and friends of @tete. +n a speakin" and son"4dance pattern re*iniscent of that (sed in earlier sessions !y the novices, here the f(ll a*a"3ira and san"o*a took their t(rns e2hortin" @tete, then !reakin" into son"4dance, )hich )as 1oined !y everyone aro(nd =plate 1%>. -fter thirty *in(tes for this presentation, novices "athered inside and contin(ed )ith self4presentation and son"4dancin". 7or the first ti*e @tete 1oined the*, one of a dozen )hite4clad a*ak)etha =novices> (nder -delheid<s s(pervision. 5his event, typical of the n"o*a net)orkin" in the to)nships of the 9estern Cape, co*!ined several key feat(res of the n"o*a instit(tion: the entry of a tro(!led individ(al into a cell (nder the s(pervision of a senior healer. participation in )hat )e *i"ht call an n"o*a )orkin" session in )hich novices present their tho("hts, drea*s, and an2ieties 8 KK 8 and 1oin the other novices )ith sin"in". co**e*oratin" critical passa"es in this career of an n"o*a participant )ith a sacrifice and a co**(nal *eal. Mo*ents in these careers, and constellations in the net)orks, !rin" to"ether f(lly 3(alified healers and their novices to listen, co(nsel, console, share, sin", dance, and co**(ne. 5he 9estern Cape e2tension of this )idespread -frican instit(tion offers !oth so*e apparently !asic feat(res of the historic instit(tion, as )ell as so*e (nprecedented chan"es havin" to do )ith the (ni3(eness of the ,o(th -frican (r!an settin". Many of the n"o*a participants are 0ille"als0. others are le"al residents and can host events s(ch as this. 5he *i"ratory la!or sit(ation re3(ires )orkin" residents in the to)nships to collapse their rit(al stat(s into )eekend *o*ents in order to *eet the e2pectations of their 1o!s. 5he strains of pass la)s and residence restrictions in ,o(th -frica *ake the do*inant distresses those of fa*ilies !reakin" (p, of !ein" paid *ea"er )a"es for diffic(lt )ork, of chronic diseases s(ch as t(!erc(losis, and of !ein" told !y )hites and !y the syste* that they are )orthless. -"ainst this, the sodalities of n"o*a and the lon"in"s for fa*ily ancestors are a haven and a copin" reso(rce.

Con('*!#on
5he fore"oin" cases and res(*es of pro!le*s typify those !ro("ht to n"o*a diviners and therapists. Most cases of this kind are dealt )ith on an individ(al or fa*ily !asis and are referred to a ran"e of other therapists as )ell. Dnly a fe) of the cases are dia"nosed as appropriate for f(ll therape(tic initiation !y n"o*a dance and son". +n !oth @"(ni and ,otho45s)ana societies the dia"nosis u*ut'asa characterizes these latter, *eanin" they have !een sin"led o(t !y the spirits or ancestors, and afflicted. -s in the Central -frican e2a*ples cited a!ove, so the ,o(thern -frican 0t)asa0 cases de*onstrate very little sy*pto*4si"n specificity. 5he 3(estion of )ho is sin"led o(t or called in this *anner needs to !e ans)ered in connection )ith a *ore "eneral st(dy of conte2t(al iss(es. +t is not appropriate to

ass(*e that the t)asa dia"nosis, or call, corresponds to 9estern psychoanalytic or therape(tic la!els. +n fact, there *ay !e !etter reason to s(spect that this dia"nosis sin"les o(t individ(als for recr(it*ent to rit(al leadership roles on the !asis of characteristics of "reater sensitivity, e"o stren"th, and c(lt(ral receptivity in a ti*e or sit(ation of stress. 8 KJ 8 -ffliction c(lts in Central and ,o(thern -frica have th(s e2pressed the classic the*e of identifyin" and (tilizin" *ar"inality, adversity, risk, or s(fferin" for the ever4necessary task of rene)in" society in the face of profo(nd econo*ic and social chan"e. 8 K% 8

2 I)en #"&#ng Ngoma 7#! o%#(a' an) Com+a%a #$e Pe%!+e( #$e!
5he conte*porary settin"s of n"o*a4type c(lts of affliction in Central and ,o(thern -frica, as seen in the previo(s chapter, *ay no) !e 1oined !y historical and co*parative perspectives of the entire re"ion )ithin )hich these c(lts appear. ?vidence for n"o*a<s ori"in, spread, and distri!(tion can !e "leaned fro* a ran"e of types of so(rces: lin"(istic evidence fro* a co*parison of Bant( lan"(a"e co"nates. evidence for the distri!(tion of *aterial c(lt(re artifacts of n"o*a, *ainly *(sical instr(*ents (tilized in healin" rit(als. evidence of political varia!les in the presence of distinctive alternative for*s taken !y n"o*a. 5his historical evidence, 1oined )ith the conte*porary profile, per*its (s to sketch the !asis of a (ni3(e instit(tional profile for n"o*a, one that has often !een *isrepresented !y scholars. Ceaders ac3(ainted )ith -frican c(lt(re history )ill reco"nize the 0n"o*a0 re"ion as appro2i*ately that of the distri!(tion of the Bant( lan"(a"es, that is, )ith the distri!(tion of the co"nate ntu )hich "ave the Bant( lan"(a"e fa*ily its na*e. By itself, the ter* ngoma and its distri!(tion do not tell (s *(ch a!o(t the co**on, and varyin", feat(res of the instit(tion. :o)ever, )hen this ver!al co"nate is associated )ith the cl(ster of other ter*s and feat(res that co**only acco*pany it over a )ider re"ion, )e !e"in to see the lar"er pict(re that relates lin"(istic evidence to reli"io(s, social, and therape(tic, or health4related, c(lt(ral pheno*ena. 5his approach, to )hich is so*eti*es added archaeolo"ical research, has fo(nd increasin" application in ,(!4 8 K& 8 ,aharan -frican historical research of the history and nat(re of do*ains s(ch as livestock h(s!andry, a"ric(lt(re, iron )orkin", political syste*s, and titles. ,(ch an approach to scholarship raises 3(estions a!o(t the for*al relationship of lan"(a"e to other do*ains of c(lt(re and society. 'o phonetic (nits, the co"nates, consistently carry co**on referents to concept(al tho("ht, sy*!ols, and e*otionsI :o) consistent are lin"(istic referents to !ehavior, techni3(es, and *aterial c(lt(reI :o) consistent are rates of chan"e in the relationship !et)een 0)ords0 and 0thin"s0I 5hese are practical research iss(es that *ay re3(ire specialized *ethodolo"ies in partic(lar do*ains. 5hey are also theoretical iss(es !earin" on the clai* that lan"(a"e does =or does not> convey *eanin", does =or does not> carry str(ct(res ho*olo"o(s )ith instit(tional or !ehavioral

patterns, or is =or is not> patterned !y physiolo"ical deter*inants. -fter presentin" core therape(tic4related co"nates in Bant( lan"(a"es, and so*e of the iss(es pertainin" to the !asic research on Central -frican lin"(istic history, this chapter )ill consider si*ilar evidence a!o(t the constellation of *(sical instr(*ents (tilized in the rit(als of therapy, in an atte*pt to clarify, in a for*al sense, the relationship of the instr(*ent type na*ed ngoma to the other aspects of the rit(al and the )ider instit(tion. 5he chapter closes )ith an e2cla*ation of social and c(lt(ral varia!les that have shaped the instit(tion, and considers ho), as a distinctive instit(tion, it has !een represented, or *isrepresented, in social research.

The /an * Con*n)%*m

,ocieties across the *iddle of the continent, fro* F(anda and Fi!reville in the )est to 'ar es ,alaa* in the east, and fro* Ca*eroon to the 'rakens!er" ran"e and the Cape in the so(th, share *any )ords and "ra**atical feat(res that have co*e to !e called the Bant( fa*ily of lan"(a"es. 'esi"nation of these lan"(a"es as 0Bant(0 is to so*e e2tent ar!itrary, the res(lt of nineteenth4cent(ry ?(ropean lin"(istic research, )hich reco"nized lar"e re"ions in ,o(thern and Central -frica )hose lan"(a"es shared co"nates. 5he co"nate ntu , *eanin" 0person,0 =pl(ral, bantu , people> )as !(t one of h(ndreds that co(ld have !een (tilized to descri!e the entire set. +n t)entieth4cent(ry lin"(istic and archaeolo"ical research, the e2tent of co**onality and variation in this co**on lin"(istic !ase has !eco*e *(ch clearer. 8 K9 8 +n the t)entieth cent(ry the notion 0Bant(0 has also taken on a ran"e of connotations, positive in one settin", ne"ative in another, and !oth in other settin"s, dependin" on )hose perspective is entertained. +t has co*e to stand for a *ode of tho("ht, or ethnophilosophy, pres(*a!ly !ased on indi"eno(s ideas, an approach to the st(dy of -frican tho("ht that is ro(ndly criticized !y so*e. +t has !eco*e a r(!ric of *a1or historical research, especially in ?3(atorial -frica, )here the Centre +nternational des Civilisations Banto(es of Fi!reville, /a!on, cond(cts cross4disciplinary )ork and p(!lishes the 1o(rnal untu . +n ,o(thern -frica, ho)ever, the notion 0Bant(0 has taken on a ne"ative connotation !eca(se of the ,o(th -frican "overn*ent<s reification of a st(ltified tri!al and i*posed interpretation of -frican c(lt(re, partic(larly as carried o(t in ed(cation for !lacks. 5he si*(ltaneo(s positive search for civilizational herita"e that one sees in ?3(atorial -frica (nder the r(!ric of 0Bant(,0 and the ne"ative tri!al connotation of 0Bant( ?d(cation0 in ,o(th -frica, contri!(te to the Bant( con(ndr(*. 7or present p(rposes it s(ffices to s(**arize the central findin"s of so*e of this historical research. !ody of c(rrent scholarship =Bastin 19&#. Bastin, Co(pez, and de :alle(2 19&1. Mee(ssen 19J%, 19&$. 'eMaret 19&L. :eine 19&L. Phillipson 19&K. ;ansina 19&L. :y*an and ;oorhoeve 19&$. ?hret and Posnansky 19&2. and ;an @oten 19&1> esta!lishes the ori"in of Bant( lan"(a"es in the eastern @i"erian and )estern Ca*eroonian area, in the early first, possi!ly the late second, *illenni(* B.C. Fin"(istic classifications, !ased on *ethods of 0least co**on0 and 0*ost co**on0 =or shared> le2ical and "ra**atical feat(res, deter*ine that these lan"(a"es are "enetically related to 9est -frican lan"(a"es.N1O 0Bant(0 is th(s defined as a narro) lan"(a"e "ro(p6tho("h spread across a vast s(!continent6in a )ider set of interrelated lan"(a"e fa*ilies that are so*eti*es referred to as 0Bantoid0 =:eine 19&L> in the *(ch *ore e2tensive 0@i"er4Con"o0 "ro(p =/reen!er" 19KK>. 5he sa*e *ethodolo"y6that is, "enetic classification of least co**on and *ost co**on co"nates or feat(res in sets of lan"(a"es )ithin the fa*ily6esta!lishes f(rther that the Bant( lan"(a"es had, !y the first *illenni(* B.C. , !e"(n to spread so(th)ard thro("h the forest zones and the -tlantic coast of

?3(atorial -frica, and east)ard alon" the northern ed"e of the forest4savanna !order into the +nterlac(strine re"ion =see fi". %>. 5hereafter, additional 0n(clear zones0 are posited, fro* )hich f(rther dispersion occ(rred east)ard and so(th)ard. Dne of these )as the 8 J$ 8

7i"(re %. Ma1or lines of Bant( *i"rations, accordin" to recent scholarship, and fo(r sites of field research for this !ook: Binshasa, representin" 9estern Bant(. 'ar es ,alaa*, on the +ndian Dcean coast, representin" !oth inland ?ast -frican and ,)ahili coastal infl(ences. ,)aziland, the northern @"(ni4speakin" settin". Cape 5o)n, a cos*opolitan ,o(th -frican settin". 0Con"o n(cle(s0 in the forest re"ions of Ca*eroon, /a!on, Con"o, and Aaire =:eine, :off, ;ossen 19%%>, also spoken of as 09estern Bant(0 =;ansina 19&L, 199$>. -nother )as 0?ast :i"hland,0 fro* the lake re"ions =:eine, :off, ;ossen 19%%>, also called 0?astern Bant(.0 Fater, in the first *illenni(* -.'. , the e2pansions contin(ed into ?ast -frica and to ,o(thern -frica, and, )ith a *i2t(re of ?astern and 9est4 8 J1 8 ern, across the ,o(thern ,avanna to the so(th)est, in Aaire, -n"ola, and @a*i!ia. 5his de*onstrated e2pansion of the Bant( lan"(a"es raises a n(*!er of 3(estions a!o(t the relationship of lan"(a"e to other facets of c(lt(re that are "er*ane to o(r interest in therape(tics, partic(larly n"o*a. 9hat )as the technolo"ical !asis of these societies that per*itted their e2pansion into territories occ(pied !y the h(ntin"4and4"atherin" pop(lations pree2istent in the continentI 9as this Bant( e2pansion *ore on the order of a "rad(al technolo"ical and c(lt(ral transfer, co**(nity !y co**(nity, or )as it *ore like a *i"rationI 9ere Bant( lan"(a"es tied to a *ore intensive a"ric(lt(reI +f so, at )hat point did iron )orkin" !eco*e the !asis of this a"rarian technolo"yI 7(rther, )hat types of food crops )ere (sedI /iven the contrastin" environ*ents into )hich the speakers of Bant( lan"(a"es *oved6fro* savanna into rain forest and !ack to savannas6)hat )ere the adaptive advanta"es that "ave the Bant( speakers the resilience to replace other )ays of life and other lan"(a"esI 9ere the speakers of Bant( lan"(a"es or"anized in any partic(lar social str(ct(resI 9hat )ere their !eliefsI 9hat )ere their ass(*ptions and val(es a!o(t health and society, and their approaches to healin"I -re these reflected consistently in the co**on co"nates across the re"ionI :o) did they (tilize the varied environ*ents and nat(ral prod(cts to i*prove healthI 9ere the n"o*a rit(als of any partic(lar i*portance in the process of e2pansionI 7inally, if )e ass(*e a co**on so(rce for n"o*a, )hich feat(res have re*ained contin(o(s and )hich have chan"edI -re these reflected in the co**on and varyin" co"nates across the re"ionI +t is no) ar"(ed, on the !asis of recent archaeolo"ical research in Ca*eroon and /a!on =;an @oten 19&1. ;ansina 19&L, 199$> that the 9estern Bant( e2pansion alon" the -tlantic coast and into the rain forest )as a "rad(al e2pansion of stone4tool (tilizin" c(ltivators of 9est -frican forest4related c(lti"ens, that is, trees s(ch as the oil pal* and root crops s(ch as ya*s. 5he ?astern Bant( c(lti"ens,

)hich pres(*a!ly !ro("ht the 9est -frican "rassland crops to the ,o(thern ,avanna, and later to ,o(thern -frica, incl(ded *illet, sor"h(*, and co)peas. 5he appearance of iron )orkin" in this technolo"ical4c(lt(ral settin" is no) !elieved to have occ(rred a!o(t %K$ to K$$ B.C. , the date of early iron4)orkin" finds in @i"eria. Celated iron4)orkin" sites, or evidence of iron, have !een fo(nd recently in /a!on and Ca*eroon. 5he 8 J2 8 e2pansion of the eastern lake Bant( *ay have occ(rred as early as %K$ to K$$ B.C. )ith the (se of iron s*eltin" and s*ithin". 5his accelerated the a!ility of Bant( speakers to do*inate the landscape, to "ro) crops, to h(nt, and in "eneral to i*prove their adaptive advanta"e. +t is tho("ht also to have contri!(ted later to the a!ility to for* centralized states. 5he earlier hypotheses that Bant( e2pansion *i"ht have !een d(e to iron and selected introd(ctions of crops fro* -sia =M(rdock 19K9> have not !een !orne o(t in recent archaeolo"ical and lin"(istic research. 7or one thin", the archaeolo"ical finds of iron are si*ply too late to s(pport s(ch a hypothesis. -lso, the lan"(a"e co"nates that pertain to iron )orkin" are too disparate to lend credence to a hypothesis of dispersion fro* a co**on point. 5he role of cattle and other livestock in the Bant( e2pansion has !een st(died at so*e len"th !eca(se of the a!sence of livestock in the 9estern forest re"ion =d(e to tsetse fly infestation> and the e2tensive (se of livestock in ?ast -frican and ,o(thern -frican Bant(4speakin" societies. ?hret, st(dyin" the character of lan"(a"e co"nates associated )ith livestock, de*onstrates that this part of an ?astern Bant( co*ple2 )as introd(ced fro* Central ,(danic peoples to the lake re"ion !y K$$ B.C. =?hret 19%#M%L>, fro* )here it spread so(th)ard. 5he Bant( e2pansion *(st not !e constr(ed to have !een a *i"ratory spread of a !iolo"ical or 0racial0 "ro(p, e2cept in selected di*ensions. /enetic *arkers of the northeast Bant( re"ion north of the lakes rese*!le *arkers of pop(lations in the ori"in area in the Ca*eroon and eastern @i"erian re"ion =:ierna(2 19J&>. Dther)ise, "enetic st(dies have revealed diverse pop(lations, in *any instances reflectin" 0pre4Bant(,0 !(t speakin" ho*o"eneo(s Bant( lan"(a"es. Many of the recent specialized lin"(istic st(dies in the Bant( zone have had their !asis in the *assive lifeti*e )ork of Malcol* /(thrie, p(!lished in the fo(r4vol(*e )ork Com$arati)e "antu =19J%M%1>, )hich *aps the distri!(tion of several tho(sand co"nates. /(thrie<s co*pilations are not e2ha(stive. 5he le2ica are !(ilt aro(nd key )ord sets deter*ined !y lin"(ists to represent !asic c(lt(ral do*ains. they are then e2panded into *ore c(lt(rally partic(lar do*ains. 7(rther, /(thrie<s le2ical reconstr(ctions are of necessity li*ited to those Bant( lan"(a"es for )hich dictionaries and voca!(laries )ere availa!le in the 19K$s and 19J$s )hen he did his )ork. /(thrie interpreted the evidence, !ased on de"rees of co**on le2ical stock, to ar"(e for a 9estern and an ?astern Bant( diver"ence fro* a central point on the ,o(thern ,avanna. -ltho("h this hypothesis has !een discredited !y 8 J# 8 s(!se3(ent research, his co*pendi(*, and s(!se3(ent )ork to !(ild (p the !asic pro1ect,N2O provides a "ro)in" fo(ndation for ne) st(dies that test additional hypotheses. +t is /(thrie<s le2icon, )ith a fe) s(pple*ental so(rces, that per*its (s to de*onstrate the character of a proto4Bant( level of therape(tic4oriented ver!al co"nates and derivative secondary, 9estern and ?astern, s(!sets of co"nates, concepts, and practices, and the place of n"o*a in this set.

The Le:#(on O" a C'a!!#(a' S*26Saha%an The%a+e* #(!

5he ter*s that pertain to health and healin" in /(thrie<s le2icon, and )hich occ(r in the entire re"ion of Bant( lan"(a"es, are ass(*ed to have !een part of the earliest6th(s, proto6level of the Bant(4 speakin" societies several tho(sand years a"o. Dther co"nates that appear only in 9estern or ?astern Bant( respectively, are either derived fro* the earlier ter*s as variants, )ere independently created, or )ere introd(ced fro* the o(tside. 5he follo)in" set of co"nate ter*s reveals sy*pto*s, etiolo"ies, healer roles, *edicines, and rit(al activities )ith the end4"oal of health =asterisks and n(*!ers indicate /(thrie<s 0Co*parative ,eries0 =c.s.> of co"nate reconstr(ctions !ased on a co*parison of *odern se*antic variations. see appendices - and B for the appro2i*ate distri!(tion>: Proto,"antu : )o(nd, !oil, sore =1J$& R 4$-t. 4, 1J$9 R 4$-t/ > to !eco*e ill, illness, to s(ffer =J%% R 4d-.d 4, J%& R 4d-.d0 4, J%9 R 4d-.1d/ 4> to !e)itch, c(rse, )itchcraft, po)er of )ords =JLL R 4d2g 4, JLK R 4d2g. 4, JLJ R 4d2g1 , JL% R 4d2g2 > *edicine *an, *edicine =%&J R 4g3ng3 , ng3ng3 , %&% R 4ganga > *edicine, tree =1%#$ R 4ti4> *edicine, consecrated char* =1K#L R 4$1ng- 4>. c(rse =1KK% R 4$1ng 4, 1KK& R 4$1ng4 4> dr(*, dr(**in", dance =&LL R 4g2m3 4, 1L$1 R 4g2m3 4> to !eco*e cold, cool do)n, !eco*e c(red, )ell =1KJL R 4$5d 4, 1KJK R 4$5d 4> interdiction, prohi!ition, to a!stain =&2J R 4g0d2 4, &22 R 4g0d 4, R 4g0d- 4, g0da > =also :(y"ens 19&%:K9M%$. D!en"a 19&K:2$9M211> 8 JL 8 %estern "antu : disease =o*on > =D!en"a 19&K:19J> "host =K$ R 4b3nd3 4>. healer, *edicine *an =K1 R 4mb3nd3 4> to c(re =19K R 4b-* 4>. to divine or c(re !y divinin" =19J R 4b-* 4> )hite clay, kaolin =1L%L R 4$/mb3 4, 1L%% R 4$/mb/ 4> consecrated *edicine, char*, fetish =1$%2 R 4*1t0 4>. spirit =1$%# R 4*1t0 , *1c0 > to protect )ith *edicine =99$ R 4*3g 4>. leaf =1$21 R 4*.#1 > to !leed !y c(ppin" horn =L#9 R 4cumi* 4> Eastern "antu : sore =JKJ R 4donda 4> )itch, )itchcraft =2L$ R 4c.bi 4>. ordeal, poison =1&&L R 4#.bi 4> to practice *edicine, divine =L%1 R 4dagud 4> spirit, spirit of dead =J19 R 4d1mu 4> consecrated *edicine, fetish, char* =29# R 4c3ng5 4> c(ppin" horn =L12 R 4c-*6 4, LL$ R 4c-mo 4>. to !leed !y c(ppin" =%$$ R 4dumi* 4> Ceco"nition of sickness is si"naled very )idely !y the co"nate ter* d-.d , or d-.d0 , )hose ver! for* luala in BiBon"o, hal'a in Bi@de*!( =5(rner 19J%>, or um*huhlane in ,i,)ati =Makh(!( 19%&:J1>, e2presses the e2istential 3(ality of s(fferin", in1(ry, or *isfort(ne. -cross the entire re"ion this is differentiated fro* physical in1(ry or sore, for )hich $-t. or $-t/ is (sed. +n north)estern Bant(, o*on

e2presses this =D!en"a 19&K:19J>, or in ?astern Bant(, the ter* donda . :ealth is identified !y n(*ero(s *etaphors, incl(din" 0!alance0 =lunga , in !oth A(l( and Bon"o>, 0p(rity0 =)eedila in Bon"o>, and 0coolness,0 )hose *ost )idespread co"nate is $5d , 0to !eco*e cool, or cool do)n0 or 0to !eco*e )ell, healthy,0 in contrast to the heat of disease or )itchcraft. 5his is related in so*e 9estern Bant( lan"(a"es s(ch as Bon"o to the action of the c(ppin" !orn =m$odi >, one of the *ost )idespread therape(tic and reli"io(s feat(res of Bant(4speakin" -frican societies, )hich 0s(cks o(t0 thro("h the c(ppin" horn =hola m$o*a > the i*p(rity. Ce"ional ter*s for the c(ppin" horn are c-*6 =?astern Bant(>, c-mo =9estern Bant(>. the action of !leedin" !y c(ppin", )ith scarification or scratchin" the skin follo)ed !y s(ckin", is cumi* =9estern> and dumi* =?astern>. +n a recent thesis !y :(y"ens =19&%>, as )ell as the )ork !y D!en"a 8 JK 8 =19&K>, the concept of interdiction, prohi!ition, or a!stinence has also !een related to the Bant(4-frican sense of health and illness. 5he co"nate g0d2( g0da( g0d- =in its no*inative for*, e."., ngili in 5eke, ci+ila in F(!a> or g0d =the ver!al for*> e*er"es in the conte2t of rit(al activities, initiations, or na*in", !(t also )ith practical circ(*stances havin" to do )ith a!stinence fro* specified foods in connection )ith an affliction or ail*ent =:(y"ens 19&%:K9M%$. D!en"a 19&K:21$M211>. @ot only are sickness and *isfort(ne held to !e the res(lt of trans"ression of the prohi!ition. health can !e *aintained or controlled !y keepin" the interdiction. 5he )idespread dichoto*y that distin"(ishes *isfort(nes or afflictions ste**in" fro* 0nat(ral0 or /od4"iven ca(ses fro* those ste**in" fro* h(*an involve*ent is reco"niza!le thro("ho(t the re"ion, altho("h there is no proto4Bant( ter* for /od, s(""estin" that ter*s for /od e*er"ed later. +n the 9estern re"ion the *ost )idespread ter* for /od is Nzambi or N#ambi =92K +amb/ , 191% #amb/ or n#amb/ >. +n ?astern Bant( ulungu =%1K dungu > is co**on, and in the ,o(thern re"ion u*ulu or 7m*bulane =A(l(>, (tilizin" the very )idespread ter* *ulu for a"ed one, or *ula for "ro)in" (p. ?very)here these :i"h /od ter*s are associated )ith *isfort(nes that are 0in the order of thin"s,0 th(s 0of /od.0 By contrast, (nnat(ral or ina(spicio(s *isfort(nes are said to !e ca(sed !y 0people0: in Bon"o, N*imbe)o O *ia muntu . in A(l(, Nu*ufa O *'a bantu . 5he co"nate ste* (sed here6ntu 6is of co(rse that fro* )hich the na*e bantu )as dra)n !y nineteenth4cent(ry lin"(ists. 5he association of the !asic ter* for h(*an !ein" )ith a *a1or ca(se of affliction to(ches on a f(nda*ental feat(re of etiolo"ical and therape(tic concepts co(ched in Bant( co"nates. 5he *ost co**on and )idespread action ter*s that spell o(t h(*an4ca(sed *isfort(nes are the co"nate ste* ver!s d2g , d2g. , and no(ns d2g1 or d2g2 . 5hese ter*s descri!e the (se of po)erf(l )ords and the intentions !ehind the*6)hether "ood or evil. +n Bon"o in the )est lo*a is the (se of po)erf(l )ords in oath and c(rse, and *indo*i their i*p(ted (se, )hich is !elieved to ca(se sickness and *isfort(ne. +n a revie) of lo* in Central -frican life, F(c de :e(sch =19%1> identifies the )ays in )hich 0"ood0 and 0!ad0 (ses of spells or po)erf(l )ords are (sed to reinforce partic(lar di*ensions of social str(ct(re. +n A(l(, in the so(th, tha* , the ver!, and ubutha*athi , refer to the process or state of sorcery and )itchcraft (sed !y *any scholars )ho 8 JJ 8 have enco(ntered so*e derivation of the co"nate d2g across Central and ,o(thern -frica have *asked the ori"inality of the ver!al concept, and the reco"nition that )ords, an"er, and all other e2pressions of

the social settin" can affect health and illness. -s )ords and their associated tho("hts can afflict, so )ords and the tho("hts of kin and affliction4peers can heal. 5heophile D!en"a, in his disc(ssion of Bant(4-frican therape(tic practices a*on" the '(ala of Ca*eroon and the M!ochi of @orth Con"o, stresses that the pron(nciations *ade in the esa rite of the '(ala and the ndoo rite of the M!ochi !eco*e a therape(tic force in their o)n ri"ht, si*(ltaneo(sly effective at the *ental and the physical level =19&K:2$L>.N#O +n any event, the reality of kin and e2tra4kin co**(nities in n"o*a de*onstrates the dyna*ic of the co"nate d2g at )ork. Dther notions reflect f(rther di*ensions of h(*an ca(sation of disease and *isfort(ne. ,(ch a notion is reflected in the ter* c.bi =or tsa'i >, fo(nd in ?koi and 5iv, as )ell as in ?astern Bant( lan"(a"es, *eanin" the s(!stance of )itchcraft po)er in a person, and #.bi , in ?astern Bant(, for the poison ordeal that identifies this po)er. ,i*ilar to this is the notion *undu in 9estern Bant( to denote the con"ealed po)er of )itchcraft in the !ody of the perpetrator. -ncestors represent an e2tension of the h(*an co**(nity as a *a1or ca(se of *isfort(ne and c(re in -frican society. ;ery )idely, definitely in ?astern Bant(, ancestors or spirits of the dead are referred to !y the co**on ter*, dimu , )hich is pro!a!ly proto4Bant(. +n 9estern Bant(, the "eneric ter* *ulu , elder =in A(l(, un*ulun*ulu >, is also (sed to refer to ancestor or shade, and as )ith dimu , to the po)er that *ay ca(se !oth life, if channeled properly, and *isfort(ne, if the co**(nity is not d(ly co"nizant of the ancestral shades. - *a1or di*ension of n"o*a is, of co(rse, co*in" to ter*s )ith these 0livin" dead0 in relation to the fort(ne and *isfort(ne of the s(fferer and his or her co**(nity. Movin" fro* the etiolo"ical and )orldvie) ter*s to those definin" therapy, )e *ay note that t1 6tree, stick, or *edicinal plant6is fo(nd thro("h the entire re"ion and *ay therefore !e ass(*ed to !e proto4 Bant(. +n so*e settin"s, for e2a*ple a*on" the :e*!a of ?astern Aaire, buti carries f(rther connotations of consecrated *edicine and of sorcery and )itchcraft =Blakely and Blakely 19&J>. &3g or *.#1 , her!, a 9estern Bant( variant, is the "eneric ter* for leaf, or for *edicinal plants, as )ell as to!acco, an -*erican i*port. 5he )ell4kno)n color triad of )hite, red, and !lack is represented 8 J% 8 every)here in the therape(tics of Bant(4speakin" -frica and can pro!a!ly !e classed )ith a proto4 Bant( rit(al sche*e, altho("h none of the ter*s for color are pervasive thro("ho(t the re"ion. Dne e2a*ple of a )idespread cere*onial color ter* is the 9estern Bant( $/mb3 , or $/mb/ , )hite clay or river chalk, denotative of 0clarity0 or 0p(rity,0 an attri!(te of the ancestors. 9hite clay, red ochre, and !lack charcoal, or other referents of these properties, are co**only (sed as !asic in"redients of health care. 9hiteness defines the stat(s of the novice )ho, fro* the ti*e of initial entry (ntil "rad(ation, is 0in the )hite.0 5his rit(al sy*!olis* is e2tended to the arena of the sick role, as n"o*a )ell ill(strates. 5he notions of t1( *.#1 , and, $/mb3 are (s(ally not, per se, char"ed )ith overtones of po)er. 9hen co*!ined )ith other s(!stances into co*po(nds and "iven the 0interpretation0 of a spoken phrase, they !eco*e so. ,(ch co*po(nds, especially )hen spoken or s(n" over, !eco*e po)erf(l *edicines invokin" the attri!(tes of ancestors and spirits. /(thrie !elieves that $engo is the proto4Bant( ter* for this f(nction. P1ng4 and $hungu in the 9est, and c3ng5 in the east and so(th of the Bant(4speakin" real*, are its derivative re"ional variants. 5he po)er of *edicine at the level of the co*po(nd, spoken or s(n" over, is evident in its a*!ivalence. 5h(s $1ng or $1ng4 refer not 1(st to *edicines !(t also to c(rsin" in 9estern Bant(. ,i*ilarly, the 9estern Bant( notion of kStT or kScT refers !oth to the possessin" spirit of an affliction, as )ell as to the *edicine (sed to deal )ith the affliction. +n the eastern*ost appearance of this co"nate a*on" the F(!aized @sen"o of 5anzania =9aite 19&%>, it refers

only to spirits. +n the 9estern re"ion, as in Bon"o, it carries *ainly the connotation of the consecrated packa"ed *edicine co*po(nd. Focal variations represent !oth or a ran"e of variants !et)een the t)o e2tre*es here. @"o*a in the *1c0 zone is often sit(ated )ithin this conte2t as the therape(tic perfor*ance of the *edicine. - *ore localized ter* a*on" the 9estern F(nda peoples of the ,o(thern ,avanna =e."., Gaka, ,(k(, 5shok)e, and Pende> for the cate"ory of *edicine as spirit4ind(ced co*po(nd or shrine is hamba . +n ?ast -frica, the -ra!ic4derived ter* da'a carries this sa*e connotation. +n the sa*e )ay as the for*(lation and identification of the sickness or its a"ent *ay "enerate the treat*ent *ode, thro("h control of that a"ent, so often the therape(tic techni3(e and the specialist are descri!ed !y the sa*e ter*. 5h(s, very )idely in the Bant(4speakin" area tonal or conte2t(al e*phases separate the co"nate ste* ganga , *edicine, 8 J& 8 fro* g3ng3 , doctor, accordin" to /(thrie. 9hereas the for*er e*phasis is sporadic, the latter is nearly (niversal in the re"ion, ran"in" fro* ng3ng3 in 9estern Bon"o, to mganga in ?ast -frica, and in#anga a*on" the A(l(. Ce"ional ter*s for specialized types of practitioner incl(de, in 9estern Bant(, bu*i , co*!inin" c(rin" and divination dia"nosis. banda and mbanda in 9estern Bant(, the first *eanin" spirit of affliction, the second healer. dagud in the northeast, *eanin" to practice *edicine or to divine. and lumbu or bilumbu in the central ,o(thern ,avanna re"ion and igqira in the so(th. 5hese "eneral ter*s for doctor or healer are "iven *ore specificity thro("h co*!ination )ith another ter*. 5h(s, the Bon"o nganga n*isi deals )ith consecrated *edicines =min*isi >. nganga lunga is the orthopedist. nganga m$odi the c(ppin" horn e2pert, n*isi m$odi , the c(ppin" horn, and so on. 'ivination is a nearly (niversal techni3(e in these societies, altho("h the partic(lar character of the techni3(e varies i**ensely. 5he !asic dia"nostic 3(estion for )hich an ans)er is so("ht is that of )hether a *isfort(ne or affliction is d(e to nat(ral6/od4ordained6ca(ses or to h(*an forces, or is related to the *is(se of *edicines or inade3(ate control of spirit forces. Beca(se of its inte"ral place in the interpretation of h(*an e2perience in societies of the area, divination *ethods have shifted fre3(ently to respond to the forces of social chan"e. Unlike the pervasiveness of the ter* that e2presses the hypothesis of h(*an4derived *isfort(ne =d2g >, there see*s to !e no co**on or even re"ional ter* for the interpretation of *isfort(ne in partic(lar cases =(nless it is the co"nate g3ng3 >. +n recent decades there has !een a )idespread trend for *echanistic techni3(es s(ch as the @"o*!o !asket of the ,o(thern ,avanna and )est coast, and pen"(la !one4thro)in" in the so(thern re"ion, to !e replaced !y inspirational diviners )ho *ay !e possessed !y a ran"e of spirits: nat(re, ancestral, Christian, +sla*ic. 5he (r"ency to respond to the !asic *etaphysical and social 3(estions a!o(t the ca(ses of *isfort(ne has *aintained the dia"nostic and therape(tic syste* of Central and ,o(thern -frica a*id *a1or chan"es in the past cent(ry. 5he ideational s(perstr(ct(re, *ore than partic(lar techni3(es, has re*ained hi"hly resilient. Ng2m3 is a final central co"nate of the *edicine of Bant(4speakin" -frica )hich arises fro* and dra)s on all the fore"oin" feat(res. ,o far this )ork has translated it as 0c(lt of affliction,0 or 0dr(* of affliction,0 since in *any re"ions ng2m3 refers to dr(*, the instr(*ent. :o)ever, this connection !et)een the ter* and the )ider pheno*enon 8 J9 8 is far fro* !ein" a neat sin"le4stranded relationship. -t the core of the 0Bant( con(ndr(*0 is the fact

that altho("h there are so*e )idespread referents of the ter*s )e have seen here, fe) if any are present every)here as a f(lly consistent co*ple2 of different ele*ents. 5he *(sical instr(*ents that acco*pany n"o*a and other healin" rites offer intri"(in" cl(es fro* a nonver!al do*ain )hich )ill s(pport preli*inary hypotheses to the 3(estions )e seek to ans)er.

In! %*men ! O" R# *a' 7ea'#ng A! A Non$e%2a' Cogna e Se

9e *ay think of the iss(es to !e addressed here as a p(zzle )ith several interlockin" pieces. +f the ver!al co"nate ngoma is nearly pervasive in Bant( lan"(a"es =)ith the e2ception of zones B and C, and in the Bhoisan so(th. see *aps, appendi2 B>, ho) do )e acco(nt for the li*ited distri!(tion, )ithin that c(lt(ral and lin"(istic space, of rit(al therape(tic instit(tions na*ed ngoma I Celated to this, ho) do )e acco(nt for the even less )idely distri!(ted occ(rrence of the dr(* type n"o*a )ithin that spaceI 5he distri!(tion of the set *ade (p of )ord, !ehavior, and o!1ect )ill offer cl(es as to the ori"in and character of the instit(tion. 5here is *ore to the p(zzle. -ltho("h the type of *(sic that acco*panies therape(tic activities in Central and ,o(thern -frica varies a "reat deal, )ell !eyond the core area in )hich n"o*a dr(*s are (sed, the association of *(sical instr(*ent types )ith healin" is not rando*. +nstr(*ent types see* to !e defined !y re"ional sets or traditions, !(t in s(ch a )ay as to diss(ade any zealo(s red(ctionist of an inherent relationship !et)een the n"o*a dr(* type and the therape(tic rit(als. - first step !eyond the le2icon, for the p(rpose of testin" the e2tent to )hich !ehavioral or nonver!al c(lt(re *ay ali"n )ith ver!al co"nates havin" to do )ith healin", takes (s into the real* of the *aterial c(lt(re of rit(al therapy, na*ely the *(sical instr(*ents, their na*es, and the constellations in )hich they are co*!ined in rit(al perfor*ance )ith sin"ers. 5his evidence, added to the le2ical evidence offered a!ove, stren"thens the inferences that *ay !e dra)n a!o(t the ori"in, history, and character of the instit(tion. -s )e pro"ress in this analysis of a co*ple2 instit(tion, )e )ill e2a*ine the relationship of these instr(*ents to voice, son" te2t, rhyth*, trance4possession, and the social *ake(p of therape(tic co**(nication )ithin a sociopolitical conte2t. =appendi2 C offers a distillation of findin"s on the for*al co*position 8 %$ 8 of instr(*ents, sin"ers, and the overall *ake(p of the n"o*a4type "ro(ps, fro* a ran"e of so(rces !ased on o!servation and the literat(re.> 5he research to date is of *i2ed 3(ality. +n addition to *y o)n o!servations, and the recordin"s and p(!lications of specialized scholars on partic(lar peoples6for e2a*ple, John Blackin" =19%#, 19&K> on the ;enda, Pa(l Berliner =19&1> a*on" the ,hona6a *a1or syste*atic co*pendi(* of "reat (sef(lness is the s(rvey of *(sic in Aairian healin" rites !y researchers -rna(t, Biolo, ?sole, /anse*ans, Bishilo, Mal(tshi, and P(erson of the @ational M(se(* of Aaire in the 19%$s and early 19&$s =see appendi2 C>. 5his )ork is !acked (p !y another, earlier, set of data fo(nd in the )ork of Dl"a Boone, )hose 19K1 classic 8es tambours du Congo belge et du Ruanda,7rundi identified dr(* types and their na*es across Central -frica. +n the !elt across the *iddle of the continent, fro* Bon"o to ,)ahili, )here /(thrie finds the "reatest conver"ence of co**on Bant( ter*s, ngoma refers pri*arily to the elon"ated )ooden dr(* )ith a sin"le *e*!rane attached at one end )ith pe"s. Boone noted that this *a1or dr(* type )as distri!(ted alon" an east4)est line ro("hly at the ,o(thern ,avanna forest !order. @orth of this line )as a re"ion of 0*i2ed0 dr(* types, )ith the pe""ed n"o*a type interspersed )ith a type that (ses cords to fasten the *e*!rane to the !ody of the dr(*. 'r(*s )hose *e*!ranes )ere attached )ith cord or strin" )ere rarely called ngoma .

+n the re"ion of n"o*a rit(als, n"o*a the instr(*ent (s(ally is also identified as a dance dr(* and a sacred *edicine dr(*. +t *ay also !e a dr(* of state. +n societies )here trance4possession and therape(tic c(lts are present, n"o*a *ore than any other dr(* is (sed in this therape(tic settin", to the acco*pani*ent of shakers and sin"in". 5o the north of the re"ion )here this set of practices prevails, strin"ed and )ind instr(*ents are *ore co**on in healin" rites. n"o*a dr(*s are a!sent. 5herape(tic rit(als in the rain forest of ?3(ate(r Province of northern Aaire "enerally de*onstrate the typical call4and4response pattern of *(sical interaction fo(nd else)here: a s(fferer and healer, and a 0choir0 *ade (p of sets of additional individ(als on either or !oth sides, )ith the acco*pani*ent of hand clappin", rasps, rattles, )histles, !ells, strin"ed zithers or harps, horns, "on"s, and kettle or slit4 "on" dr(*s, as )ell as occasionally the 2ylophone =see appendi2 C>. ,pirits that are invoked in these rites are often ancestors =0?li*a,0 0Bali*o,0 8 %1 8 0Mali*(,0 consonant )ith the co"nate d1mu > or nat(re or )ild spirits =09etshi,0 0@zondo0>. -ll of the ?3(ate(r e2a*ples in the Aaire s(rvey are taken fro* north of the line, esta!lished in Boone<s !ambours =19K1> st(dy, !eyond )hich no lanced4skin dr(*s are said to have !een *ade and (sed. +n other )ords, the northern forest pict(re of therape(tics fro* the Aaire s(rvey de*onstrates that healin" rit(als in Central -frica occ(r )idely )itho(t the characteristic n"o*a dr(*. -ltho("h /(thrie incl(des these re"ions in his Bant( lan"(a"e area, they are conspic(o(s for the a!sence of ngoma as a ver!al co"nate, a pattern that is also tr(e of the eastern Aaire 9are"a rite 0B(tii.0 By contrast, the ,o(thern ,avanna, ?ast -frican, ,o(theast, and ,o(thern -frican e2a*ples of therape(tic rit(als de*onstrate the near pervasive presence of the n"o*a4type lanced4skin dr(* in the perfor*ance of the n"o*a rite. -s one *oves so(th and east, n"o*a dr(*s are the r(le (ntil one reaches the @orth @"(ni !eyond the Aa*!ezi river. 5hey are present in ;enda ngoma dza )adzimu rites, in ,)azi and ,han"an rit(als, and in so*e area royal settin"s. B(t a*on" the so(thern @"(ni peoples =A(l(, Hhosa> they are a!sent fro* !oth royal and c(lt settin"s. :ere, n"o*a refers neither to the dr(*s (sed =co)hide stretched over sticks or oil dr(*s>, nor to the dancin", !(t e2cl(sively to the sin"in", divinin", and the desi"nation of those )ho do these thin"s. 5h(s, the A(l( isangoma diviner is literally 0one )ho does n"o*a06that is, sin"s the son"s. -*on" Hhosa, *(ch infl(enced lin"(istically !y Bhoisan, the role ter* for the n"o*a4sin"er !eco*es igqira . divination is handled not )ith !ones !(t thro("h conte*plation. /ro(p and net)ork s(pport plays a *ore i*portant place than individ(alized divinin" in the )ork of n"o*a. 5here is th(s a host of re"ional and societal variations aro(nd )hich the notion 0c(lt of affliction0 or 0dr(* of affliction0 *(st !e analyzed. ?2ceptions to this pattern are coastal ,)ahili, the ,hona settin" of Ai*!a!)e, and the )estern Bon"o settin". /enerally, in the e2a*ples )e have fro* the vast re"ion *entioned, s(fferer=s> and healer=s> either constit(te or are 1oined !y a choir and other instr(*ents, s(ch as shakers or rattles, "on"s, and hand clappin". +n the ,hona re"ion the dr(* is replaced !y another instr(*ent, the lar"e "o(rd4resonatin" hand piano, mbira , (s(ally played in an orchestra of a dozen or so *e*!ers, in perfor*ances called bira . 5he Bon"o re"ion reveals a *i2ed pict(re, insofar as *(sical instr(*enta4 8 %2 8 tion of healin" rites is concerned, consonant )ith Boone<s deter*ination =19K1> that )estern Aaire )as a re"ion of 0*i2ed0 dr(* types. Bon"o therape(tic rites (tilize a *i2t(re of horns, sin"le and do(!le

"on"s, )histles, rattles, and a ran"e of dr(*s =incl(din" n"o*a to dr(* (p *a1or n*isi , 0rit(al *edicine0 see appendi2 C>. 5he ,)ahili coast feat(res the 0p(re0 n"o*a types of healin" rites, invaria!ly fro* the interior, altho("h the +sla*ic4infl(enced rites (tilize s*all do(!le4*e*!rane dr(*s and shakers. 5his instr(*ent s(rvey, s(""estive of type cl(sters aro(nd the )idespread n"o*a re"ion, !elies the i*pressive *(sical consistency across the s(!continent in ter*s of a fe) feat(res + shall take (p later in *ore detail, !(t )hich need to !e pointed o(t here. 5hro("ho(t the rites cited, the *(sical scores offer a pervasive (se of call and response !et)een the sin"le 0soloist06the s(fferer, novice6and the 0choir06the local cell or a "ro(p of 0si"nificant others.0 5he patternin" of the instr(*ents in therape(tic rites, a"ainst this !ackdrop of the call and response and son"4dance, s(""ests that there are re"ionally, or c(lt(rally, specific constellations of instr(*ents. 9e *ay think of these in ter*s of the co**on4sense desi"nations of instr(*ent types6harp, zither, )histle, horn, dr(*6or in ter*s of the for*al desi"nations of *(sicolo"ists =Marc(se, in Merria* 19%%:2K$>: the idio$hone , an 0instr(*ent that yields a so(nd !y its o)n s(!stance, !ein" stiff and elastic eno("h to vi!rate )itho(t re3(irin" a stretched *e*!rane or strin"0 =e."., 2ylophone, *!ira, sansa, like*!e, rattles, !ells, "on"s, slit dr(*s>. membro$hone , 0any instr(*ent in )hich so(nd is prod(ced !y vi!ration of a stretched *e*!rane, !ro("ht a!o(t !y strikin", friction, or so(nd )aves0 =e."., dr(*s>. aero$hone , 0any *(sic instr(*ent in )hich tone is "enerated !y *eans of air set in vi!ration0 =19%%:2K2> =e."., horns, fl(tes, panpipes, and ocarinas>. and chordo$hone , 0any instr(*ent havin" strin"s as tone4prod(cin" ele*ents, the pitch of the instr(*ent !ein" dependent on the strin"s0 =e."., harp, zither>. 5he chordophones6the strin"ed instr(*ents6altho("h they are present thro("ho(t, are (sed in healin" rites only in the northern forest re"ion. Most co**on in healin" rites thro("ho(t the Central and ,o(thern -frican re"ion, is the idiophone, that is, the shaker, "on", 2ylophone, slit4"on" dr(*, and the th(*! or hand piano. ,econd *ost co**on in healin" rites of the entire re"ion is the *e*!rophone, the sin"le or do(!le *e*!rane dr(*. 5he areophone see*s to !e *ore co**on in the northern forest re"ion than in the ,o(thern ,avanna and other so(thern re"ions. 8 %# 8 +n ter*s of the hypothesis anno(nced earlier concernin" the relationship of instr(*ent type to the therape(tic rite, "reat variation is apparent. @evertheless, the variation is patterned. +t is not *erely a reflection of the "eneral stock of *(sical instr(*ents (sed in the re"ional c(lt(re. ,trin"ed instr(*ents and horns are )idespread !(t are not fre3(ently (sed in therape(tic rites o(tside the forest re"ion. 'r(*s, readily availa!le in forest societies, are not fre3(ently (sed for healin" there. Dn the ,o(thern ,avanna, dr(*s are the pri*ary instr(*ent of healin". 5he pervasive -frican hand4piano6nsanza( mbira 6is (sed in *a1or healin" rites only a*on" the ,hona "ro(p of Ai*!a!)e. - second concl(sion, anno(nced earlier, follo)s fro* this findin" on the pattern of distri!(tion of *(sical instr(*ents (tilized in therape(tic rites. 5h(s )e *(st !e s(spicio(s of clai*s that e2plain a specific pattern of therapy, or possession rit(al, in ter*s of the effects of a partic(lar type of instr(*ent, s(ch as the dr(*. 5his is partic(larly the case "iven the !ack"ro(nd of co**on *(sical style feat(res s(ch as call and response and polyrhyth*, and of the choral nat(re of -frican therape(tic son"4dance. Dne final piece of the p(zzle, of those )ith )hich )e !e"an this section, re*ains to !e p(t in place. 9hat, then, e2plains the distri!(tion of the n"o*a4style dr(* and the (se of this na*e for the therape(tic and cele!rative son"4danceI -s )e have seen, this distri!(tion is ro("hly o(tlined on the north !y an arc r(nnin" so(th)ard of the Con"o Aaire Civer, then northeast)ard fro* Fake ;ictoria

across so(thern Benya. +t e2tends fro* the -tlantic to the +ndian oceans, and so(th)ard to the !o(ndary of @"(ni4speakers and the ,hona. Plotted on /(thrie<s lan"(a"e *ap, this corresponds appro2i*ately to the 7, :, B, F, M, @, P, and parts of the , zones =see appendi2 B>. +t is a!sent fro* the C and *ost of ' zones in the north, present only alon" the coast of -, and sparse in the C zone. a!sent in the lar"e Bhoisan zone, as )ell as in part of the , zone, the so(th @"(ni. - tentative interpretation of this distri!(tion of the associated dr(* type and therape(tic rite )o(ld point to its presence, as a co"nate, in early or proto4Bant(, )ith so*e kind of a*plification in the ?astern Bant( *i"rations fro* the lake re"ion, )est)ard across the savanna to the -tlantic coast, so(th)ard across the Aa*!ezi and the Fi*popo, and east)ard to the +ndian Dcean coast. 5he early 9estern Bant( pattern of n"o*a dr(*s is not clear at this point. the identification of !oth the dr(* type and the rit(al is e2tre*ely diverse and needs f(rther st(dy. +t is clear, ho)ever, that over *(ch of the )estern Con"o !asin, as in Bon"o society, there is an overlay or *eldin" of pres(*a!ly ?ast4 8 %L 8 ern and 9estern Bant( ele*ents. +t is pro!a!le that n"o*a techni3(es and *aterial c(lt(re6the n"o*a dr(*6co*ple*ented or incorporated the east)ard spread of distinctly 9estern Bant( c(lt(ral ele*ents s(ch as the n*isi =kno)n fro* the Bon"o coast to the F(!a4ized @sen"a in Mala)i and far )estern 5anzania>. 5he coastal -tlantic rites in /a!on and Ca*eroon, )here the pe""ed4*e*!rane dr(* is present, are s(""estive of Central -frican rites. 9hether these are d(e to proto4Bant( or *ore recent ?astern Bant( i*p(lses is (nclear. D(r ?astern Bant( ori"ins hypothesis for n"o*a *(st re*ain s(""estive for the present.

So(#a' An) Po'# #(a' Va%#a2'e! O" A Com+'e: In! # * #on

7or*al one4di*ensional c(lt(ral historical indices s(ch as ver!al co"nates and the distri!(tion of *aterial c(lt(re have set the !road historic !o(ndaries of n"o*a. 9e *(st no) look )ithin the re"ion and its societies to f(rther identify the s(!1ect at hand and to esta!lish the hall*arks for its presence )ithin this !road conte2t. 5he ne2t t)o chapters on 0core feat(res0 and 0doin" n"o*a0 )ill f(rther identify !ehavioral and nor*ative correlates of n"o*a, as (sed in its !roader *eanin" as has e*er"ed in the fore"oin" pa"es, and as the set )e have !een descri!in" as a 0c(lt of affliction.0 :o)ever, first )e can identify so*e of the !road4stroke social and political corollaries of those settin"s in )hich n"o*a is present and in )hich it is a!sent. ,econd, )ithin the re"ion and societies )here this set occ(rs, )e can !e"in to look for the reasons for the rise and decline of partic(lar *anifestations of n"o*a the instit(tion, and )hy it is se"*ented into *any specialized "ro(ps in one settin" and ho*o"eneo(s or (nitary in other settin"s. 5hird, "iven that n"o*a co*!ines feat(res that are nor*ally differentiated in 9estern instit(tions and in 9estern scholarship, )hat is an appropriate (nderstandin" of the c(lt of affliction and its f(nctions as an instit(tionI

C*' ! O" A""'#( #on In Cen %a'#ze) An) Segmen a%& So(#e #e!
Many of the societies of the s(!continent have !een linea"e4!ased a"rarian co**(nities, practicin" so*e h(ntin", and in re"ions )here the sleepin" sickness4carryin" tsetse fly is a!sent, livestock tendin". 8 %K 8

?specially in coastal re"ions, co**ercial cities have e*er"ed, linkin" the continent to overseas *ercantile centers. 5he re"ion incl(des ,o(thern ,avanna *atrilineal societies s(ch as the Bon"o, F(nda, Cok)e, Bi*!(nd(, and Be*!a of Aaire, -n"ola, Aa*!ia, and Mala)i. patrilineal societies s(ch as the F(!a, Fozi, @ya*)ezi, and others of the central re"ion, and in the so(thern re"ion, the @"(ni4speakin" societies of the A(l(, ,)azi, and Hhosa. and near!y, the ,hona, ,otho, and 5s)ana, to na*e a fe). 5he re"ion has seen the e*er"ence of n(*ero(s precolonial states and e*pires, incl(din" the cl(ster of F(!a, F(nda, Bi*!(nd(, and Cok)e states. on the )estern coast, the Bon"o, Foan"o, Bakon"o, and @"oyo states. the states of the eastern lakes, B(so"a and B("anda, and east)ard, @ya*)ezi. in the Ai*!a!)e re"ion, the historic state of Mona*otapa. *ore recently, in the early nineteenth cent(ry, the A(l( e*pire and the 5s)ana chiefdo*s, and the ,otho kin"do* in the ,o(thern -frica area, associated )ith the "reat dist(r!ances kno)n as Mfecane. @"o*a4type c(lts of affliction have related dyna*ically to these states. 5hey have either !een !ro("ht (nder the t(tela"e of "overn*ent and served the p(rposes of, and the le"iti*ation for, soverei"n po)er, or they have preserved and perpet(ated se"*ents of society not directly related to the state. +n the a!sence of the state, they have provided a for*at for the perpet(ation of social se"*ents, partic(larly those *ar"inalized or afflicted, s(ch as )o*en, the handicapped, those str(ck )ith *isfort(ne in econo*y4related tasks s(ch as h(ntin", )o*en<s reprod(ctive capacity, or co**erce. +n so*e settin"s, the *odel of the c(lt has provided the !asis for nor*ative social a(thority, definin" and or"anizin" econo*ic activity, social or"anization, and *ore esoteric reli"io(s and artistic activities. +n colonial and postcolonial -frica, the lo"ic of the (se of affliction and adversity for the or"anization of social reprod(ction has contri!(ted to the perpet(ation, even the proliferation, of c(lts of affliction, often in a )ay that has !affled "overn*ental a(thorities and o(tside o!servers. C(lts have arisen in connection )ith epide*ics, *i"ration and trade ro(tes, shifts in *odes of prod(ction, and in response to chan"es in social or"anization and the deterioration of 1(ridical instit(tions. Colonialis* itself (ndo(!tedly "enerated *any of the c(lts of affliction that appeared in the t)entieth cent(ry. Postindependence conditions have contin(ed to provide "rist for the *ill of c(lt for*ation. 5he pict(re of c(lts of affliction )ithin, or in relation to, centralized historic states contrasts *arkedly )ith that in the decentralized societ4 8 %J 8 ies. Under the shado) of the state they are less infl(ential, or entirely a!sent, or transfor*ed into the rit(als of statecraft. +nstr(ctive is their apparent a!sence in the 5s)ana chiefdo*s, )here stron" historic chief4ship has provided social contin(ity, a for*at for the 1(ridical process, and so*e *eans of *aterial s(pport to *ar"inalized and needy people. By contrast, in nei"h!orin" @"(ni societies, they have thrived alon"side or (nder the t(tela"e of chiefs and kin"s. +n other conte2ts c(lts are kno)n to have provided the i*pet(s for the e*er"ence of centralized polities, as in the case of the B(nzi shrine of coastal Bon"o. ?lse)here, c(lts have e*er"ed in the )ake of historic states, pickin" (p the a(ra of royal a(thority, the trappin"s of soverei"nty, and transfor*in" the* into a contin(in" so(rce of *ystical po)er. - pri*e e2a*ple is the c(lt of Cyan"o*!e and the B(C)ezi of the lakes re"ion of eastern Central -frica, )hose spirits are said to !e the royal dynasties of the ancient C)ezi kin"do* =Ber"er 19&1>. B(C)ezi is today fo(nd in 5anzania<s *a1or cities. 5he sa*e *odel has !een reported in Mayotte, off the coast of ?ast -frica, )here possession spirits are the ,aklava kin"s of Mada"ascar =Fa*!ek 19&1:1K2>. 5he dyna*ic relationship of c(lts to centralized polities has !een acco*panied !y chan"es in the )ay spirits and shades are foc(sed in conscio(sness and rit(al. -s the scale and f(nction of a c(lt e2pands,

narro)ly defined ancestor shades *ay "ive )ay to nat(re, alien, or hero spirits. +n a fe) instances, centralized shrine c(lts have persisted over cent(ries, definin" pri*ary val(es and social patterns for "enerations of adepts. 5he B(nzi shrine of coastal Bon"o, M!ona of Mala)i, and Borekore and Chik(nda in Ai*!a!)e are )ell4st(died e2a*ples that contin(e into the present. ,o*e a(thors have *ade a distinction !et)een these centralized 0re"ional0 c(lts and topically foc(sed c(lts of affliction =9er!ner 19%%>. B(t the orders, taken in their entirety, s(""est *ore of a contin((* alon" several a2es: centralized to se"*entary, incl(sive to specialized, controlled !y state soverei"nty to independent =or even opposed to state soverei"nty>. C(lts have crystallized opposition to states, !oth in precolonial, colonial, and to a lesser de"ree, postcolonial settin"s. 5h(s, the C)ezi c(lt channeled opposition to hierarchized str(ct(res in the +nterlac(strine state of C)anda =Ber"er 19&1>. C(lt leaders or"anized opposition to Chodesian la!or recr(it*ent practices in the early t)entieth cent(ry and inspired early strikes in the *ines =;an Dnselen 19%J>. +n the Ai*!a!)ean )ar of independence, *edi(*s played a role of le"iti*atin" the clai*s to land !y the elders, and the aspirations of the "(errilla fi"hters, altho("h the par4 8 %% 8 tic(lars have only !e"(n to !e st(died caref(lly =7ry 19%J. Can"er 19&K:1&%M21J>. 5he role of n"o*a net)orks in pop(lar resistance in ,o(th -frica<s to)nships is not yet kno)n to scholars, !(t it *ay !e s(!stantial. +n the t)entieth cent(ry, c(lts of affliction have tended to !e short4ter* *ove*ents of panacea ='eCrae*er, ;ansina, and 7o2 19%J>, often !orn in desperation. 5hey have provided e2pression to the pains and social pro!le*s of )ide se"*ents of the pop(lace. 5here has !een a "reat deal of interpenetration !et)een the c(lts and independent Christian ch(rches, and )ith +sla*ic orders. @e) per*anent c(lts have arisen aro(nd characteristic ills s(ch as the isolated n(clear ho(sehold in the (r!an settin". epide*ic diseases s(ch as t(!erc(losis, and "ettin" !y )ith the chronic pro!le*s related to it. the divination of social pro!le*s s(ch as (ne*ploy*ent in a proletarian settin". ho) to s(cceed in !(siness and ho) to retain a 1o!. ho) to protect )ealth once it is ac3(ired. Many c(lts foc(s on the alienation and entrap*ent so co**on in the -frican (r!an settin". +n the (r!an centers of Aaire, 5anzania, ,)aziland, and ,o(th -frica the historic c(lts as )ell as ne) adaptations are represented !y part4ti*e and f(ll4ti*e healers and priests and their adepts. +n *ost instances the ethnic co**(nities of the r(ral hinterlands have !ro("ht their reli"io(s instit(tions )ith the* to the city, )here they have (nder"one shifts of f(nction and si"nification.

Un# a%& An) 3#$e%!e Man#"e! a #on!

- f(rther iss(e in considerin" independent varia!les s(rro(ndin" the ori"in, persistence, and chan"e in n"o*a has to do )ith its alternative (nitary and diverse *anifestation across the re"ion )here it is fo(nd. 5his contrast is *ost *arked in co*parin" the central re"ion of the continent )ith the so(thern re"ion. -cross the *id4continent, fro* the Con"o coast, across the ,o(thern savanna, to the 5anzanian hi"hlands and the coastal re"ion, n"o*a4type instit(tions are (s(ally represented in *(ltiples. 5(rner<s )ork =19J&> a*on" the @de*!(, a society incorporated on the periphery of the F(nda e*pire, co(nted t)enty4three n"o*a orders. Cory<s )ritin" on the ,(k(*a of the Fake ;ictoria shores in )estern 5an"anyika en(*erated a!o(t t)enty4five n"o*a orders. ,o*e of these pertained to )o*en<s reprod(ctive disorders or child rearin". Dthers had to do )ith *en<s pro!le*s, either in prod(c4

8 %& 8 tive )ork or in social roles. ,everal had to do )ith societal dan"ers, either fro* the nat(ral )orld =e."., poisono(s snakes> or fro* spirit(al threats =)itches> or alien spirits. Dthers co(ld !e seen as cere*onial leadership or"anizations that consolidated responsi!ilities s(ch as )itch findin" or the sponsorship of periodic rit(als. +n the so(thern re"ion, partic(larly in @"(ni4speakin" societies of Moza*!i3(e, Ai*!a!)e, ,o(th -frica, ,)aziland, and Fesotho, n"o*a is *ainly presented as a ho*o"eneo(s type of instit(tion, devoted to the reco"nition of ancestors and addressin" "eneral h(*an pro!le*s. +t is diffic(lt to interpret this contrastin" confi"(ration in ter*s of an independent varia!le, either in the past or in the present. +t is te*ptin" to look at this contrast in ter*s of a kind of '(rkhei*ian or ,pencerian social str(ct(ral proliferation or specialization that occ(rs in *ost societies )ith advancin" ti*e. 5he older societies in the Bant( e2pansion, nota!ly of the central area, )o(ld have sho)n "reater instit(tional diversity !eca(se of their "reater historical depth in that settin". 9hereas the @"(ni in the so(th, e2e*plifyin" the end res(lt of *i"rations and frontier4type settin"s, )o(ld have retained a less differentiated type of society. 5his perspective *i"ht then reveal so*ethin" a!o(t the ori"inal role of n"o*a in the 0Bant( frontier,0 perhaps in the need to consolidate a(thority and to co*e to ter*s )ith threats and contradictions of vario(s kinds. :o)ever, there is no )ay to test s(ch a theory or hypothesis, *(ch less deter*ine )hich are the independent and dependent varia!les, (ntil far !etter historical (nderstandin" is availa!le. 5here are indications in specific settin"s of trends in c(lts of affliction to)ard "reater proliferation, or to)ard "reater ho*o"eneity, )hich *ay offer a less "randiose approach to the iss(e. 5he salient independent varia!le here see*s to !e political and social consolidation. +n the seventeenth4to nineteenth4cent(ry coastal Con"o settin", in )hich the Fe*!a c(lt e*er"ed, there )as a proliferation of n*isi *edicines, char*s, and n"o*a4type orders, especially alon" the coast as the coastal trade eroded political states s(ch as Foan"o, Bakon"o, and @"oyo, as )ell as the Bon"o kin"do*, and (nder*ined the 1(ridical f(nctions that these states )ere a!le to f(lfill. 5he decline of the states *ay !e correlated directly )ith the increase of char*s, *edicines, and c(lts, incl(din" Fe*!a. :o)ever, )ithin Fe*!a6the *a1or re"ional n"o*a4c(lt or"anization, )hich reflected trade, alliance !(ildin", and healin"6there e*er"ed a consolidation of so*e of the diverse s(!4char*s and f(nctions. 7or e2a*ple, the coastal *id)ifery order Pfe*!a, the preva4 8 %9 8 lent )ay of dealin" )ith )o*en<s reprod(ctive iss(es, )as co4opted !y Fe*!a =Janzen 19&2:KJ>. +ts representation in the Fe*!a order and n*obe !asket of *edicines ca*e to !e kno)n as 0Pfe*!a4 Fe*!a0 =Janzen 19&2:2K#M2KL>. +n other re"ions Fe*!a appears to have incorporated, or ali"ned )ith, other distinctive rit(al f(nctions and *edicines. 9e *ay pro1ect this proced(re to its lo"ical e2tension and i*a"ine that *(ltiple rit(al f(nctions *i"ht !e si*ilarly a!sor!ed )ithin a sin"le instit(tion, leadin" to "reater f(nctional ho*o"eneity. -t the e2tre*e, this *i"ht have led to co*plete inte"ration of rit(al f(nctions )ithin the state or so*e other a!sol(tistic type of instit(tion. Dr, it co(ld, as in the case of coastal Bon"o, indicate that )here the centralized state had collapsed, n"o*a4type orders took (p so*e of the f(nctions of state, s(ch as conflict resol(tion, social control of threat, and the channelin" of (sef(l kno)led"e as applied to pro!le* solvin". -nother e2a*ple of *ove*ent to)ard rit(al consolidation fro* the conte*porary n"o*a pict(re co*es fro* 5anzania. 5here, a *odern state4sanctioned or"anization of n"o*a healers, the ,hirika la Mada)a descri!ed in the previo(s chapter, controls the reso(rce of n"o*a recr(it*ent. +ndeed, this

control of accesss to the role of n"o*a healer and *e*!ership in the association is s(fficiently restrictive that one of the *a1or le"iti*atin" criteria of ad*ission, na*ely certified possession !y a sheitani spirit, occ(rs in only fo(r o(t of a h(ndred individ(als treated !y the n"o*a "ro(p. B(t the ,hirika<s a!ility to control diversity is offset !y co*petition fro* the *any other n"o*a orders in 'ar es ,alaa*. +t is diffic(lt to for*(late a strict calc(l(s of the *yriad ran"e of transfor*ations n"o*a *ay (nder"o across the re"ion )here it has !een reported. - fe) "eneralizations are possi!le. @"o*a appears to fade a)ay )here there is a stron" central a(thority )ith a hi"hly developed 1(dicial tradition =e."., 5s)ana>. +t see*s to proliferate on the social and "eo"raphical *ar"ins of lar"e e*pires =e."., @de*!( in the F(nda e*pire. BaC)ezi in Cyan"o*!e> or as a *echanis* for the consolidation of a(thority in the interstices of society )here *isfort(ne l(rks =e."., Bil(*!( in F(!a society>. +t proliferates )here *isfort(ne is ra*pant and )here social chaos prevails =e."., early colonial resistance, post)ar Ai*!a!)e, ,o(th -frican (r!an to)nships>. +n the )ake of the de*ise of centralized states, it *ay take on the f(nctions of the state =e."., Fe*!a in coastal Bon"o>. 'o the constant feat(res thro("h all these transfor*ations represent an instit(tionI +f so, ho) can that !e characterizedI 8 &$ 8

S(ho'a%'& /'#n)e%! An) The On o'og& O" A Un#9*e In! # * #on

,cholars, ad*inistrators, policy*akers, and therapists have predicta!ly co*e (p )ith varyin" opinions on ho) to characterize the n"o*a4type c(lt of affliction. -s a final task in this chapter on identifyin" n"o*a, + )ish to ar"(e for the proposition that it is a (ni3(e instit(tion. 'efinitions of instit(tion a!o(nd, !(t they reflect a co**on (nderstandin" of ho) society is p(t to"ether and f(nctions. '(rkhei* s(""ested =in Parsons 19L9:L$%> that 0NaO !ody of r(les "overnin" action in p(rs(it of i**ediate ends insofar as they e2ercise *oral a(thority deriva!le fro* a co**on val(e syste* *ay !e called social instit(tions.0 - falsifia!le proof of this definition held, said '(rkhei*, that 0the *eans to these ends *ay vary, !(t the r(les reflect the co**on val(es. +f they are lost si"ht of, the res(lt is a !reakdo)n of control, and ano*ie.0 +n another tradition, M. /. ,*ith noted =19%L:212> that 0)hether c(lt(re is restrictively defined as the sy*!ols, nor*s, val(es, and ideational syste*s of a "iven pop(lation, or *ore incl(sively as their standardized and trans*itted patterns of tho("ht and action, all instit(tional or"anization has a c(lt(ral coefficient, since each instit(tion involves collective nor*s, ideas, and sy*!ols as )ell as standardized *odes of proced(re.0 5hese "eneral theoretical co**ents a!o(t the !road !asis of instit(tions6nor*s, co**on !eliefs, ends *et !y a ran"e of *eans6)o(ld certainly !e appropriate to descri!e )hat n"o*a does in Central and ,o(thern -frican society. 5he pro!le*, of co(rse, is that !y 9estern instit(tional and scholarly standards so*e of the e2a*ples of n"o*a are stran"e indeed. 5hey have heretofore !een p(t into r(!rics of either 9estern instit(tions or have !een allo)ed to lan"(ish in ethno"raphies as local c(lt(re, for e2a*ple, @de*!( reli"ion, A(l( diviners, and Bon"o fertility *a"ic. 5he interpretation of -frican c(lts of affliction is analo"o(s to the st(dy of so*e other do*ains in anthropolo"ical research in that scholars have !een faced )ith the need to !rid"e the indi"eno(s concept )ith the analytical notion. ,o*eti*es scholarship has co*e do)n on the side of the for*er, as in tote*is*, ta!oo, or sha*anis*. other ti*es it has co*e do)n on the latter, )hich is fre3(ently a reflection of a 9estern instit(tional cate"ory.

5he de!ate a!o(t kinship in 9estern anthropolo"y is instr(ctive here. 'avid ,chneider<s Critique of the Stud# of &inshi$ took iss(e )ith 8 &1 8 the pervasive ass(*ption !y "enerations of anthropolo"ists since Mor"an of the (niversality of the fa*ily and kinship. 5his he e2plained, not so *(ch !y fa(ltin" Fo(is :enry Mor"an for findin" the fa*ily and kinship a*on" the +ro3(ois, !(t !y fa(ltin" anthropolo"y at lar"e for adoptin" 9estern notions of !asic instit(tions and i*posin" the* (pon societies of the )orld. 5he 0!i" fo(r0 instit(tions of 9estern society are, for ,chneider: kinship =the fa*ily>, the econo*y =!(siness>, politics =the state>, and reli"ion =the ch(rch>. 9estern social science, incl(din" anthropolo"y, has e2tended this 3(artet as analytical cate"ories onto other societies, *(ch to the detri*ent of insi"hts to !e "ained. ,ocieties in )hich these instit(tions or attri!(tes see* to !e co*!ined differently, or are only partially represented, are held to !e 0(ndifferentiated,0 and therefore 0*ore pri*itive,0 or so*eho) disor"anized or *(ddled. Dne of the *a1or challen"es, then, in presentin" n"o*a has !een to transcend 9estern instit(tional cate"orization. 5he diffic(lty of 9esterners, and of 9estern4trained -fricans, in acceptin" n"o*a or the c(lt of affliction as a valid instit(tion in its o)n ri"ht, has !een instr(ctive in this re"ard. +n *any -frican settin"s the colonial le"acy of 9estern instit(tional str(ct(res clashes *arkedly )ith the -frican instit(tion. @"o*a in 5anzania, )here there has !een a co**it*ent to !(ild on -frican fo(ndations, ill(strates the point. Dfficially, -frican *edicine and its instit(tions are reco"nized. Cesearch (nits devoted to the s(!1ect have !een sponsored. :o)ever, the research effort and the state*ent of the reality of therape(tic n"o*a are initiated fro* the specialized !asis of 9estern instit(tional cate"ories. 5h(s, the 5raditional Medicine Cesearch Unit at the @ational :ospital is char"ed )ith e2a*inin" the !otanical and che*ical character of *edicines (sed in n"o*a and other types of indi"eno(s *edicine and )ith creatin" a pro"ra* for pri*ary health )ithin the fra*e)ork of indi"eno(s healin". 5he M(sic section of the Ministry of C(lt(re is char"ed )ith researchin" the dance and son" !asis of n"o*a, as )ell as sponsorin" dance co*petitions of c(rrent n"o*a "ro(ps and licensin" entertain*ent n"o*a. 5he Ministry also sponsors the national dance tro(pe and allied n"o*a "ro(ps. 5he political party of 5anzania has de facto liaisons to n"o*a and lar"e healer<s associations. 5anzanian !(rea(cracy th(s sections n"o*a into distinctive cate"ories consonant )ith 9estern r(les of social order. +n *y earlier )ork on Fe*!a =Janzen 19&2> + o!served the str(""le of p(!lishers and revie)ers to co*e to ter*s )ith this dile**a of the inte"rity of the instit(tion vers(s the cate"ories of 9estern scholar4 8 &2 8 ship. 5he p(!lisher, in fillin" o(t the Fi!rary of Con"ress Catalo"(e 'ata pa"e, descri!ed Fe*!a as a 0c(lt,0 th(s a s(!set of reli"ion. ,everal revie)ers tried to escape the strait1acket of 9estern instit(tional typolo"ies !(t s(cceeded only partially in doin" so, co*in" (p )ith hyphenated cate"orical types. Dne revie)er, after a pa"e of disc(ssion, noted that 0to define it si*ply NFe*!a )asO a c(lt and a social instit(tion that controlled trade, *arkets, and processes of e2chan"e0 =M(di*!e 19&J>. -nother, pickin" (p on *y voca!(lary, called Fe*!a a 0therape(tic4alliance4tradin" instit(tion0 =7eld*an 19&&>. 5hese revie)ers appreciated the (ni3(e instit(tional profile !etter than another )ho spoke of the !ook<s

havin" offered 0a ne) fra*e)ork for thinkin" a!o(t a little (nderstood re"ion of -frica and for analyzin" the relations !et)een the political, kinship, reli"ions, and econo*ic aspects of social str(ct(re0 =Cies*an 19&K>, there!y virt(ally sectionin" the s(!1ect thro("h the 9estern instit(tional cate"ories. -nother revie)er =,t(art 19&J>, )hose s(**ary of the )ork is a *odel of s(ccinct interpretation, offered this e2planation of Fe*!a<s *i2 of trade, alliances, and therapy: 05he ngoma , or the <dr(* of affliction< !eca*e the c(lt(ral sy*!ol of a therape(tic society ... )hich evolved to deal )ith the social stress and c(lt(ral chan"e created !y ?(rope<s "ro)in" co**ercial infl(ence.0 :e concl(ded )ith this insi"ht: 0N5Oherape(tics *ay !e the *etaphor servin" to facilitate consolidation of s(!stantial reso(rces, *aterial and h(*an, and to aid lon"4ter* reorderin" of instit(tions of redress, econo*ic redistri!(tion, and ideolo"ical chan"e.0 9e are th(s confronted in Fe*!a, as in *any other variants of the n"o*a profile across Central and ,o(thern -frica, )ith a constellation of practices and perspectives that are (ni3(e and yield to (nderstandin" only )ith so*e critical analysis. 5his realization hi"hli"hts the centrality of the need to deal caref(lly )ith the ho*olo"y !et)een lan"(a"e, !ehavior, and instit(tions, )hich is closely related to the first activity of divinin", science, reli"ion, and a host of other h(*an enterprises, to )it, na*in" the pheno*enon. 5o (nderstand this !etter, it is instr(ctive to look at revie)s of the Fe*!a !ook, partic(larly one that disc(ssed the 3(estion of na*in" n"o*a. 5his revie)er =,tevens 19&L:29M#1> tho("ht the st(dy had !een done a disservice !y allo)in" 0the ter* <dr(* of affliction< to stand in the s(!title.0 +t )as not that 0dr(* of affliction 06derived fro* n"o*a6*i"ht !e an erroneo(s la!el for Fe*!a !(t that only a handf(l 8 &# 8 of specialists like ;ictor 5(rner kno) the ter* refers to @de*!( rit(als. +t has little reco"nition val(e as a *ore )idespread type of pheno*enon, he ar"(ed. Get if none of the 9estern instit(tional la!els are appropriate, and an e2pert<s ?n"lish ter* for the indi"eno(s ter* in one -frican society is not appropriate, then !y )hich ter* do )e descri!e, or (nderstand, the pheno*enon if )e )ish to avoid havin" it locked into one or *ore versions of, or a hyphenated version of, the 9estern instit(tional "ridI Be"innin" )ith 5(rner<s local @de*!( )ork, ,tevens reasons o(t an appro2i*ation of n"o*a in the !roader sense, freed of its 9estern instit(tional cate"orical !o2es. N5(rner<sO (se of the alternate @de*!( *eanin", 0dr(*,0 is si"nificant to an anthropolo"ical investi"ation of sy*!ol and *eanin" in -frican c(lt(res, and it )ill serve st(dents and collectors of -frican art )ell to consider for a *o*ent the possi!ility that a dr(*, as an o!1ect, *ay !e *eanin"f(l only as a constr(ction of *aterials, !arely even as a *(sical instr(*ent. its c(lt(ral *eanin" is revealed only thro("h the total socio4reli"io(s conte2t of its (se. +n s(ch a conte2t, then, 0dr(*0 is sy*!ol: it is dr(**in", and it is collective senti*ent, catharsis, transcendence6indeed, the )hole of the rit(al process. 5he rit(al process is social effort. 7inally ,tevens co*es to his 0discovery point0: +n this sense, then, the phrase 0dr(* of affliction0 is 1(stified as referrin" to a type of rit(al. and )e can (nderstand )hy Bant(4speakers *ay (se the ter* ngoma to refer even to a rit(al in )hich dr(*s are not (sed. 0'r(* of affliction0 is a rit(al )ith a therape(tic ai*, the e2orcisin" of so*e *ali"n a"ency, !(t as !oth 5(rner and Janzen *ake clear, 0dr(*0 =ngoma > *eans the ai*s, activities, actors, and instit(tions, and the net)ork of sy*!ols !y

)hich they are linked and (nited, that constit(te the rit(al process. =,tevens 19&L:29M#$> ,tevens is correct that ngoma , ho)ever )e )ish to "loss this ter* in ?n"lish or another analytical lan"(a"e, refers over a )ide area of Central and ,o(thern -frica to a cl(ster of rec(rrin" processes and perspectives havin" to do )ith the interpretation of *isfort(ne, (s(ally *anifested !y disease or disease sy*pto*s that are i*p(ted to spirits or ancestors, and the rites to !rin" the th(s 0afflicted0 into a s(pportive net)ork )ith others si*ilarly afflicted and to treat the* !y e*po)erin" the* to deal effectively )ith the adversity. 5he partic(lar so(rce of the adversity, )hether it is the i*pact of forei"n trade, t)innin", snake4!ite, or linea"e se"*entation, is secondary to the fact of its definition as the pheno*enon of adversity. 8 &L 8

Con('*!#on
@"o*a, then, is a co*posite, historically (ni3(e instit(tion )idespread thro("ho(t Central and ,o(thern -frica, )ith *any local and re"ional variations. +ts identity as an instit(tion and as a !ehavioral process, often )ith na*e reco"nition, sho(ld satisfy scholarship. 5hat it has taken so lon" for scholarship to catch (p )ith indi"eno(s (sa"e is tri!(te to the tendency of scholarship, and ad*inistration, to cate"orize in its o)n, often local, ter*s the pheno*enon !efore it. 5his chapter<s "oal of 0identifyin" n"o*a0 has !een e2ternal and for*al, !ased on e2a*inin" co*parative and historical distri!(tions of 0)ords, acts, and thin"s0 and ho) they vary in relation to one another. +ts apparent central p(rpose as an instit(tion is to respond to the need for order, *eanin", and control in the face of *isfort(ne and affliction as defined !y a core proto4Bant( co"nate, d2g : that 1(st as )ords and intentions !y others can afflict, so they can heal. 8 &K 8

; Co%e Fea *%e! #n Ngoma The%a+&

- strai"htfor)ard for*(lation of the s(!1ect of this )ork, !ased on *aterial presented th(s far, )o(ld !e so*ethin" like the follo)in": J(st as persons or social forces aro(nd the s(fferer are involved in the ca(se of affliction =as (nderstood in the proto4Bant( co"nate d2g >, so others *ay help in the dia"nosis, decision *akin" of health seekin", and contin(in" s(pport of the s(fferer to achieve )ell4!ein". -s )e have seen, these as )ell as other notions are e*!edded in the voca!(lary of Central and ,o(thern -frican lan"(a"es and constit(te a classic instit(tional for* of the 3(est for therapy and )holeness. -nd yet, this for*(lation does not cover all aspects of rit(al healin" in Central and ,o(thern -frica. 5here are di*ensions that are not so readily capt(red in the c(lt(ral voca!(lary, or that are *issin" fro* that voca!(lary. 7or e2a*ple, + a* not a)are of a consistent voca!(lary for the choreo"raphy or spatial layo(t of healin" rit(als, altho("h they share a strikin" consistency of pattern across the n"o*a area. 5he social sciences, since their inception, have "rappled )ith the relationship of the ver!alized self4 conscio(s *odel of a c(lt(re to the analytical acco(nt of !ehavioral and str(ct(ral feat(res and historical patterns o!served !y the scholar. Dn the one hand, there is the pheno*enolo"ist<s insistence

on st(dyin" only that )hich is conscio(sly and ver!ally identified. Dn the other, there is the challen"e to !rin" to"ether analytical theories and interpretations to provide a convincin" !asis for those (nna*ed str(ct(res, contradictions, and historical 8 &J 8 chan"es that identify and clarify a !ody of disparate infor*ation. -s Clifford /eertz notes, the ethnolo"ist<s task incl(des a "ood deal of pers(asion in depictin" a sit(ation so that the reader finds it (ni3(ely realistic =/eertz 19&&:LMK>. 5)enty years a"o + asked )hat )ere the *ost characteristic feat(res of Central -frican healin" =Janzen 19J9>. 5hen + )as not concerned )ith ver!al cate"ories, and + did not perceive the )idespread e2istence of historical patterns. Part of the ans)er to the 3(estion of characteristic feat(res has !een provided in esta!lishin" the )idespread (se of the process + later called the 03(est for therapy,0 )hich )as spelled o(t in a !ook !y that title. +n Bon"o society it appeared that the process of !ein" afflicted and seekin" relief for that affliction )as driven !y a co*pellin" )orldvie) iss(e, na*ely, the 3(estion of )hether or not the affliction is *erely *atter of fact, or )hether 0there is so*ethin" else "oin" on,0 that is, other persons, spirits, ancestors, or the social settin" itself, in the ca(sation of the case. -s soon as this deter*ination )as *ade, in cases + st(died, si"nificant others aro(nd the s(fferer !eca*e involved in the search for an appropriate sol(tion. 5hese 0therapy *ana"ers !e"an the process NofO individ(als aro(nd the s(fferer assistin" in offerin" s(pport and dia"nostic affir*ation as the case ca*e !efore n(*ero(s types of care, !e it her!alists, !io*edical hospitals and clinics, diviners, and assorted social therapies0 =Janzen 19%&a >. ,even years later Marc -("E identified a si*ilar process as 0therape(tic itinerary0 =19&K>. Many other scholars have reported co*para!le findin"s in their )ork aro(nd the continent. 5his pict(re of Central -frican therapy seekin" is still valid, altho("h it is a li*ited one. -lso, the e2ercise of creatin" a "eneralized, synthesized *odel of a c(lt(rally specific instit(tion has its perils. Dne of these perils is that of (sin" too li*ited an e*pirical or ethno"raphic !asis of infor*ation, )hich *i"ht lead to a d(ll, stereotyped, and possi!ly erroneo(s depiction of the instit(tion. -nother dan"er is to a!stract the core feat(res !ased on a *is(nderstandin" of the dyna*ics of the instit(tion. - synthetic pict(re of an instit(tion is correct not !eca(se it reflects the statistical avera"es of all practices !(t !eca(se it e2plains the (nderlyin" lo"ic. -nd this *ay not correspond to any partic(lar local tradition. 5his chapter and the ne2t present s(ch a synthetic *odel of n"o*a as a rit(al therape(tic instit(tion in ter*s of core feat(res that incl(de: =1> sickness and therape(tic initiation as a phased rite of passa"e. =2> identifyin" the ca(ses of *isfort(ne. =#> associatin" nosolo"y )ith 8 &% 8 0spirit fields0. =L> the 0co(rse thro("h the )hite,0 of sickness and transition. =K> a sacrifice that sets in *otion a circ(it of e2chan"es. =J> the po)er of the )o(nded healer, to"ether )ith fello) s(fferers, that is, transfor*in" s(fferer into healer. -ll of these co*e to"ether in a final feat(re presented in the ne2t chapter, the core rit(al, 0doin" n"o*a.0

S#(5ne!! An) The%a+e* #( In# #a #on A! A Pha!e) R# e O" Pa!!age

5he first of the core feat(res of the c(lt of affliction is the choreo"raphy of events over ti*e. 5hro("ho(t the re"ion )here n"o*a affliction instit(tions are fo(nd, the process of sickness, la!elin", healin", searchin" for ans)ers, !eco*in" )ell, and e*er"in" as a healer is fra*ed !y rites that define

the entry into, and e2it fro*, the position of the n"o*a s(fferer4novice. 5hese for*al feat(res and the spatial4te*poral str(ct(re that res(lts fro* the* are distin"(ished here fro* the 3(alitative transfor*ation of the individ(al =or "ro(p> as identified in another core feat(re, 0the co(rse thro("h the )hite.0 +n the historic Fe*!a c(lt of the Con"o coast and inland alon" the trade ro(tes, this te*poral fra*in" )as evident in all re"ional variants =Janzen 19&2>. 5o cite a specific e2a*ple, after an n"an"a<s initial identification of the s(fferers< =in this case, a co(ple> condition as !ein" Fe*!a4related, they )ere p(t in to(ch )ith a senior Fe*!a healer and, in the first event, p(rified and "iven the initial *edicine. 5hey )ere no) Fe*!a novices (nder the s(pervision of their priest4healer. -fter so*eti*es years of co(nselin", of drea* analysis, of son" preparation, and collection of the f(nds for their final event, they )ere feat(red in a 0"rad(ation0 event, after )hich they )ere f(lly 3(alified Fe*!a officiants. +n readin", and later in a co*parative field)ork pro1ect, + fo(nd that this sa*e str(ct(re for the fra*in" of rit(al events )as )idely represented in n"o*a settin"s. 5he events that open, close, and p(nct(ate the therape(tic initiation are (s(ally of a day4ni"ht4day se3(ence and d(ration. 5his )as tr(e in Bon"o society, in 5(rner<s acco(nts of @de*!( rites of affliction, in i"3ira initiations in the 9estern Cape, in coastal Ca*eroon rites =in contrast to the /rassfield area in the interior>, and in :aitian voodoo, )hich carries a stron" Central -frican instit(tional pattern. 5his pattern is co**only ali"ned )ith the preparation for *eetin" ancestors or spirits and !rin"in" the novice into co**(nication )ith the*. 7re3(ently the se3(ence of events also spatially 8 && 8 reflects this )ith a *ove in the rit(al choreo"raphy fro* a profane to a sacred or a(spicio(s place, *oves that are anno(nced )ith transition son"s to *ove the s(fferer4novice thro("h an inter*ediary space =see fi". &>. 5hese openin", closin", and p(nct(atin" events of the n"o*a initiation are *arked as )ell !y the preparation of *edicines, the (tilization of color4coded sta"es and oint*ents spread on the novice, and !y the sacrifice of an ani*al that is rit(ally identified )ith the novice and is then sla("htered, cooked, and eaten as a co**on *eal. 'espite the pervasive presence of the fore"oin" pattern that str(ct(res the n"o*a rites, there does not see* to !e a set of co**on ver!al co"nates that relate to this str(ct(re. 5he events that open, close, and p(nct(ate the process are vario(sly called n*embo =cele!ration>, or m$andulu =initiation to or co*position of an n*isi > in Bon"o. nthlombe =cele!ration, feast> in @"(ni lan"(a"es. ngoma in ?ast -frica. 5hese ter*s are all (sed fairly "enerally to speak of cere*onies, initiations, or rites of all kinds. -s in other )idespread c(lt(ral patterns, these ele*ents of Central and ,o(thern -frican therape(tic initiation have !een e2plained !y a(thors (tilizin" several ethnolo"ical principles that "o !eyond the c(lt(rally partic(lar and descriptive. 5)o *a1or approaches that *ay !e o(tlined here are those of the 0rite of passa"e0 and the 0sha*anic career.0 -s )ith all ethnolo"ical e2planations that are *ore "eneral than descriptive, these have so*e val(e !(t they also re*ain pro!le*atic. 5he ele*ents of initiation in n"o*a4type c(lts of affliction in @de*!( society )ere e2plained !y ;ictor 5(rner as e2a*ples of ;an /ennepian 0rites of passa"e.0 5hey )ere opened !y a rite of separation of the novice4s(fferer fro* a prior social state. 5his )as follo)ed !y an inter*ediary 0li*inal0 or transitional state. 5he process c(l*inated )ith a rite of reincorporation !y the novice into society, as a f(ll4fled"ed healer and *e*!er of the c(lt. Fater, Ma2 /l(ck*an ar"(ed for a *ore analytical approach to these rit(als, especially in societies *ovin" to)ard "reater co*ple2ity and differentiation of roles =19J2:1MK2>. 5(rner hi*self ca*e to see the c(lts4of4affliction rites as *ore

sophisticated and varied e2a*ples of rit(alization in h(*an society. :o)ever, it is (sef(l to (nderstand the -frican c(lt of affliction as a c(lt(rally specific case of the h(*an rite of passa"e, on a level si*ilar to that )hich sees the sick role and the enco(nter )ith the *edical professional in the 9est as a 0rite of passa"e.0 -s in any therape(tic co(rse, the o(tco*e is not necessarily ass(red. Many are those )ho !e"in n"o*a, 8 &9 8

7i"(re &. ,ynthetic confi"(ration of spatial and te*poral or"anization of events in n"o*a4type rites. 5his chart is to !e read as a *(sical score. 5he 0ti*e0 line *oves fro* left to ri"ht. 5he 0space0 score also *oves fro* left to ri"ht, !(t indicates the spaces in )hich activity is sit(ated thro("h the rites. or )ho participate in it, !(t )ho never co*plete it. 7or this reason it *ay not !e like a strict rite of passa"e. 5he pro"ression thro("h the rit(al "rid is s(!1ect to the inner pro"ress of the novice4s(fferer. Dthers have identified aspects of -frican c(lts of affliction )ith the 0sha*anic career0 ='e :e(sch 19%1>, altho("h this has !een held to !e pro!le*atic and inappropriate !y *ost a(thors =+. Fe)is 19&J:%&49#>, for reasons that )ill !e developed at "reater len"th in chapter K. +n Fe)is<s analysis of the 0career0 of spirit possession, a series of sta"es *oves the relationship of the novice to the spirit fro* a point )here it is (ncontrolled and invol(ntary to a point )here it reflects "reater control, indeed, vol(ntary interaction )ith the spirit thro("h *edi(*ship. 5his 0career0 is also defined !y the s(!1ect *ovin" fro* !ein" a patient or s(fferer to *astery over the so(rce of affliction, and !eco*in" a healer of that condition, altho("h, as noted a!ove, the process *ay stall. ,o*e aspects of the sha*anic 1o(rney *ay !e seen in the choreo"raphed *ove fro* profane to sacred space in every rite =see fi". &>. 8 9$ 8 -nd so*e novices do speak of havin" 1o(rneyed to the !otto* of the river, or into the )oods or )ild !(sh to resc(e a so(l, or to co**(ne )ith a spirit. 5h(s so*e of the ele*ents said to (niversally define sha*anis* are also in keepin" )ith n"o*a rit(al. :o)ever, rarely is the n"o*a "rad(ate or healer involved in classic sha*anic 1o(rneys follo)in" the co*pletion of the therape(tic initiation. ,o*e, s(ch as Botoli Faie in 'ar es ,alaa*, ad*it freely to havin" !een introd(ced to n"o*a practice as an apprentice. +t th(s see*s clear that ca(tion *(st !e e2ercised in applyin" (niversalistic ethnolo"ical e2planations to a pheno*enon + have ar"(ed is historically and c(lt(rally partic(lar, )ith its o)n distinctive voca!(lary and si"nificant variation )ithin the re"ion )here it is fo(nd: for e2a*ple, the day ni"ht day sched(lin" of the events. the (se of )hite sy*!olis* as the len"thy inner or *iddle passa"e. the role of perc(ssion in settin" the sta"e for passa"e. the spatial choreo"raphy that *oves fro* profane space to sacred space and !ack.

The 3#agno!#! O" M#!"o% *ne

5he st(dent of Central and ,o(thern -frican collective therapies of the n"o*a type is presented in

*any localities, incl(din" the (r!an centers (nder partic(lar scr(tiny in the present )ork, )ith a !road array of afflictions dee*ed appropriate for treat*ent. 5he array is in fact so !road that one can 3(estion )hether the distinct dia"nosis of si"ns, sy*pto*s, or syndro*es is at all a characterizin" feat(re of the n"o*a therape(tic *ode. -nd yet, it is analytically i*portant to differentiate pro!le*s !ro("ht into n"o*a4type c(lts of affliction fro* other types of pro!le*s taken else)here. Dne )ay to look for the distinctive arena of pro!le*s taken into n"o*a healin" is to note that, )ith so*e e2ceptions, *any of the n"o*a orders e2ist, as it )ere, !eyond kinship. ?ven those s(ch as @kita in )estern Aaire and -n"ola, altho("h a!o(t the reprod(ction of the *atrilinea"e, are constr(ed as !ein" a!o(t ho) the linea"e *i"ht transcend the internal dile**as of factionalis*, leadership pro!le*s, and ill )ill that are tho("ht to occasion the sickness and death of infants and the sterility of the *others. 5he proto4Bant( co"nate ver! d2g connotes all the so(rces of affliction6sorcery, )itchcraft, !ack!itin"6that res(lt fro* relations )ithin the closely knit h(*an co**(nity. @"o*a interventions and appeals are *ade to "et !eyond the entrap*ent of d2g =see appendi2 B, section B.#>. 7re3(ently the ancestral shades and 8 91 8 the spirits !eyond are !elieved to call individ(als o(t of their self4cons(*in" destr(ctive tendencies. @"o*a afflictions are th(s not noticea!ly different fro* non4n"o*a afflictions on the s(rface level of si"ns and sy*pto*s. 5he dia"nostic interpretation !eco*es i*portant as a )ay of reachin" !eyond the *(ndane for a )ay o(t of an i*passe. -n i*portant di*ension of all c(lts of affliction is the analytical and dia"nostic f(nction of eval(atin" sickness and *isfort(ne. - distinction is often dra)n, in this connection, !et)een divination, the analysis of a sit(ation, and healin", the atte*pt to intervene in the sit(ation to chan"e it. 5his distinction )as the !asis for 5(rner<s !ook title Re)elation and Di)ination , that is, the relationship !et)een the c(lt of affliction and the dia"nosis of the pro!le*s it addresses. 5he distinction acco(nts for so*e of the diversity of affliction c(lt types, for )here social chan"e is intense, the need increases for co"nitive clarity. 5h(s, in ei"hteenth4cent(ry coastal Bon"o, d(rin" the decline of the kin"do*s )ith the increase of the trade, incl(din" the slave trade, divination c(lts )ere in "reat prof(sion, partic(larly those relatin" to ad1(dication and conflict resol(tion. +n ,o(thern -frica today, the ter* ngoma is associated *ainly )ith divination. Closer e2a*ination, ho)ever, sho)s that the f(nctions of divination and net)ork4!(ildin" are co*ple*entary. 'ivination, or dia"nosis, th(s al)ays acco*panies c(lts of affliction, either independently of the healin" role, or as a part of the specialized techni3(es and paraphernalia of a partic(lar c(lt. 'ivination *(st !e tho("ht of as a contin(in" 3(ery into the 0)hys,0 0)hos,0 and 0)here4fores0 !e"(n in the fa*ily4therapy *ana"e*ent settin" !(t carried thro("h !y specialists )ith e2pert 1(d"*ent and trainin", )ho *ay have had their o)n profo(nd individ(al dile**as, )ho have !een recr(ited to a partic(lar *ode of rit(al life, and )ho have !een initiated to the spirit )orld. -s a techni3(e, divination *ay !e !ased on a *echanistic syste* of si"ns and interpretations, s(ch as the ,o(thern ,avanna @"o*!o !asket filled )ith sy*!olic o!1ects si"nifyin" h(*an life, the pen"(la !one4thro)in" techni3(e of ,o(thern -frican @"(ni society, or recitation fro* the Bi!le or the Boran. -lternatively, and accordin" to so*e o!servers increasin"ly, divination is done !y direct reco(rse to trance, in )hich the diviner, as *edi(*, speaks the )ords of the ancestral shade or spirit in ans)er to a 3(ery. ,o*e diviners (se a co*!ination of !oth techni3(es, or a selection of hierarchically arran"ed types. +n ,)aziland, *aster diviners today train novices in the arts of *echanistic !one4thro)in" divination as )ell as the *astery

8 92 8 of trance4divination. +n any case, these divined dia"noses, representin" a type of analysis or interpretation of daily life, offer the !asis for the *ore synthetic, rit(alized follo)4thro("h of the c(lts of affliction. :o)ever, there is a contradiction or tension !et)een the specificity and concreteness of the pro!le*s channeled into divination and treat*ent, and the overall hypothesis of spirit ca(sation that !rin"s an individ(al into a c(lt of affliction. 5he )ork of Aairian researchers Ma!iala =19&2> and Bya*(n"( =19&2> ill(strates this iss(e. ,i"ns and sy*pto*s =illnesses> acco*panyin" recr(it*ent to Mpo*!o and Bad1( are said to incl(de dizziness )ith hall(cinations. thro!!in" headaches. lack of *ental presence =asthenie>. skin rashes =al"ie>. lack of appetite. diffic(lty in !reathin". heart!(rn )ith an2iety. rapid or arrhyth*ic heart!eat. fever )ith chills. se2(al i*potence. drea*s of str(""les or of !ein" follo)ed !y threatenin" ani*als. )ei"ht loss or e2cessive )ei"ht, especially if acco*panied !y spirit visitations. and a variety of "ynecolo"ical and o!stetrical diffic(lties. 5hese 0*odes of affliction0 are characteristic of *ost of the other collective therape(tic rites6les grands rites 6in Binshasa. Bya*(n"(, )orkin" in B(kav(, in the *o(ntaino(s Biv( re"ion of eastern Aaire, is *ore e2plicit a!o(t the "eneralized or rando* character of si"ns, sy*pto*s, and syndro*es in the *ode of affliction associated )ith the five therape(tic rites of this tradin" and ad*inistrative city of a!o(t seventy4five tho(sand people. +n the Bakozi rite, of Bashi and Bale"a ethnic ori"in, early sta"es of sickness are *anifested !y all types of !ehavioral and physiolo"ical pro!le*s, reflectin" so*ethin" of the diversity of Bakozi spirits !ehind these pro!le*s. +n the ?naa*a or Mana rites of Bashi ori"in =a @ilotic, C)andais "ro(p>, the characteristic afflictions incl(de !ehavioral tro(!les, alienation, and physical sickness s(ch as )ei"ht loss. :ere a"ain the distin"(ishin" feat(re of recr(it*ent is not a partic(lar sy*pto* or si"n, !(t affliction !y the ?naa*a nat(re spirits of Bashi or C)andais ori"in. +n the Mit(*!a rite, of Be*!e and Bale"a ori"in, !ehavioral and physical tro(!les of )hatever sort *ay indicate this *ode of affliction. 5he distin"(ishin" feat(re is, ho)ever, evidence in drea*s or hall(cinations of the presence of 0)hite0 or 0?(ropean0 spirits. 5he sa*e type of sy*pto*4si"n rando*ness e2ists in the M(lan"oyi rite of Fe"a, Ai*!a, and ,on"e ori"in, in )hich the *a1or spirits are nat(re4 or river4related, and in the @ya*(le*(le rite, in )hich the spirits are of F(!a ori"in, appearin" a*on" the Bate*!o and Bashi peoples. Bya*(n"( e*phasizes that al 8 9# 8 tho("h si"ns and sy*pto*s acco*panyin" those afflicted *ay !e identified and even treated )ith !io*edical *ethods and *edicines, the salient point that !rin"s these s(fferers to dia"nostic entry into the rit(al therapies is not so *(ch the sickness !(t the identification of the spirit force !ehind the sickness. D(r analytical approach )o(ld see*, ho)ever, to call for close st(dy of sy*pto*s and si"ns of affliction or !ehavioral chan"e in relation to the circ(*stances of the personal life of the afflicted, on the one hand, and the c(lt(ral lo"ic that steers the co(rse of therapy in the direction of identifyin" the spirits, on the other. +t *ay, of co(rse, !e very diffic(lt to correlate the e2plicit and i*plicit conditions of distress )ith the dia"noses and therapies in the Central -frican settin", )here the initial dia"nostic )ork is done apart fro* therape(tic initiation to a "ro(p settin". +n Central -frican cities s(ch as Binshasa and B(kav( the collective rites are varied !y re"ional and ethnic ori"in *ore than !y a specialized division of la!or. 5he dia"nostic )ork is often done !y kin "ro(ps and diviners )orkin" separately fro* the healers. 5h(s the novices are already identified as !ein" in to(ch )ith the appropriate spirits !y the ti*e they *ake their appearance in the rit(al co**(nities.

+n the ,o(thern -frican conte2t, that is, in @"(ni4speakin" societies, the relationship !et)een dia"nosis and therapy and the co(rse fro* dia"nosis to therapy *ay !e easier to follo). 5his is so !eca(se here there appears to !e a "reater concentration of n"o*a therapies )ithin a sin"le instit(tional conte2t, and th(s a f(sion of divination4dia"nosis and therape(tics. +n the @"(ni conte2t it is easier to see the type of affliction or pro!le* sin"led o(t for divination fro* a*on" the )ide array of co**on afflictions in a pop(lace, as )ell as those cases f(rther sin"led o(t for therape(tic initiation into the n"o*a order. +ll(strations fro* ,)aziland and the 9estern Cape, "iven in chapter 1, de*onstrate this process in an ethnically diverse and (r!an clientele. 5he cases seen !y +da Ma!(za of ,)aziland are said to !e !oth 0-frican0 and 0non4-frican0. she has !oth -frican and non4-frican clients, the latter *ostly -frikaaners fro* ,o(th -frica. 7or -fricans, she says, the *ost co**on pro!le* presents in va"(e pains and an2ieties and is e2plained !y har* or sorcery =umbelelo to meqo > res(ltin" fro* interpersonal tension. 5his affects !oth *en and )o*en. @e2t *ost prevalent is ama*ubalo , affectin" *ostly *en, in the for* of har* or illness res(ltin" fro* violated social or *oral precepts res(ltin" fro* illicit se2 )ith a protected *arried )o*an. Many yo(n" people co*e )ishin" to divine their fates, desiro(s of "ood fort(ne in 1o! seekin", 8 9L 8 e2a*inations, or love. ,he dia"noses their pro!le*s and offers advice accordin"ly. 9hites also co*e for these types of pro!le*s. 5heir *ain concern, ho)ever, is fear of poverty. 5hey also co*e for help in seekin" pro*otions and other 1o!4related *atters. 7inally, they co*e )ith illnesses i*properly dia"nosed in the hospital or not effectively treated. ,tress is a co**on co*plaint )hose root ca(se can often !e traced, she noted, to tensions or conflicts )ith do*estic )orkers or s(!ordinates )ho have retaliated. 5he cases that are divined )ith the *ore po)erf(l6and e2pensive6femba =possession> *edi(*istic *ethod do not vary fro* those already presented, e2cept perhaps that they are *ore chronic and less specific, and 9estern *edicine has !een (na!le to prod(ce a percepti!le i*prove*ent in health. 5he fore"oin" pro!le*s typify those !ro("ht to n"o*a diviners and therapists. Perhaps the *ost strikin" feat(re in this *aterial is the rando*, va"(e, and a*!i"(o(s character of the connection of si"n sy*pto* syndro*e to the therapy, !oth in ter*s of physiopatholo"ies and psychopatholo"ies. 5his see*s to !e the case especially in conte*porary (r!an settin"s. @evertheless, in these (r!an settin"s there occ(r 3(ite precise dia"nostic readin"s of life sit(ations that lead to therapy or entry into one or another n"o*a therape(tic "ro(p. +t is not the partic(lar si"n, sy*pto*, or syndro*e that predicts the therape(tic co(rse. Cather, it is the dia"nostic and divinatory 1(d"*ent that sends the case !eyond the confines of a strictly relational interpretation6as fo(nd in the concept d2g 6to the interpretation that the s(!1ect is called !y spirits ali"ned )ith the n"o*a orders.

No!o'og& An) S+#%# F#e')!

9ho or )hat e2actly are these spiritsI 5he )orldvie) that inspires c(lts of affliction incl(des, as an a2io*, the idea that ancestral shades and spirits, (lti*ately e2pressions of the po)er of /od, *ay infl(ence or intervene in h(*an affairs. 5hey are held responsi!le for visitin" their senti*ents and forces (pon h(*ans thro("h sickness and *isfort(ne. 9ho they are, )hy they co*e, and )hat to do a!o(t the* is )hat c(lts of affliction are all a!o(t. ,cholarship has "one )ell !eyond *erely descri!in" acco(nts of -frican spirits, to st(dyin" their confi"(rations and relationships in society, in "eo"raphical space, and over ti*e =9er!ner 19%%>. D(r

ai* here 8 9K 8 is to identify so*e of the co**on feat(res in spirit constellations across the n"o*a re"ion and to "rasp the *eanin" of so*e of the variations. 5he spirits or shades *ay !e either direct, identifia!le lineal ancestors, or *ore "eneric shades. 5hey *ay incl(de *ore distant nat(re spirits, hero spirits, or alien spirits that affect h(*an events in *any )ays. 5hey *ay !e !eni"n or *ali"n. very "eneralized or partic(lar. *ale or fe*ale. -frican or forei"n. 5he lineal ancestors, )ho are "enerally !eneficent, altho("h so*eti*es stern, are contrasted to )ild *alefic spirits or ene*y hosts )ith sinister and stran"e characteristics. 5here is a spirit 0"eo"raphy0 or 0ecolo"y0 that )idely contrasts spirits of the land fro* those of the )ater. 5he )ell4kno)n -frican color triad6red, )hite, !lack6often is invoked to characterize the spirits as )ell. 5he strin"s of colored !eads or cloth )orn aro(nd the sho(lder and )aist desi"nate spirits )ith )hich the novice or practitioner has a )orkin" relationship. Dld as )ell as ne) kno)led"e tends to !e related to the shade and spirit forces, as events are interpreted and adversities dealt )ith. ,o*eti*es the proto4Bant( ter* zimu or d1mu is (sed to na*e n"o*a spirits, as in the ;enda ngoma dza )adzimu , !(t a ran"e of other na*es or ter*s is (sed as )ell =see appendi2 B, section B.1J>. 9e !e"in this revie) so*e)hat ar!itrarily )ith an @"(ni "ro(p in so(thern Moza*!i3(e, the Balan"a, st(died !y 'avid 9e!ster =19&2>. 7or the* the 0@da(,0 0@"(di,0 0Chik)e*!e,0 and 0Ma1(ta0 are the fo(r *ain "ro(ps of spirits. 5he @da(, or ;anda(, are considered the ori"inal ancestors of the Balan"a =a ,o(th ,hona or 5hon"a "ro(p> and the *ost po)erf(l spirit "ro(p, )ith a direct interest in the affairs of the livin". Beca(se of :enri J(nod<s )ork on the 5hon"a in the <#$s, the ;anda( have entered the anthropolo"ical literat(re as one of the *a1or e2a*ples of 0tr(e sha*anis*0 in -frica ='e :e(sch 19%1:2%#M2%J>. 5hey are *entioned pop(larly in 5anzania as havin" inspired the @<an"a c(lt, th(s reflectin" a thread of @"(ni, or @"oni, infl(ence of early nineteenth4cent(ry con3(est fa*e =Aaretsky and ,ha*!a("h 19%&>. 5he @"(di, associated )ith local affairs, are spirits inflictin" tra(*atic disease )ho need to !e placated to avert h(*an disaster )hen they !eco*e involved. 5he Chik)e*!e are the ancestors of isan,goma diviners. 5he Ma1(ta are -ra! spirits. 5he distinction !et)een lineal and alien spirits seen here is )idespread. +n near!y ,)aziland the ?*enlozi =literally, those one drea*s a!o(t> are the personal ancestors and are often associated )ith )hite sy*!olis* s(ch as clay, )hite !eads, )hite cloth, or )ith 0*(d,0 that is, the !o(ndaries of )ater and earth. 5he ?*enza)e and Ben"(ni 8 9J 8 spirits are those )ho* ,)azi )arriors killed in previo(s )ars. 5he ?*enza)e prefer the red !eads, the Ben"(ni the )hite. 5he ?*enza)e, Ben"(ni, and 'inz(nz( possess diviners. 5he 'inz(nz( or 5inz(nz( are those spirits of the )ater )ho died of dro)nin". they also are associated )ith )hite !eads. 5hese fields artic(late ,)azi c(lt(re and conscio(sness. +n the Hhosa re"ion of ,o(th -frica, and in the (r!an e2tensions of Hhosa c(lt(re, spirits are co**only identified as !ein" those pertainin" to the fa*ily or clan, those of the )ater, and those of the land or of the forest. Clan ancestors are i*portant to keep in to(ch )ith, !(t they do not inflict illness. 5he n"o*a practitioners, the a*a"3ira, are called =t)asa> !y the forest and )ater spirits, and are represented in i"3ira cost(*es !y ani*al skins and colored !eads, in *edicines !y plants and *ineral in"redients, and in n"o*a son"s !y *ediatory i*a"ery s(ch as the cra!, the horse, or !irds.

+n coastal 5anzania the distinctions of spirit "eo"raphy al)ays hin"e on the land )ater dichoto*y. Fike the ,o(thern -frican spirit cos*olo"ies, this one, too, identifies spirits of the trees and shr(!s, that is, the forest, )ith the land. +n the (r!an 'ar es ,alaa* settin" i**i"rant )a"an"a =healers> fro* the interior, predicta!ly, are specialized in 0interior0 spirits, and in the correspondin" n"o*a s(ch as Manian"a, @<an"a, and M!(n"i, )hereas )a"an"a fro* coastal areas relate to coastal or )ater spirits. 5he voca!(lary of the ,)ahili coast has adopted -ra!ic ter*s masbeitani and ma+ini to speak of spirits. 5he spirits of the interior carry -frican na*es s(ch as Mchela, Mati*!(na, M!on"oloni, Chen1el(, and Bi*!an"al("o*i =related to @"o*a M!(n"i>, )hereas those of the !each or the )ater carry s(ch na*es as Mar(hani, ,(!iyani, and Mz(ka =related to @"o*a Msa"hiro>. 5he colors red, )hite, and !lack also occ(r on !eads )orn over the sho(lder of the *"an"a =healer>, and in cost(*es. 5he notion of 0spirit fields0 has !een (sed !y a n(*!er of a(thors to descri!e the or"anization of -frican spirits. +t is an analo"y of the concept 0social field0 (sed !y Bateson and 5(rner lon" a"o. -ltho("h so*e her*ene(tic scholars s(ch as Fa*!ek =19&1> insist that the spirits have little to do )ith social cate"ories and forces, *any other scholars prefer a '(rkhei*ian correspondence theory !et)een reli"ion and society, econo*y, historical chan"e, and psycholo"ical states. 5his per*its scholars at least an openin" hypothesis )ith )hich to assess s(ch pheno*ena as the apparent shift in e*phasis fro* lineal ancestors to *ore distant and alien spirits in recent decades. 5h(s the decline of cer4 8 9% 8 tain local rites and the ascendance of others, or the rise and decline in *any historic e2a*ples of spirit4 possession rit(als and c(lts, *ay !e e2plained in ter*s of historical social forces and the chan"es that have occ(rred. 7or e2a*ple, the !reakdo)n of specific rit(als in the late nineteenth and early t)entieth cent(ries has !een e2plained !y the openin" (p of social relations and the e2pansion of the scale of kno)n spheres of infl(ence =9er!ner 19%%>. ,i*ilarly, )orldvie) as reflected in the (nderstandin" and treatin" of affliction reflects, in t(rn, chan"in" social forces. +t e2plains, for e2a*ple, the "eneralization of sy*pto* si"n and etiolo"y relations in the conte2t of the Fe*!a rite in )estern Con"o over the period fro* the seventeenth cent(ry to the early t)entieth cent(ry in the corridor of the "reat trade !et)een coastal port to)ns of Ca!inda, Foan"o, and Male*!a, and the "reat *arket at Mp(*!( near today<s Binshasa. Fe*!a<s s(fferers are said to have had a rando* variety of afflictions. ?ven the spirits !ehind the afflictin" and therape(tic rites varied fro* re"ion to re"ion, indicative, + think, of the tre*endo(s (pheavals of the ho(r. - !rief revie) of the *anner in )hich spirit or ancestor forces are ali"ned )ith social conte2t(al disorders in conte*porary (r!an settin"s s(""ests a trend to)ard "reater reliance (pon *ore !roadly !ased, "eneralized in the*e, sy*!olic fi"(res, and a )anin" of local or linea"e ancestors. Bya*(n"(<s overvie) of therape(tic rites in B(kav(, in eastern Aaire, sho)s the association of si"ns and sy*pto*s to spirit nosolo"y. +n the Bakozi rite, present a*on" Bashi =C)andaise> and Fe"a inha!itants, all sorts of !ehavioral and physiolo"ical afflictions are attri!(ted to 0red0 ancestral spirits or shades. red is also the color of the hair and clothin" of the adepts. +n the ?naa*a =also Mana> rite, fo(nd e2cl(sively a*on" the Bashi, a *ore open ran"e of sy*pto*s6for e2a*ple, !ehavioral disorders, severe alienation, loss of appetite, and physical illness6is attri!(ted to the ?naa*a nat(re spirits )ho fre3(ently drive the afflicted to prolon"ed periods of )anderin" in solit(de in the !(sh. +n the Mit(*!a rite, a*on" the Be*!a and Fe"a, a si*ilar )ide variety of sy*pto*s and si"ns is attri!(ted to spirits of ?(ropeans, that is, aliens, ori"inally revealed or *anifested in drea*s and visions, and )hose visitations are acco*panied !y loss of conscio(sness d(rin" possession. adepts of Mit(*!a spirits speak ,)ahili and s*oke ci"arettes. +n the M(lan"oyi rite, a*on" the Fe"a, Ain"a, and ,on"e residents of B(kav(, a variety of sy*pto*s and si"ns is attri!(ted to nat(re or )ater spirits, )ho in the possessed

*edi(*s present the*selves in the Bison"e lan"(a"e, painted 0)hite,0 eatin" earth)or*s, 8 9& 8 toads, and so on. 7inally, in the @ya*(le*(le rite, a*on" the Bate*!o and Bashi of the city, ,)ahili4 speakin" spirits of Bal(!a ancestral fi"(res6)hose son"s are also s(n" in Fe"a and 5e*!o6afflict individ(als )ho are recr(ited to therape(tic seances. 5he B(kav( settin" sho)s an openin" (p of the 0spirit field0 to a )ide variety of nat(re, ancestral, and alien spirits in a settin" of ethnic pl(ralis* and an e2panded scale of social relations characteristic of this eastern Aaire and )ider ?astern -frican settin". :o)ever, the presence of spirits )ho represent the infl(ences of nat(re =partic(larly rivers> and aliens =Bal(!a, ?(ropeans, ,)ahili4speakers> in connection )ith !ehavioral tro(!les, alienation, and, in the case of Mit(*!a, loss of conscio(sness in visions of ?(ropeans, introd(ces into the 0spirit field0 an atte*pt to deal )ith !ehavioral patholo"y and its conte2t(al ca(ses. -ltho("h one *ay still invoke a '(rkhei*ian correspondence analysis !et)een e2pandin" scale of relations and !ehavioral patholo"ies res(ltin" fro* strained role e2pectations and f(lfill*ents, the *ore interestin" iss(e is the possi!le correspondence !et)een partic(lar types of spirits and an indi"eno(s analysis of psychopatholo"y and the appropriate therape(tic response. :arriet ,i!isi<s )ork is s(""estive in this re"ard. ,i!isi =19%J> notes that A(l( san"o*a, le"iti*ated !y a 0call0 fro* their direct lineal ancestors, tend to analyze possession !y nat(re spirits and alien spirits as evidence of a!nor*alities. +n their therape(tic interventions in these cases they strive to replace these 0spirits of chaos0 )ith a *ore nor*ative spirit patrona"e !y ancestors, to fill a role in rit(al leadership. 5he san"o*a therapist *(st th(s identify the reha!ilitative or reinte"rative potential of a client !efore t(rnin" that client in the direction of an initiation to the healer role. +ndeed, the distinction !et)een patholo"ical possession and ancestral call is *ade clear in @"(ni nosolo"y: mfufun#ani possession !y chaotic spirits is a si"n of *adness, )hereas u*ut'asa is a possession or call that leads to personal stren"th and leadership in the san"o*a or i"3ira. +n the ,o(thern -frican settin" the sy*!olis* of u*ut'asa *ay also fre3(ently !e channeled into Christian f(lfill*ent in Aionist prophet4healin" ch(rches, or even in *ainstrea* ch(rch roles, )hereas mfufun#ani cases *ay !e taken to a ran"e of 9estern psychotherapists and -frican healers for treat*ent. 'espite the lo"ical ele"ance of ,i!isi<s interpretation of A(l( dia"nostic cate"ories, and its clear 0fit0 )ith the ,o(th -frican ethno"raphic data fro* @atal, the 9estern Cape, and pro!a!ly other areas 8 99 8 in !et)een, it adheres a little too closely to a sociolo"ical correspondence theory to acco(nt for all the ethno"raphic evidence of the entire area across )hich n"o*a4type therapies are fo(nd. +n partic(lar, it does not see* to e2plain the cases in )hich, as in several of the B(kav( rites =?naa*a and Mit(*!a>, alien spirits are the principal sy*!ols of therape(tic reha!ilitative orders. or, closer to the !asis of ,i!isi<s )ork, in ,)azi n"o*a, in )hich n(*ero(s types of alien spirits are (sed to inspire divination and heatin". 5he ,)azi instance is partic(larly challen"in", since ,)azi san"o*a are considered part of the @"(ni4speakin" "ro(p and share *ost of the feat(res of the reli"io(s and therape(tic tradition )ith the A(l( and Hhosa. +n addition to patrona"e !y their lineal ancestor shades, the amadloti , ,)azi san"o*a feat(re patrona"e !y the Ben"(ni 0)hite0 spirits, )ho are the victi*s of ,)azi )ars )ith A(l(, 5son"a, and ,han"ani and )ho inspire divination )ith !ones. the -*anza)e 0red0 nat(re spirits )ho inspire

*edi(*istic divination. and !oth 0red0 and 0)hite0 5inz(nz( spirits of those )ho have dro)ned in rivers. Medi(*istic )ork )ith Ben"(ni victi* spirits see*s to !e a recent develop*ent in ,)aziland. A(l(4type san"o*a diviner4healers have !een in *any re"ions replaced !y 0red0 takoza *edi(*s. +n their *ore po)erf(l for*s of divinin" they p(t aside their !ones and their attentive ear for very dra*atic trance4possession dances of -*anza)e and 5inz(nz( nat(re, and Ben"(ni alien spirits. 5o take ,i!isi<s analysis strictly, these ,)azi takoza diviner4healers, as )ell as so*e of the B(kav( therapists, )o(ld !e ind(l"in" in dissonant, and accordin" to her, 0charlatanistic,0 practice. -nd yet the appearance of nonancestral spirits and their *edi(*s has !eco*e very )idespread. -lternatively, to ass(*e that therapists i"nore the social forces of alienation and dislocation )hen they contin(e to attri!(te sickness to ancestral calls =partic(larly those that are considered a*ena!le to inte"rative leadership roles>, is to (nderesti*ate the skill of these talented individ(als )orkin" often in e2tre*ely strained social settin"s s(ch as in the 9estern Cape. 5he anthropolo"ical analysis of the relationship of a 0spirit field0 to the social conte2t of affliction needs one f(rther analytical para*eter !eyond those of social scale =i.e., localized vs. re"ional or cos*opolitan> and of nor*alcy =i.e., role nor*alcy vs. sit(ations precipitatin" a!nor*al response to role e2pectations> to e2plain the relevant varia!les of reco(rse to spirit nosolo"y. + have in *ind the place in affliction dia"nosis hin"in" on the de"ree of a*!i"(ity vers(s clarity in the overall 8 1$$ 8 perception of a social sit(ation or a vie) of reality =Bernstein in 'o("las 19%$>. Bernstein<s *a1or point, taken over !y 'o("las, is that in the a!sence of a clear (nderstandin" of a pheno*enon, in this instance the ca(se of affliction, one tends to for*(late na*es, confi"(rations, or stereotypes to co*pensate for the f(zziness. 7ollo)in" this line of tho("ht, an escalation to)ard alien or chaotic spirit forces )o(ld !e (sed in divination or therapy to co*e to "rips )ith stran"e and ne) iss(es in a social sit(ation. 5his hypothesis applies directly to the contrastin" types of n"o*a spirit *anifestation in ,o(thern -frica, nota!ly the 9estern Cape and ,)aziland. +n the 9estern Cape the challen"e facin" n"o*a diviners and therapists is not an analysis of the sit(ation !efore the*. that is clear eno("h. 7a*ilies are divided, and there is "eneral an2iety re"ardin" "ainf(l e*ploy*ent. 5he *a1or challen"e is that of !(ildin" (p a cohesive social fa!ric o(t of the fra"*ents of fa*ilies and interpersonal relations. -ccordin"ly, diviner4therapists for"e a net)ork of links )ithin their ranks that !rin" fra"*ented individ(al lives and fa*ily se"*ents into so*e *ore coherent and s(pportive arran"e*ent. +n ,)aziland, there is "enerally "reater econo*ic sec(rity and *(ch less an2iety a!o(t residence, freedo* of *ove*ent, and one<s personal )elfare. ,)aziland has one of the hi"hest per capita inco*es in !lack -frica6Q&$$ per person in 19&2, near that of /a!on and Ca*eroon. -nd yet, this very sense of econo*ic develop*ent contains the in"redients to dissolve the nor*ative order. 9a"e la!or, (r!anization, and ed(cation have had a si"nificant i*pact (pon ,)azi society, creatin" enor*o(s opport(nities for (p)ard *o!ility and presti"io(s 1o!s, especially for yo(n" ad(lts. +t has !eco*e co**on for yo(n" )o*en to esche) *arria"e for professional )ork and to have a child or t)o o(t of )edlock alon" the )ay. 7(rther*ore, the econo*ic opport(nities of ,)aziland have in(ndated the co(ntry )ith o(tsiders, s(ch as develop*ent e2perts, to(rists, teachers, and traders. 5h(s, altho("h there is not the *aterial insec(rity of the 9estern Cape and the threat to one<s do*estic livin" arran"e*ent, econo*ic develop*ent has (nleashed other threats to the esta!lished co"nitive order. 5his *ay acco(nt for the *ore a""ressive spirit field in ,)aziland, in )hich the spirits of !one4 thro)in" divination =the amadloti and Ben"(ni ancestors> have !een partially s(pplanted !y the spirits of trance and possession divination =the ?*anza)e and 5inz(nz(>.

8 1$1 8 +t is evident, then, that 0spirit fields0 provide a set of para*eters havin" to do )ith )orldvie), order and chaos, le"iti*acy, and c(lt(ral cate"ories a"ainst )hich to ali"n, and !e"in to deal )ith, personal pro!le*s.

The Co*%!e Th%o*gh The 0h# e

5herape(tic attention to affliction, thro("h n"o*a, often entails ele*ents of initiation of the afflicted into *e*!ership, res(ltin" in the elevation of the afflicted to the stat(s of priest or healer in the "ro(p. 9hether or not this act(ally happens =there are *any dropo(ts> depends on the novice<s pro"ress thro("h early states of therapy and co(nselin", on the novice<s or kin<s *eans, and the e2tent to )hich the c(lt is controlled !y an elite that restricts access to its !asic reso(rces. -cross the n"o*a re"ion, )hiteness defines the special transitional stat(s of the s(fferer4novice in the co(rse to)ard health. +t is e2pressed !y the (se of clay or chalk, cloth, !eads, rafia, and other *aterial indicators. +n 9estern Bant( this concept is identified !y derivations of the proto4Bant( co"nate $/mb3 =see appendi2 B, section B.1#>. +n @"(ni4speakin" ,o(thern -frica the ter* ikota is (sed for )hite, !(t it is not clear ho) )idespread this ter* is. +n any event, )hiteness is the color and do*inant sy*!ol of the transitional sta"e that denotes p(rity, separateness, isolation, the li*inal zone !et)een sickness and health, the condition of !ein" sick. ,o*e n"o*a4type therape(tic settin"s !eco*e involved )ith red and !lack sy*!olis*, often denotin" e2pos(re to alien or less fa*iliar nat(re spirits. ,ta"es that artic(late phases in the 0)hite0 *ay vary fro* t)o to as *any as ei"ht, each of )hich *ay end(re fro* a fe) days to *any years. +n the 9estern Cape, for e2a*ple, the sta"es of this pro"ression !e"in )ith =1> !ein" dia"nosed as t)asa, possessed or called !y a spirit. =2> !eco*in" a novice =n*'etha > follo)in" the initiation, and 1oinin" a sodality (nder the co(nselin" of a senior diviner4 healer. =#> *ovin" thro("h the 0co(rse,0 !eco*in" a senior, a 0five4to0 =i.e., 0five to *idni"ht,0 al*ost co*pleted>, and !ein" entr(sted )ith aspects of rit(al. =L> f(lly 3(alified, co*pletin" the co(rse, "rad(atin" as a san"o*a or in Hhosa, i"3ira. Clothin" and !odily paint indicate the pro"ression thro("h the )hite. +nitially, the novice is f(lly s*eared in )hite chalk or )ears a )hite cloth. /rad(ally, over the co(rse of ti*e, colors replace )hite4 8 1$2 8 ness. the cost(*e of a f(lly 3(alified i"3ira san"o*a provides a *edi(* for the self4definition and artic(lation of the ne) person. +nitially, face and !ody are s*eared in )hite d(rin" the events of initiation. 5)o sin"le strands of )hite !eads, and the !ladder of a "oat, are )orn aro(nd the head. !ead strands are also p(t on each )rist. +n ti*e, *ore strands of )hite !eads are added. 5he "ro(ps of a*ak)etha =novices> of a diviner4healer *ay !e seen as a (nifor*ed "ro(p, to"ether, dancin", sin"in", in co(nsel, in isolation. :o)ever, as their therape(tic initiation *oves to its final sta"es and they !eco*e *ore self4confident, they *ay paint only their cheeks and eyes. 9hen f(lly 3(alified, only the eyes re*ain encircled )ith 0)hite.0 Colorf(l !eads and other headdress and cost(*e ele*ents, drea*ed or creatively tho("ht o(t, no) replace the )hite. -t this later phase, the f(r of )ild ani*als s(ch as p(*a, cheetah, leopard, lion, !eaver, and others replaces the strands of "oat hair. Colorf(l !lankets replace the )hite sheets. 5he early novitiate phase is also si"naled !y the o)nership of a forked stirrin" stick, (sed initially to

!rin" the ubulau =*edicine> to a frothy )hite )henever the ancestors or spirits are called in and the novice is s*eared. 5his stick, )hich is also (sed as a dance )and, is replaced after "rad(ation )ith a colorf(l, !eaded dance )and co*para!le to the )idespread @"(ni kno!kerrie. 5his pro"ression of e2terior process of clothin", !ody paint, and artifact parallels the inner process that the novice has "one thro("h and of social chan"es that si"nificant others have created aro(nd the novice. 5he co(rse thro("h the )hite is the fra*e)ork of the sick role. +nitially, there is a *arked )ithdra)al of self and individ(ality fro* the social settin", altho("h often the fa*ily that ass(*es responsi!ility for the patrona"e of a diviner4healer sho)s the s(pport and care they have for the individ(al s(fferer. '(rin" this phase the s(fferer *(st ac3(iesce to ancestors and social others. 5he death of the sacrificial "oat sy*!olizes the death of the s(fferer<s self, in e2chan"e for a ne) life and identity. +n the early co(nselin" and therapies the s(fferer4novice is passive, receivin" son"s fro* others. 5hen, as he or she develops skills in drea*in" and handlin" spirits6that is, channelin" the chaotic visions and drea*s of the t)asa =call> e2perience6the cost(*e !e"ins to sho) !its of color, of identity. -cco*panyin" this o(t)ard *anifestation of drea*in", of *essa"es a!o(t the self, is the e*er"ence of the novice<s o)n son"s, co*posed also fro* drea* i*p(lses. 5he initial passivity 8 1$# 8 is replaced !y a state*ent of e"o stren"th as the novice co*poses, sin"s, and teaches others his or her son". -t the close, as the novice !eco*es a 0 five4to, 0 ready for "rad(ation, she or he sho(ld have a stron" self4pro1ection, capa!ility in leadin" others in therape(tic dance and son", as )ell as a fir*er control over his or her o)n life than !efore. 5he final "rad(ation feast, *arked !y the sacrifice of a co) or !(ll and the *akin" of a colorf(l dance )and, indicates the c(l*ination of the co(rse thro("h the )hite. 5he ne2t chapter )ill st(dy the role of the n"o*a son" in this process. 5he efficacy of the therapy, re"ardless of its specific techni3(es, is partially ass(red !eca(se all in the co**(nity feel shared affliction and s(pport the s(fferer, even tho("h not all the co**(nity is kin. +n *ost instances of prolon"ed sickness in -frican society, dia"nosis and decision relatin" to the co(rse of healin"60the 3(est for therapy06are in the hands of a lay kin therapy *ana"in" "ro(p. +n the cases that co*e into the or!it of c(lts of affliction, the s(pport co**(nity !roadens to !eco*e that of the c(lt *e*!ers. 5he 3(ality of s(pport shifts fro* ad hoc kin aid to that of per*anent involve*ent )ith s(ch a net)ork in the initiate4novice<s life, correspondin" to the lon"4ter* involve*ent of the individ(al )ith the affliction, as a healer4priest. ,o*e c(lts of affliction, s(ch as @kita a*on" the Bon"o peoples of )estern Aaire, are sit(ated )ithin linea"es. @kita responds to the (ni3(e circ(*stances and sy*pto*s of children<s sicknesses and !arren )o*en a*id the stresses and fears of linea"e se"*entation. 5he i*p(tation of a cl(ster of @kita afflicted )ithin a linea"e se"*ent provides the rationale and the settin" for the re"eneration of linea"e or"anization. *e*!ers are reaffiliated )ith the ancestral so(rce of their collective a(thority. Most c(lts of affliction, ho)ever, occ(r o(tside the kin settin", f(nctionin" as an addition to kin relations, and "ive the individ(al lifelon" ties )ith others alon" the lines of the ne) affliction or occ(pation4specific co**(nity. 5he vario(s ,o(thern ,avanna reprod(ction4enhancin" n"o*a6s(ch as M!o*!o =/o!let4;anor*elin"en 19&&>. +so*a, 9(!)an"(, and B(la =5(rner 19J&>. and (nna*ed mahamba a*on" the F(vale =,prin" 19%&>6)hich isolate )o*en )ith reprod(ctive pro!le*s or d(rin" pre"nancy and child!irth, radicalize the separation of novices fro* their kin. 5he rationale for this separation has to do )ith the dan"er of the stresses of daily life and fa*ily relations (pon the fet(s. 5he )hite sy*!olis* of clothin" and the

8 1$L 8 m$emba chalk applied to the face and other places in the secl(sion co*po(nd s(""est the li*inal special 3(ality of this role. +t is li*inal, also, !eca(se the nor*al con1("al life of the novice has !een interr(pted to achieve an end that )ill enhance that con1("al life. 5he social di*ension of 0the )hite0 *ay vary in its partic(lars fro* occ(rrin" )ithin linea"e and fa*ily to re*oval fro* it. 5he co**on core !eneath this is, ho)ever, that it (s(ally represents a contrast fro* the prior state and !rin"s the individ(al into to(ch )ith rit(al e2perts )ho re!(ild the individ(al<s identity aro(nd a sol(tion to the pro!le* or affliction.

Sa(%#"#(e An) E:(hange

,acrifice of *a**als and !irds is )idely present in the n"o*a process of personal transfor*ation. Partic(lar ill(strations of this are fo(nd in Fe*!a, )here the chickens and pi"s are killed at appropriate 1(nct(res of the novice<s co(rse. 5his sacrifice see*s to occ(r *ost often at the initial entry into the co(rse thro("h the )hite and at "rad(ation. +t occ(rs at the close of the day ni"ht day event. +t also occ(rs in the ,o(thern -frican settin", as )itnessed !y the instances in Cape 5o)n descri!ed in chapter 1: a "oat at the ti*e of an entry, a "oat or a sheep at the ti*e of a healer<s or novice<s p(rification, and a co) at the ti*e of a "rad(ation. 9hy is sacrifice so i*portant in the co**e*oration of rit(al transition, in the *o*ent of sicknessI ;ictor 5(rner, in e2plainin" the i*portance of sacrifice in n"o*a rit(als a*on" the @de*!(, !e"ins )ith the repetitive, or cyclical, nat(re of life in the society. ,o*e of these feat(res are d(e to the a"rarian conte2t of the @de*!(, )ho yearly plant their crops and harvest the*. :o)ever, *ost of the dr(*s of affliction are foc(sed on the h(*an life co(rse, in )hich *o*ents s(ch as !irth, adolescence, the varied conflicts and afflictions of ad(lthood, and death, need to !e addressed. @de*!( society is involved in chan"e, !(t the core of society, its val(es and patterns and ideals, are tho("ht of as if they sho(ld re*ain constant. 5he rit(als of affliction seek to ret(rn to that constancy, !y s(!s(*in" *isfort(ne to the per*anence of the invisi!le spirit )orld. Misfort(ne that res(lts fro* conflict creates victi*s. 5he sacrificial victi*, in the a!stract sense of a s(!stit(tionary victi*, lets the conflict, the an"er, so to speak 0have its !lood.0 5o offer a sacrificial ani*al also p(rifies the (niverse in that it restores or re"enerates the h(*an co**(nity to its ideals. 0-t the *o*ent )hen the )heel 8 1$K 8 has co*e a f(ll circle, NsacrificeO sets the cycle "oin" a"ain0 =5(rner 19J&:2%J>. 5his is !asically an 0atone*ent0 vie) of sacrifice, in )hich the violence in h(*an society can !e overco*e thro("h its sy*!olic *anifestation in the victi*. 5his is not far fro* the J(deo4Christian sacrificial tradition in )hich la*!s, or first sons, are offered for the e2piation of h(*an sins. -ltho("h the atone*ent notion of sacrifice is present in n"o*a sacrifice, as the acco(nt of the case st(dy of initiation in Cape 5o)n related in chapter 1 s(""ests, there is another di*ension to n"o*a sacrifices that 1(stifies an e2chan"e concept of sacrifice. :avin" attended a fe) sacrifices in -frica, incl(din" that descri!ed in chapter 1, + can attest that there is a si"nificant rit(al econo*ic di*ension at )ork. 5he 0horizontal0 di*ension of the distri!(tion of food and the co**on *eal that incl(des the cons(*ption of the sacrificial ani*al represent as *(ch a 0co**(nion0 as a reli"io(s atone*ent. 5o"ether they !rin" o(t a social di*ension that 5(rner does not specifically *ention, na*ely, the !e"innin" or the rene)al of e2chan"e relationships !et)een individ(als and social (nits that are at the

!asis of on"oin" social relations. 5he nat(re of these net)orks that are created and cele!rated in connection )ith the sacrifices )ill !e e2plored *ore f(lly in chapter J. -lso, in the sacrifices of sheep, "oats, and cattle, the red *eat protein is si"nificant in the diet of those attendin". - co**(nal *eal follo)in" an all4ni"ht co**(nal dance applies tre*endo(s ener"ies to the reconstit(tion of the social )hole that is asse*!led. 5his leads directly to the final core feat(re, the !elief that *isfort(ne, adversity, and affliction *ay !e transfor*ed into po)er and )holeness. 5here is a stron" insistence in n"o*a theorizin" that sin"in", sacrifice, and co**(nin" t(rn life aro(nd and literally !rin" life o(t of death.

The S*""e%e% /e(ome! The 7ea'e%

5he lyrics of n"o*a son"s echo this core feat(re, as in this son" fro* ancient Fe*!a on the Bon"o coast: 05hat )hich )as the sickness, has !eco*e the path to the priesthood.0 7ro* the 9estern Cape: 0Fet darkness t(rn to li"ht.0 5he sin"le *ost characteristic feat(re of n"o*a is this transfor*ation of the ne"ative, disinte"rative affliction into positive, inte"rative )holeness. 5here are, of co(rse, other reli"io(s and therape(tic traditions in )hich this occ(rs. Dne thinks of the 9estern 8 1$J 8 self4help orders, even psychiatry, in )hich the st(dent receives psychoanalysis !efore !ein" a!le to practice. +n the several local traditions of n"o*a )hich have !een (sed repeatedly to ill(strate the "enre in this !ook, )e have seen a variety of applications of this the*e of transfor*ation. Barrenness and threatened *iscarria"es "ive )ay to techni3(es for fertility and child care in the ,o(thern ,avanna and 9estern Bant( settin"s. +n the Binshasa (r!an settin", the trapped4)ife syndro*e is replaced !y *e*!ership in the Ae!ola net)ork of the for*erly isolated. +n )estern 5anzania, snake4!ite is t(rned into kno)led"e of the (se of veno* for i**(nization. +n ,o(thern -frica, the chaos of rapid ind(strialization feeds the enhance*ent of divination techni3(es. the fra"*entation of the fa*ily ho(sehold leads to the a*plification of net)orks linkin" fra"ile ho(seholds. 5he ener"y that co*es to the afflicted fro* 1oinin" those )ho have 0!een there0 and )ho have s(rvived or recovered, or at least learned to cope )ith the affliction, often is represented in so4called 0*edicines0 of office s(ch as the *ici of 9estern Bant(, or the *obe of Central -frica. -c3(irin" these *edicines, or char*s, or techni3(es, is part of the end sta"e of 0the )hite,0 either "enerated !y the novice d(rin" the lon" co(rse of therape(tic trainin", or asse*!led at the ti*e of his or her 0"rad(ation.0 Many ti*es these *edicines are o(tri"ht *a"ical or *etaphorical *e*entos of the affliction, *e*entos that thro("h association )ith *aterial o!1ects fro* cos*olo"ical, ve"etal, ani*al, or h(*an do*ains !eco*e state*ents a!o(t the condition of the novice. + co*e !ack to this process in chapter K and interpret it f(rther (nder the r(!ric of 0*etaphors of diffic(lt e2perience.0 M(ch of the e*po)er*ent of n"o*a is, ho)ever, in the ne)ly ac3(ired a!ility of the afflicted to *eet specific or "eneral pro!le*s )ith resolve. 5his often entails the adoption of a healer4prescri!ed prohi!ition or r(le, ill(stratin" the proto4Bant( concept g0d2 . -s )e )ill see, the personal son", developed thro("h drea* st(dy, and thro("h sharin" n"o*a )ith one<s fello)s, also plays an i*portant part. ,(!se3(ent chapters )ill e2plore this f(rther.

Con('*!#on
5he core feat(res of n"o*a presented in this chapter are relatively static feat(res. Dn their o)n they are

*erely aspects of the )ider "eneral c(lt(re or set of !ehaviors. 5herefore )e *(st stress that they are 8 1$% 8 not to !e taken too literally as the attri!(tes of n"o*a every)here or that )here they are identified, they have to do )ith n"o*a. 5o"ether they reveal si"nificant characteristics )ith )hich to (nderstand ho) n"o*a4type affliction and healin" is or"anized. 5he feat(res disc(ssed in this chapter are (s(ally not identified !y descriptive indi"eno(s ter*s, altho("h + have !een a!le in so*e cases to relate the* to proto4Bant( co"nates. Dn !alance, *(ch of the *ost characteristic !ehavior in n"o*a does not correlate strictly )ith a "iven voca!(lary. +t can !e descri!ed, disc(ssed, and interpreted, !(t it is not locked into a technical fi2ed voca!(lary. 5his )o(ld s(""est that the pheno*enolo"ist<s constraint of st(dyin" only that )hich is conscio(sly and ver!ally identified )o(ld !e ill4advised, and that a c(lt(re<s reality, )hile it *ay !e descri!ed and shaped !y lan"(a"e, is certainly not li*ited to ver!al co"nates. ;er!al co"nates and these core feat(res co*e to"ether in a poi"nant action4ter*, 0doin" n"o*a,0 to )hich )e t(rn ne2t. 8 1$& 8

< 3o#ng Ngoma The Te: *%e o" Pe%!ona' T%an!"o%ma #on
B(phil)a n"a*(t(. 09e s(rvive !eca(se of each other.0 Hhosa prover! applied to n"o*a Mpi*pa yoyo !ana kina nk(n(n( yanene nate ye !)isi !( kiedi. 05his sa*e ni"ht all dance a !i" @k(n(n( dance that ends at the !reak of day.0 B)a*!a ?lie, Bon"o ethno"rapher, descri!in" a Fe*!a "atherin" in 1912 0'oin" n"o*a0 is the central event in n"o*a. +t is the 0do*inant trope,0 the 0sy*!ol that stands for itself0 =9a"ner 19&J:29M#$> and defines the instit(tion. 0'oin" n"o*a0 opens )ith a declarative state*ent, prayer, or (tterance, then *oves on to son" !e"(n !y the one )ho *akes the state*ent. as the call and son" is developed, the s(rro(ndin" people respond )ith clappin" and soon sin"in" !e"ins en *asse, and then the instr(*ents enter in. 5his !asic set of feat(res, )ith *any variations, *ay !e fo(nd thro("ho(t the lar"er Central and ,o(thern -frican settin". 5he @de*!( call it *'imba ng9oma , 0to sin" an n"o*a0 =5(rner 19%K:J#>. 5he ;enda of the northern 5ransvaal also (se the sa*e ver! to speak of n#imbo dza dzingoma , sin"in" an n"o*a, 0dr(*0 =Blackin" 19&K:L1>. 5he Bon"o of 9estern Bant( 0dr(* (p0 =si*a ngoma > a *a1or *edicine )ith a son", n*unga . +n the @"(ni4speakin" settin" in ,o(thern -frica, the isangoma , diviner4healer, is one )ho =i 4> does =sa > n"o*a. -ll of these references identify n"o*a )ith patterned rhyth* of )ords, the (se of perfor*ance dance, and the invocations or the son"s that artic(late the affliction and the therape(tic rite. Many son"4dance perfor*ances p(nct(ate the s(fferer4novice<s co(rse thro("h the )hite. ?ven after

!eco*in" a f(lly 3(alified healer, 8 1$9 8 the practitioner participates contin(o(sly in n"o*a sessions. 5his chapter presents a sin"le i*portant e2a*ple of 0doin" n"o*a.0 +n !oth content and str(ct(re, this n"o*a perfor*ance reveals that here, in the conscio(sly for*(lated e2chan"e of son"4dance, and in the *ove*ent of the individ(al fro* s(fferer4novice to acco*plished, sin"in", self4pro1ectin" healer, lies the heart of the instit(tion. + !elieve it is a classic6that is, ancient and for*ative6instit(tion in Central and ,o(thern -frican healin". Unfort(nately, it has !een least )ell st(died of all the aspects of -frican *edicine. Many scholars have *issed the *ark, in a sense, e*phasizin" only a li*ited aspect of it. ,o*e have sin"led o(t only the healer4patient relationship for attention. others, the sy*!ols. yet others, the plants. Many have follo)ed trance !ehavior and ass(*ed it is the central point of the rit(al, )itho(t p(ttin" it s(fficiently into instit(tional conte2t. ;ery fe) scholars of -frican *edicine and reli"ion have !othered to look at the *(sic. ,cholars of -frican *(sic, for their part, have i"nored the therape(tic 3(alities, and intentions, of this kind of *(sic.

Te: An) Te: *%e In A"%#(an 7ea'#ng

-*andina Fiha*!a, in a recent article, 0:ealth and the -frican 5heatre,0 has descri!ed the relationship !et)een health and perfor*ances of all kinds in -frica. 0:ealth and disease are social pheno*ena )ith i*plications !eyond the individ(al, the physical, and the present. Perfor*ances are often concerned )ith the *aintenance of co**(nity and individ(al health, the prevention of ill health, and the restoration of health and )ith instillin" s(rvival kno)led"e0 =19&J:#K>. ?2a*ples incl(de 9. ,oyinka )ritin" a!o(t the cleansin" of society, cos*ic e3(ili!ri(*, and society as s(fferer. M(hando on the *adness of social and econo*ic s(ccess, and society ca(sin" sickness. and :(ssein descri!in" the evil of corr(ption, e2ploitation, oppression, and class divisions and aspirations as devils = ashetani > )ho have infiltrated society and need to !e e2orcised for health to !e restored. @"o*a provides the fa!ric of personal transfor*ation. it helps sort thro("h personal or societal e2perience )ith prevalent *etaphors and other types of kno)led"e. 5here *ay !e no close analo"(e in 9estern civilization to these co*!ined feat(res of n"o*a. Fiha*!a and others< reference to theater and perfor*ance are acc(rate. :o)ever, for ill(strative p(rposes + shall for 8 11$ 8 the *o*ent ar"(e that an appro2i*ation of s(ch an analo"(e e2ists in the con1(nction of Fatin and Dld 7rench roots te:tus( te:tere , and conte:tus or conte:tere . 5hese ter*s provide a pict(re of a fa!ric of *eanin"s p(lled o(t of a conte2t and p(t into )ords. !e:tere refers do(!ly to 0)eavin" a fa!ric0 in the technical sense of p(ttin" to"ether the )arp and )eft of cloth, as )ell as to the ori"inal )ritten or printed )ords of a literary )ork, a sin"le te2t. 5he con 4te2t is )here the separate threads are !ro("ht to"ether into one fa!ric. @"o*a !rin"s to"ether the disparate ele*ents of an individ(al<s life threads and )eaves the* into a *eanin"f(l fa!ric. +t does this, partic(larly, thro("h devices of *(t(al 0call and response0 sharin" of e2perience, of self4presentation, of artic(lation of co**on affliction, and of consens(s over the nat(re of the pro!le* and the co(rse of action to take. 5he n"o*a te2t is created over the co(rse of *any

*onths and years and finally is presented for*ally at the ti*e of the s(fferer4novice<s e*er"ence as a f(lly ready healer. +n another sense the te2t of self4presentation is never co*pleted, for as lon" as the n"o*a participant lives, there )ill !e *o*ents and ti*es of self rene)al, in the conte2t of others.

,3o#ng Ngoma,8 The Co%e R# *a' Un#

5he son"4dance of n"o*a *ay last all ni"ht, as in the Bon"o e2a*ple at the head of the chapter. ,(ch a session is *ade (p of *any shorter (nits of son": the self4presented and the response. +n the Cape 5o)n settin", )hich )ill !e feat(red here, it *ay !e repeated !y the sa*e person =(s(ally )ith a different son">, or so*eone else 0takes (p n"o*a0 and 0does his or her n"o*a06sa ngoma . 5he se3(ence of s(ch (nits *ay "o on for ho(rs. +t *ay occ(r )ithin the conte2t of events heralded as p(rification cele!rations for esta!lished healers or as cele!rative points in the initiatory co(rse of novices. 5he fa*iliar "ro(p n"o*a son" presentations *ay !e seen at a )ide variety of events )ithin the local n"o*a net)ork. -n i*portant variant of the s(fferer4sin"er presentin" his or her invocation and son" is for another sin"er to present the 0case0 of the s(fferer. 5his *ay occ(r in the instance of a very sick individ(al, so*eone )ho has not developed her or his son" or )ho cannot perfor*, or a senior healer )ho has s(ffered the death of a close kins*an and is !ein" *inistered to. 5he case that )ill !e ill(strated is fro* a 0)ashin" of the !eads0 of a senior i"3ira san"o*a in the 9estern Cape follo)in" the period of 8 111 8 *o(rnin" of the death of her *other. :er sister and host of the event san" the leads, reiteratin" the death of their *other. 5he spoken openin"s to each (nit narrated the days leadin" (p to the death, details s(rro(ndin" the death. +t )as th(s in effect a re3(ie* n"o*a and a co*in" o(t of *o(rnin" of the descendant. 'eath is i*p(re, !(t *o(rnin" and co**e*oration allo) the n"o*a practitioners to cleanse the*selves and to 0thro) o(t the darkness0 and to 0)ash the !eads0 )ith *edicines6in @"(ni poll(tion ter*inolo"y, to replace darkness )ith li"ht. -t the site of thro)in" o(t the darkness, o(tside, the sa*e for*at is a"ain repeated. 7or the spoken prayer parts, the novices =a*ak)etha> sit do)n for the declaration, then rise for the dancin" and sin"in" =fi". 9>. +n the follo)in" pa"es + present a se3(ence of self4presentations =u*unqula > and son"4dances =n"o*a> perfor*ed at the a!ove event, first a*on" senior san"o*a and a*a"3ira of the 9estern Cape, follo)ed !y a session !y their novices.N1O 1. 7*unqula N!y the senior healer )hose *other had died, and )ho )as !ein" cleansedO: Su*ube ndilthandenza *e :a *disitsho *umama . +n so sayin" +<* prayin" to *other. 9e<ll leave havin" )ashed each other Nrepeated *any ti*esO. &u$hil'a ngamutu . 9e s(rvive Nor liveO !eca(se of each other. 9hile )e say )e ca*e to 0heal0 here. Ngoma: "ambulele umama ... 5hey killed *a*a. 2. 7*unqula : Go( )o(ld have tho("ht that the ni"ht 0)ar0 )o(ld have cal*ed do)n this Ni"3ira spirit(alityO. B(t no, it doesn<t. +<* in it, al)ays facin" a )hite person Nat )orkO, and *ay!e that<s )hy +<* 0on ed"e.0 Ngoma: "alele $hezu *'eentaba zu8undi . 5he NancestorsO are sleepin" at the top of the *o(ntains of Ul(ndi. #. 7*unqula : Fet<s camagusha no)U Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. @izala Na relativeO, + )ant yo(

to say for *e to these a*a"3ira and these visitors )hat )e<re here for, they<re )elco*e. Ngoma Nin -frikaansO: %at ma*eer )andag( 'at ma*eer; 9hat<s happenin" todayI 8 112 8

7i"(re 9. Plan of ho(se, co*po(nd, and street in Cape 5o)n to)nship settin" )here 0doin" n"o*a0 )as perfor*ed, in the conte2t of 0)ashin" of the !eads0 of senior healer -delheid @dika follo)in" her *other<s death: =a> livin" roo* and inter*ediate rit(al space )here all n"o*a sessions are held, as )ell as 0callin" do)n ancestors0. =!> kitchen. =c> !edroo*. =d> stora"e roo*. =e> !ackyard. =f> s(!renter shelter. ="> )ater tap, toilet. =h> profane p(!lic space )here 0co*in" o(t0 is held and )here darkness of poll(tion is 0thro)n a)ay.0 L. 7*unqula: Hulle 'il meet 'at ma*eer )andag; &affirdans. Go( )ant to kno) )hat<s happenin" here todayI +t<s a Baffir danceU Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. Ngoma: Ndi#amthenda u <esu= 'a*lulula umo# a 'am . + love Jes(s, he set free *y so(l. K. 7*unqula : Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. Camagusha . + thank !ein" )elco*e in this ho*e, camagu . + )as coronated in this ho*e, and the isidlo*olo !(shy hat )as "iven to *e here.

1. Go(n" )o*en and *others of the linea"e in procession, d(rin" @kita rite in Bon"o4@tand( society, )estern Aaire. Photo archive, +nstit(t des M(sEes @ationa(2 d( Aaire.

2. 'iversity of n"o*a dr(*s fro* the Con"o Basin, Aaire: =a> )ith face of M!(olo healin" spirit, Gaka, ,o(th)estern Aaire, +nstit(t des M(sees @ational d(Aaire =+M@A> %1.1#&.1 =K9 c*. tall, 2& c*. )ide>.

=e> CMC- &9%%, B(s(, Manie*a, JK 2 #J c*., !efore 19$2 =Boone ;+ 2 0n"o*a0>.

=f> CMC- L&.2$.1$%, :(n"ana, ,o(th)estern Aaire, 9& 2 ## c*., !efore 19L& =Boone H+++ 1$>.

=!> 5shok)e4F(nda, Basai, +M@A %1.22.1# =K# c*. tall>. fro* the collections of the Coyal M(se(* of Central -frica, 5erv(ren =CMC-> and p(!lished in Dl"a Boone, Fes ta*!o(rs d( Con"o !el"e et d( C(anda4Ur(ndi, 19K1.

=c> CMC- #&&2&, F(l()a, Basai, K2 2 #Kc*., collected 19#9 =Boone plate ;+++ #L, 0n"o*a0>.

=d> CMC- #1J9J, 5a!)a, ,o(theast Aaire, 2& 2 2% c*., prior to 1&&2M1&&K =Boone ;+ 12, 0n"o*a0>.

="> CMC- 2%%29, Fele, Basai, 9& 2 2& c*., !efore 192L =Boone HHH;+++ K>.

=h> CMC- #%9KK, :(t(, C(tsh(r(, Biv(, &# 2 L1 c*. =Boone HH;++ %, 0in"o*a0 or 0i*p(r(z(0>, the thon"4tied dr(* !eaten )ith stick sho)n here, typical of northern forest and 9est -frican re"ion, !(t )ith for* and na*e of 0n"o*a0 area.

5he faced dr(*s artic(late vis(ally the idea of the spirit4rhyth* in n"o*a. Photo"raphs c6h co(rtesy ,ection of ?thno"raphy, Coyal M(se(* of Central -frica, #$&$ 5?C;UC?@, Bel"i(*.

#. Bishi @ze*!ela, of Binshasa, Aaire, !efore paintin" of her late da("hter Janet, for )ho* she is a *edi(* in Bil(*!(, a rit(al of F(!a ori"in. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

L. Bishi @ze*!ela, a Catholic, stands !efore this paintin" of Jes(s in her healin" chapel in her ho*e co*po(nd in Binshasa. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

K. Pre"nant )o*an 0in secl(sion0 as part of reprod(ction enhancin" n"o*a a*on" the Chok)e of Aaire, ,o(thern ,avanna. 5his is co*para!le to n"o*a Mpo*!o in the ,o(th Basai. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19K9.

J. -t Betani, the diviners< colle"e, ei"ht ti"o*ene dr(*s of co)hide over se"4 *ents of oil dr(*s lie in the s(n to ti"hten the hide for the ne2t perfor*ance. 5hey )ill !e (sed in *edi(*istic takoza divination cere*onies to reveal the ca(ses of distress for clients. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

%. 5anzanian *"an"a Botoli Faie of 'ar es ,alaa* de*onstrates and displays paraphernalia for n"o*a M !(n"i: five n"o*a dr(*s, t)o )ooden do(!le "on"s, and *edicine !asket. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&#.

&. -n e2a*ple of n"o*a as sec(larized entertain*ent, perfor*ed !y the Bara"(*a n"o*a tro(pe of Ba"a*oyo, here doin" the ,indi*!a dance at the -l*ana ni"htcl(! in 'ar es ,alaa*, 5anzania. +nstr(*ents incl(de n"o*a, other dr(*s, and 2ylophone. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&#.

9. enior novice in +da Ma!(za<s colle"e in Betani, ,)aziland, perfor*s pen"(la !one4thro)in" divination, )idespread in ,o(thern -frica, !efore a client =ri"ht> and a collea"(e =left> )ho indicates a"ree*ent or disa"ree*ent )ith each declaration !y the diviner. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1$. - "ro(p of novices =ama*'etha > in )hite perfor*in" an n"o*a on the street in /("(leto to)nship, ,o(th -frica, at the ti*e of a 0)ashin" of the !eads0 p(rification for i"3ira -delheid @dika. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

11. Co)hide over oil dr(* is here (sed in an n"o*a session in /("(leto, Cape 5o)n, ,o(th -frica. +t is dr(**ed !y a novice =nk)etha> )ho has her head !o(nd )ith t)o strands of )hite !eads to indicate that she is 0in the )hite.0 ,he is acco*panied !y a hand4clappin" noninitiate. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

12. 5)o novices =a*ak)etha> participate in n"o*a session in /("(leto, Cape 5o)n. 5hey are part of a close circle of novices )ho are 0presentin" the*selves0 in call4and4response perfor*ance. 5he script of this event is "iven in chapter K. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1#. @"o*a session presented in chapter K )as led !y this )o*an, a 1(st4"rad(ated i"3ira =healer> )hose *anner of leadin" the others o(t, of dancin", and of !rin"in" the participants to"ether )as as strikin" as is her co*pos(re in the pict(re. 5he !ead)ork is the !e"innin" of her i"3ira cost(*e, )hich !e"an )ith a fe) strands of )hite !eads )hen she )as a novice and )ill flo)er into a colorf(l f(ll cost(*e. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1L. - 0)hite0 novice serenely )atches others in n"o*a perfor*ance after havin" presented herself to others in evocation, prayer, son", and dance. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1K. Preparin" to 0thro) o(t the darkness,0 the poll(tion of death of a novice<s kins*an. +"3ira /olden Ma1ola distri!(tes to!acco to his novices, )hich they )ill thro) into the )aters of the +ndian Dcean near Cape 5o)n to the acco*pani*ent of a sin"in" and dr(**in" n"o*a. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1J. -*a"3ira -delheid @dika =left> and helper =ri"ht> stir the (!(la( *edicine of entry into 0the )hite0 at the o(tset of the s(fferer<s novitiate. Photo !y, J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1%. Fater, after the "oat sacrifice and the all4ni"ht n"o*a, the openin" phase of n"o*a initiation is concl(ded )ith n"o*a sessions on the street of /("(leto, a !lack to)nship near Cape 5o)n. 5he 0)hite0 novice is seated in the fore"ro(nd )hile f(lly 3(alified a*a"3ira take t(rns enco(ra"in" hi* )ith son"4dance n"o*a. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1&. 5he a(thor kneelin" !et)een the "rad(atin" still4veiled novice and her kins)o*an =left> and her i"3ira healer =ri"ht>, in /("(leto to)nship. Photo !y Ceinhild Janzen, 19&2. 8 11# 8 Ngoma : + love Jes(s, he set free *y so(l. J. 7*unqula : Mzala, + thank )hat yo(<ve done, sayin" sorry after 0sinnin",0 cons(ltin" those a!ove yo(. Ngoma : + love Jes(s, he set free *y so(l. %. 7*unqula : 9e ca*e to (ncover the )o(nd, and thereafter take so*e oil and anoint it. +, too, ca*e to say: Fet the )o(nd !e healed. 5he a*a"3ira have spoken )ell. Ngoma : + love Jes(s, he set free *y so(l. 5he !asic call4and4response str(ct(re of the (k(n3(la n"o*a pattern is enriched !y a rhyth* !et)een speakin" and sin"in". -frikaans, ?n"lish, Hhosa, A(l(, and ,)azi evocations and son"s in these t)o sessions are a partic(larly poi"nant re*inder of the cleava"es and cos*opolitan diversity of ,o(th -frican society. ?specially to(chin" are the e2chan"es in -frikaans =V#, VL> that *ay have !een pro*pted !y *y presence )ith several *e*!ers of *y fa*ily. Dne of the senior i"3ira in evocation n(*!er # asks the others to tell 0)hy )e<re here.0 5hat is follo)ed !y an n"o*a in -frikaans: 09hat<s happenin" hereI0 5he ne2t u*unquia =VL> responds that it<s a *affirdans . 5his de*onstrates the po)er

of the *edi(* to a!sor! the condescendin" attit(de of )hite ,o(th -frica to)ard an -frican instit(tion. 5he e2chan"e is, ho)ever, intended to !e ironic. 7*unqula n(*!er 2 also to(ches on the role of n"o*a in helpin" these a*a"3ira deal )ith the racial tension in their society. 5his )o*an )as a do*estic )orker in a )hite ho*e, and she co*plained to (s of her lo) )a"es for lon", hard )orkin" ho(rs despite *any years of seniority. ,he (sed the n"o*a session to tell the others, and her ancestors, that this is )hat *ade her 0on ed"e,0 or spirit(ally 0sharp.0 5he repetition of the n"o*a 0+ love Jes(s ...0 fro* Aionist sin"in", de*onstrates the infl(ence of Christianity, !(t it also s(""ests that it is diffic(lt to dra) a line separatin" 0-frican0 fro* 0Christian0 reference points. :o)ever, n"o*as 1, 2, and % are in a *ore conventional idio*. -fter shakin" off the isimn#ama , poll(tion, as a res(lt of the death, and sin"in"4prayin" for the i"3ira, the second n"o*a session follo)s for the novices. - 1(st4"rad(ated, f(lly 3(alified i"3ira =the )o*an in the !l(e and !lack striped s)eater, plate 1#> leads this session. =Plates 1$, 11, and 12 portray this event.> ,he opens )ith a son"4dance. 8 11L 8 Ngoma: Simon'o#a . 9e have spirit ... &. 7*unqula N!y a !oy noviceO: Ba @")ane NancestorsO, hear *e. Ngoma: ombeleleni( unon*ala( ngasemlanieni . ,in" and clap for the cra! ne2t to the river. Ngoma: He a+ola >clan name?( $huma e +ele . Ma1ola, co*e o(t of 1ail. Ndinendabe zonzi 'a*ho . + have ne)s of yo(r ho(se. =,ee fi". 1$.> NDne of the persons in the circle points to another )ho is sick, a novice.O 9e are "ivin" Nthe son", n"o*aO over to yo( *other, camagu . Ngoma : ... eluhambeni . ... in a trip Nina(di!leO. 9. 7*unqula : + ask for protection fro* *y people NancestorsO, the Cade!es and the Mtinik(l(s. Ngoma : NcallO A*ulal'a ez'eni a*ulal'a . NresponseO a*ulal'a a*ulal'a ez'eni . ... Ngoma: He a+ola $huma entela*'eni( ndinendaba zonzi 'a*ho . Ma1ola co*e o(t of confine*ent =lit. 0the pot0>, + have ne)s of yo(r ho(sehold. Camagu@ Ngoma : :ey Ma1ola, co*e o(t, + have ne)s of yo(r ho(sehold. 1$. 7*unqula : Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. + call on *y ancestors. 5his i"3ira )as handed *e !y a parent )hile livin". + take after *y "rand*other, and (se one of the e#ezeni *edicines. + rese*!le an i"3ira of i"3iras, a tr(ly a(thentic one. 5he )hite !ones over )hich death lies, + approached the* )ith *y !ack t(rned to the*, that they not !e resentf(l of *e. May the dr(" !e revealed to *e, so that as an i"3ira + *ay !e a!le to say the tr(th after kneelin" !efore *y clients. Ngoma: &ha'uhibe igqira . /o, "o i"3ira. 11. 7*unqula : ,ince + al*ost left this cere*ony )itho(t co*in" forth to say so*ethin", + *i"ht fall sick after leavin" this ho(se. May + sin". 8 11K 8

7i"(re 1$. ,patial layo(t of 0doin" n"o*a0 in livin" roo* of ho*e depicted in fi"(re 9. =a> all participants in livin" roo*. =!> circle of a*ak)etha =novices>. =c> f(lly 3(alified i"3ira =healer> )ho leads session. actors in the rit(al (nit once session has !e"(n: =d> in left4hand sche*e, novice presents u*unqula . =e> other novice or leader responds to self4presentation, and leads in son"4dance, as sho)n in ri"ht4hand sche*e. Ngoma: Ndine thumba lam lo*uthandaza . + have *y ti*e to pray. Ndinenda'o #am #o*uthandaza . + have *y place to pray. 12. 7*unqula: Camagusha@ Fet (s re*e*!er )hat )e are here for. !o u*ublamba , p(rification. + have very little )ith *e. NCesponseO Ca*a"(. Fet the darkness !e replaced !y li"htU NCesponseO Camagu . + pray for a dr(", that it *ay do its )ork. May it !e there, as far as the caves, the river, fro* )here it co*es, and )here its roots are "ro(nd on a stone to *ake *edicine of it. + a* also here to pray to /od. May this ho*e of the Mak)ayis have the darkness replaced !y li"ht. Ngoma: Andimanto esandleni( ndize *an#e N*osi. Sendondele e*rusini( e*ubethel'eni . + have nothin" at hand, + co*e once Ford ... 1#. 7*unqula : 9hen +<* here, presentin" *yself, + think !ack to *y *other<s ho*e, at the B)a@"(ni, and the )ay they said, 0Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht.0 Ndi#anqula ndi#athendaza( camag'ini I NCesponseO Camagu . + ad*it that + take pills )hen + co*e to a cere*ony Ninthlombe O !eca(se it *akes *e sick. May darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. My people sho(ld not )orry that +<* doin" 8 11J 8 this u*unqul presentation. +<ll lead in *y son" and then hand the n"o*a over. Ngoma: Andi#o#i*i le nt'aza na ingangani . + a* not afraid of this "irl )ho is as !i" as *yself. NCesponseO Camagu . 1L. 7*unqula : + a* hard4pressed !y rental fees and *any other thin"s. + had to take fro* *y children, asked the* to "ive *e so*e soap, for the yo(n" )o*en here to s*ell "ood. Ngoma : Blessed !e the na*e of the Ford Nin ?n"lishO. Ngoma: Aomelelani *unzima emblabeni . Be stron" !eca(se it<s hard here on earth. 1K. 7*unqula : + co*e fro* afar. My ho*e is in ,)aziland, and +<* a visitor. + call on *y ancestors. Ngoma : NcallO 7n'o#a 'am . NresponseO 'an*bulul9umo#a 'am . My spirit, he set *y spirit free. Ngoma: Ndize *u'e( undincede . + a* co*in" to yo( Ford for help. Ngoma: Sicel9i camagu . 9e are re3(estin" a camagu. 1J. 7*unqula : + call (pon *y ancestors to let darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. + a* "lad that the darkness that has !een han"in" over here co(ld !e re*oved, that !roken hearts have !een consoled. + thank all of /od<s children present, in the na*e and a(thority of Jes(s. :allel(1ah, *i"ht /od "ive (s po)er. May Jes(s "ive the )o*an Marade!e po)er. 5hin"s are as they are, the )earin" of )hite !eads Nnovices )ho are initiatedO, !eca(se there is no peace in the )orld. :allel(1ah, !eloved ones, *ay /od !less yo(. Ngoma: !hemba lam ngu Aesu( ndozimele nge#e . My hope is Jes(s, +<ll hide in hi*.

1%. 7*unqula : + )ish to !e a sincere, honest i"3ira. +f + can<t dia"nose so*ethin", +<ll kneel do)n and pray in order to tell the tr(th. + )ant to stand atop of 5a!le Mo(ntain and !e li"ht to the people. May the darkness !e replaced !y li"htU 5he spoken calls =u*unqula > and s(n" responses =n"o*a>, )ith dr(* and dance acco*pani*ent, de*onstrate the co*ple2 !asis of this instit(tion. 5here is a keen desire on the part of these novices =a*ak4 8 11% 8 )etha> to !e in to(ch )ith each other, as they p(t it, to camagusha . 5he phrases 0let<s camagusha 0 or the call 0camagu@ 0 follo)ed !y the response camagusha indicates !efore each n"o*a (nit a kind of rit(al positionin" to follo) thro("h. 5his call anno(nces, in effect, 0let<s do an e2chan"e,0 or 0)e have heard,0 0)e have a"reed.0 5hese ver!al si"nals are i*portant as rhetorical fra*in" devices in the n"o*a )ork at hand. 5here is also evidence of deli!erately handin" the n"o*a aro(nd, as it )ere, 0!ein" it.0 +n set n(*!er & so*eone, it is not clear )ho, hands the son" over to another )o*an. 5he content of the individ(al declarations and son"s varies )idely, the for*er for the *ost part relatin" to the lives of partic(lar individ(als, their call, sickness e2perience, environ*ent, their aspirations, )hereas the latter, the son"s, are *ore c(lt(rally standardized. - n(*!er of u*unqula evocations call on ancestors for help and solace. 9e see fro* the na*es *entioned that this is a varied "ro(p of novices fro* across ,o(thern -frica. Clan na*es s(ch as Ba @")ane fro* the ?astern 5ransvaal =V&>, Cade!e and Mtinik(l( =V9>, the "eneric B)a@"(ni =V1#> are *entioned. Dne says she is fro* ,)aziland. 5he ancestors are invoked in a "eneral sense here, )hich differs fro* identification )ith partic(lar ancestors in other re"ions of Central and ,o(thern -frica =e."., 7ry a*on" the Aez(r(, or 5(rner a*on" the @de*!(>. 5here is also indirect and direct reference to nat(ral do*ains of land and )ater and to *ediators across these do*ains. 5he yo(n" !oy =V&>, follo)in" his u*unqula , sin"s o(t the 0cra! son"0 and others 1oin in. 5his is a co**only heard n"o*a !oth in ,o(thern -frica and else)here =the ter* n*ala for cra! is very )idespread, as is the reference to the cra! as a *ediator>. 5he cra! !(rro)s in the !each sand and sc(rries into the )ater )hen discovered. +t is the perfect nat(ral reference for a spirit(al *etaphor !rid"in" land, the do*ain of h(*ans, )ith )ater, the do*ain of ancestors and spirits. ,i*ilarly, there is reference to plants and dr("s =e."., V12> fo(nd in caves and alon" rivers, *ediatory zones, that are (sed to enhance the n"o*a process of 0co*in" o(t0 and 0sharin"0 and 0presentin"0 oneself. Most of the novices e2press a concern for artic(latin" their inner conflicts, "ettin" their )ords o(t. ,on"s in n(*!ers & and 9 *ention a Ma1ola )ho is i*plored to 0co*e o(t of his confine*ent06 literally a pot6!eca(se they have ne)s to share )ith hi*. 5his i*a"e of a person !ein" in a 1ail, or a prison, or a 0pot,0 is an intri"(in" one for the person )ho is tryin" to clarify his sit(ation. -nother i*a"e co**on in this 8 11& 8 occasion )as that of 0replacin" darkness )ith li"ht,0 !ein" a!le to 0see0 clearly. ,o*e of the u*unqula self4presentations have to do )ith personal pro!le*s. +n n(*!er 1$ the novice talks of her call fro* her "rand*other and asks that she !e a!le to follo) in her steps as an i"3ira. +n n(*!er 11, the novice feels co*pelled to share so that she )on<t !eco*e sick. 5he novice in n(*!er 12 prays for a *edicine that )ill help her clarify her sit(ation. @ovice n(*!er 1# ad*its that she takes

*edicine prior to the sessions !eca(se they *ake her sick. +n n(*!er 1L, the sin"er confesses that she is so poor that she took fro* her children to !e a!le to !rin" so*ethin" to the sharin" session. -nother, in n(*!er 1J, la*ents that there are so *any l"3ira n"o*a novices !eca(se thin"s are so hard, !eca(se there is no peace in the )orld. ,everal see* to !e already thinkin" ahead to )hen they )ill !e i"3ira. @ovice n(*!er 1$ prays that she )ill have effective *edicines revealed to her !y her "rand*other. @ovice n(*!er 1J prays that another )o*an *ay have po)er. @ovice n(*!er 1% )ishes to stand atop 5a!le Mo(ntain6the hi"hest, *ost pro*inent point in the Cape6and !e a shinin" li"ht to her people. Ceferences to /od, to Jes(s, and to the ancestors s(""est that there is no dividin" line in the *inds of these people !et)een )hat is 0-frican0 and )hat is 0Christian.0 +n fact, *any of the* have !een in contact )ith the ch(rch and even contin(e to !e *e*!ers, !(t they are no) participants in n"o*a to co*e to ter*s )ith their sickness, their sit(ation, and their u*ut'asa , 0call.0

Common Song! An) Pe%!ona' Song In Ngoma Na%%a #$e T%a)# #on
5he distinction !et)een the therape(tic son" and the co*in"4o(t son" s(""ests that )ithin the co*ple2 sy*!ol 0n"o*a0 there are at least t)o levels of narrative or perfor*ative (nderstandin". 5he first is the i*portance of son"4dance in definin" and co*in" to ter*s )ith the s(fferin". the second is the i*portance of *ovin" the s(fferer to)ard a for*(lation of his or her o)n personal artic(lation of that condition. +n ;ictor 5(rner<s acco(nt of Chiha*!a, a c(lt of affliction devoted to Bav(la, the 9hite ,pirit, a doctor na*ed Fa*!akasa 0sin"s an ngoma 0 to Bav(la on !ehalf of another )o*an askin" to !e relieved fro* !arrenness: 8 119 8 Co*pletely )hite is that )hite clay Go( yo(rself "randparent Nn*a*a O -ll of yo(, yo( @ya*akan"<a -ll of yo(, o(r dead. 5oday if yo( are *akin" this person sick 5oday )e )ill sin" yo(r dr(* 5his person *(st !eco*e stron". Co*pletely )hite is that )hite clay. =5(rner 19%K:J#> 5his appears to !e a "eneric n"o*a, not Fa*!akasa<s special son". Get it fits the for*at of intercession of one n"o*a participant for another, seen already in the case of the yo(n" Cape 5o)n novice )ho co(ld !arely do his n"o*a, or of the senior healer )hose sister san" of her "rief at the death of their *other, or of the participant )ho t(rned the son" over to a partic(lar )o*an )ho )as very sick. 5his for*at is the 3(intessential act in n"o*a, for it !onds the sin"er to the one !ein" s(n" to, and sho)s the second ho), )hen he recovers, he *ay !e"in to refor*(late his o)n self )ith a creative ne) son". @"o*a *ay take another for* in )hich the individ(al !e"ins to present self in a *ore active and artic(late *anner. 5his leads to the special personal son". -n e2a*ple of this is fo(nd in the )ork of psychoanalysts ;era B(hr*an and @3a!a /3o*fa, )ho have st(died Hhosa healin" in the 5ranskei, ,o(th -frica. ?very i"3ira =san"o*a> and trainee has a personal special son" that 0ca*e to hi*0 d(rin" sickness and trainin" =19&1:#$$>. Mrs. 5., an i"3ira )ho is the *ain fi"(re in the article, )as healed !y and trained )ith her i"3ira h(s!and. ,he drea*ed her son" at the !e"innin" of her sickness, )hen she )as t'asa:

:o, here co*es an ani*al, +t is clappin" for *e. 5his son", like *any a*on" the a*a"3ira, represents fi"(res of the )ater or the forest ancestors, th(s havin" an o(ter cos*olo"ical linka"e. 7(rther di*ensions of Mrs. 5<s son", or son"s, de*onstrate her inner self4i*a"e, and the i**ediate events in her life, *ost recently a death in her fa*ily: + a* sick, + a* sick. @e)s is !ad a!o(t *e in this location 5hin"s are !ad )ith *e, + a* livin" !y prayer. -ll thin"s have "one )ron" at *y place. + a* "oin". 5hin"s have "one )ron" at *y place. =19&1:#$9M#1$> 8 12$ 8 :er h(s!and<s 0special son"0 d)ells on his *edi(*, a horselike fi"(re that he calls ;(*ani: :ere co*es ;(*ani, + divine )ith hi*, My horse of ne)s. + )ill die callin" :oU +t is co*in"U :oU My horse of ne)s +s co*in". ;(*ani. =19&1:#$#> -n e2a*ple of a stron", f(lly developed son" co*es fro* the Fe*!a order of early t)entieth4cent(ry inland Bon"o society. :ere entire poly"yno(s ho(seholds )ere initiated to Fe*!a follo)in" affliction or draft !y the ho(sehold head. Fe*!a<s characteristic sickness afflicted this *ercantile elite, strikin" the* )ith fear of the envy of their s(!ordinates and the (r"e to redistri!(te their )ealth to their linea"e co**(nities. 5he Fe*!a initiatory treat*ent created especially consecrated poly"yno(s ho(seholds that served as nodes on the re"ional fa!ric of alliances and ro(tes thro("h and over )hich the caravans *oved on their )ay to and fro* the ocean and the !i" *arket at Mp(*!( a!ove the rapids on the Aaire Civer. Dne of the fe) personal Fe*!a son"s that has s(rvived follo)s: 5hat )hich co*es fro* the s(n the s(n takes a)ay. 5hat )hich co*es fro* the *oon the *oon takes a)ay. 7ather Fe*!a, :e "endered *e, he raised *e. Praise the earth, praise the sky. 7or + have !een enhanced, + have "one far, 7ro* far + have !ro("ht NFe*!aO !ack. 5he initiate Fe*!a co(ple has taken a pil"ri*a"e into contact )ith the ancestors to !rin" !ack its Fe*!a insi"nia. +t is also a sy*!olic pil"ri*a"e son", declarin" s(ccessf(l e*er"ence into f(ll Fe*!a stat(s. - f(rther verse of the son" addresses the s(fferers this s(ccessf(l therapist )orks )ith.

,earch in the ranks of the patrifilial children 8 121 8 of yo(r clan. BoBoBo Nof the dr(*O ... BoU Nresponse of dr(*O 9ill yo( "ain Fe*!aI ? NyesO Fe*!aU 5he presidin" healer refers to the so(rce of initiatory reven(e the client *ay !rin", and the linea"es of the *atriclan<s sons in )hose ranks one *ay find preferred *arria"e partners to enhance co**(nity sta!ility. -ddressin" the spirit, the healer sin"s: Fet "o of the s(fferer so he *ay !e healed, :e )ill !rin" "oods accordin"ly 5here!y offerin" a "ift to yo(r priests. =Janzen 19&2:12$M121> - final e2a*ple, fro* historic ,(k(*a in )estern 5anzania, fro* n"o*a @dono, sho)s that the n"o*a son" can take a collective, al*ost national t(rn. :ere, a Christianized son" fro* the ti*e of 9orld 9ar + la*ents the dro("ht that is ra"in" and dra)s so*e )ider i*plications. 9e failed in o(r d(ty to Jes(s the redee*er. D(r /od, he is cross and sends no rain. 9e see the clo(ds !(t they *ove a)ay. /od hides the )ater and lets (s die, even the child in the )o*! of the *other. 9hat is o(r cri*e, D /odI Men arrived )ho ta("ht (s lies, not to *ake the ri"ht sacrifices. -ll co(ntries are sad. every)here the s(n is shinin" )ith s(ch force. D(r /od is very cross a!o(t ad(ltery, )itchcraft, lies, and the cri*es of theft. 5he Mte*i Mkondo of B(li*a has a "ood na*e, !(t he does not s(cceed in *akin" rain. + hear that far to)ard lake ;ictoria there is rain. 5he rain there *oves stones, it drives the* 3(ickly in front of it alon" the "ro(nd. D Mother, )ait, + shall sit on a lo" and look at the )orld to see fro* )here the rain co*es. 9here is *y father to teach *eI + a* alone. 5ho("h the a2 of the rain*aker Mi"o*a can !e noticed, + a* alone, !(t not afraid. =Cory n.d. a > 5he st(dy of son"s s(ch as these in -frican healin" has not co*e very far, since *ost scholars )ho have looked at the* have concentrated on lyrics or on nonver!al sy*!ols. 5hey have not (s(ally associated the content of these son"s )ith social and c(lt(ral concepts. Get 8 122 8

the distinction !et)een co**on and personal son" appears to !e very )idespread in n"o*a4type rit(als. 5he si"nificance and the role of self4presentation, or of others helpin" the s(fferer learn to artic(late self and (lti*ately co*pose his or her o)n son" or son" repertoire, have !arely !een o(tlined in field st(dies and in scholarship.

The S %*( *%e O" Ngoma The%a+e* #( Comm*n#(a #on

Dne )ay of co*prehendin" the place of n"o*a son" in -frican healin" is to take serio(sly the reference to te2t, te2t(re, and conte2t, and to look not only at the content of the son"s !(t at the str(ct(re of these co**(nications. 5he (nderlyin" and *ost pervasive str(ct(re of n"o*a is the call4 and4response pattern that is co**on in *ost -frican *(sic. 5his is tr(e not only of the son"s, !(t of the very str(ct(re of the *(sic and the rit(al itself. 5here are n(*ero(s variations on this the*e: s(fferer and healer. s(fferers a*on" the*selves. healers a*on" the*selves. s(fferer, healer, and others. ele*ents of s(fferer<s kin "ro(p. and spirits and h(*ans. ,ince little collected therape(tic son" *aterial "ives the relational conte2t clearly, )e need here to depend on the e2a*ples availa!le fro* across the n"o*a re"ion. 5he 9estern Cape e2a*ple of 0doin" n"o*a0 offers a ready ill(stration of the call4and4response *otif of son". 5he invocation, spoken, is follo)ed !y a son" that is intoned !y the speaker. 5he s(rro(ndin" individ(als 1oin in )ith son". 5here are f(rther a*plifications of the call4response rhyth*. 5here is the dialectic of speakin" and sin"in". 9ithin the sin"in" there *ay !e a call4and4response pattern. 5he sets of invocation =u*unqula > and son"4dance =n"o*a> are referred to !y the set call 0Camug'ini I0 and the response 0Camagusba@ 0 5hese t)o applications of the co**on ver! 0to a"ree,0 or 0to have consens(s, or affir*,0 pave the )ay for a )ell4(nderstood ro(tine that !rin"s a s(fferer into the "ro(p, sets hi* or her (p to offer a fe) tho("hts or concerns, and for the others to respond to the* in an affir*in", s(pportin" *anner. 5hro("ho(t all of this, instr(*ental acco*pani*ent is li*ited to the son"4dance, and follo)s the vocalized, danced portion of the set. 5his is in keepin", every)here, )ith the pattern of instr(*ents !eco*in" a secondary or tertiary voice in the se3(ence of voices enterin" in. -ccordin" to ,i*ha -ro*<s *assive )ork Pol#$honies et $ol#r#thmies instrumentales d9Afrique centrale =19&K>, this feat(re is !asic to *(sical styles across -frica. +t is the fo(ndation (pon )hich 8 12# 8 the (ni3(e feat(res of polyrhyth*ic and polyphonic patterns are !(ilt =see fi". 11a>. - *ore ela!orate pattern of different voices is ill(strated in the acco(nt of Fe*!a son"s offered a!ove. :ere, senior priests and priestesses, the novice priest and priestesses, and the patrifilial children of the novice priest e2chan"ed t(rns leadin" their son"s in a 0"rad(ation0 rite =Janzen 19&2:11LM121>. 5hese son"s are intoned )ith the ver!al call 0Bo4ko4koI0 =s(""estive of the dr(*s> and the response 0BoU0 5hen the lead sin"er opens )ith a phrase s(ch as 09ill yo( "ain Fe*!aI0 and the chor(s responds )ith 0Ges6Fe*!aU0 5his is follo)ed !y the !ody of the son"4dance perfor*ance of each partic(lar son", )ith its rec(rrent internal call4and4response pattern. - f(rther, lar"er str(ct(re reflects the parties present in the rite. 5hro("ho(t the event, the pro"ression of lead sin"ers is the follo)in": =1> sponsorin" healer or Fe*!a 7ather. =2> the other Fe*!a priests )ho are present at the event =so*eti*es the Fe*!a priestesses have a separate son">. =#> the patrifilial 0children0 or offsprin" of the novice =that is, the offsprin" of *ales of his *atriclan6a classificatory s(pport "ro(p>. =L> finally, the novice, after he and his )ives have co*pleted their initiations =see fi". 11!>. +n the co**(nication pattern of son" in )hich divination is done, an even *ore co*ple2 e2chan"e

e*er"es at ti*es. 5his can co*e in t)o )ays. 5he first is in the presence of a third party )ho affir*s or ne"ates the interpretation of the diviner4healer. the second co*es in those cases in )hich the diviner acts as a *edi(* for a spirit. +n ,o(thern -frica the 0third party,0 either an assistant to the diviner or a kin or friend representin" the client4s(fferer, responds to the divinatory interpretation of the diviner. -fter each (tterance of the diviner, the third party intones 0+ a"ree0 =si #a )uma > or 0+ do not a"ree.0 +n the first case the diviner )ill contin(e the co(rse of analysis of the case (ntil reachin" a concl(sion. +n the latter, the diviner )ill !ack (p and try another track of analysis or )ill stop to disc(ss the case )ith the client. :o)ever, in ,o(thern -frica and else)here, the diviner is often e2pected to esta!lish the tr(th thro("h a variety of convincin" *eans, *echanistic or inspirational. 'ivination is not an e*pirical science !ased on 3(estionin" and the st(dy of e*pirical evidence. it is held to !e a *ystical art, !ased on clairvoyant kno)led"e and )isdo*. 5h(s, at the end of the session, there is a"ree*ent.N2O 9hen this clairvoyance is e2pressed in *edi(*istic for* )ith the spirit invadin" and speakin" thro("h the diviner, in a sense the spirit 8 12L 8

7i"(re 11. =a> 5he str(ct(re and se3(ence of voices and instr(*entation in n"o*a son", co**on to -frican *(sic *ore )idely. =!> the relationship of 0roles0 or 0parts0 in a doc(*ented n"o*a event in @orth Bon"o in the early t)entieth cent(ry =Janzen 19&2:1$JM12L>. is the third party alon" )ith the diviner and the client4s(fferer. +n the ethos of possession divinin", it is not appropriate to disa"ree )ith the spirit. Dne *ay not (nderstand the spirit, !(t it is al)ays ri"ht. 5herefore the diviner !eco*es the third party, interpretin" the (tterances of the spirit as they are channeled thro("h hi* or her, *(ch as the diviner interprets the !ones in ,o(thern -frica, or the @"o*!o !asket o!1ects on the ,o(thern ,avanna, or the shells of the +fa oracle. 5he co*!ination of *(ltiple co**(nicative di*ensions of vocal, vis(al, instr(*ental, and spatial and social do*ains enriches the overall 0te2t0 in n"o*a, allo)in" it to artic(late the co*ple2ity and contradictions of h(*an e2perience. 5his process is enhanced !y the addition of interpreters or the addition of points to the co**(nicative str(ct(re =fi". 12> and of *(sic to the co**(nication, all of )hich )e *ay speak of as 0rit(alization.0 +n several anthropolo"ical definitions of rit(al inspired !y co**(nications theory =e."., Feach 19JJ, 19%J. Bateson 19K&, 19%2> the essence of rit(alization is the process of addin" channels or *edi(*s of e2pression to a disco(rse so that there *ay !e *(ltiple, or red(ndant, 8 12K 8

7i"(re 12. Modes of *ediation in n"o*a co**(nication. 5hese variations *odel *ost of the cases presented in this )ork in ter*s of str(ct(res !et)een s(!1ects or 0players.0 ,ettin" =a> sho)s a co**on clinical settin"

)ith a therapy *ana"er *ediatin" !et)een healer and s(fferer. 'ivination (s(ally offers t)o types of str(ct(res, =!> and =c>, in )hich the techni3(e or the shade spirit !eco*e the *essa"e *ode !et)een healer and s(fferer4 client. - *ore ela!orate *odel e*er"es, =d> and =e>, in )hich there is an interpreter for the diviner and the spirit or techni3(e =as in @"(ni divinin" )here so*eone intervenes to 0a"ree0 or 0disa"ree0 on !ehalf of the client. 5his *odel also applies to 0doin" n"o*a0 =e> in )hich there is a session leader )ho *ediates !et)een spirits and novices, and a partic(lar novice at a "iven *o*ent and the others )ho respond in n"o*a. levels of co**(nication. 5h(s, in the e2a*ple cited a!ove, instr(*entation )o(ld !oth repeat, and enhance, the pri*ary level of vocal co**(nication. 7or Bateson and Feach, rit(alization occ(rs !eca(se of a 0!lock0 or 0static0 in pri*ary channels of co**(nication and !ehavior. Ced(ndancy helps to overco*e or !ypass these !locka"es. 5his is not far fro* 5(rner<s =19J&> approach to rit(al, )hich it is !ased *ore on the i*portance of si"n and sy*!ol. +n this perspective, rit(al is si*ply the "reater de"ree of 0density0 in the *eanin" attached to par4 8 12J 8 tic(lar si"n referents. Cit(al acts o(t relationships and *eanin"s so as to hei"hten e*otion and to artic(late contradictory senti*ents. 5hese a(thors are not, ho)ever, overly concerned )ith the role of *(sic in rit(alization, altho("h their theories do not contradict the foc(s (pon *(sic that is (lti*ately re3(ired to (nderstand Central and ,o(thern -frican n"o*a.

O" M*!#( an) R# *a' #n Ngoma

Maha*o(d Bin"iri4n"iri, the ,(fi M(sli* *"an"a =healer> of 'ar es ,alaa* )ho )as introd(ced in chapter 1, re1ected the (se of n"o*a in his healin" )ork on the "ro(nds that it )as *erely 0happiness.0 +sa :assan, )ho is also M(sli*, (tilizes n"o*a !eca(se it is an essential *ethod of "ettin" the patient to 0talk.0 @"o*a, especially the dr(**in", 0hei"htens e*otions.0 5he theory !ehind this the*e )ill !e taken (p in the ne2t chapter, in )hich )e e2plore 0ho) n"o*a )orks.0 :ere + introd(ce the character and role of *(sic in n"o*a therape(tic rit(alization. - fre3(ently *entioned feat(re of *(sical rit(alization in this tradition is the 0distinctive rhyth*ic pattern0 of each n"o*a. John Blackin", )ho has st(died the *(sic of the ;enda people, traces this feat(re to the place of rhyth* in the very distinction !et)een son" =u imba > and speech =u amba > =19%#:2%>. -s this distinction is also present in the BiBon"o lan"(a"e in 9estern Bant(6sin"in" !ein" *u#imba , speech *u*amba 6)e *ay ass(*e it to !e another very )idespread Bant( lan"(a"e feat(re !eneath therape(tic rit(al. 7or the ;enda, as for other Central -frican societies, n"o*a and related therape(tic rites and techni3(es are desi"nated !y their distinctive rhyth*s. Df the n#imbo dza dzingoma , Blackin" notes that these 0son"s for special rites acco*pany certain ordeals that the novices *(st (nder"o )hen they are in the second sta"e of initiation. ?ach one has a distinctive rhyth*ic pattern0 =19%#:L1>.N#O +n 5anzania, +sa :assan and other )a"an"a and *(sic e2perts also point to the association of spirits in n"o*a and distinctive rhyth*s. M(sic, )ith the assistance of *edicines, !rin"s o(t the speech in the s(fferer, )hich then indicates to the presidin" *"an"a )hich spirit *(st !e dealt )ith. 7or Botoli Faie, a *"an"a fro* Bil)a in 5anzania, specific instr(*ents play distinctive rhyth*s appropriate to each spirit. 5his de"ree of specificity !et)een spirit and rhyth*, as )ell as the dance, is present as )ell in loa possession in :aiti =Co(r4

8 12% 8 lander 19J$:21>, partic(larly in the Central and 9est -frican ori"inatin" spirits. 9e sho(ld !e slo), ho)ever, to *ake a necessary connection !et)een partic(lar rhyth*s, instr(*ents, and dances and spirits across the f(ll "a*(t of -frican e2pression. -s )e have already noted, trance is not necessarily a corollary of the spirit or shade etiolo"ical hypothesis. +n the 9estern Bant( @kita society, the entire linea"e is ca("ht (p in doin" the rite. +ts initiation is pro*pted !y the sickness or death of infants and *others in the *atrilinea"e or !y disp(tes at the ti*e of protracted se"*entation events. 5he 0therapy0 also entails restorin" ancestral le"iti*acy in the linea"e fra"*ents. ?ven in settin"s s(ch as the 9estern Cape reco(nted earlier in this chapter, the ti"htly re"i*ented n"o*a son"4 dance sessions do not pro*pt trance !ehavior, nor do there appear to !e distinctive rhyth*s )ith the partic(lar ancestral fi"(res *entioned in the self4presentations and the son"s. /il!ert Co("et<s )ell4 kno)n )ork usic and !rance is !ased on the ass(*ption that *(sic is )idely associated )ith trance, in so*e places tri""erin" it, and in other settin"s cal*in" it =19&K:2vii>. 5he relationship !et)een the t)o is th(s *ore co*ple2 than the red(ctionist ar"(*ents proposed !y a(thors s(ch as @eher =19J2>, @eedha* =19J%>, :(2ley =19J%>, and others )ho s(""est that perc(ssion, dr(**in", or related po(ndin" rhyth*ic *(sic, !y its intrinsic nat(re, sti*(lates or "enerates dissociative !ehavior. 5hese red(ctionistic theories of *(sical rhyth* and trance !ehavior are very attractive in certain settin"s in Central and ,o(thern -frica )here trance occ(rs in connection )ith stron" dr(**in". -ttendants of a seance in )hich trance is acco*panied !y the participants< (se of shakers and several types of dr(*s, incl(din" the hi"h pitched n"o*a, )ith rhyth* (pon rhyth* added to achieve the (ni3(e polyrhyth*ic effect that -frican *(sic is so )ell kno)n for, *(st in their 0"(t0 !elieve in the theory of the ne(rolo"ical ind(ce*ent of trance thro("h rhyth*. 5he effect of polyrhyth*ic perc(ssion is not only the ha**erin", drivin" of the !asic !eats, )hich are like call4and4response patterns in conversation )ith each other, !(t the 0*etrono*e sense0 =Chernoff 19%9:L9> of the 0off !eat0 and the 0hidden !eat0 that p(lsates as a !asic drivin" force !eneath the s(rface =5ho*pson 19&#:2iii>. 5he s(pposition that this hidden !eat sets (p sy*pathetic echoes )ith the !rain<s alpha )aves, )hich are at a co*para!le rhyth*, see*s 3(ite pla(si!le. 5he pro!le*, a"ain, is that not all trance is to(ched off !y stron" 8 12& 8 rhyth*ic *(sic6indeed, so*e is to(ched off !y no *(sic at all6and so*e stron" polyrhyth*ic *(sic )hen played *asterf(lly does not ind(ce trance. +f there is a statistical prevalence of trance or possession !ehavior in the n"o*a re"ion in association )ith polyrhyth*ic *(sic, )ith dr(**in", especially n"o*a dr(*s, despite the te*ptin" red(ctionist hypothesis, the evidence and the lo"ic of the case re3(ire (s to concl(de that it is a c(lt(rally *ediated association. ,(ch a concl(sion s(""ests that trance *ay !e an analo"y or a *etaphor for the interpretation of life<s e2perience !(t is not a drivin" or deter*inin" force that invaria!ly shapes the co(rse of sickness and healin".

Con('*!#on
0'oin" n"o*a0 is the central feat(re of the instit(tion )e have called ngoma thro("ho(t this )ork. it is the rit(al (nit that defines the instit(tion. 'oin" n"o*a has !een ill(strated in this chapter !y a Cape 5o)n event in 19&2, !(t it co(ld have !een e3(ally )ell ill(strated !y events fro* thro("ho(t the )ider re"ion )here, it see*s, a "reat si*ilarity of for* prevails. 5his n"o*a (nit is str(ct(red aro(nd

the call4and4response paradi"* of co**(nication, )ith spoken call often !ein" echoed or ans)ered !y s(n" and danced response and the acco*pani*ent of instr(*ents. 5his co**(nicative str(ct(re is the conte2t )ithin )hich the *eanin" of individ(al lives, a*on" the n"o*a practitioners, is artic(lated and )here these individ(als are (r"ed to create a son" of their o)n. Df co(rse, there are co(nselin" sessions and other types of conferrals !et)een these se*ip(!lic n"o*a "atherin"s that *ay occ(r )henever n"o*a adherents *eet. B(t it is the n"o*a son"4dance presented here that is the 0*ini*al constit(ent (nit0 of the entire n"o*a process. 9estern scholarship has not kno)n e2actly ho) to cate"orize this (nit, as )as the case )ith the lar"er instit(tion. +s 0doin" n"o*a0 *(sic, or is it son", dance, or "ro(p therapyI +s it )orshipI +n the theoretical p(sh to identify the (ni3(eness of the instit(tion, + have reserved 1(d"*ent on this score !y introd(cin" the core notion as a translation of the indi"eno(s na*e, 0doin" n"o*a.0 ,o*e of the principles of 0rit(alization0 see* to apply to the *anner in )hich n"o*a is done and )hen it is done. More )ill !e said in the ne2t chapter a!o(t the a*plification of *essa"es and the role of *etaphors )ithin the 8 129 8 son"4dance co**(nication, especially on the role of spirits in these co**(nications. - close look at 0doin" n"o*a0 reveals that it is the for*at and the settin" in )hich hi"hly individ(alistic perceptions are !ro("ht into the *irror of social reflection and s(!1ected to reinforce*ent, repetition, and reaffir*ation. 5he so(rce of all the te2ts, dances, and rhyth*s is this individ(alized yet collective session in )hich the participant4s(fferer4perfor*er is (r"ed to 0co*e o(t of his prison0 to f(ll self4e2pression. 8 1#$ 8

= 7o4 Ngoma 0o%5! O" Co)e! an) Con!(#o*!ne!!

5he *(sic enchants the s(fferer ... to reveal the spirit. +sa :assan, 'ar es ,alaa* n"o*a healer 5his chapter and the ne2t )restle )ith the nat(re of kno)led"e6!oth personal and c(lt(ral6and the )ay it is (tilized in n"o*a. +n previo(s chapters n"o*a has !een presented in a n(*!er of perspectives: the ethno"raphic present, the deep history of lin"(istic analysis and archaeolo"y, and the close4(p vie) of the core feat(res and the *ain rit(al, 0doin" n"o*a.0 5his chapter on 0ho) n"o*a )orks0 seeks to (nderstand ho) kno)led"e in this conte2t is constr(cted and (sed. +ndi"eno(s theories of n"o*a and a variety of analytical theories are !ro("ht to !ear on the s(!1ect. 5he ne2t chapter presents social and de*o"raphic perspectives and conse3(ences on ho) n"o*a )orks. +n eval(atin" the n"o*a response to distress, scholars need to ask )hether, and to )hat e2tent, o(r approach filters e2planations in ter*s of the e2perience of individ(als or of the c(lt(ral para*eters that res(lt fro* co*para!le o(tco*es a*on" individ(als )ithin "ro(ps. 7or, altho("h it has !een esta!lished that there is indeed a )idespread instit(tion across Central and ,o(thern -frica )ith distinct

feat(res, it is also clear that partic(lar localized and re"ional foci of affliction *ay see* very disparate fro* one case to the ne2t. 5he ontolo"ical pro!le* of relatin" (ni3(e individ(al e2perience to c(lt(ral interpretation *(st no) !e confronted. 5his is partic(larly ac(te in re"ard to ho) the healer en"a"es in intentional action to)ard the afflicted. 5hese 3(estions take (s to the heart of the iss(e of therape(tic 0efficacy0 as it has !een de!ated in *edical anthropolo"y and related disciplines, )hich face the assess*ent of therapies st(died co*paratively 8 1#1 8 =Go(n" 19%%. -hern 19%9. Blein*an 19&$. 'evisch 19&J. Csordas 19&&>. ,ince the test of efficacy depends "reatly (pon the criteria (sed, it is clear that there are *any )ays of clai*in", as )ell as independently testin", efficacy. ,o*e scholars have s(""ested that the pl(ralist array of therapies in the )orld is so vast that an assess*ent of efficacy is an i*possi!le task =,indzin"re 19&K:1J>. 5his relativistic perspective is consonant )ith another "ro(p of scholars )ho approach the 3(estion !y stressin" the c(lt(ral constr(ction of efficacy, !ased (pon people<s !eliefs, (pon their fears of inefficacy of healin". 5he efficacy of a therapy *ay !e esta!lished !y st(dyin" therape(tic disco(rse on illness and the people<s choices in seekin" therapy. 5he present chapter deals )ith this type of efficacy of n"o*a. - second "ro(p of scholars =,prin" 19%&, 19&K. Corin 19%9, 19&$. Janzen 19&$, 19&9. /o!let4 ;anor*elin"en 19&&> insists that efficacy *(st !e *eas(red in a!sol(te 3(alities of !etter health, )hich is defined in ter*s of s(rvivorship, and *ortality rates. 9e take (p this perspective in the ne2t chapter. 5he 3(estions of kno)led"e in n"o*a and the efficacy of its actions co*e to"ether in the sections of this chapter. 9e !e"in )ith a look at the distinction !et)een individ(al and collective e2perience and kno)led"e. Most scholars )ho st(dy -frican c(lts of affliction see* to d)ell on the spirit pheno*enon, aro(nd )hich there s)irl *any an"les of interpretation. ,o*e of the *ore i*portant of these, for present p(rposes, are revie)ed. 5hen )e look at the conscio(s indi"eno(s theories a!o(t n"o*a, )hich are (s(ally !ased on the hypothesis of spirit possession as the !asis of the *isfort(ne. 7ro* there, )e t(rn to e2planations that are *ore interested in the tacit or i*plicit kno)led"e of sy*!ols and *etaphors, and the )ay this allo)s for a *ore penetratin" analysis of the rit(als. 7inally, !eca(se a n(*!er of the n"o*a traditions de*onstrate rather sophisticated kno)led"e a!o(t the e*pirical )orld, )e *(st e2plore the relationship of scientific or e*pirical kno)led"e to rit(al healin". 5he (nderlyin" leit*otif of this chapter and the ne2t is that there are varied types of kno)led"e )ithin n"o*a. th(s there are likely to !e varyin" types of efficacy in n"o*a as a rit(al therape(tic enterprise.

Pe%!ona' E:+e%#en(e An) C*' *%a' Rea'# &

+n a 19&2 st(dy of the 9estern Bant( c(lt of affliction, Fe*!a, + pressed to its (lti*ate concl(sion the ar"(*ent that the individ(al e2perience of each Fe*!a 0afflicted0 =individ(al or co(ple> co(ld !e 8 1#2 8 "rasped !est in the contradictions and stresses confrontin" that person or persons. 5his contrasted, + s(""ested, )ith so*e interpretations of c(lts of affliction as standardized *anifestations of affliction that led to predicta!le initiatory therapies into specified c(lts. ,y*pto*s in the cases reported in connection )ith Fe*!a varied fro* headache, skin rash, ver!al hysteria =loss of speech>, sto*achache, and a variety of heart afflictions, to loss of potency and to chaos in the co**(nity6in other )ords, a

va"(e and a*!i"(o(s array of si"ns and sy*pto*s6all !ein" interpreted as 0the Fe*!a sickness0 !y diviners or fa*ily *e*!ers. By the ti*e s(ch an individ(al =or co(ple, since it )as the co(ple ho(sehold that )as initiated to Fe*!a> had "one thro("h the co(rse of Fe*!a initiation, the *ost idiosyncratic *anifestation of affliction had !een s(!1ected to a standardized set of c(lt(ral classifications and rit(al ro(tines. -s the initial rit(al of p(rification, and the lon" *iddle co(rse to)ard the final cere*ony pro"ressed, *(ch of the sy*!olis* and lit(r"y co(ld !e (nderstood in ter*s of c(lt(rally standardized dichoto*ies and cate"ories. +n one !ody of *aterial fro* the Mayo*!e re"ion of Fo)er Aaire, the *edicine chest of the "rad(ate priestly co(ple, in the or"anization of its contents, ali"ned classificatory oppositions a!o(t "ender, color, cos*olo"ical orderin", and plants. +n the *edicine<s sy*!olic str(ct(re, the 0do*estic a!ode0 )as contrasted to 0p(!lic space,0 the for*er containin" *ale and fe*ale ele*ents, as )ell as the priestly hierarchy inte"ratin" the co(ple )ith the p(!lic real* of Fe*!a. 5hese social di*ensions )ere, in t(rn, e2pressed or a*plified !y spatial, ani*al, and ve"eta!le o!1ects or locations. 5he *edicine, in effect, e2pressed the h(*an di*ension !y pro1ectin" its inner para*eters o(t onto other do*ains. 5he etiolo"ical *yth acco(ntin" for Fe*!a<s ori"in devoted attention to the co*position of the *edicinal satchel on a 1o(rney of the Fe*!a h(s!and in search of a sol(tion for his )ives< health pro!le*s. 5he satchel<s contents th(s served as a *ediatory vehicle !et)een the h(*an real* and the s(pernat(ral =Janzen 19&2:2K%M2%2>. 5he point + )ish to stress in recitin" these details a!o(t the rit(als, *edicines, and *yths of Fe*!a is that they are part of a dyna*ically patterned c(lt(ral code easily a*ena!le to str(ct(ral analysis. :o)ever, the less patterned, chaotic real* of personal e2perience as seen in distress or disease *(st not !e i"nored in the process of identifyin" the c(lt(ral codes to )hich they are s(!s(*ed. + e*phasized that it )as necessary to reconstr(ct, fro* all availa!le !its of evidence, the historical settin" )ithin )hich the c(lt of affliction6the Fe*!a sol(tion6had arisen, and to identify the 3(estions and parado2es that had !een 8 1## 8 asked and enco(ntered at that ti*e, and contin(ed to !e asked and enco(ntered as individ(als )ere dra)n into it. 5hese 3(estions, or *o*ents of crisis, + called 0diffic(lt e2periences.0 +n this analysis of the settin" at the !asis of Fe*!a<s ori"in, + (sed B(rrid"e<s concept of the 0tr(e contradiction0 =19J%:1$KM1$J>, developed in a criti3(e of FEvi4,tra(ss<s )ork on tote*is*. B(rrid"e had ar"(ed that a FEvi4,tra(ssian opposition, at the !asis of tote*ic representation of society<s distinct "ro(ps, )as not the sa*e as a contradiction. - contradiction arose fro* contrary and clashin" social nor*s, conflictin" "oals or interests p(rs(ed !y social se"*ents, or conflictin" interests )ithin individ(al lives, leadin" to paralysis and stress. 5he distinction !et)een contradiction and opposition see*ed to !e an i*portant one to *ake in the eval(ation of Fe*!a, partic(larly if one )anted to "rasp the rec(rrin" e2istential conte2t of distress of those individ(als )ho )ere steered to)ard the Fe*!a resol(tion, that is, those )ho *ay have !een involved in *ercantile p(rs(its, )ho )ere possi!ly )ealthy, and )ho ca*e to fear the envy of their s(!ordinates in the kinship arena. My analysis )ent o(t fro* the pre*ise that there )as a distinction !et)een idiosyncratic, varia!le individ(al perception of chaos, distress, and an2iety, and the *echanis*s of c(lt(ral order. 5his point *ay !e p(t another )ay. J(st as e2perience constantly *eets and shapes c(lt(re, history constantly enco(nters *yth. 5he t)o are *(t(ally shaped. @ever is 0livin" *yth0 a fi2ed canon. FEvi4 ,tra(ss ackno)led"ed that *ythic str(ct(res *ay acco**odate, even "enerate, ne) ele*ents and co*!inations. B(t he did not )ell e2plain ho) h(*an e2perience contin(ally "enerates ne) variations.

:is analysis lacked the di*ension of the contradictory in e2perience. it lacked the di*ension of the political *anip(lation of *yth, )hich is co**only called ideolo"y. Both di*ensions are i*portant in o(r analysis of -frican rit(al and lead directly to an (nderstandin" of 0ho) n"o*a )orks.0 B(t )e need to look at a ran"e of theoretical approaches to ho) this is e2plained. 9e !e"in )ith a look at n"o*a as reli"io(s and psychoanalytical e2planations. then )e t(rn to sy*!olist and *etaphorical e2planations. finally, in this chapter, )e look at the possi!ility of other types of kno)led"e in n"o*a, incl(din" scientific kno)led"e.

S+#%# Log#( An) The%a+e* #( 3#!(o*%!e

5his section )ill s(rvey and eval(ate a n(*!er of theories on and e2planations of the relationship of spirits to the therape(tic process. Both scholarly and practitioners< vie)s )ill !e considered. 8 1#L 8

S+#%# !1 A S(ho'a%'& /*ga2oo>

5he *a1ority of )riters a!o(t c(lts of affliction have si*ply s(!ordinated the pheno*enon to another called 0spirit possession.0 Dn the s(!1ect of spirits ind)ellin" people, scholarship itself see*s to have !een o!sessed )ith a !("a!oo6a pec(liar fascination, a fear, a concern6a )ord perhaps derived fro* the 9estern Bant( notion bu*a lubu*a , to divine, to treat.N1O ,o pervasive has !een this fi2ation on spirit possession that it has apparently !eco*e a s(i "eneris cate"ory of 9estern scholarship, one that has "iven rise to entire !i!lio"raphies on the s(!1ect =Crapanzano and /arrison 19%%. Aaretsky and ,ha*!a("h 19%&>. 5he 9estern !("a!oo has certainly "otten in the )ay of clear (nderstandin" of the -frican instit(tion. - Part of the pro!le* has !een the (se of the ter* shamanism , !oth in the (se and in the !reach. -ltho("h *any a(thors on -frican spirit possession *ake a ro(tine reference to the diffic(lty of (sin" the ter* shamanism to refer to the -frican settin", the (se of s$irit $ossession tends to serve as a e(phe*is* for sha*anis*. -(thors s(ch as +. Fe)is =19&J, especially his chapter 05he ,ha*an<s Career0> and 'e :e(sch =19%1, especially his articles 0Possession et cha*anis*e0 and 0Fa folie des die(2 et la raison des ho**es0>, )ho do (se -frican *aterial in their "eneral disc(ssions on spirit possession, and (se the ter* shaman , do not lay to rest the definitional iss(e. Dther a(thors offer less char"ed descriptive distinctions in their )ritin" on -frican spirits. ;an Bins!er"en and ,choffeleers =19&K:#9ML$> distin"(ish !et)een sha*anistic and *edi(*istic divination. +n the for*er, the diviner is said to "o on a spirit(al visionary 3(est fro* )hich he ret(rns )ith his revelations. this is rare in -frica. +n the latter, the diviner is locally considered to !e entered or possessed !y an e2ternal, invisi!le revelatory a"ent. 5his for* is said to !e prevalent in -frica. - distinction !et)een those societies that reflect possession !elief and those that practice possession trance )as introd(ced !y ?rika Bo(r"(i"non =19%J:LLMLJ> to acco(nt for another i*portant dichoto*y in relation to spirits. -ccordin" to Bo(r"(i"non, the distinction !et)een the t)o can !e acco(nted for in ter*s of types of social or"anization. Fess co*ple2 societies in )hich individ(als take initiatives are less likely to (tilize trance states than *ore co*ple2 societies in )hich reli"io(s e2pression is controlled or channeled. ,tr(ct(ral interpretations, s(ch as these provided !y 'e :e(sch and Bo(r"(i"non, offer co*parisons of differin" valences of spirit presence

8 1#K 8 !et)een entire societies. 'e :e(sch<s distinction !et)een adoricisme and e:orcisme e*phasizes the alle"ed pattern that in the first case creates a per*anent !ond !et)een h(*an and spirit, and in the second leads to the cleansin", or castin" o(t, of the possessin" spirit. +n the first case the s(fferer !eco*es a vehicle, or *edi(*, of the spirit. in the second the s(fferer needs to !e c(red of possession ='e :e(sch 19%1:2#K>. 5he first is 0"ood0 possession. the second 0!ad.0 +n practice, )hat do these str(ct(ral s(rveys of possession types revealI :o) helpf(l are theyI 7or 'e :e(sch, the Bon"o =in the @kita possession> and the 5hon"a feat(re possession sickness and trance, th(s callin" for e2orcis* or healin". 5he ,(k(*a and Foved( reflect sickness possession, fro* )hich therapy is the only sol(tion. Medi(*istic possession is fo(nd a*on" the ,(k(*a, B(!a, F(!a, and @(!a, th(s approachin" sha*anis*. B(t only the ;anda(, a s*all "ro(p livin" a*on" the 5hon"a, have )hat 'e :e(sch calls 0a(thentic sha*anis*0 =19%1:2K&M2%J>. 5his approach, )hich l(*ps entire societies into str(ct(ral types, has !een correctly criticized !y a n(*!er of )riters =e."., +. Fe)is 19&J>, )ho point o(t that these ideal types are in fact (s(ally *o*ents in individ(al 0careers.0 5he typolo"ies are !ased on rather inade3(ate ethno"raphic infor*ation that "eneralizes to the entire society. 5hey need to !e "iven a *ore historical and conte2t(al interpretation in order to e2plain )hy so*e sectors of a society, at partic(lar 1(nct(res in history, are prone to possession. +an Fe)is<s earlier approach to this 3(estion, developed fro* his )ork a*on" ,o*alian pastoralists in the :orn of -frica, has !eco*e )idely kno)n for its e*phasis on the 0*ar"inal c(lt,0 )hich stands in contrast to the 0central0 or do*inant c(lt in a society. ,pirit possession, he ar"(ed earlier, )as an e2pression of crisis, i*passe, or confine*ent, and the only le"iti*ate or per*issi!le o(tlet !y *e*!ers of society6often )o*en6in s(!ordinate or *ar"inal positions. @at(re spirits, the so(rce of their possession, )ere *ar"inal in the c(lt of the do*inant6that is, +sla*, controlled !y *en. Fater =19&J> Fe)is ela!orated on this hypothesis of the 0epide*iolo"y of possession0 )ith a *ore dyna*ic *odel that stressed the individ(al co(rse fro* 0(ncontrolled0 to 0controlled0 *ystical e2perience. +n social sectors that )ere *ar"inal, the career of possession led fro* *e*!ership in a c(lt of affliction !y a peripheral spirit in the do*inant pantheon to a kind of per*anent acco**odation )ith the *ystical force. +n social sectors that )ere *ore central to po)er in society, 8 1#J 8 possession led to control and even e2orcis* of the *ystical force. +f control, or channelin", of the force )as the o(tco*e, s(ch holders of *ystical po)er )ere "enerally tho("ht to possess )itchcraft6that is, *ystical6po)er over others. 5his, of co(rse, co(ld lead to the (se of this po)er in social control and "overn*ent. 7or Fe)is, the *ain difference !et)een )itchcraft =*alefic *ystical po)er> and possession had to do )ith )hether it )as handled 0o!li3(ely0 in c(lt acco**odation or 0directly0 thro("h e2orcis* !y the do*inant reli"ion or (tilized in social control =19&J:J$>. 'e :e(sch<s and Fe)is<s approaches to possession in -frican reli"ion offer a sketch of the )ork of a *a1or school of )riters )ho vie) it as a co*pensatory effort to co*e to ter*s )ith *isfort(ne, s(fferin", and evil. 5here are *any reasons )hy spirit possession *i"ht !e a do*inant hypothesis of diffic(lt e2perience in Central and ,o(thern -frica. +n societies that are acephalo(s, either today or historically, individ(als )ho clai* ori"inal kno)led"e are v(lnera!le to envy and criticis*. 5h(s, 1(st as s(ch individ(als are often code4la!eled as )itches, in keepin" )ith Fe)is<s approach, so c(lt(ral nor*s offset this !y fosterin" as the so(rce of all ori"inal kno)led"e and of chan"e the real* of spirits, especially ancestral spirits or shades, the c(stodians of societal core val(es.

Dther a(thors have 3(estioned the )ider applica!ility of Fe)is<s *ar"inality *odel of possession c(lts. Finda /iles =19&%> has st(died the interface of n"o*a and +sla* on the ,)ahili coast of 5anzania, )here there is a far "reater interpenetration of the t)o than Fe)is *i"ht allo). +n any event, she s(""ests that not only are n"o*a and related rit(als practiced !y M(sli*s !(t the M(sli* )a"an"a are often a*on" the *ost devo(t adherents of +sla* in ,)ahili society. - fe*inist scholar of Central -frican rit(al healin", -nita ,prin", )ho has st(died n"o*a rit(als a*on" F(vale )o*en of )estern Aa*!ia, offers that Fe)is and other 0*ar"inalist0 interpreters of c(lts of affliction have "enerally failed to consider the real presence of disease in connection )ith spirit possession and entrance to an n"o*a order. ,prin" ar"(es that the predo*inantly *ale scholars of rit(al in -frica have i*posed on -frican e2perience the nineteenth4cent(ry 9estern vie) of )o*an that acco(nts for )o*en<s *ystical e2perience as their fail(re to cope )ith social conflicts =,prin" 19%&, 19&K>. + ret(rn in the ne2t chapter to ,prin"<s i*portant st(dy of the epide*iolo"y of possession in relation to de*o"raphic and social profiles. 9hereas the for*er interpretations of -frican possession are charac4 8 1#% 8 terized !y their red(ction of the pheno*enon to social or str(ct(ral the*es, other approaches take the e2planation in the direction of psycholo"ical theories. BWhr*an and /3o*fa =19&1M&2> have st(died Hhosa healers in the 5ranskei of ,o(th -frica and are pers(aded that the a*a"3ira of the 5ranskei, )hose )ork in *ost respects rese*!les that of the Cape 5o)n therapists presented in chapter 1, can !est !e e2plained !y J(n"ian psychotherape(tic *odels, and that the 0sickness0 =t)asa> that n"o*a treats is lar"ely psychopatholo"y, )ith schizophrenialike sy*pto*s of e2cessive drea*in" =19&1>. 5he si*ilarity of drea*s and drea* therapies, and the son"s derived fro* drea*s, to those of other c(lt(ral and civilizational settin"s offer BWhr*an )hat she s(""ests is convincin" case *aterial for a J(n"ian approach =19%&>. -nother type of psychotherape(tic interpretation is offered !y psycholo"ist ?llen Corin of the 9estern Bant( rite Ae!ola, reported in chapter 1 as an ?3(ate(r Province Aairian rite !ro("ht to Binshasa. Corin relates her (nderstandin" of Ae!ola to the approach of the 0'akar "ro(p0 )orkin" (nder :enri Collo*!, )ith a "enerally psychoanalytic orientation. - *a1or concern in -frican psychotherapy, s(""ests Corin, is the differentiation of the self )ithin a ti"ht kin settin". 5his leads fre3(ently to a dia"nosis of )itchcraft, )ith the identification of a specific other as the so(rce, s(ch as a *other<s !rother in a *atrilinea"e, or an (ncle in a patrilinea"e. :o)ever, etiolo"ies in -frican therapies are often presented in a chainlike se3(ence, s(ch that c(lt(rally standardized etiolo"ies s(ch as )itchcraft and spirit possession are invoked to e2plain 3(ite a variety of partic(lar si"ns and sy*pto*s. 5his is the case )ith Ae!ola, in )hich all cases are (lti*ately e2plained !y possession of the spirit of Ae!ola, a type of (priver nat(re spirit. Get, on st(dyin" the si"n4sy*pto* sets of partic(lar *e*!ers of Ae!ola in Binshasa, Corin de*onstrated that a *a1ority )ere reco**ended for recr(it*ent d(e to trans"ressions of social r(les =2& percent> and interpersonal conflicts =KK percent>, )hereas )itchcraft =& percent>, *eetin" an evil spirit =2 percent>, and direct possession !y the Ae!ola spirit =% percent> )ere relatively insi"nificant i**ediate ca(ses =19&$:1K$>. Corin<s *ethod of relatin" the individ(al e2perience to the c(lt(rally standardized ca(se offers i*portant correctives to the pro!le*s of the str(ct(ral reifiers as )ell as the psycholo"ical red(ctionist e2planations of spirit possession. Corin s(""ests, first, that there is a loose, acco**odatin", link !et)een si"n4sy*pto* and etiolo"y and, second, that the spirit possession nosolo"y is, as + have s(""ested thro("ho(t this

8 1#& 8 )ork, a kind of c(lt(ral hypothesis a!o(t *isfort(ne =Corin 19&$:1K2. see also Crapanzano and /arrison 19%%, )ho* she cites>. 5he narro) psychopatholo"ical interpretation of n"o*a offered !y BWhr*an not only see*s forced, it does not allo) for the 0recr(it*ent to leadership0 (nderstandin" of n"o*a that appears in the indi"eno(s *odel of the a*a"3ira the*selves. Get other approaches to spirit possession in -frica *ove a)ay fro* the sociolo"ical and str(ct(ral perspective entirely on the "ro(nds that this fails to take into consideration the ter*s of the e2perience itself. 5hese a(thors, s(ch as Fa*!ek =19&1> and Co*aroff =19&1, 19&J> )ork )ith an approach that is "enerally called 0pheno*enolo"ical0 or 0her*ene(tical.0 Fa*!ek<s )ork on the island of Mayotte in the +ndian Dcean !et)een Moza*!i3(e and Mada"ascar especially typifies the approach. Cather than presentin" spirit possession as a pheno*enon to !e e2plained in ter*s of society or its o)n c(lt(ral str(ct(re, this approach presents it as a te2t that needs to !e 0read0 in its o)n ter*s and cate"ories. -s Fa*!ek points o(t, on Mayotte possession is presented in ter*s of 0c(rin",0 !(t it really has little to do )ith 0disease.0 5he spirits, )ho are for the *ost part spirits of the dead, are related to as separate, al*ost h(*an, !ein"s. +nteraction )ith these spirits can !e differentiated !y distinctive codes of food and "est(re e2chan"e, incense, the topics of conversations, and the role of third parties =19&1: 11>. -ltho("h Fa*!ek approaches the 3(estion of the 0epide*iolo"y of possession 06that is, the fre3(ency of possession and social cate"ories of the possessed, )ho are *ainly )o*en6he re1ects any direct sociolo"ical inference to their roles as *ar"inal to +sla* or to their distinctive role in society. Cather, he insists that possession is a c(lt(rally a(tono*o(s do*ain that *(st !e seen in its o)n ter*s and its o)n lo"ic. Csordas =19&&> has recently provided a co*para!le pict(re of reli"io(s healin" in a non4-frican settin", na*ely charis*atic Christian healin" in the United ,tates. :o)ever, he "oes !eyond the *ere pheno*enolo"ical portrayal of healin" to atte*pt to e2plain the criteria for 0efficacy0 in its o(tco*e. 9ith penetratin" case st(dy co*parisons, he has identified the follo)in" criteria as i*portant varia!les in predictin" the o(tco*e: the s(fferer<s prior disposition to)ard the treat*ent, )hether positive or skeptical. the 3(ality and character of the partic(lar reli"io(s e2perience. the possi!ility in the *ind of the s(fferer as to the o(tco*e. the occ(rrence of personal chan"es in incre*ental steps =Csordas 19&&:1#&>. Csordas<s application of these criteria to charis4 8 1#9 8 *atic Christian healin" takes (s directly to evidence for n"o*a therapy<s efficacy as esta!lished !y healers and s(fferers the*selves. -fter revie)in" the literat(re and *y o)n fieldnotes on this point, + a* a*azed that so little is availa!le. -lso, those )ith personal involve*ent in n"o*a and )ho are divined to !e possessed do not speak )ith one voice. ,till, it is i*portant to discern an indi"eno(s 0theory of n"o*a0 that can !e "eneralized fro* partic(lar settin"s to the entire ran"e of *anifestations.

7ea'e%!? V#e4! O" Ngoma The%a+&

M(chona, the @de*!( doctor )ho* ;ictor 5(rner relied on e2tensively for his (nderstandin" of @de*!( rit(al, incl(din" c(lts of affliction, is depicted as a verita!le sa"e of esoteric lore of the ,o(thern ,avanna. 5here is not a rit(al sy*!ol or a "est(re that he cannot interpret. M(chona<s kno)led"e is the principal so(rce of o(r e2tensive appreciation of Central -frican rit(al color sy*!olis*, of the choreo"raphy of the affliction c(lts, and of o(r (nderstandin" of the )ay individ(als

*ove thro("h the sta"es of their therape(tic initiations. :o)ever, there are very fe) passa"es in the e2e"etical co**entary of M(chona in )hich )e act(ally hear hi* developin" his o)n vie)s on ho) the c(lts of affliction are s(pposed to )ork. Us(ally he is respondin" to 5(rner<s 3(estions a!o(t the interpretation of partic(lar rit(al sy*!ols. 5he closest )e co*e in 5(rner<s Drums of Affliction to a theory of the syste* is in appendices in )hich a n(*!er of @de*!( *en e2po(nd on the character of shades =mu*ishi >, shado) or reflection =m'e)ulu >, "host =musalu >, and a dead person =mufu >, the constit(ent ele*ents of a person, and ho) these ele*ents can ca(se disease in others and need to !e dealt )ith. ,(ccess in the h(nt, accordin" to one, sho(ld pro*pt the h(nter to offer an offerin" to his ancestral shrine tree and to distri!(te the *eat to others. 7ail(re in the h(nt *ay re3(ire one to take )hite clay =m$emba > to the sa*e shrine tree to invoke assistance fro* /od thro("h the *ediation of the shade. ,everal others e*phasize the serio(s conse3(ences of drea*in" =lota > a!o(t the shades, )ho are nor*ally invisi!le. ,(ch a drea*, or persistent drea*s, )ill ca(se sickness and re3(ire the drea*er to seek o(t a doctor =chimbanda > to help the person drink the appropriate *edicine. 5o have identified one<s shade is to have a *ystical helper )ho can co*e to one<s assistance. -t other ti*es the shades co*e in drea*s and re3(est !eer or food offerin"s. +f one does not satisfy these de*ands )ith appro4 8 1L$ 8 priate responses, one )ill !e stricken )ith disease. Us(ally a diviner is needed to identify the shade and )hat *(st !e done a!o(t it. Beco*in" a shade is part of the process of dyin" and havin" the !ody, the "host =mufu >, separated fro* the shado) and shade =19J&:2&LM29$>. +n this, the role of the n"o*a c(lt of affliction is to !e the or"anized effort to esta!lish appropriate relationships !et)een individ(als and their shades. +t is also the or"anized effort to restore health )here disease or *isfort(ne have !een interpreted !y divination as !ein" ca(sed thro("h drea*in" of shades. D!vio(sly *(ch is left to the diviner. +t is i*portant to note here that )hat other )riters call 0possession0 or 0trance0 !ehavior is *entioned !y 5(rner )ith reference to only three of the t)enty4three c(lts of affliction: +ha*!a, entailin" the e2traction of the ancestor<s tooth. Bayon"<(, in )hich the *ode of affliction is respiratory disorders, and the patient drea*s of a deceased diviner relative. and 5(k(ka, )astin" or respiratory tro(!les, in )hich the patient drea*s of spirits of ?(ropeans and speaks )ith ton"(es, si*(latin" ?(ropean !ehavior =19J&:#$$M#$2>. 9hy has 9estern scholarship e*phasized possession so *(ch, )hen it is only a *inor feat(re of the entire n"o*a syste*, in the sense of trancelike or o(t4of4 conscio(sness !ehaviorI ?lse)here, as )ell, de*onstrative possession and trance are either a!sent in the overall syste* of shade or spirit involve*ent or they are one )ay a*on" others of e2pressin" co**(nication )ith spirits. Dr, possession on the part of *edi(*istic divinin" or in rit(al therapies is a pheno*enon that e*er"es in the conte2t of n"o*a instit(tions at a partic(lar point in history, or declines si*ilarly in other settin"s. ?ach of these possi!ilities needs to !e revie)ed to acc(rately (nderstand )hat the shades or spirits in n"o*a *ean and ho) they are (sed as active presences in rit(al. 5he n"o*a4related role of shades and spirits )here de*onstrative possession4trance is alto"ether a!sent is ill(strated in the 9estern Cape, and perhaps in @atal, th(s a*on" *ost Hhosa, Mpondo, A(l(, and so*e ,)azi settin"s. @ot only is divination done )itho(t paraphernalia, there is no de*onstrative trance e2pression of u*ut'asa , the state of !ein" 0called0 !y ancestors. 5he second condition, in )hich de*onstrative trance4possession *oves into a settin", is ill(strated !y the 0red0 takoza4san"o*a *ethod of *edi(*istic divinin" seen in ,)aziland and apparently in re"ions of Moza*!i3(e. Most so(rces, as )ell as takoza s(ch as +da Ma!(za, said the appearance of this type of divinin" is of recent ori"in, havin" co*e

8 1L1 8 fro* the 5hon"a, 3(ite possi!ly the ;anda( to )ho* 'e :e(sch attri!(ted 0a(thentic sha*anis*.0 +n act(al divination this *eshin" of the less de*onstrative techni3(e )ith possession4trance divinin" takes the for* of a hierarchy of *odes. -scendin" fro* t)o to thirty4five e*lan"eni in price are ran"ed =1> the !asic !one4thro) divination, =2> !one thro) )ith e2pert translation !y a *ediator !et)een the diviner and client. then, in increasin" e2pense and de"rees of po)er, =#> the client<s reco(rse to *edi(*istic divination )ith ,)azi )ater spirits, victi*s of ,)azi )ars, and alien spirits. :avin" presented a 9estern4style fa*ily iss(e to levels 1 and 2 of this syste*, and havin" seen the hierarchy of level # in operation, + sa) that co(nselin" and pro!le*4solvin" *ay "o on alon"side the *ore for*al divination hierarchy. + have si*ilarly seen vario(s *echanistic *ethods of divinin" p(t aside for co(nselin" and interpretation in Bon"o settin"s. +t is apparent, ho)ever, that altho("h any *ode of kno)led"e is reco"nized in this -frican conte2t, ancestrally sanctioned kno)led"e often has "reater le"iti*acy. 5he third possi!ility, that of the decline of possession4trance in n"o*a, *ay !e ill(strated in the 5anzanian conte2t, )here n"o*a, altho("h associated )ith "ro(ps of spirits, is (s(ally done strictly as a dance and therape(tic techni3(e. - for* of ro(tinization and control of the rit(al, as )ell as a hierarchization of the or"anization of healers )ho practice a partic(lar n"o*a, has apparently contained, or controlled, open *anifestation of the spirit. 5he analytical thread that r(ns thro("h all these 0transfor*ations of spirit0 is that they are part of a )orldvie) or ideolo"y of order and *isfort(ne, of health and disease, in )hich individ(al e2perience is !ro("ht to"ether )ith c(lt(rally nor*ative kno)led"e. +t is not an e2a""eration to speak of partic(lar spirits as specific paradi"*s and the real* of spirits as a "eneralized paradi"*. @"o*a needs to !e (nderstood as the instit(tional for* that fre3(ently e*er"es as Central -fricans pick (p the pieces of their lives follo)in" a co**on and rec(rrin" *isfort(ne. Part of this for* has to do )ith the ass(*ption that *isfort(nes *ay ori"inate in the real* of h(*an !ein"s or for*er h(*an !ein"s and spirits, as (nderstood in the proto4Bant( co"nate dX". 5he partic(lar co*!ination of ca(sal i*p(tations of *isfort(ne and the social conte2t )ith )hich this is dealt )ith does not r(le o(t co*!inin" 0e*pirical0 or 0practical0 kno)led"e )ith spirit kno)led"e. -lso, !eca(se of the social dan"ers of e2pos(re of individ(als )ith kno)led"e to envy and acc(sation, spirit le"iti*a4 8 1L2 8 tion is a preferred le"iti*ation of !oth ne) pro!le*s and ne) sol(tions. +t in no )ay s(!stit(tes for co**on4sense kno)led"e or ad hoc pro!le* solvin". +t is th(s a serio(s oversi*plification to restrict )hat + call the 0spirit hypothesis0 to possession and trance. +n several of the rare conversations + held )ith n"o*a therapists in )hich the 0theory0 )as disc(ssed, e*phasis )as placed on the s(fferer<s acceptance of the condition and the callin", as interpreted !y the diviner or healer, and (pon the relationship !et)een the s(fferer<s son" and spirit. Dne of these acco(nts is fro* Cape 5o)n, the other fro* 'ar es ,alaa*. 5hese lead (s to look for other types of analytical *odels to (nderstand 0ho) n"o*a )orks0 than have !een so("ht so far. -delheid @dika, )ith )ho* + had the pleas(re of speakin" on vario(s occasions a!o(t her )ork, spoke of the i*portance of (nderstandin" the s(fferer<s drea*s. 5hey co(ld indicate the nat(re of the call, and of the spirits, as )ell as the appropriateness of the s(fferer<s choice of a sponsorin" healer. 5he acceptance of the challen"e, call, or sickness =u)uma *ufa > )as the !e"innin" of recovery. =5his is

si*ilar to -lcoholics -nony*o(s reha!ilitation, or to Csordas<s 0predisposition.0> Physical sy*pto*s s(ch as headache and nose!leedin", and *ental sy*pto*s are often the e2pression of resistance to the sickness. @dika )as not )illin" to speak of the* as the displeas(re of the spirits. -cceptance, rather than e2orcis*, )as the preferred *ode in )hich she and other Cape 5o)n healers approached 0spirits.0 Medicines in the first sta"e of the initiatory therapy, s(""ested @dika, are (s(ally intended to cal* and p(rify the s(fferer, to cleanse the tho("hts, and to 0drive a)ay the darkness.0 5his *edicine, )hich *ay contain anal"esics and hall(cino"ens, is (s(ally 0)hite,0 )hether it is a plant4derived li3(id =ubulau > or )hite chalk =i*ota >, !eca(se the ancestors are of a 0)hite0 disposition. +ncense (sed in the early rites of initiation is intended to "ain favor )ith the ancestors. ,he stressed the i*portance of the "oat sacrifice in her )ork, in ter*s of the disposition of the s(fferer and the relationship )ith others and the ancestors. :er theory of the son"s e*phasized the for*ation of a stron" self thro("h self4 presentation in the n"o*a sessions. :o)ever, it )as in 'ar es ,alaa*, in conversations )ith the leaders of the coastal healer<s association ,hirika la Mada)a, that a theory of n"o*a in relation to spirits e*er"ed. ,on" )as stressed as central to the rit(al. D*ari :assan, M(sli* *"an"a and practitioner of n"o*a Msa"hiro for s(fferers of chronic and severe headache ca(sed !y the coastal or !each spirits =sheitani> Mar(hani, ,(!izani, Mz(ka, and Bin4 8 1L# 8 y(*akero and also of headaches ca(sed !y 9ar(n"( 0inland0 spirits of the hills, !ao!a! trees, or *o(ntains, offered this: 5he ai* of healin" n"o*as is to *ake the patient talk, to hei"hten e*otions. +f that fails, yo( "o to the forest for roots, "ive the* *edicine. ?ither )ay, talkin" is i*portant. 5he p(rpose of the dr(**in" is to kno) the partic(lar spirit, so it speaks o(t in the patient, so the healer kno)s ho) *any, )hich, )here they co*e fro*, )hat it )ants. 9hen the patient speaks, it<s the spirit Nspeakin"O. ,pirit and person are one and the sa*e. -fter *edicine is taken, and n"o*a is played, the patient *(st sin" in increasin" te*po, the son" of the partic(lar spirit. +t<s th(s the patient )ho directs the healer on the type of treat*ent. +sa :assan, also a M(sli* healer and officer of the or"anization, added that: 5he spirits like the *(sic, so they *ay *ake the*selves *anifest, so they *ay talk Nthro("h the s(ffererO. - specific type of *(sic is for a specific type of spirit. only this )ay )ill each spirit reveal )ays of releasin" the patient. Dnce the healer has esta!lished the type of spirit !efore hi*, in the person, he !e"ins the correspondin" type of *(sic. 5he lyrics are the healer<s Nor s(fferer<sO o)n. +t is i*possi!le to "ive lyrics of a partic(lar n"o*a !eca(se there is so *(ch i*provisation and variation, so *(ch depends on the individ(al case. :o) then does an n"o*a help a personI 5he *(sic enchants the s(fferer so he can e2press hi*self !etter, and reveal the spirit. 0-cceptin" the sickness,0 0confessin" drea*s,0 0presentin" one<s self,0 0the spirits talkin",0 0s(fferer and spirit !ein" the sa*e thin",0 0patient directin" the healer0 are so*e of the e2pressions that "et to the core of n"o*a disco(rse. +n ter*s of the co**(nicative str(ct(re of this disco(rse, )e have seen =in the previo(s chapter> ho) i*portant is not only the t)o4)ay disco(rse !et)een healer and s(fferer !(t that a third pole, a third party, is also co**on. 5his *ay !e the therapy *ana"er of Bon"o society, the diviner4assi"ned assistant )ho says 0+ a"ree,0 in ,)aziland, or the s*all "ro(p in the n"o*a session )ho listen and sin" !ack to the s(fferer the son" 1(st intoned. ,pirit, here, *ay !e considered another type of third party in the disco(rse, )hich *ay or *ay not !e dra*atically *anifested. +n other

)ords, spirit is a *anner of speakin", a hypothesis, a for*at.

Ngoma a! The%a+e* #( 3#!(o*%!e

5he analytical theory that see*s to !e *ost consonant )ith this vie) of n"o*a rit(al healin" *ay !e fo(nd in the recent )ritin" of 8 1LL 8 5(llio MaraYhao, !hera$eutic Discourse and Socratic Dialogue . Marafihao is interested in findin" o(t )hat it is a!o(t ver!al therapy that c(res. +s it a 0science of the psyche0 or a 0rhetoric of co**(nications0I 5o or"anize his in3(iry he selects 7re(dian psychoanalysis and fa*ily therapy as t)o e2tre*e opposed approaches on a contin((* of approaches to lan"(a"e in therapy. 5he first, )ith its theories of transference, of condensation, of the s(!conscio(s and the li!ido, finds lan"(a"e as a s(rface *anifestation of deeper psychic and physical forces in the individ(al. 5herape(tic speech is to reveal and correct these forces. 7a*ily therapy, !y contrast, is far *ore s(rface4oriented, )ith fa*ily *e*!ers talkin" to"ether, )ith the therapist<s "(idance, to reveal and to a"ree on pro!le*s, *is(nderstandin"s, contradictions, and approaches to co**on *(t(al reinforce*ent. Get in fa*ily therapy there is a f(rther ele*ent that is often !la*ed for contradictions and fa(lty relations, na*ely, the force of po)er and *anip(lation. +s it possi!le to !rin" the varied therape(tic schools to"ether (nder one (*!rellaI MaraYhao =19&J> sees the diver"in" strate"ies of ver!al therapy6e2e*plified in psychoanalysis and in fa*ily therapy6as part of a 9estern c(lt(ral str(""le that has "one on for several *illennia !et)een t)o f(nda*entally opposed approaches to p(!lic kno)led"e: the first, ca("ht (p in deep dark secrets of the so(l. the second, in a str(""le for consens(s of kno)led"e that is o(t in the open. ,ocratic disco(rse, )hich appeared as /reek society )as *akin" the transition fro* a predo*inantly oral society to one that depended on )ritin", provided a *ethod for )orkin" o(t *any of the tensions that opposed, or contrasted, the t)o approaches to lan"(a"e (se. 5hro("h the (se of 3(estions and ans)ers 6dialo"(e6these disco(rses sho)ed p(!lic kno)led"e, and kno)led"e of the self, to !e el(sive, transitory, and !o(nd (p in socially e*!edded relationships. 5here are 1(st eno("h rese*!lances !et)een -frican n"o*a (ses of ver!al kno)led"e in therapy and )hat Marafihao is sayin" a!o(t 9estern ver!al therapy, that )e *ay disa"ree )ith hi* that this is a (ni3(ely 9estern str(""le. +n n"o*a there is kno)led"e of the spirits as fo(nd in drea*s, a!ove all. +n order to identify )hich spirits are at )ork6)hich deep dark de*ons6it is necessary to 0let the s(fferer talk0 =or sin">. 9hen the pattern or the *ood !eco*es apparent, the appropriate dr(*s can respond )ith appropriate rhyth*s. Psychoanalysis stops )ith the revealin". -frican therapy follo)s thro("h 8 1LK 8 )ith the son"4clarification. +n fa*ily therapy kno)led"e is !ro("ht o(t thro("h the "rid of social relations. +n n"o*a the "rid of disco(rse, thro("h )hich kno)led"e is revealed, is 3(ickly s(!1ected to the test of a"ree*ent or disa"ree*ent, a kind of ,ocratic 3(estionin" and ans)erin". 5hese are, then, the approaches to spirit in -frican and 9estern reli"io(s and therape(tic tho("ht. 5hey are an i*portant point of depart(re for o(r (nderstandin" of ho) n"o*a )orks. :o)ever, they are not the end of that 1o(rney for (nderstandin". 9e carry so*e of these perspectives into the ne2t section on sy*!ols and *etaphors in n"o*a therape(tic disco(rse. 5his takes (s !eyond conscio(sness.

F%om S+#%# To Song6)an(e8 A% #(*'a #ng Me a+ho%! O" 3#""#(*' E:+e%#en(e

-ltho("h )e have no) !ro("ht o(r (nderstandin" of n"o*a therape(tic techni3(e aro(nd to foc(s s3(arely on son" and dance, )hich is to say a conscio(s ver!al e2pression and perfor*ance, there is val(e in retainin" so*ethin" of the psychoanalytic appreciation for the 0deep, dark forces0 of the so(l. -ltho("h )e have rele"ated 0spirit0 to the stat(s of a divinatory or dia"nostic hypothesis, or paradi"*, )e *(st still try to acco(nt for the types of an2ieties and perple2ities, i*passes and 0intracta!le dile**as,0 associated )ith the spirit hypothesis. @"o*a son"s, especially the personal son"s, *ake references to personal e2periences, as in the son"s cited in chapter L: the 0sickness all aro(nd in this place0 of Mrs. 5. in the 5ranskei. of lack of rain in historic 5anzania. of the pain of se"*entin" linea"es in Bon"o society. of the infertility of a close friend of Fa*!akasa, the @de*!( )o*an. 5here are all(sions to the nat(ral (niverse, the cos*olo"ical "ro(ndin" of i*a"es, *etaphors, or tropes. 5he 0ani*al callin" *e0 of Mrs. 5<s son". the *edi(* horse, Mr. 5<s ;(*ani. the s(n and the *oon takin" and "ivin" in the Fe*!a priest<s special son". the )hiteness of ancestral resol(tion in Fa*!akasa<s son". the cra! that sc(ttles !ack and forth fro* )ater to land on the +ndian Dcean !each. 5he i*a"es in the Gaka version of the @kita rite, as related !y 'evisch =19&L>, incl(de n(*ero(s (ses of nat(ral *etaphors s(ch as chickens layin" e""s and hippos risin" fro* the )ater. 5he *anner in )hich e2perience is connected )ith these stock c(lt(ral fi"(res has !een pers(asively e2plained in the )ork of s(ch schol4 8 1LJ 8 ars as Ja*es 7ernandez and Cenaat 'evisch. +nchoate personal distress and feelin" are p(lled o(t, "iven valence and clarity thro("h association )ith e2terior i*a"es. My favorite e2a*ple of this process co*es fro* a *arvelo(s Fe*!a son", )hich )eaves to"ether inner personal i*a"es of pain )ith the path of Fe*!a opport(nity, death of personal fr(stration )ith ne) life, and the all(sion to the risin" and settin" of celestial !odies: 5hat )hich )as a 0stitch0 of pain :as !eco*e the path to the priesthood. +t has ca(sed to rise 5he s(n of Fe*!a. My death occ(rred +n the Fe*!a 7ather. @o) there is life in Fe*!a. =Janzen 19&2:11&> 5he cos*olo"ical !ack"ro(nd kno)led"e reveals that the celestial !odies of s(n and *oon cycle endlessly in their co(rses, and that si*ilarly, individ(al life *ay cycle fro* despair to hope, death to life. 5hese cos*olo"ical i*a"es are part of a )idespread Bant(4-frican (se of threshold *etaphors relatin" personal and social e2perience to nat(re, to the invisi!le forces in nat(re, especially as concept(alized in )ater, earth, and sky. 5he *etaphoric operation *ay relate to the nat(ral cate"ories, as in this Fe*!a son": Praise the earth Praise the sky. Dr it *ay attach the e2perience to 0*overs0N2O )ithin, or *ore co**only across, these cate"ories, s(ch as, a"ain, the 0s(n of Fe*!a0: 9hat Fe*!a "ives, Fe*!a takes a)ay

9hat the s(n "ives, the s(n takes a)ay. ,i*ilar are Mr. 5<s horse *edi(*, )hich !rin"s hi* *essa"es, or Fa*!akasa<s 0)hiteness,0 )hich !rin"s her friend fertility fro* the ancestors, or Mrs. 5<s 0ani*als,0 )hich call her. +n n"o*a tho("ht, so*e of these 0*etaphoric *overs0 are, of co(rse, spirits, so*eti*es accepted =adored, in 'e :e(sch<s )ords>, other ti*es re1ected =e2orcised>. 5he process is hardly *echanistic, nor is it fi2ed as positive or ne"ative in an entire society. 5he 3(estion is, to cite Aairian philosopher ;alentine M(di*!e, 0ho) does one read and interpret these proced(res as *etaphorizationI0 =19&J:2&$M2&1> 5hat is, ho) *i"ht one 8 1L% 8 read the 0*ytholo"ization of history and the historicization of *ythical narratives0I +n Fe*!a, this process )as the effort of individ(als, kinfolk, and diviners to interpret the s(fferer<s intracta!le sit(ation, that is, to find a *etaphor in the stock of c(lt(rally ordered ideas to interpret and deal )ith that sit(ation. Fe*!a did not force the e2perience of the Fe*!a sickness into a sin"le *old. Cather, + s(spect that the presidin" Fe*!a father took as his point of depart(re the drea*s, sy*pto*s, co*plaints, and aspirations of the Fe*!a son6the patient6and his )ives, and )orked fro* there. -ccordin"ly, there are i*portant variations in son" versions fro* the sa*e re"ion and period, s(""estive of individ(alized rit(alization. 5h(s, )hile the partic(lar individ(al sit(ation of the patient4 novices varied accordin" to their e2periences and s(rro(ndin"s, the process of interpretin" thro("h the constr(ction of *etaphors )as co**on to all. Metaphor, as seen here, is a ver!al or nonver!al6perfor*ed6process !y )hich a "iven set of ter*s or fi"(res is associated )ith another set so as to "ive the first ideational, e*otional, or dra*atic a*plification contained in the second set, or in the co*!ination of !oth. 5his process )as at the core of the Fe*!a e2perience. 5he son"4dances of the 0dr(* of affliction,0 )hich define the e2istential *o*ent of the s(fferer4 novice, the psycholo"ical state of the s(fferer, are ali"ned )ith another set of ter*s that vividly reflect the e2perience and cast it into a )ider fra*e of reference. 5he fore"oin" e2a*ples are relatively strai"htfor)ard. Dthers, )hich are dra)n fro* the voca!(lary and prose of Bon"o *yth cycles, reflect a *ore "randiose *anip(lation )ithin c(lt(rally standardized *aterial and settin"s. -ltho("h Fe*!a<s association at this level has !een noted in every re"ion, and )ith a series of *ythic fi"(res, + ill(strate *y point )ith the e2cellent case of Fe*!a<s (se of the Moni4 Ma*!( trickster cycle. -s all )ho have read an -frican trickster cycle )ill kno), this -frican fi"(re plots *any s(rprises and transfor*ations, so*e )ith violent, others )ith socially rede*ptive o(tco*es. Many of the trickster<s deceitf(l deeds are !ased on p(nnin", )ith a*!i"(o(s ver!al all(sions, or on a*!i"(o(s social ter*s. +n the Bon"o trickster cycles there co*es a ti*e )hen the people, or their 1(d"es, rise (p to take the villain trickster to co(rt. -t first they are inclined to for"ive hi* !eca(se his intentions appeared to have !een no!le. Fater, ho)ever, )hen it !eco*es 8 1L& 8 apparent that he has c(nnin"ly (sed c(lt(ral a*!i"(ities6contradictions6to *islead and deceive and destroy others, he is re"arded as a cri*inal and a )itch. Ulti*ately he is killed. 5h(s the standard trickster cycles.

+n a c(ltic settin", as in the trickster )ho !rin"s Fe*!a, the trickster t(rns c(lt(ral hero, t(rnin" these sa*e a*!i"(ities aro(nd, fetchin" the appropriate *edicine )ith )hich to resolve the dile**as and contradictions of those ca("ht in the*. +n the te2t presented in the !ook, *(ch is *ade of the co*position of the satchel in )hich are fo(nd the helpers )ho )ill aid Moni4Ma*!( "ain the reco"nition of his father, /od, )ho (lti*ately presents the Fe*!a *edicine, 1(st as the Fe*!a father e2tends the *edicine to his Fe*!a son. +t )o(ld see*, then, that in a c(ltic settin" s(ch as Fe*!a, or of another n"o*a, the conscio(sness fo(nd in lyrics is *anip(lated so as to create a positive, con1(nctive, o(tco*e to those dile**as )hich, in nonc(ltic versions, are "iven a ne"ative, dis1(nctive portrayal. Dr perhaps this *anip(lation in the interest of a positive narrative o(tco*e is the *ark of r(lin" class conscio(sness that seeks to contain or override contradictions that !eset the society. 5his )o(ld have !een a fittin" analysis of Fe*!a perfor*ances !eca(se its ranks )ere filled )ith the *ercantile and po)er elite of the society )ho so("ht to "ain )ealth fro* the coastal trade and at the sa*e ti*e *aintain, thro("h "enero(s cere*onial distri!(tions, the e"alitarian ethic in @orth4Bon"o kin4!ased society. 9hatever the case, it is clear that this *anip(lation )ithin Fe*!a of standard c(lt(ral narratives lends s(pport to the hypothesis of Fe*!a<s concern for social control, of its (se of ideolo"y. Fe*!a<s *edicines and nonver!al rit(als !eco*e i*portant in seein" ho) 0contradictions0 )ere dealt )ith. + have sho)n, in detail, that the contradictions or social a*!i"(ities that are edited o(t of the *(ndane version of *yth for c(ltic p(rposes are in nonver!al *etaphors associated )ith *edicinal co*positions, as in the Fe*!a *edicine !o2 =n*obe >. 5he contradiction *etaphors are allo)ed to re*ain in all their antithetical forces, and are transfor*ed and converted, in the Fe*!a rit(als, into social po)er. +n this sense one *ay speak here of *etaphoric healin" and transfor*ation, or of the efficacy of rit(al healin" =see also 'evisch 19&L:1L$M1L&>. 5his scholarly (nderstandin" of *etaphor as active a"ent is appropriate !eca(se all(sion to spirits is, in the -frican settin", also a hypothesis, an analytical e2ercise. 5he *isfort(ne of Fa*!akasa<s friend is not *ade si"nificant (ntil it, and the sol(tion, are conte24 8 1L9 8 t(alized )ith reference to Chiha*!a. Mrs. 5<s sadness at the death of her son4in4la) and her "enerally *isera!le sit(ation are foc(sed in the diviner<s enco(ra"e*ent to 1oin an i"3ira n"o*a sin"in" "ro(p in the conte2t of ,o(th -frican apartheid. 9e kno) very little of the act(al choreo"raphy of these *etaphors of diffic(lt e2perience, s(n" and danced o(t6that is, as perfor*ance. @"o*a as historical *aterial, )ith the son" te2t, dialo"ic tho("h it *ay !e, offers a !ias of a co"nitive *odel of n"o*a therape(tic rit(al. 5he transfor*ation of the *etaphor to a *edicinal *aterial level is a very te*ptin" interpretation that sho)s the 0po)er0 or 0efficacy0 of the rite. :o)ever, fro* )atchin" n"o*a sessions in Binshasa, 'ar es ,alaa*, ,)aziland, and Cape 5o)n, *y over)hel*in" i*pression is that the son" te2ts, in order to !e effective *etaphors of the diffic(lt e2perience, *(st !e sta"ed in a conte2t of s(pport that per*its the f(ll release of e*otional pain and tension. 5his *ay incl(de the enact*ent of an"er or tension, as )ith the yo(n" )o*an in Binshasa )ho nearly !eat her infant child<s head on the concrete, or the yo(n" *an in Cape 5o)n )hose pain at havin" to lead his son" )as visi!le in his ta(t face and !ody =see plate 12>. 5hese *etaphors or tropes, s(n", tho("ht, danced, and felt, are of co(rse so*eti*es identified as the )ork of the spirits. +t is i*portant to e*phasize that the o(tside analysis, 1(st as the internal theory, reco"nizes that the spirit e2planation of *isfort(ne and its deno(e*ent is one availa!le option, )hich co*es in a co*pellin" *anner to so*e thro("h drea*s6)hich *(st !e interpreted6and in a less

co*pellin" *anner to others. Possession th(s is an availa!le hypothesis, a c(lt(rally learned !ehavior. -ltho("h it *ay !e a *a1or fra*e)ork )ithin )hich n"o*a kno)led"e is co(ched, it is !y no *eans the only one, and it sho(ld not !e constr(ed as overdeter*inin" the content of n"o*a kno)led"e.

Ngoma An) S+e(#a'#ze) .no4'e)ge

5he 0)orkin"0 of n"o*a has !een presented here as a for*at for "eneratin", artic(latin", and applyin" kno)led"e a!o(t *isfort(ne. -ltho("h spirit possession is often "iven as a fra*e)ork for n"o*a ideas and is then said to have co*e thro("h drea*s or in divination, at other ti*es the kno)led"e of n"o*a rese*!les *ore the )orkin" concepts of a profession, or the crafts of a specialized "(ild. ,nake4 handlin" 8 1K$ 8 n"o*a of )estern 5anzania ill(strate this type of kno)led"e. +t is loosely and for*ally associated )ith possession, !(t rarely )ith trance. 5he )estern 5anzanian snake4handlin" n"o*a *(st co*e to ter*s )ith technical recipes of veno* and antidotes, handlin" snakes, and treatin" snake!ite, as )ell as )ith hysteria and fear that acco*panies, even in 5anzania, attit(des to)ard snakes and vipers. :istorically, the ,(k(*a, @ya*)ezi, and nei"h!orin" societies have had to cope )ith so*e of the )orld<s *ost poisono(s vipers and other fri"htenin" snakes. 5he !ite of the !lack *a*!a, for e2a*ple, )ill kill its victi* )ithin half an ho(r. 5he co!ra can spit poisono(s veno* and !lind its victi*. Boa constrictors and pythons, )hich stran"le their victi*s, are for*ida!le creat(res too. 5he ,(k(*a approach to dealin" )ith snakes is thro("h n"o*a4style dance "ro(ps. Dn one front, there are the societies, dances, and initiations. Carried !y the rit(al is the scientific kno)led"e of antidotes and snakelore. 5he *e*!ers of the snake4handlin" n"o*a *ake antidotes )ith veno* 0*ilked0 fro* the viper<s fan"s and co*e to the aid of people )ho find snakes in their ho(ses. @or!ert Chen"a, novice of a ,(k(*a snake4handlin" n"o*a and )ho )orks at the Ministry of C(lt(re in 5anzania, related the character of the c(lt(ral kno)led"e of snake handlin", altho("h not its technical secrets, )hich are kept )ithin the n"o*a order. 7irst, + )as str(ck )ith his positive attit(de to)ard snakes. 05anzania really has 3(ite nice snakes, yo( kno),0 said Chen"a. ,econd, in speakin" a!o(t the snakes, he took their vie)point. 5he !lack *a*!a is very lazy, he said, !(t has a very "ood poison. 5he snakes "et ac3(ainted )ith their trainers and reco"nize their distinct s*ell. +f yo(<ve !een "ood to the* they kno) after a )hile that yo( )on<t har* the*, so they can !e handled. 5he snake4 handlin" dance serves to lessen fear of snakes, since d(rin" the dance all types of snakes are handled, and in the one + sa), a 0vol(nteer0 allo)ed hi*self to !e !itten. :o) does this trainin" and kno)led"e of snake veno* and antidotes relate to the ancestor possession ideolo"y of the n"o*a or"anizational *ode in "eneralI 9e kno) little a!o(t recr(it*ent to the snake4 handlin" n"o*a, nor )hether recr(it*ent fits the notion of a 0call0 !y ancestors. :o)ever, the one acco(nt of a historic initiation into a snake4handlin" n"o*a that )e possess, na*ely the ,(k(*a B(yeye =Cory 19LJ>, sho)s that the linka"e !et)een the e2perience )ith snakes and the concept(al order is handled thro("h the 1(2taposition, in the initia4 8 1K1 8 tory lod"e, of three le"endary cos*ic serpents )ith the three rit(al colors: red, )hite, and !lack =Cory

19LJ:1JKM1JJ>. 5he son"s of n"o*a B(yeye, for snake handlin", reflect the sa*e f(sion of e2istential concern for the 0diffic(lt iss(e06here those 03(ite nice0 snakes6the invocation to the ancestors, and a concern for the protection of special kno)led"e. Go( *others of the ant4hills Nthe snakesO )ith the "larin" eyes, do not h(rt (s. 9e are yo(r children. Fook do)n, yo( ancestors of the B(yeye, Fook do)n at (s. 9hoever looks at (s )ith envy, May they !eco*e !lind. 9hoever p(rs(es (s, the B(yeye, May die. May he !(rst like clo(ds. Possession, if this !e it, !acks (p the nor*ative codes that call for le"iti*ation of skilled and esoteric snake4handlin" kno)led"e !y the ancestors. /iven this inte"ration of *(ltiple *odes of kno)led"e and evidence in a series of n"o*a, the prospects for f(rther evol(tion of the n"o*a for*at, )ith application to a variety of 0diffic(lt iss(es,0 is likely. 9e sho(ld not !e s(rprised to find in n"o*a the possi!ility of a shift of le"iti*atin" ideolo"ies fro* one *ode of kno)led"e to another, or of the insertion of ne) kno)led"e into old le"iti*acy.

Con('*!#on
5he efficacy of n"o*a rit(al therapy is, as )e have seen, *any4sided. +n order to esta!lish criteria for efficacy, )e have had to identify so*e of the types of kno)led"e that are fo(nd at the !asis of n"o*a. 5hese have !een "ro(nded in the different kinds of 0diffic(lt personal e2periences,0 )hich have !een interpreted thro("h divination, dia"nosis, and other proced(res to fit c(lt(rally standardized cate"ories and e2planations. 5he 0spirit0 hypothesis is )hat !rin"s the individ(al e2perience into the or!it of n"o*a. :o)ever, spirit is not )hat it appears to !e, nor is it e3(ally stron" in all e2pressions. 5his e2pression ran"es fro* a *ere divinatory hypothesis that *ay or *ay not !e accepted to a 8 1K2 8 f(ll4!lo)n trance. 5his, in t(rn, *ay !e lon" lastin" and pervasive or fleetin" in ti*e and place. 5he consens(al !asis of kno)led"e is i*portant, !oth in 9estern and -frican healin", as Marafihao =19&J> has sho)n. 5his consens(al !asis of kno)led"e provides for a social handle, a social for(*, for (nderstandin" the deep, dark secrets in the so(ls of individ(als. +t provides a fra*e)ork to deal, p(!licly, )ith the thin"s that individ(als find fearf(l, )ith the )ays they )o(ld *anip(late kno)led"e 6)itchcraft, in the -fricanist<s idio*. 5he consens(s of kno)led"e in an n"o*a for*at *ay also provide the !asis for rational or technical (nderstandin" of the nat(ral )orld, for the e*pirical application of techni3(es to co**on pro!le*s, as )e have seen in the (se of antidotes for veno*o(s snake!ites. ,on", )hich provides the for*at for p(!lic scr(tiny of these secrets and a for(* for re*e*!erin", also provides (s )ith te2t that contains the *etaphorization of these e2periences into c(lt(rally standardized for*s. 'iffic(lt e2perience, inchoate feelin"s, e*otions, and hidden *eanin"s are "iven standardized

e2pression in the son"s. +f they are representative of the e2perience of *any, they catch on, are s(n" repeatedly, and !eco*e part of the co**on c(lt(re. 8 1K# 8

@ 7o4 Ngoma 0o%5! The So(#a' Re+%o)*( #on o" 7ea' h

+s it "ood for the childrenI Cick Goder, Plannin" -dviser, ,)aziland Ministry of :ealth ?2plorin" the iss(e of efficacy contin(es in this chapter, in ter*s of the s(rvivorship of at4risk sectors of society and the role of n"o*a in the creation and *aintenance of a social fa!ric that contri!(tes to health. 9hereas in the previo(s chapter + identified practitioners< and analysts< theories of ho) n"o*a rit(als are intended to )ork, here + shall e2a*ine the conse3(ences of n"o*a (pon the 0social reprod(ction0 of health. ,ocial reprod(ction as (sed here refers to the *aintenance of a )ay of life and the co**it*ent of reso(rces to relationships, instit(tions, and s(pport or"anizations that directly or indirectly *aintain health. 7o(r )idely different n"o*a settin"s ill(strate the social4reprod(ction4of4health *odel of analysis: the historic coastal Con"o Fe*!a order in the conte2t of the *ercantile trade at the -tlantic coast. the ,o(thern ,avanna natality4enhancin" n"o*a orders of Aa*!ia and so(thern Aaire. the to)nship n"o*a orders of Cape 5o)n. the professionalized n"o*a instit(tions of 'ar es ,alaa*. 5he 3(estions that are at the heart of this in3(iry are these: 9hat type of social fa!ric is created, reinforced, or reprod(ced !y a partic(lar n"o*a orderI :o) does it address health iss(es and needsI Can this !e assessed in ter*s or definitions that health planners or practitioners co(ld (seI 8 1KL 8

7ea' h An) 7ea' h In)#(a o%!

5he analysis of n"o*a rit(al healin" in ter*s of health re3(ires !oth a distinctive perspective on definitions of health and a !rid"e to the definitions of health co**only (sed !y de*o"raphers and health planners. :ealth is a (niversal h(*an "oal, like virt(e or eno("h to eat, !(t it el(des definition e2cept in ter*s of specific ne"ative or positive criteria. Myriad definitions of health e2ist.N1O 5his is not the conte2t in )hich to present an e2ha(stive revie) of the*. 7or present p(rposes, )e re3(ire, rather, a selection of those that see* to fit the pheno*enon. +t has !een o!served that "ood health is not necessarily deter*ined !y *edicine, especially not c(rative !io*edicine, narro)ly defined =@avarro 19%L. 9orld :ealth Dr"anization 19%&. 'a)son 19%9>. Cather, a ran"e of factors s(ch as n(trition, ho(sin", environ*ental 3(ality, social order, and *echanis*s for copin" )ith stress are i*portant =/ish 19%9>. 7(rther, if i*prove*ent of health on a societal scale is to !e attained, then health policies *(st !e appropriate so as to avert health catastrophies or "rad(al declinin" levels of health.

Dne )ay to descri!e health, s(ita!le for present p(rposes, is that it is e*!edded in a set of str(ct(red relationships, ri"hts, and practices rooted in a )orldvie) of val(es, tr(ths, and ideals. +n a sta!le sit(ation this )o(ld incl(de hy"iene =altho("h *ethods )o(ld vary>, ade3(ate and clean )ater, s(fficient and clean food =altho("h this )o(ld vary fro* nearly all4*eat to all4ve"eta!le>, r(les of social interaction and or"anization =varyin" enor*o(sly>, and rit(als spellin" o(t the coherence and interconnectedness of thin"s. -s )e )ill see, this (nderstandin" of health co(ld !e 0paraphrased0 in ter*s of the ecolo"ist<s concept of the 0adaptive syste*,0 in )hich the h(*an co**(nity o!tains its food so(rce thro("h a "iven technolo"y, a "iven social order, and a str(ct(red flo) of ener"y fro* the environ*ent to the h(*an co**(nity and !ack into the environ*ent =Janzen 19&$:%M&>. More foc(sed in scope and scale )o(ld !e a description of health !ased on the society<s self4conscio(s efforts to treat disease and restore health6that is, its *edical or rit(al syste*s. :ere )e )o(ld find at )ork 0an e2plicit theory =or theories> of disease ca(sation, a correspondin" set of therapies, and a foc(s directin" the scale of application of s(ch theories and therapies. 5hese aspects of the *edical syste* )ill !e evident in sy*pto*s, co*plaints, and ver!alized state*ents a!o(t illness and health, in the c(lt(ral pre*ises (sed to eval(ate the *eanin" of affliction, and in practices of heaters0 =Janzen 19&$:9>. 'espite the appropriateness of s(ch concept(alizations of health for 8 1KK 8 the p(rpose of (nderstandin" rit(al healin", it is (sef(l to !e"in this disc(ssion )ith the types of health assess*ents that have "enerally !een done )ith *ore precise *eas(res of fertility, *ortality, and *or!idity6the de*o"rapher<s stock in trade. 9e learn fro* a 9orld 'evelop*ent Ceport iss(ed !y the 9orld Bank =19&K>, that cr(de !irth rates and cr(de death rates in ,(!4,aharan -frica<s 0lo) inco*e co(ntries0 and its 0*iddle inco*e co(ntries0 have declined fro* 19JK to 19&#. 7or 19JK, the !irth rate in lo)4inco*e co(ntries )as L& 1$$$ and the death rate 22 1$$$. for *iddle4inco*e co(ntries the !irth rate )as K$ 1$$$, the death rate 22 1$$$. 5his prod(ced a pop(lation "ain per ann(* of a!o(t 2.% percent. By 19&# !oth had declined, to L% 1$$$ !irths and 1& 1$$$ deaths for lo)4 inco*e. L9 1$$$ !irths and 1J 1$$$ deaths for *iddle4inco*e6a pop(lation "ain per ann(* of #.# percent. 5h(s, death rates declined faster than !irth rates, leadin" to an overall "ro)th in pop(lation increase rates. - "ood portion of this decline in cr(de death rate ca*e a!o(t thro("h the decline in infant *ortality rates. +n 19JK +MC )as 1KJ 1$$$ in lo)4and *iddle4inco*e co(ntries in ,(!4,aharan -frica. 5his )as a "reat i*prove*ent over the #K$ 1$$$ +MC that had prevailed in the continent earlier in the cent(ry. +n a fe) co(ntries, s(ch as Benya, +MC had !een !ro("ht do)n to (nder 1$$ 1$$$ !y the late 19&$s. 5hese 0i*provin"0 health fi"(res )ere, ho)ever, offset !y J to % percent decline in food prod(ction, )hich translated in the lo)er4inco*e co(ntries into a nearly 1$ percent decline in calorie intake =the *iddle4inco*e co(ntries sa) a sli"ht i*prove*ent in this cate"ory>. +nsofar as one can then e2trapolate fro* these co*posite statistical fi"(res, s(rvivorship has increased, altho("h real inco*e and food prod(ction has decreased. Mor!idity patterns in the n"o*a re"ion, as *eas(red !y a"encies s(ch as the 9orld :ealth Dr"anization and standardized *eas(res, indicate that altho("h so*e of the *a1or conta"io(s diseases s(ch as s*allpo2, cholera, and *easles had !een eli*inated or !ro("ht (nder control, others s(ch as diarrhea and respiratory infection contin(ed to !e the "reatest killers of infants. /enerally, the disease profile contin(ed to !e that of conta"io(s diseases rather than of de"enerative and other 0diseases of civilization.0

9hat do these fi"(res *ean in ter*s of o(r (nderstandin" of the !ackdrop of rit(al healin", or the stat(s of health in the re"ion )ith )hich )e are concernedI 'oes n"o*a relate to these pop(lation *eas(resI 5here is a disc(ssion that concerns o(r a"enda, perhaps indirectly, havin" to do )ith )hether ,(!4 ,aharan -frica<s health *eas(res repre4 8 1KJ 8 sent a conventional pattern of de*o"raphic transition, co*para!le to that )hich has !een seen in ?(rope and -sia. 5here, follo)in" the decline of *ortality and *or!idity earlier in this cent(ry, fertility *eas(res declined as )ell. +n -frica, altho("h *ortality and *or!idity have declined, fertility has pro!a!ly increased. 5his pattern *ay !e related to )hat n"o*a does. Dne set of analysts ar"(es that the de*o"raphic profile of ,(!4,aharan -frica is to !e e2plained !y the peripheralization of the s(!continent in the )orld capitalist syste*, and !y capital<s need for a lar"e, cheap, s(rpl(s la!or pool =/re"ory and Piche 19&2. Cordell, /re"ory, and Piche 1992. ,tock 19&J>. -nother "ro(p =e."., Festhae"e and ?elens 19&K> eval(ates )hat they call 0de*o"raphic re"i*es,0 characteristic profiles, )ith an interest in the fate of socioecono*ic and c(lt(ral *echanis*s s(ch as child spacin", ho(sehold str(ct(res, and n(*!er and co*position of fa*ily *e*!ers availa!le for childcare, )hich *i"ht affect overall de*o"raphic trends. 5hey doc(*ent the apparent collapse in recent decades in -frica of a n(*!er of these lon"4ter* historic str(ct(res and the conse3(ent increase in fertility rates. - related perspective has s(""ested that *(ch of Central and ,o(thern -frica<s social priorities are derived fro* a linea"e !ase and a partic(lar technolo"y of hoe a"ric(lt(re =/oody 19%J. Cald)ell, Cald)ell, and P(i""in 19&9> and that so lon" as these instit(tional str(ct(res prevail, health and fertility *eas(res )ill !e affected in distinctive )ays. 5he o(tco*e of this de!ate on -frica<s de*o"raphic transition )ill not !e clear for so*e ti*e. 9e kno) health has i*proved considera!ly in the past half4cent(ry, !(t there is still *(ch roo* for i*prove*ent in diseases and conditions for )hich c(res are availa!le. 9e kno) fertility has not !e"(n to decline, and in so*e areas it has pro!a!ly increased. Clearly *any of these factors affectin" health stat(s have to do )ith kno)led"e, access to reso(rces, and social policies. 5herefore, in o(r assess*ent of the role of rit(al healin" in affectin" health stat(s, )e do )ell to keep 0hard0 de*o"raphic data in *ind !(t to develop social theories of the )ays health4related reso(rces are "enerated and (tilized. 5his is )hy it see*s appropriate to !rin" the notion of 0social reprod(ction0 to !ear (pon the analysis of health and healin".

The So(#a' Re+%o)*( #on o" 7ea' h

5he definition of social reprod(ction )ith )hich this chapter !e"an6the *aintenance of a )ay of life and the co**it*ent of reso(rces 8 1K% 8 to relationships, instit(tions, and s(pport or"anizations that directly or indirectly *aintain health6)as a "eneric state*ent derived fro* a n(*!er of )riters )hose )ork on this concept *ay !e presented *ore f(lly here. +n assessin" a 0social reprod(ction0 concept of health, it is i*portant to identify the social (nits or sectors involved and to identify so*e indices of this process that are separate fro* !iolo"ical

reprod(ction and the reprod(ction of la!or. Meillasso(2<s )ork offers one perspective on this type of analysis. :e separates the 0do*estic co**(nity0 as a social for*ation fro* !oth !iolo"ical reprod(ction and the reprod(ction of la!or for capitalist needs =19&1>. 5his analytical *odel distin"(ishes the ener"y or 0social prod(ct0 needed =a> to reconstit(te prod(ctive ad(lt prod(cers, =!> to n(rt(re f(t(re prod(cers, that is, 0not yet prod(ctive0 children, and =c> to *aintain the postprod(ctive elderly and the sick =19&1:K1MK%>. 5he s(* of these prod(cts offers an indication of )hat is re3(ired to socially reprod(ce the do*estic co**(nity. Celative s(rpl(ses enhance and enrich the co**(nity. relative deficits erode it. Dver several years one can in theory deter*ine the level at )hich a co**(nity reprod(ces itself or falls !elo) a *ini*al replace*ent level. Dther a(thors "o !eyond Meillasso(2<s approach to incl(de *ore than *aterial needs in the calc(l(s of social reprod(ction. 5he distinctions !et)een social, !iolo"ical, and sy*!olic reprod(ction are f(rther developed in Pierre Bo(rdie(<s )ell4kno)n st(dy of the Ba!yle of -l"eria, p(!lished in his Butline of a !heor# of Practice =19%%>. :ere the patrilinea"e, co*posed of ho(seholds headed !y !rothers, is the principal social instit(tion. ;ario(s centrif("al forces are at )ork to !rin" disinte"ration to the linea"e. ,trate"ies to p(ll the linea"e to"ether, to *aintain the fa*ily6socially, sy*!olically, and !iolo"ically 6concentrate on the appropriate *arria"e. 5his is often a *arria"e of a *an to his father<s !rother<s da("hter =bint amm >, so co**on in pastoral no*adic societies. ,(ch a *arria"e serves *aterially to keep the herds and other aspects of the estate intact. :o)ever, Bo(rdie( points o(t that s(ch a strate"y involves far *ore than 1(st econo*ic *ana"e*ent =19%%:J$>. 5he ethos of honor attaches to the (nity of the land, to e3(al stat(s alliances, and the (nity of the a"natic "ro(p, the presti"e of the ho(se. Bo(rdie( says it is i*possi!le to separate ends and *eans in the collective *atri*onial strate"ies. ?very *arria"e tends to reprod(ce the conditions that have *ade it possi!le. 0Matri*onial strate"ies, o!1ectively directed to)ards the conservation or e2pansion of the *aterial and sy*!olic capital 1ointly possessed !y a *ore or less e2tended "ro(p, 8 1K& 8 !elon" to the syste* of re$roduction strategies , defined as the s(* total of the strate"ies thro("h )hich individ(als or "ro(ps reprod(ce the relations of prod(ction associated )ith a deter*inate *ode of prod(ction !y strivin" to reprod(ce or i*prove their position in the social str(ct(re0 =19%%:%$>. 5hese iss(es of threshold levels of ho(sehold and co**(nity *aintenance are addressed in Colin M(rray<s )ork 05he 9ork of Men, 9o*en and the -ncestors: ,ocial Ceprod(ction in the Periphery of ,o(thern -frica0 =19%9>, in Fesotho co**(nities that are deeply involved in oscillatin" la!or *i"ration to the *ines, cities, and factories of ,o(th -frica. -s has !een a!(ndantly doc(*ented, Fesotho has *oved fro* !ein" an a(tono*o(s a"rarian society earlier in this cent(ry, )hich e2ported "rain, to !ein" a society no) lar"ely dependent on )a"e la!or, and )hich i*ports *ost of its food. 'isease levels have risen d(rin" this period. t(!erc(losis in partic(lar constit(tes a *a1or ende*ic disease =M(rray 19&1>. -""re"ate de*o"raphic data for Fesotho are co*para!le to data else)here in the continent, )ith cr(de !irth rates havin" re*ained constant at L2 1$$$ per ann(*, and death rates havin" declined fro* 1& to 1K 1$$$ fro* 19JK to 19&#, res(ltin" in an increase in pop(lation "ro)th over that ti*e fro* 2.L to 2.% percent per ann(* =9orld :ealth Dr"anization 19%9. 9orld Bank 19&K>. M(rray<s caref(l anthropolo"ical field)ork s(""ests that these a""re"ate de*o"raphic data *ask the si"nificant intra4co**(nity and ho(sehold disparities, havin" to do )ith ho(sehold *ake(p, related *ortality and *or!idity, and overall health rates. Up to %$ percent of the ho(seholds are *ana"ed !y )o*en )ho are al*ost entirely dependent on their h(s!ands< )a"e la!or for s(rvival. Dnly J percent of ho(sehold inco*e ca*e fro* the sale of far* prod(ce. -t hi"hest risk for disease )ere those fa*ilies of sin"le ho(sehold heads, and children in fa*ilies in )hich the spo(se of the resident head did not

provide a cash stipend =M(rray 19%9:#LJ>. +n these ho*es infant *ortality often reached K$ percent, far hi"her than the 12$ 1$$$ avera"e. -ltho("h these 0at risk0 ho(seholds reprod(ced the la!or pool for the ,o(th -frican ind(stries and contri!(ted to pop(lation increase, they )ere not 0socially reprod(cin" the*selves.0 +n Meillasso(2<s e3(ation of social reprod(ction, they plainly reflected a social prod(ct deficit. +n M(rray<s acco(nt, social *echanis*s *ost often (tilized in Fesotho society to achieve social reprod(ction )ere 0inter4ho(sehold inco*e transfers,0 s(ch as cash and in4kind re*ittances, !ride)ealth transfers, share4croppin" arran"e*ents, and other contract(al and re4 8 1K9 8 ciprocal arran"e*ents connected )ith a"ric(lt(re. also, infor*al sector transfers s(ch as !eer !re)in", petty tradin", and conc(!ina"e, all of )hich *aintained a )ider scale of social relations than the ho(sehold, and th(s e2tended via!le social s(pport links for those in short4ter* or lon"4ter* need. +n notin" a f(rther feat(re of Fesotho society that is directly related to the )ay n"o*a reprod(ces society, M(rray de*onstrates ho) the e2chan"es and feasts of ancestor rit(als, often in connection )ith leavin" for, or ret(rnin" fro*, *i"rant la!or, play an i*portant role in for"in" and rene)in" the alliances needed to s(rvive the a!sence of the fa*ily head =M(rray 19%9:#L%>. -ltho("h n"o*a in a narro) sense is a!sent in historic ,otho45s)ana society, perhaps !eca(se of its centralized 1(dicial instit(tions, the initiation case in chapter 1 is that of a ,otho *an )hose fa*ily is ca("ht (p in la!or *i"ration. - f(rther note)orthy a(thor )ho has taken a vie) co*para!le to 0social reprod(ction of health,0 )itho(t (tilizin" these e2act )ords, is ,teven 7rankel, an M.'. 4anthropolo"ist )ho has )orked a*on" the :(li in @e) /(inea. 7rankel<s *edical anthropolo"ical st(dy of the :(li of @e) /(inea =19&J> develops !oth the ne"ative indices of health, the 0a!sence of disease,0 and the positive concept of 0social effectiveness.0 5he ela!oration of rhetorical skills, esoteric kno)led"e, rit(al practices, and cos*etic decorations are considered essential in the a!ility to !e effective in social e2chan"es. 5hese are seen as prere3(isites in solicitin" others< "enerosity and (lti*ately ena!lin" an individ(al to care for a fa*ily and to lead the co**(nity. 7or the :(li, and for 7rankel, social effectiveness is seen as operatin" at a level to incl(de not only the ho(sehold !(t lar"er societal levels as )ell, and not *erely the *aterial !asis of e2istence !(t the sy*!olic e2chan"es needed to e2tend p(!lic instit(tions. +n s(*, the concept of social reprod(ction offers a *odel of ho) therape(tic rit(als s(ch as n"o*a *i"ht prove efficacio(s in enhancin" health. Can it !e testedI

P%o"#'e! O" Ngoma So(#a' Re+%o)*( #on

5he social net)orks and therape(tic cell co**(nities for*ed thro("h the lon"4ter* association of *aster4healer and novice, as )ell as the 0lay0 clients and the asse*!lies of people at rit(al events, *ay )ell offer, in their a!ility to recreate society, the *ost prono(nced characteristic 8 1J$ 8 of n"o*a therapy in achievin" and *aintainin" health )here it has collapsed. 5he str(ct(re of these e*er"ent social for*s sho)s the social reprod(ction aro(nd s(fferers and for*er s(fferers, healers and the healed. 5he fo(r ill(strations of this process that follo) )ill foc(s, as noted earlier, on the type of social fa!ric that is created, reinforced, or reprod(ced !y the partic(lar n"o*a rit(al so as to *ore effectively address health needs.

Re(on(#'#ng L#neage an) T%a)e #n P%e(o'on#a' .ongo So(#e &

+n the settin" of the ancient Fe*!a c(lt of affliction in Fo)er Aaire, the local linea"e )as challen"ed to co*e to "rips )ith the *ercantile )ealth of the "reat trade )ith the coast )itho(t havin" its e"alitarian ethos shattered. + have s(""ested, in chapter 1 of the present )ork and else)here =19&2:%$M%9>, that this )as possi!le thro("h the 1(dicio(s creation of alliances !et)een linea"es, )hich for"ed links across the co(ntryside alon" the trade ro(tes, and thro("h ade3(ate e2chan"e and distri!(tion )ithin these nodes of society, there!y ass(rin" that Fe*!a *e*!ers co(ld safely travel fro* *arket to *arket, and to the coast )ith their caravans. 5he de*o"raphic profile of coastal Bon"o society d(rin" the seventeenth to early t)entieth cent(ries, d(rin" )hich Fe*!a e2isted, is kno)n to have s(ffered fro* an overall decline of a!o(t K$ percent of )hat it had !een in the si2teenth cent(ry =,a(tter 19JJ:2M%1>. -n o!1ective assess*ent of the factors involved in this )o(ld incl(de not only the slave trade, )hich dre) the !est yo(n" ad(lts o(t of the society, !(t the co*po(ndin" infl(ences of societal !reakdo)n res(ltin" fro* raids and epide*ics. Fe*!a initiation rit(als approached these conditions at several levels. Dne )as the divination and treat*ent of specific sy*pto*s and si"ns related to the fear of s(!ordinates< envy. :o)ever, a *ore i*portant criterion of the initiates< acceptance )as their a!ility to pay for the final sta"es of the initiation rite, the 0"rad(ation,0 )hether )ith their o)n or their linea"e<s patrona"e. ?ffectively, Fe*!a )as a c(lt of affliction of the elite ho(seholds of north !ank Con"o Civer society, in the face of the disinte"rative forces of the *ercantile trade )ith the coast. 5he social str(ct(ral partic(lars of this arran"e*ent are )ell kno)n. Df strate"ic si"nificance in the )hole Fe*!a sche*e of social reprod(ction )as the Fe*!a ho(sehold, )hich !ro("ht to"ether t)o types of 8 1J1 8 "ro(ps. Dne )as the alliance that linked *a1or lando)nin" freeholder linea"es in ad1acent co**(nities. the second )as the alliance that !onded s(ch freeholder linea"es )ith client linea"e fra"*ents. +n the first instance, the *arria"e tended to !e of the patrilateral, cross4co(sin type !et)een linea"es of e3(al stat(s, !et)een )ho* e3(al e2chan"e *arked s(ccessive *arria"es of this type. +n the second settin", they )ere often, fro* the perspective of the *arryin" *ale in the do*inant linea"e, *atrilateral cross4co(sin *arria"es. 5his pattern e2pressed the (ne3(al e2chan"e !et)een the t)o linea"es, servin" nevertheless to )eld the co**(nity of several e2o"a*o(s linea"es to"ether in a hierarchic local society. 5he Fe*!a *arria"es !et)een freeholders ass(red a re"ional net)ork for the trade and peacef(l relations in a re"ion )here no historic state e2tended its he"e*ony. 5he Fe*!a *arria"es !et)een (ne3(al6*aster and client, or slave6linea"es enhanced the local co**(nity !y enlar"in" its pop(lation and political !ase. +ndeed, the rhetoric of Fe*!a stated that the linea"e in possession of Fe*!a 0co(ld not die o(t.0 +n these t)o )ays Fe*!a helped to socially reprod(ce the society in the face of the centrif("al forces (nleashed !y the coastal trade fro* 1J$$ on, econo*ic divisions )ithin linea"es, slave raids, fe(ds and )ars, and epide*ics. 9e have no )ay of kno)in" )hether Fe*!a di*inished the episodes of fear of envy !y s(!ordinates, either thro("h protective *edicine or thro("h redistri!(tion of "oods and food. :o)ever, it is clear, and north Bon"o infor*ants stress, that Fe*!a )as (s(ally an i*portant deterrent to local fe(ds and th(s averted the !loodshed, loss of property thro("h !(rned ho(ses, and chaos that other)ise res(lted fro* local )ars. +n this sense Fe*!a did have a *eas(ra!le effect on the )ell4!ein" of the re"ion )here it )as i*planted.

9e have only "li*pses of the n(*!ers of individ(als in a re"ion involved in Fe*!a. +n ter*s of the percenta"es of *arria"es that *i"ht have !een 0Fe*!a *arria"es,0 e2trapolatin" fro* historical data in the villa"e on )hich + have s(ch records, it appears that less than K percent )ere involved. Get as the elite, they )ere infl(ential, and the i*pact of Fe*!a )as considera!le.

Sa$#ng L#$e! o" Mo he%! an) In"an ! on he So* he%n Sa$anna

-nother area in )hich )e *ay (sef(lly e2a*ine the 0social reprod(ction0 hypothesis of the efficacy of n"o*a rit(als is in the enhance4 8 1J2 8 *ent of conception and s(ccessf(l !irthin" and the s(rvival of healthy children. -ltho("h n"o*a4type intervention has !een st(died in the 9estern Bant( @kita rite descri!ed earlier, and altho("h ;ictor 5(rner st(died certain n"o*a rites a*on" the @de*!(, these st(dies do not foc(s on epide*iolo"ical or de*o"raphic varia!les. :o)ever, )e no) kno) that the re"ion fro* the -tlantic coast inland to )estern Basai in Aaire, and the ,o(thern ,avanna to )estern Aa*!ia, and north)ard to Con"o and /a!on, constit(ted6and in so*e areas still constit(tesMthe )idespread 0infertility zone0 =/aisie 19&9>. 5he )ork !y -nita ,prin" =19%&, 19&K> and ;eroni3(e /o!let4;anor*elin"en =19&&> on this n"o*a4 style instit(tion on the ,o(thern ,avanna of north)estern Aa*!ia and so(thern Aaire, respectively, is e2ceptionally val(a!le for its attention to the de*o"raphic and epide*iolo"ic indicators associated )ith the p(rported "oals of n"o*a. ,prin" has st(died the B(la rite and related mahamba ="eneric shrines> a*on" the F(vale. /o!let4;anor*elin"en has st(died an instit(tion called M!o*!o a*on" the M(to*!o M(k(l( F(!a of ,ha!a Province in Aaire. 5hese are si*ilar in their e*phasis on reprod(ctive diffic(lties in the c(lts of affliction of 9(!)an"(, +so*a, and aspects of @k(la )hich ;ictor 5(rner =19J&> descri!ed a*on" the @de*!( of Aa*!ia. 5he core feat(res of n"o*a identified in chapter # *ay all !e fo(nd in the reprod(ctive enhance*ent rites on the ,o(thern ,avanna. 5he *ode of affliction is identified as spirit4ori"inated threat to the ne)ly conceived fet(s. -fter an initial rite of entrance, the pre"nant )o*an leaves her h(s!and and enters secl(sion in a special enclos(re constr(cted in the ho*estead of her sponsorin" healer4 "ynecolo"ist4*id)ife, )here she is taken care of )ith anti4a!ortive *edication, special diet, and hy"ienic attention. Upon the s(ccessf(l !irth of the child, in so*e variants, and as *(ch later as the first steps of the child in others, secl(sion ends )ith a second4sta"e n"o*a "rad(ation and final entry of the *other into the order. +n M!o*!o, as descri!ed !y /o!let4;anor*elin"en, the end of secl(sion co*es shortly after the !irth of the child, at )hich ti*e the *other and child are )ashed in a near!y river and presented to the father. @"o*a *(sic acco*panies this 0co*in" o(t0 of the ne) child )ith its *other. Both ,prin" and /o!let4;anor*elin"en are interested in the 0efficacy0 of these !irth4enhancin" proced(res. ,prin" criticizes 5(rner for payin" little attention to this 3(estion and for ass(*in" that +so*a =for *iscarria"es, a!ortions, still!irths, !arrenness, *enstr(al disorders, illness of infants>, 9(!)an"( =for t)in pre"nancies, infant disorders, !arrenness, *iscarria"es, *enstr(al disorders> and @k(la =for 8 1J# 8 *enstr(al disorders, !arrenness, *iscarria"es, ill health of infant> )ere pri*arily social, sy*!olic, and reli"io(s in nat(re. ,he is interested, first of all, in the 0epide*iolo"y of rit(al participation0 and in

)hether the secl(sion proced(res enhance s(rvivorship. Dne i*portant predisposin" iss(e to !e taken into acco(nt in the F(vale re"ion of Aa*!ia is that altho("h the contin(ity of the linea"e and fa*ily is hi"hly val(ed, infertility and s(!fec(ndity of )o*en is co**on and s(rvivorship of infants is lo). -!o(t 2$ percent of F(vale )o*en in ,prin"<s sa*ple of forty4five4year4old )o*en had !een !arren d(rin" their ad(lt lives. - hi"h percenta"e )ere s(!fec(nd, that is, had "one five years )itho(t a live !irth d(rin" reprod(ctive years. 7(rther, infant *ortality )as a!o(t 1K$ 1$$$. 5his res(lted in a co*pleted fa*ily size on avera"e per )o*an of only 2.$K children for the society, )hich is !arely a replace*ent level =,prin" 19%&:1%KM1%J>. 5he F(vale )ere (nderstanda!ly concerned )ith fertility enhance*ent. Ceasons for the hi"h infertility incl(ded hi"h levels of "enital and (rinary4tract disease, *(ch !arrenness, and fetal )asta"e. 5hese are in part reflected in the hi"h level of a!do*inal pains, dys*enorrhea, and fevers pro!a!ly ca(sed !y !ilharziasis, "onorrhea, and nonspecific !acterial infection, in addition to *alaria, hook)or*, and a*e!iasis, )hich are ende*ic =19%&:1%J>. 5he isolation therapy at the ti*e of conception is part of a *ore "eneral c(lt(ral strate"y of the F(vale to i*prove the chances of offsprin". Childless )o*en are first of all "iven treat*ent for !arrenness. +f they !eco*e pre"nant, they receive the perfor*ances of several mahamba c(lts at a n(*!er of possi!le points in their reprod(ctive years. +f a pre"nant )o*an has a *iscarria"e or delivers a still!orn child, she is a likely candidate for the secl(sion rit(al. +f she has *enstr(al dysf(nctions, she )ill receive her!al treat*ents, )hich, if (ns(ccessf(l, )ill !e follo)ed !y f(rther rit(al treat*ent. +f a )o*an<s child !eco*es sickly, !oth *other and child )ill !e secl(ded. +f a )o*an<s s*all child dies, she )ill receive secl(sion. +f a )o*an !eco*es ill )ith pro!le*s (nrelated directly to child!irth, she )ill !e a candidate for the secl(sion rit(al. 0Possession0 c(lt initiation *ay th(s occ(r at any one of a n(*!er of points in the co(rse of a )o*an<s reprod(ctive years. 5he etiolo"y of spirit or shade involve*ent is (s(ally *ade official !y the diviner. Carely does it involve trance, altho("h the n"o*a4type son"4 dance, a variety of partic(lar *edicinal and technical treat*ents, food prohi!itions and special diets, the 0)hite0 sy*!olis* of secl(sion, and the t)o4sta"e passa"e are inte"ral feat(res of the rites. 7(lly half of the )o*en in F(vale society are initiated to one or 8 1JL 8 another *anifestation of reprod(ctive c(lts !y the ti*e they reach the end of their child!earin" years. +n 5(rner<s @de*!( sa*ple, )o*en<s reprod(ctive iss(es )ere !y far the *ost fre3(ent enco(nters of individ(al @de*!( )ith the n"o*a syste*. +n his sa*ple fro* t)o areas, 5(rner noted that nineteen of t)enty4si2 )o*en had "one thro("h @k(la. t)elve of t)enty4fo(r thro("h +so*a and 9(!)an"( each =19J&:#$#>. /o!let4;anor*elin"en, )hose )ork is still in process, "ives no statistical infor*ation of this type. ,prin" e*phasizes that these reprod(ction enhance*ent rit(als are th(s responses to !oth "eneralized physical ill health and partic(lar concerns of ,o(thern ,avanna fa*ilies for effective !iolo"ical and social reprod(ction. :o) effective are the rit(als and their related interventionsI /o!let4;anor*elin"en 1(d"es as 0tr(ly !eneficial0 the follo)in" aspects of M!o*!o rit(al: the contin(o(s assistance of the healer and the )o*an<s h(s!and, creatin" an enco(ra"in" at*osphere for her. so*e r(les of !ehavior, partic(larly the necessity of livin" a)ay fro* the stresses of fa*ily life, the dan"ers of e2pos(re to conta"io(s diseases and )ork4related infections, and havin" co*plete rest. and, after child!irth, secl(sion to reinforce the *other4child !ond. More dan"ero(s to the health of *other and child are certain practices in preparation for !irth and delivery, )hich, !eca(se they are nonsterile, *ay increase the risk of infections or tetan(s, and certain food prohi!itions that appear to restrict intake of n(tritio(s food. Dn

!alance, !elieves /o!let4;anor4*elin"en, the M!o*!o rit(als appear to enhance the chances of )ell!ein" of !oth *other and child. ,prin"<s analysis of F(vale )o*ens< reprod(ction rit(als, altho("h it does not lend itself to a precise statistical eval(ation, does s(""est that the isolation therapy and the *aintenance of net)orks of n"o*a orders pro!a!ly i*prove the health of *others and children, that is, increase s(rvivorship. ,prin"<s evidence s(""ests that *ost )o*en )ho are divined to re3(ire n"o*a rit(als do enter the*, and in their later years these )o*en !eco*e the doctors of these c(lts. 5his *eans that !eca(se they are at risk, s(rvival ratios of the infants of those )o*en )ho are *e*!ers of, involved in, and leaders in the n"o*a orders )ill !e lo)er than a*on" non*e*!ers. ,(rvivorship *(st !e co(nted in ter*s of pre"nancies saved that *i"ht other)ise have !een lost and s(rvivin" infants )ho *i"ht other)ise have !een lost. -nita ,prin" foc(ses her disc(ssion of efficacy6altho("h she does not (se the ter*6aro(nd the str(ct(re and the stren"th of the net)ork of )o*en active in reprod(ction enhance*ent, and )hat this does for their self4i*a"e, social role, and the str(ct(re of the co**(nity. 5he 8 1JK 8 se3(ence of !ein" a s(fferer4novice, an apprentice, and finally a c(red4doctor res(lts in a cooperative syste* of social relations per*ittin" )o*en to "ain, and perpet(ate thro("h practice and teachin", the kno)led"e of ho) to deal )ith )o*en<s reprod(ctive concerns. -s in other n"o*a conte2ts, adversity is t(rned into stren"th, an2iety into specialized kno)led"e, s(fferin" into healin". 5he instit(tional fra*e)ork !rin"s spirit possession, as an ideolo"y, into the set of etiolo"ical !eliefs, altho("h the type of kno)led"e needed to deal )ith infertility, threatened *iscarria"e, still!irths, sick children, and the rest, is hi"hly practical, )hat in the 9est )e )o(ld call e*pirical and rational kno)led"e, rather than a trance state. @ot all n"o*a attention to children is as sal(tary as that of the ,o(thern ,avanna. Dn t)o occasions in the 19&2M&# s(rvey + )itnessed practices that + tho("ht *i"ht lead to the child<s death, rather than to its recovery. Both had to do )ith divinatory possessions. 5he first occ(rred in Binshasa as Ma*a Bishi @ze*!ela, the F(!a Bil(*!( *edi(*, allo)ed her apprentice *edi(* to flail a!o(t )ith her child pressed !et)een her le"s, sho(tin" that it )as evil and that she had an evil spirit. D!vio(sly the yo(n" )o*an )as (nhappy, and in a reckless a!andon she took her *isery o(t on her child. 5he child escaped that episode (nscathed, !(t the *other nearly s*ashed its tender sk(ll on the ce*ent floor, )ith )hich it ca*e into very close pro2i*ity on several occasions. 5he other ti*e )as d(rin" a divinin" session in ,)aziland )hen the *ost ela!orate and hi"h4priced *edi(*ship divination )as done to deter*ine the ca(se of the sickness of a s*all child. /ranted, in !oth cases, the infants )ere !orn to )o*en )ho )ere not *arried, or )hose *arria"es had ended. 5h(s, ancestral and spirit displeas(re as ca(se of a s*all child<s respiratory infection )as a type of dia"nosis that sho(ld have !een a!andoned in favor of ade3(ate clinical and parental care. -ltho("h these t)o *edi(*ship divinations *ay have enhanced fa*ily solidarity, they did not contri!(te to the )ell!ein" of the infants involved. Cick Goder<s concern, 0+s it "ood for the childrenI0 )as not an idle one )ith re"ard to n"o*a rites.

Reg#ona' Ne 4o%5! o" he I!angomaA Amag9#%a o" So* he%n A"%#(a

5he de*o"raphic profile of ,o(th -frica reflects !oth third )orld and first )orld conditions. 9hite society has lo) *ortality and fertility, on par )ith 9estern ?(rope, and a *or!idity profile in keepin" )ith

8 1JJ 8 an ind(strialized, affl(ent society. 5he leadin" ca(ses of death are de"enerative and cardiovasc(lar diseases. By contrast, the society of the !lack to)nships reflects conditions of hi"h *ortality and fertility. the leadin" *or!idity ca(ses are infectio(s diseases and accidents. -*on" ad(lts, t(!erc(losis is a serio(s pro!le*. -*on" children, respiratory and intestinal infections and conta"io(s diseases are the leadin" ca(ses of death. ,o(th -frican ho*elands, )hose health statistics are often not p(!lished in official records !eca(se so*e of the* are 0independent,0 have the hi"hest infant *ortality rates in -frica, near #$$ 1$$$. @"o*a is )ell4represented in the !lack to)nships of the 9estern Cape, as noted in earlier chapters. :o)ever, its relationship to the fore"oin" health indicators is not )ell (nderstood. Fittle )ork has !een done on the s(!1ect. 5he co*position of n"o*a cells is not as strict or )ell4defined as in Central -frica. @"o*a activity, as noted, e2ists in a sin"le inter4ethnic *ode, rather than !ein" the*atically specialized and ethnically distinctive. Cells *ay !e or"anized as infor*al friendship alliances !et)een healers =san"o*a, a*a"3ira>. Dne i"3ira )ith )ho* + disc(ssed the co*position of her "ro(p of colla!oratin" healers, s(""ested that she *et )ith 0her friends,0 )ho* she invited to her events )ith a!o(t a )eek<s advance notice, on the !asis of friendship and co*pati!ility, that is, that they did not drink e2cessively. +t )as alon" s(ch lines that infor*ation )o(ld !e passed and *(t(al help and "ifts e2chan"ed over divination, co(nselin", and healin"4initiatin". +n five related events + o!served in Cape 5o)n, a loosely linked 0star0 net)ork pattern e*er"ed, s(""estive of overlappin" sets of f(lly initiated san"o*a or a*a"3ira =see fi". 1#>. 5o the skeletal net)ork of 9estern Cape diviner4healers, one *(st add an array of, on avera"e, ten novices allied )ith each healer, pl(s the novices< fa*ilies and friends. 7or the five a*a"3ira )ith )ho* + )as a!le to disc(ss this, each had nine, t)enty, ten, ten, and si2 apprentices respectively. 5hese novices re"(larly attend p(rification events on the occasion of a death in the fa*ily or kindred of any one of the* and also of their *aster4healer. they attend all events p(t on !y their *aster4healer, s(ch as initiations and "rad(ations. 5he novices< o)n fa*ilies are to so*e e2tent involved, if not directly in the events, then indirectly in the !enefits of the re"(lar food distri!(tions *ade at the ti*e of "oat, sheep, and cattle sacrifices and feasts. 5he attendance at one typical event, the initiation *entioned in fi"(re 1#, incl(ded si2 *aster healers =three Hhosa and one A(l( )o*an, t)o A(l( *en>, t)o fe*ale Hhosa senior novices, si2 Hhosa 8 1J% 8

7i"(re 1#. Pattern of association of individ(al healers and their novices in five events in 9estern Cape n"o*a net)orks, late 19&2. Capital letters refer to senior healers present at partic(lar events. cl(sters of enclosed : <s refer to these healers< novices in therapy trainin" )ith the*. fe*ale novices and one *ale Hhosa novice, a ,otho *ale initiate, and seven (nidentified additional novices. ,everal dozen o!servers )ere on hand, incl(din" the initiate<s fa*ily and nei"h!ors. 5he stren"th and depth of this type of or"anization in Cape 5o)n to)nship society is not easy to "eneralize )itho(t ade3(ate s(rvey infor*ation. :o)ever, a ro("h esti*ate *ay !e pro1ected fro* n(*!ers of *aster healers in the t)o streets in /("(leto and @yan"a )here ngoma participation )as assessed. Dne street had fo(r f(ll i"3ira residents. the other had t)o, pl(s an i:'ele her!alist. + )as told

that this )as a co**on de"ree of representation for the to)nships. 5his avera"e of #.K a*a"3ira per street, ho)ever shaky its statistical si"nificance, ti*es the 1K# e3(al4len"th streets and ho(ses in t)o to)nships, )o(ld s(""est that there are K#K f(lly 3(alified san"o*a a*a"3ira in /("(leto and @yan"a. 5his fi"(re, do(!led to incl(de the to)nships Fan"a and Crossroads, )o(ld yield an esti*ate of over a tho(sand healers of the n"o*a 8 1J& 8 type in the to)nships of Cape 5o)n. +f the 9estern Cape Ce"ional -(thority<s fi"(re of 2$$,$$$ -frican inha!itants is (sed, there )o(ld !e appro2i*ately one n"o*a healer for 2$$ inha!itants. :o)ever, to esti*ate the f(ll e2tent of n"o*a net)orks in the pop(lace, this fi"(re *(st !e *(ltiplied !y ten, for the avera"e n(*!er of each *aster healer<s apprentice4novices. -ss(*in" five to seven individ(als in each ho(sehold, this )o(ld indicate n"o*a involve*ent, as *aster healer or apprentice, in one in fo(r ho(seholds. ,(ch !randishin" of statistical infor*ation is ad*ittedly of d(!io(s val(e. 5he clai* that n"o*a cells and net)orks socially reprod(ce relations needs to !e "iven conte2t not only in the n"o*a settin" !(t also in the do*estic settin" o(t of )hich the individ(als ori"inate. ?vidence for this is a"ain so*e)hat anecdotal and case4st(dy specific. - revie) of one i"3ira<s roster of c(rrent =19&2> apprentice4novices, their fa*ily settin"s and do*estic relations, and )ork records sho)ed the follo)in". @ovice one, a *arried )o*an )ith five children in the ho(se, had entered n"o*a seven years earlier. 9ith a secondary school de"ree, she )orked for her h(s!and<s !oss at a constr(ction co*pany. ,he )as a 0five to0 =*idni"ht>, that is, near co*pletion, and )as asse*!lin" "oods for her "rad(ation. @ovice t)o, also *arried to a *an )ith 0"ood )ork,0 and )ith children in the ho*e, )orked as a cleanin" )o*an. ,he had !e"(n seven years earlier and )as "atherin" reso(rces for her "rad(ation. @ovice three, *arried to a *an )ith steady )ork in a !lanket factory, also )orked as a cleanin" )o*an. :er children )ere s*all )hen she entered n"o*a nine years earlier. ,he )as tryin" to collect "oods for her "rad(ation. @ovice fo(r had children at ho*e and )as *arried to a ta2i4!(s o)ner )ho e*ployed other drivers. ,he did not )ork o(tside the ho*e. ,he had !e"(n n"o*a nine years earlier, havin" !een a Aionist, and )as a 0five4to0 asse*!lin" "oods for her "rad(ation. 5hese fo(r )o*en, )ith seven to nine years e2perience as novices, )ere the *ainstays in n"o*a sessions (nder the direction of their *aster healer. - second "ro(p of fo(r novices in this cell see*ed to have "reater diffic(lty *ovin" 0thro("h the )hite.0 5hey )ere all sin"le *others )orkin" o(tside the ho*e. @ovice five )orked as a do*estic and had three children. ,he had !e"(n n"o*a nine years earlier !(t had only pro"ressed to the stat(s of 1(nior novice. @ovice si2, a sin"le *other of one da("hter, also )orked as a do*estic. ,he had pro!le*s )ith alcoholis* and )as not pro"ressin" )ell in her therape(tic initiation. @ovices seven and ei"ht )ere a *other4da("hter set, livin" to"ether 8 1J9 8 )itho(t h(s!ands. 5he da("hter )as a schoolteacher. Both )ere 1(nior novices. 5)o ne) apprentices )ere !oth parents in relatively sta!le *arital relationships )ith s*all children at ho*e. @ovice nine, a *e*!er of the Bant( Pres!yterian Ch(rch, )as *arried to a *an )ith a "ood 1o!. @ovice ten )as a *arried *an )ith children and sta!le e*ploy*ent. 7e) "eneralizations *ay !e dra)n fro* this set of ten novices in one healer<s "ro(p of apprentice4 novices. Dne co**on factor is that they enter n"o*a as yo(n" or *iddle4a"ed ad(lts, and *ost re3(ire fro* five to ten years to *ove thro("h the novitiate. B(t little is kno)n a!o(t the 0epide*iolo"y0 of

n"o*a involve*ent in ,o(th -frica. Janet Mills, ho)ever, has so("ht to identify factors )ithin the ho(sehold that *i"ht !e associated )ith the appeal to n"o*a =19&2>. -ltho("h the e2plicit reason co**only "iven for enterin" an n"o*a cell is the 0call0 =t)asa> fro* ancestors, she has investi"ated the possi!le correlation !et)een this s(pport seekin" and active t(!erc(losis cases in the ho(sehold. ,he fo(nd t(!erc(losis to !e sli"htly *ore fre3(ent in n"o*a4related than in non4n"o*a ho(seholds. -ltho("h no conscio(s or e2plicit linka"e is *ade in n"o*a participants< e2planations !et)een t(!erc(losis and the call to 1oin n"o*a, the possi!le !asis for s(ch a link *ay !e hypothesized. +t is (nlikely that n"o*a healin" is directly !eneficial for t(!erc(losis. Cather, it *ay !e that 1(st as t(!erc(losis6ende*ic in its latent state6has er(pted in active infection, the ener"ies of prod(ctive individ(als have !een so strained as to lead to s(pport seekin" in an n"o*a or si*ilar net)ork. 5(!erc(losis is ende*ic in ,o(th -frican !lacks, and a variety of stressors, s(ch as inade3(ate n(trition, poverty, lack of ade3(ate shelter, can !rin" on an active episode. -lso, prolon"ed rest alon" )ith *edication is re3(ired to recover fro* an active episode. Participation of the care providers6that is, spo(se6in an n"o*a cell or net)ork )o(ld provide the re3(isite s(pport, additional contacts, and so(rces of aid needed to deal )ith the lon"4ter* crisis of t(!erc(losis in the fa*ily. -ltho("h one co(ld fi"(re the n(tritional intake offered to participants in the n"o*a net)ork events as a possi!le point of depart(re for the analysis of its e2istence, *ore si"nificant *ay )ell !e the social invest*ent in n"o*a therape(tic str(ct(res. +f one in fo(r ho(seholds is involved, this net)ork covers the entire (r!an society, as )ell as connectin" it to other cities and r(ral areas. 5his si"nificance of social reprod(ction, )hich + ar"(e is also health4!(ildin" efficacy, )o(ld see* to *ake an i*pact at three levels: the 8 1%$ 8 n(cle(s of the *aster )ith apprentices. the !road net)ork spannin" the )hole society. and those ho(seholds that are connected )ith n"o*a. '(rin" the years of apprenticeship4initiation4therapy, the *aster heater serves as role *odel, co(nselor, therapist, "(ide. in ret(rn, the *aster *ay e2pect services and so*e "oods fro* the novices. -ltho("h the novices or their fa*ily pay their *asters a "oodly s(* of *oney for the sacrifice ani*als and for their o)n cost(*e, they stand to !enefit in the reshapin" of their lives, in sortin" o(t pro!le*s, findin" contacts to 1o!s, and referrals of all sorts. +ntense resocialization occ(rs )ithin the "ro(p of novice4peers. 5he possi!ilities "o !eyond this, to the *ore p(!lic net)ork into )hich the *aster healer is the 0h(!0 of the )heel, radiatin" o(t alon" 0spokes0 to *any ho(seholds, and (lti*ately, to the entire society. - case can !e ar"(ed that t)asa is not *adness, !(t the call to social reprod(ction. +t is, as :arriet @"(!ane has s(""ested =19&1>, a pan4 societal net)ork e2tendin" across ,o(thern -frica, and, as )e no) kno), )ell !eyond.

P%o"e!!#ona' an) S a e Con %o' o" Ngoma on he S4ah#'# Coa!

5he final e2a*ple of the social reprod(ction of health thro("h n"o*a is fro* coastal 5anzania and sho)s yet another variation of the therape(tic foc(s and or"anizational str(ct(re of the instit(tion. -*on" Aara*o and Ai"(a peoples of the ,)ahili coast, the coastal healers have (tilized their n"o*a net)orks to create a centralized instit(tion, the ,hirika la Mada)a ya Biasili, )ith officers, !ooks, a treas(ry, and a 0director,0 that is, a representative of "overn*ent to !e a liaison )ith appropriate *inistries. Focal n"o*a perfor*ances dra), as every)here in n"o*a, a shiftin" set of senior participants )ith their apprentices and novices. -t another level, there are individ(al )a"an"a )ho !elon" to patrilinea"es, )hich in the ,)ahili coastal settin" have often passed their therape(tic skills

fro* "eneration to "eneration. 5he ,hirika had a!o(t five h(ndred *e*!ers in 19&#, )ith stron"est representation in 'ar es ,alaa*, 5an"a, Ba"a*oyo, and Moro"oro, and in the ne) capital, 'odo*a. 5hey )ere tryin" to create !ranches in other localities. 5anzania had earlier e2peri*ented )ith a national or"anization of healers, !(t this )as a!olished )hen it !eca*e too politicized, that is, fract(red and po)erf(l. 5he links !et)een the ,hirika and the "overn*ent revealed so*e of the sa*e forces of econo*ic 8 1%1 8 interest, of political stren"th, and of party and "overn*ent control that had s(rfaced in the national or"anization. 9hy )as the state interested in n"o*aI 5he ,hirika had official reco"nition thro("h the Ministry of C(lt(re, )hich "enerally handled licenses for n"o*a entertain*ent "ro(ps and cond(cted research on son"4dance. 9hy, tho("h, sho(ld therape(tic dancin" !e controlled !y the Ministry of C(lt(re and not the Ministry of :ealthI 5he po)er of n"o*a as a reso(rce, especially one so lar"e and )ell or"anized, )as indicative of its sy*!olic po)er in society at lar"e. 5he role of a party4appointed 0director0 )ith affiliation to the national political party hinted at so*e of the potential tensions !et)een the or"anization and the state<s interest. 5he director in effect controlled the recr(it*ent of ne) n"o*a cells to the ,hirika, there!y e2ercisin" restrictions on its overall infl(ence. 5his )o(ld avert )hat had occ(rred in the case of a cattle4r(stlin" n"o*a that had arisen in response to the need to locate stolen livestock. 5he "overn*ent had heard a!o(t it only after it )as f(lly constit(ted and then !elatedly tried to "ain its alle"iance. ,o*e)hat si*ilarly, the n"o*a for entertain*ent or"anized !y the @ational ,ervice indicated the effort to connect the state to the po)erf(l sy*!olis* of socially foc(sed son"4dance. 5hese details of the relationship !et)een state and n"o*a ill(strate a si"nificant "eneral principal. reso(rce s(ch as n"o*a, )hich *ay arise in response to a need, and )hich sy*!olically, socially, and *aterially reprod(ces itself, !y that very fact attracts the state, )hich seeks to co4opt po)er and le"iti*acy (nto itself. 5he reso(rces to !e dra)n fro* the ,hirika6an (*!rella or"anization of therape(tic n"o*a6)ere also apparent to the individ(als and fa*ilies )ho *ade their livin" fro* these perfor*ances. Unlike the pop(listic net)orks of reprod(ction4enhancin" n"o*a of the ,o(thern ,avanna or the to)nship n"o*a of the 9estern Cape, here !y no *eans everyone )ho )as !ro("ht into the initial sta"e of treat*ent follo)ed thro("h )ith the f(ll initiation. +n fact, accordin" to the records and testi*ony of the ,hirika leaders, only a!o(t # to L percent of the s(fferers )ho entered n"o*a dispensaries for treat*ent )ere f(lly initiated. 5his is corro!orated !y research of a decade earlier, in )hich only three of si2ty )a"an"a had entered their healin" profession thro("h spirit callin" =F. ,)antz 19%L:2$#>. +n 'ar es ,alaa*, the reco"nition of healers and the opport(nity for the* to or"anize into associations has led to the stren"thenin" of their control of reso(rces =Unsch(ld 19%K>. Dn the one hand, this has led to 8 1%2 8 f(ll4ti*e practice, the (tilization of therape(tics as inco*e, and to the control of the therape(tic and sy*!olic reso(rces, in this case divination, the dia"nosis of spirit possession, and the perfor*ance of a(thorized therape(tic son"4dance. Dn the other hand, this has led to the restriction of access to the role of the n"o*a healer and to the consolidation of *e*!ership in the ,hirika.

5he effect of professionalization of health care else)here has !een the codification of *ethods and the re"(lation of access to the ranks of those )ho practice =Fast and Chav(nd(ka 19&J>.

Con('*!#on
5his chapter has offered an approach to the st(dy of the relationship !et)een social or"anization and the allocation of reso(rces, and to their i*pact on health in the conte2t of n"o*a4type healin". ,ocial reprod(ction theory, as p(t for)ard !y Meillasso(2, Bo(rdie(, M(rray, and 7rankel offers tools for a *ore ri"oro(s analysis of the *anner in )hich society itself str(ct(res the reso(rces of health. Unfort(nately, very little research has !een cond(cted to act(ally test propositions a!o(t the efficacy of n"o*a4type therapy in ter*s of *eas(ra!le health indicators. +n the cases )e have revie)ed here, only the )ork !y -nita ,prin" and ;eroni3(e /o!let4;anor*elin"en on fertility4enhancin" rit(als of the ,o(thern ,avanna approaches the 3(estion in s(ch a )ay as to offer clear co*parative res(lts. @"o*a str(ct(red care and isolation fro* the stresses of ho(sehold d(ty appear to *ake a difference in s(rvival of at4risk pre"nancies. - retrospective hypothesis for the controlled st(dy of health as social reprod(ction )o(ld need to provide the follo)in" *ini*al infor*ation. 9hat is the nat(re and e2tent of social s(pport and its allocation to health4related arenas in the ho(sehold, the e2tra4ho(sehold net)orks, and society at lar"eI -re there *eas(ra!le differential effects (pon s(rvival of at4risk se"*ents of society or the i*prove*ent of perceived healthI 8 1%# 8

Con('*!#on
- *a1or "oal of this )ork has !een to e2plore the !asis for the instit(tion vario(sly kno)n as the 0rit(al of affliction,0 0c(lt of affliction,0 or 0dr(* of affliction,0 the latter ter* !ein" derived directly fro* the )idespread notion n"o*a, a Bant( lan"(a"e co"nate. Utilizin" a variety of historical, lin"(istic, archaeolo"ical, and co*parative so(rces, the case )as *ade that n"o*a *ay have e*er"ed as part of the classical Bant( e2pansion over t)o *illennia a"o, altho("h so*e evidence points to a *ore recent ?astern Bant( ori"in. @ineteenth4cent(ry c(lt(re historians *i"ht have said that )e had perhaps identified a health and healin" 0co*ple2,0 a set of interrelated traits and practices, and (ni3(e characteristics. Dthers *i"ht have so("ht to e2plain it in ter*s of its ori"ins. Dne reader of this *an(script noted that if n"o*a )as as old as s(""ested, it *(st have responded to a distinctive need d(rin" the ori"inal Bant( e2pansion. Unfort(nately, to (nearth s(ch an ori"inal p(rpose is !eyond o(r reach. Perhaps one day very sophisticated sociolin"(istic history or se*iotic analysis of !odily *otion )ill div(l"e the prehistory of n"o*a. 5his )ork does not rest its case for n"o*a<s e2istence solely on a ri"oro(s c(lt(ral4historical approach to rit(al. Cather, (tilizin" a !road s(rvey approach, + have de*onstrated certain (nderlyin" co**on properties6lin"(istic, !ehavioral, and str(ct(ral6that see* to *ake it appropriate to speak of n"o*a as an instit(tion, in the tradition of '(rkhei*, 9e!er, and Mar2. 8 1%L 8 5he for*al properties of this instit(tion )ere 3(ite readily identified: the phased rite of passa"e, an

approach to classifyin" *isfort(ne )hich e*phasizes the place of the social conte2t6of people. the role of the shades and spirits in the o(tco*e of dealin" )ith that *isfort(ne. the release of the s(fferer fro* nor*al social o!li"ations, and the pro"ression of the s(fferer4novice thro("h the 0)hite0 li*inal sick role and initiation to f(ll *e*!ership in the order. the pervasiveness of sacrifice, )hich sets in *otion an e2chan"e !et)een the livin" and the s(pernat(ral, as )ell as creatin" the !onds and net)orks a*on" the livin" thro("h the cookin" and distri!(tion of the sacrificial ani*al. finally, the e*po)er*ent of the initiate as 3(alified healer. :o)ever, these feat(res do not hold to"ether as an instit(tion (ntil they are identified in their perfor*ance conte2t, that of 0doin" n"o*a.0 +n this settin", a far *ore dyna*ic set of feat(res is at )ork. 5he actions, descri!ed and analyzed in chapter L, !rin" to"ether every level of participant6 novice, trainee, senior 3(alified person, as )ell as )hoever else is present6to share of the*selves and to respond to one another. 'oin" n"o*a sets the sta"e for each and every individ(al in the order to )ork on self4transfor*ation thro("h son", as if !efore a constant *irror of others also seekin" the sa*e "oal. 5o"ether, they seek rene)ed self4definition, in personalized son" state*ents that resonate )ith the co**on ter*s of the rit(al. 9estern instit(tional analysis has all too often cr(shed and distorted n"o*a4type pheno*ena !y forcin" the* into its o)n fa*iliar slots and cate"ories. +n the present )ork + have tried to interpret the (ni3(eness of the instit(tion in a n(*!er of other )ays. Cit(al analysis offers one approach. Cit(al *ay !e defined as the a*plification of layers (pon layers of *eanin", of levels or *edi(*s of e2pression, or as the addition of *ore lines of co**(nication to those nor*ally (sed !et)een individ(als. Cit(alization *ay occ(r !eca(se of 0clo""ed channels0 or contradictions in the individ(al<s life, or in the ho(sehold (nit or society aro(nd the individ(al. Dr it *ay res(lt fro* (ni3(e r(pt(res )ithin the social environ*ent or fro* chronic s(fferin" of sectors of society, s(ch as )o*en )ith children or )orkin" *en alienated fro* their fa*ilies. +t *ay res(lt fro* constant se"*entation of the linea"e !asis of society. D(r task )o(ld have !een facilitated had there !een a conscio(s a)areness in Central and ,o(thern -frica of an overarchin" instit(tional presence. +n *y s(rvey )ork in Binshasa, 'ar es ,alaa*, ,)aziland, and Cape 5o)n + enco(ntered little or no evidence of this a*on" 8 1%K 8 patients and healers, nor a*on" scholars. :ealers did have an a)areness of re"ional net)orks, of co**on ties. +n )estern Aaire, there )as a)areness of the co*para!ility of @kita, Bil(*!(, Ae!ola, and the other grands rites , and in 5anzania, of the e2istence of other n"o*a than the ones practiced, incl(din" those fro* other re"ions. +n ,o(thern -frica, there )as a "reater de"ree of *i2in" and cross4 fertilization of n"o*a or the )ork of the a*a"3ira than any)here else. +n so*e )ays, scholars )ere *ore provincial than the healers, in that they often li*ited the foc(s of their research to tri!al and national entities, for e2a*ple, the A(l( diviner, the Ai"(a rite of affliction, the @de*!( c(lt of affliction. 5his a!sence of the a)areness of a lar"er instit(tion and its character called for a f(rther ontolo"ical 3(ery of )hether the overlappin" levels of evidence6the ver!al co"nates, the !ehaviors6co(ld provide (s )ith a clear pict(re of )hat n"o*a )as all a!o(t. :ealers and scholars alike )ere intri"(ed !y the possi!ility that their local instit(tion *i"ht !e part of a lar"er entity. 5hey )ere a!le to point o(t reco"niza!le co**on practices or feat(res in photo"raphs and *(sical recordin"s, as )ell as differences !et)een their o)n practices and those of others. ,o*e asserted that the version fro* afar )as 0)ron"0 in ter*s of the )ay they did it. @evertheless, there e*er"ed in practitioners< acco(nts of 0ho) n"o*a )orked0 a *ore or less co**on theory that )ords and spirit etiolo"ies6often as

e2pressed in son"6provided the core )orkin" principle of n"o*a. 5his aspect of n"o*a needs e2tensive f(rther research, as very little case *aterial e2ists on the )ay in )hich individ(als reach creative self4e2pression thro("h the cr(ci!le of affliction. B(t )e are "ettin" ahead of o(rselves. 9hat finally is "oin" to !e the na*e of this ne)ly identified, )idespread, apparently ancient instit(tionI 5he na*e is no triflin" *atter, for on the choice of na*e )ill han" *(ch of the identity of the instit(tion. 0C(lt of affliction,0 0possession c(lt,0 0divination,0 0rite of affliction,0 0dr(* of affliction,0 and n"o*a have !een (sed *ore or less interchan"ea!ly. 5he first several are reco"nized analytical na*es. the last, an indi"eno(s ter* that has *(ltiple *eanin"s and is therefore a*!i"(o(s. 5he advanta"e of (tilizin" an analytical ter* is that )e can say it e2ists even if the locals "ive it another na*e. :o)ever, the advanta"e of (tilizin" the -frican na*e, ngoma , or another variant, ngoma za *utibu =0therape(tic n"o*a,0 in the )ords of ?. B. Makala in 5anzania<s Ministry of C(lt(re>, or 0n"o*a4type rit(al0 or therapy, to cite -nita ,prin", is that 8 1%J 8 )e tie into the conscio(s level of a)areness of it. 5his offsets certain scholarly e2cesses that have distorted the identity and definition of the instit(tion in the literat(re. 5his perspective helps (s overco*e partic(larly the 9estern preocc(pation )ith 0trance0 and 0possession0 as the central definers of the instit(tion, )hich the ter* cult denotes. 7i2ation (pon natives )ith (pt(rned eyes "r(ntin" (nintelli"i!le spirit talk and dancin" a!o(t in a frenzy has sed(ced scholars fro* the i*portant task of lookin" at the conte2t, str(ct(re, history, intention, and chan"e of an ancient instit(ted process. -s has !eco*e clear in the co(rse of this st(dy, trance !ehavior is !(t an occasional corollary of the etiolo"y that attri!(tes *isfort(ne to ancestors and spirits. 5he spirit possession etiolo"y is a type of ideolo"y or hypothesis, (s(ally invoked !y diviners, to interpret a ran"e of (s(ally va"(e sy*pto*s or si"ns, altho("h at other ti*es it is (sed in very clear4c(t e2pressions of distress. 5he spirit hypothesis, as + like to call it, rarely !l(rs the practical e2i"encies of day4to4day life. +t is rather a fra*e)ork that sets (p and le"iti*ates an instit(tion that *ay !rin" to"ether *any kinds of perspectives and theories. 5o li*it n"o*a e2pression to possession trance is partic(larly (nfort(nate !eca(se its o(tco*e is the e2act opposite of possession, na*ely, creative self4e2pression. 5rance, )hen it does *ake an appearance, is (s(ally an aspect of the perfor*ance rit(al and needs to !e seen in the conte2t of dialo"ical *(sic, confessions, and divinatory sessions in )hich pro!le*s are !ein" )orked o(t. Dnly occasionally do trance and possession 1oin as a sha*anic4type 1o(rney of the analyst. 7or these reasons, this )ork has stressed the centrality of disco(rse in n"o*a interaction and kno)led"e. 5he 0doin" n"o*a0 process is a for*at for the identification of so(rces of *isfort(ne, for !rin"in" o(t and artic(latin", ener"izin", and transfor*in" individ(al identity and p(rpose, and for "atherin" others )ho are in a position to vicario(sly help )ith these tasks. +t is a process that *ay address any type of sit(ation in )hich the for* is servant to the content. +t *ay acco**odate a "reat latit(de of types of kno)led"e: co**on sense, the hypotheses e*!edded in spirit fields. technical kno)led"e of the nat(ral )orld, scientific kno)led"e !ased on propositions, social principles in kin and non4kin society, and other types of 0s(rvival kno)led"e,0 to cite Fiha*!a =19&J>. /re"ory Bateson lon" a"o e*phasized that one of the f(nctions of rit(al )as the preservation and (tilization of kno)led"e. Ceaders )ill have reco"nized the si*ilarity !et)een n"o*a4type 8 1%% 8

healin" orders in -frica and 9estern self4help instit(tions s(ch as -lcoholics -nony*o(s, 9ei"ht 9atchers, Parents -nony*o(s, net)orks of or"an transplant s(!1ects, parents of s(dden infant death syndro*e victi*s, cardiac reha!ilitation "ro(ps, and *any *ore. 5hese, in the 9est, have often had the !enefit of !io*edical cons(ltants or liaisons, altho("h in their or"anizational character they have !een independent of direct *edical instit(tional control. Part of their s(ccess in the lives of *e*!ers is the transfor*ation of the self in the very area of prior )eakness or failin". D(t of this process e*er"es a f(rther a"enda of this )ork, na*ely, to define health, to test the instit(tion<s i*pact on health, and to deter*ine its efficacy in either preventin" deterioration of health or in restorin" health )here it has deteriorated. 5here is *(ch varia!ility in the criteria !y )hich health inventories are 1(d"ed. 5he theoretical terrain of this disc(ssion is fra("ht )ith philosophical dile**as a!o(t the identification of sets of varia!les (sed in definin" health. +n this )ork, criteria that have !een !ro("ht for)ard have had to do )ith )ords and conscio(sness, la!elin" of diseases, and the predisposition of the s(fferer. )ith the role of *etaphor and sy*!ol and the a*plification of these e2pressions in rit(al perfor*ance. )ith the creation of co**(nities of the afflicted and the i*portance of sharin" one<s pro!le*s )ith others. Beca(se of the prevalence of a trance and possession definition of n"o*a in *(ch of the scholarly literat(re and pop(lar c(lt(re, or the i*plication that n"o*a<s therape(tic orientation is psycholo"ical only, there has !een a certain resistance on the part of scholars and policy4*akers to consider n"o*a<s role as it addresses epide*iolo"ical and de*o"raphic definitions of disease. Get as )e have seen, there appears to !e si"nificant evidence that n"o*a rites s(ch as the 5anzanian snake handlin" or the ,o(thern ,avanna fertility4enhance*ent proced(res for *others and children at risk *ay directly address these iss(es. /iven the pro*ise of si"nificant ill4health risk red(ction in so*e partic(lar n"o*a instit(tions, )hat are the prospects that they can !e en"a"ed *ore intentionally in the a"endas of health *inistries and other a"enciesI Dne iss(e that has e*er"ed in this re"ard is the str(""le over the or"anizational *atrices of ngoma entities. 7or the *ost part, n"o*a or"anizations represent an 0(ncapt(red0 po)er !ase )hose leaders and reso(rces, decentralized as they are, resist co4optation !y the nation4state. 9here there has !een centralized or"anization, as in coastal 8 1%& 8 5anzania, str(""le for the control of n"o*a reso(rces has re*ained a pro!le*. @"o*a reso(rces have !een effectively inte"rated into national instit(tions in ,)aziland, )here the kin" has personally endorsed, and (nder)ritten the care and trainin" of, skilled heaters s(ch as +da Ma!(za. +t is possi!le, !(t diffic(lt, to "eneralize this *odel of inte"ration in the *odern state, )here !(rea(cratic r(les and decisions are prevalent. +t *i"ht )ork to the e2tent that leadership re*ains personalized )ithin the *antle of !(rea(cratic rationality. :o)ever, in s(ch a patri*onial syste* there is enor*o(s co*petition for the le"iti*ation that s(ch personal s(pport entails, and it hardly provides a !asis for consistent and e3(ita!le distri!(tion of reso(rces to a needy pop(lace. +t appears *ost appropriate to seek inte"ration of n"o*a4type instit(tions, and their overall enhance*ent, at a less !(rea(cratic level, s(ch as has !een sketched in Aaire. 5here, the state health service has reco**ended "eneral hy"ienic instr(ction for all healers to (p"rade their contri!(tion to health )itho(t erodin" their po)er !ase. P(!lic health and hy"iene instr(ction of healers in /hana and ,ierra Feone has prod(ced si"nificant red(ction of infant *ortality rates. -s the ,o(thern -frican n"o*a net)orks sho), there are transnational channels of infor*ation at )ork that tend to distri!(te ne) kno)led"e. @"(!ane )rites that the shiftin" cell co*position at s(ccessive

sessions of the san"o*a (ni3(ely serves to spread insi"ht a!o(t healin" techni3(es and sol(tions to pro!le*s. +n theory, it sho(ld !e possi!le to introd(ce kno)led"e of hy"iene, p(!lic health, and other areas of p(!lic concern at any point in s(ch a net)ork and see it spread thro("ho(t the syste*. Df co(rse, n"o*a kno)led"e, as )e have seen, has its o)n ass(*ptions and str(ct(res. -ncestral or spirit le"iti*ation, rather than individ(al le"iti*ation, *(st re*ain prior. 5his is -frica<s )ay of stressin" the *oral !asis of (sef(l kno)led"e in the instit(tional process. Get the distinction !et)een co**on and personal son"s allo)s for the introd(ction of ne) personal kno)led"e. 5o the e2tent that personal kno)led"e, or *essa"es a!o(t personal transfor*ation, are "eneralized and taken on !y others, and then !eco*e co**on kno)led"e, n"o*a settin"s *ay serve as channels of ne) o(tside kno)led"e and infor*ation. @"o*a, an apparently classical instit(tion of Central and ,o(thern -frica, deserves o(r consideration, )hether )e are interested in its 8 1%9 8 dance and disco(rse for*at, its therape(tic instr(*entalities, or its applica!ility to the resol(tion of societal pro!le*s. 9e do )ell to consider n"o*a as a (ni3(ely n"o*a instit(ted co*!ination of processes and attri!(tes that the 9est p(ts to"ether in other )ays, or leaves (ndone. 8 1&1 8

A++en)#: A Pa% #a' L#! #ng o" -* h%#e?! In$en o%& o" /an * Lang*age!
5hese "ro(pin"s, *apped on the follo)in" topo"raphical charts s(""estive of their "eo"raphical relationships =see appendi2 B>, are arran"ed accordin" to *orpholo"ical and le2ical feat(res of Bant( lan"(a"es. -ltho("h so*e of /(thrie<s "enetic relationships are disp(ted, this listin" and the co"nate s(**ary is a )idely accepted overvie) of lan"(a"e and c(lt(re relationships. -.1$ -.11 -.2$ -.2L -.#$ -.#2a -.#2b FU@'U4B-FD@/ /CDUP NCa*eroonO Fondo 'U-F- /CDUP '(ala BUB?4B?@/- /CDUP Banoo =@oh(, @oko> NCa*eroonO Bapoko =@aka, P(k(>

-.#L -.L$ -.L2 -.L#a -.J$ -.J# -.%$ -.%1 -.%2a -.%2b -.%2c -.%2d -.%#a -.%#b

Ben"a N/a!on, Cio M(niO B-,- /CDUP NCa*eroonO Bakon==-!o> M!ene =Basa, Boko, Mvele> ,-@-/- /CDUP Man"isa G-U@'?47-@/ /CDUP ?ton ?)ondo =Ga(nde> Mvele Bak1a Gan"afek Be!ele /!i"!il

8 1&2 8 -.%L -.%K -.&$ B(l( 7an" =Pan")e> M-B-4@J?M /CDUP

-.&1 -.&# B.1$ B.11a B.11b B.11c B.11d B.11e B.2$ B.22a B.22b B.2L B.2K B.#$ B.#1 B.K$ B.K2 B.J$ B.J1

Mv(*!o =@"(*!a> Makaa MG?F? CFU,5?C N/a!onO Mpon")e Con"o =Dr(n"(> /al)a 'y(*!a @ko*i B?F? /CDUP 9. Bele @"o* 9(*!v( Bota =,hake, Mahon")e> 5,D/D /CDUP 5so"o =Mitso"o, -pind1i> @J-B+ /CDUP @ze!i =@1a!i> MB?5? /CDUP NCon"oO M!ete

B.J2 B.%$ B.%1a B.%1b B.%2a B.%2b B.%#a B.%#b B.%#c B.%#d B.%La B.%Lb B.%K B.%Ja B.%Jb B.&$ B.&1 B.&2 B.&#

M!aa*a =M!a*!a> 5?B? /CDUP NCon"oO 5e"e4Bali @1inin1i @"(n")el =@"(n"(l(> Mp(*p( 5saayi Faali Gaa=Gaka> B)e @dzindzi( Boo =Bo*a> Bali =5io, 5eke> Mosieno 'ee 5?@'?4G-@A+ /CDUP 5iene =5ende> Bo*a Mfin( =7(nika, Mf(n(n"a>

B.&Ka B.&Kb B.&Kc B.&Kd

M!ie* =9. Ganzi> ?. Gans =Ganzi> Geei @ts(o

8 1&# 8 B.&Ke B.&% C.1$ C.11 C.12a C.12b C.1# C.2$ C.2# C.#$ C.#1a C.#1b C.#2 C.#Ka Mp(r M!((n =M!(nda> @/U@'+ /CDUP N@orth AaireO @"ondi Pande Bo"on"o M!ati MBD,:+ /CDUP @"are B-@/+4@5DMB- /CDUP Foi @"iri Bo!an"i @to*!a

C.#Kb C.#Ja C.#Jb C.#Jc C.#% C.L$ C.L1 C.LK C.K$ C.K2 C.KL C.KK C.KJ C.J$ C.J1a C.J1b C.J# C.%$ C.%1

Bolia Poto Mpesa M!(dza B(1a @/DMB? /CDUP @"o*!e -n"!a =@"eli*a, Beo, 5(n"(, B(r(> ,DBD4B?F? /CDUP ,o=,oko> Fo*!o =5(r(*!(> Bele Fo*a MD@/D /CDUP @.?. Mon"o @.9. Mon"o =@k(ndo> @"ando 5?5?F- /CDUP 5etela

C.%# C.%L C.%K C.&$ C.&2 C.&# '.1$ '.1L '.2$ '.21 '.2L '.2K

@k(t( Gela Bela =Fe*!a> BUB- /CDUP ,on"o*eno B(shon" MBDFD4?@- /CDUP ?nya =/enya, ?na, Ai*!a> F?/-4B-F-@/- /CDUP Bali =,.?. B(a, Ban"o> ,on"ola Fe"a =Ce"a>

8 1&L 8 '.2% '.2&a '.2&b '.L$ '.L2 '.K$ Ban"(!an"( 9. :oloholo =/(ha, Balan"a> ?. :oloholo N5anzaniaO BD@JD /CDUP @dandi =@andi, ,h(> B?MB?4B-B9-C+ /CDUP

'.KL '.J$ '.J1 '.J2 '.JJ ?.1$ ?.11 ?.12 ?.1# ?.1K ?.1J ?.#$ ?.#2a ?.#2b ?.L$ ?.L1 ?.L2 ?.K$ ?.K1

Be*!e CU-@'-4CU@'+ /CDUP C(anda C(ndi :a @GDCD4/-@'- /CDUP @yoro =/(n"(, Byopi> 5ooro @yankoro =:i*a> /anda ,o"a M-,-B-4FU:G- /CDUP :an"a =F(hya> 5sotse C-/DF+4BUC+- /CDUP Fo"ooli /(sii =/(zii, Bisii> B+BUGU B-MB- /CDUP NBenyaO /ekoyo =Bik(y(>

?.K2 ?.K# ?.KK ?.J$ ?.J1 ?.J2a ?.J2b ?.J2c ?.JL ?.JK ?.%$ ?.%1 ?.%2a ?.%2b ?.%# ?.%La ?.%Lb 7.2$

?*!o Mero Ba*!a C:-/- /CDUP C)o =Mer(> :ai =Cha"a, Moshi, Macha*e> 9(n1o =Maran"(> Co*!o Bahe /)eno @G+B-45-+5- /CDUP Poko*o /irya*a Ba(*a =@ika, @yika> 'i"o 'a!ida =5aita> ,a"ala =5aita> ,UBUM-4@G-M9?A+ /CDUP N9estern 5anzaniaO ,(k(*a

7.21

7.22

@ya*)ezi

8 1&K 8 7.#$ 7.#1 7.#2 /.1$ /.11 /.2$ /.21 /.2# /.2L /.#$ /.#1 /.#2 /.## /.#L /.L$ /.L1 +F-MB-4+C-@/- /CDUP @ila*!a =+ra*!a> Ce*i =@yat(r(> /D/D /CDUP N5anzaniaO /o"o ,:-MB-F- /CDUP 5(!eta =5aveta> ,a*!aa =,ha*!ala> Bondei A+/UF-4A-C-MD /CDUP Ai"(la =Ai"(a> 'h)ele Aara*o ='zala*o> @"(l( ,9-:+F+ /CDUP 5ik(( =5(k(l(>

/.L2a /.L2b /.L2c /.L2d /.LLa /.LLb /.K$ /.K1 /.J$ /.J# :.1$ :.11 :.1# :.1L :.1Ja :.1Jb :.1Jc :.1Jd :.1Je

-*( Mvita Mri*a Un"(1a @"azi1a NCo*oro +s.O @1(ani =:inz(a> PD/DCD /CDUP Po"olo B?@-4B+@/- /CDUP Bena B+BD@/D /CDUP NAaire, Con"o, -n"olaO Be*!e B(nyi @din"i 9oyo ,. Bon"o C. Bon"o Go*!e 9. Bon"o B)ende

:.1Jf :.1Jg :.1Jh :.2$ :.21a :.21b :.#$ :.#1 :.##

Faadi ?. Bon"o ,.?. Bon"o B+MBU@'U /CDUP M!(nd( =@don"o> M!a*!a B+G-B- /CDUP Gaka :(n"(

B.1$

8 1&J 8 C:DB9?4FUC:-A+ /CDUP N-n"ola, Aaire, Aa*!iaO Ciok)e =Cioko, '1ok> F)ena =F(vale> M!(nda FDA+ /CDUP Fozi =Bololo> FUG-@- /CDUP F(yana =F(yi> M!o)e

B.11 B.1L B.1K B.2$ B.21 B.#$ B.#1 B.#2

B.L$ B.L1 B.L2 F.1$ F.11 F.2$ F.21 F.22 F.2# F.2L F.#$ F.#1a F.#1b F.## F.#L F.#K F.L$ F.L1

,UB+G- /CDUP 5otela ,(!iya NBots)anaO P?@'? /CDUP NAaireO Pende ,D@/? /CDUP Bete Bin1i ,on"e =Ge*!e> F(na =+nkon"o> FUB- /CDUP F(!a4Basai F(l(a F(!a4N,ha!aO :e*!a ,an"a B-D@'? /CDUP Baonde

F.K$ F.K2 M.#$ M.#1 M.L$ M.L1 M.L2 M.K$ M.K1 M.K2 M.J$ M.J1 M.J# M.JL @.1$ @.12 @.1#

FU@'- /CDUP F(nda BD@'? /CDUP @yekyosa =Bonde, B(k)e, ,okili> B?MB- /CDUP 5aa!)a =C(n"(> Be*!a =9e*!a> B+,-4F-MB- /CDUP Biisa Fala F?@J?45D@/- /CDUP Fen1e =Ciina M(k(ni> +la 5on"a M-@'- /CDUP NMala)iO @"oni Maten"o

8 1&% 8 @.1K 5on"a =,iska>

@.#$ @.#1a @.#1b @.#1c @.L$ @.L1 @.L2 @.L# @.LL P.1$ M-5UMB+ /CDUP P.11 P.2$ P.21 P.22 P.2# P.2L P.2K P.#$ P.#1

@G-@J- /CDUP @yan1a Ce)a =Peta> Man1an1a ,?@/-4,?@- /CDUP NMoza*!i3(eO @sen"a B(nda @y(n")e =5ete> ,ena NMala)i, Moza*!i3(e, 5anzaniaO

@den"ereko G-D /CDUP Gao M)era Makonde @donde Ma!iha =Mavia> M-BU- /CDUP Mak(a

P.## C.1$ C.11 C.2$ C.21 C.22 C.2# C.2L C.#$ C.#1 C.L$ C.L1 ,.1$ ,.11 ,.12 ,.1#a ,.1#b ,.1L

@"(l( UMBU@'U /CDUP N-n"olaO M!(nd( =@ano> @'DM/- /CDUP B)anya*a =:(*!a> N-n"ola, ,.9. -fricaO @don"a =-*!o> B)a*!i @"andyera :?C?CD /CDUP :ereto G?G? /CDUP NBots)anaO Gei =Geye, B(!a> ,:D@- CFU,5?C NAi*!a!)eO Borekore Aez(r( Manyika 5e!e NMoza*!i3(eO Baran"e

,.1K ,.1J ,.2$ ,.21 ,.#$

@da( Balan1a ;?@'- /CDUP N,o(th -fricaO ;enda ,D5:D45,9-@- /CDUP NBots)ana, FesothoO Pedi =@. ,otho>

,.#2a

,.L$ ,.L1 ,.L2 ,.L# ,.LL ,.K$ ,.K1 ,.J$ ,.J1 A.1 A.1 A.2a

8 1&& 8 @/U@+ /CDUP N,o(th -frica, ,)azilandO Hhosa A(l( ,)ati Z @"oni NMala)i, ,)azilandO @de!ele 5,9-4CD@/- /CDUP 5s)a NMoza*!i3(e, Ai*!a!)eO C:DP+ /CDUP NMoza*!i3(eO Copi =Fen"e> 5+; /CDUP N@i"eriaO 5iv ?BD+' /CDUP N@i"eriaO

A.2b A.2g A.2r

Bale! @. ?t(n" @ki*

8 1&9 8

A++en)#: / 3#! %#2* #on! o" Te%m! #n /an * Lang*age! Pe% a#n#ng o The%a+e* #( Con(e+ ! an) A( #on!
5he ver!al co"nates in these *aps are reconstr(ctions of co**on ancestral ter*s derived fro* *odern phonetic rese*!lances and pres(*ed se*antic shifts fro* an ori"inal !asic so(nd and *eanin". 5he distri!(tions are !ased *ainly on the )ork of Malcol* /(thrie, as p(!lished in his Com$arati)e "antu . the n(*!ers "iven )ith *ost ter*s are fro* his Co*parative ,eries =C.,.>. 7ollo)in" his convention, the asterisk indicates a reconstr(cted ancestral or 0proto40 for* derived fro* conte*porary phonetic and se*antic variations. +t *(st !e e*phasized that these reconstr(ctions are !ased on a li*ited n(*!er of lan"(a"es for )hich "lossaries and dictionaries )ere availa!le in the 19K$s and 19J$s )hen /(thrie did his )ork. th(s the distri!(tions sho)n are appro2i*ations and *ay have "aps. Maps 2, %, and 19 are !ased partially on other )ork. 8 19$ 8

B.1 C.,. 1J$& R ,$-t., )o(nd C.,. 1J$9 R ,$-t/, )o(nd, !oil 5his distri!(tion indicates a proto4Bant( co"nate, )ith B.1L coe3(al in the ?astern Bant( re"ion. 8 191 8

B.2 C.,. J%% R ,d-.d, to !eco*e ill C.,. J%& R ,d-.d0, illness

C.,. J%9 R ,d-.d/, illness R ,gon, to !e sick 5he co"nate 4d-.d 4 is distri!(ted so as to s(""est an ancient proto4Bant( le2i4 cal ite* that has !een partially replaced !y *on or o*on in the 9estern Bant( forest area =D!en"a 19&K:19J. :(y"ens 19&%:&JM9#>. 8 192 8

B.# C.,. JLL R ,d2g, !e)itch, c(rse C.,. JLK R ,d2g., )itchcraft C.,. JLJ R ,d2g1, )itchcraft C.,. JL% R ,d2g2, )itchcraft - )idespread ter* in *any societies of the s(!continent, an ancient proto4 Bant( and central conte*porary concept in therape(tic tho("ht syste*s. 8 19# 8

B.L C.,. %&%

R

C.,. %&J R ,g3ng3, ,ganga, *edicine

,ng3ng3, *edicine *an, doctor

Both healer and *edicine are derived fro* this )idespread and pres(*a!ly proto4Bant( co"nate. 8 19L 8

B.K C.,. 1KK% R ,$1ng, c(rse C.,. 1KK& R ,$1ng4, c(rse C.,. 1K#L R ,$1ng-, fetish, char*, o*en /(thrie s(""ests that C.,. 1K#L )as proto4Bant( and is part of a set incl(din" t)o synony*o(s co"nates629# R 4c3ng5 4, ?ast Bant( =B.1%>. and 1$%2 R 4*1t0( 9est Bant( =B.12>6that e*er"ed )here the ori"inal ite* disappeared. 8 19K 8

B.J C.,. 1KJL R ,$5d, to !eco*e cold, to cool do)n C.,. 1KJK R ,$5d, to !eco*e c(red, to "et )ell 5his !if(rcated 9estern and ?astern Bant( distri!(tion s(""ests a proto4Bant( stat(s for this co"nate, and the pervasiveness of the notion of 0the cool0 in connection )ith health, p(rification, or cleansin" and !y i*plication, of heat )ith sickness, disorder, and poll(tion. 8 19J 8

B.% C.,. &22 R C.,. &2J R ,g0d2, , ,g0da, , ,g0d-, s(!stantive for* of interdiction, prohi!ition ,g0d, ver!al for* indicatin" to interdict, to ref(se, to create an interdiction, to a!stain fro* food, activities, contacts

5he reconstr(ction of this co"nate is !ased pri*arily on :(y"ens<s recent )ork =19&%> in the 5erv(ren Bant( lan"(a"es pro1ect, )hich is a contin(ation and e2tension of /(thrie<s )ork, as )ell as his intensive st(dy of the 7an" and Beti lan"(a"es. +ts pervasive distri!(tion s(""ests it as a part of the proto4Bant( health concept(al sche*e, altho("h there are other ter*s for this concept. 8 19% 8

B.& C.,. &LL R ,g2m3, dr(* C.,. 1L$1 R ,ng2m3, dr(* 'istri!(tion of ngoma as son" or perfor*ance: 5he central co"nate of this !ook, ngoma =dr(*>, is distri!(ted )idely thro("h4 o(t the Bant( lan"(a"e areas, )ith the e2ception of the forest re"ions C and '. 5his, and the distri!(tion of the additional *eanin" of 0son"0 and 0perfor4 *ance0 s(pports the hypothesis of an ?astern Bant( ori"in of the therape(tic n"o*a that is the s(!1ect of this )ork. 8 19& 8

B.9

C.,. 1%#$ R ,t1, *edicine C.,. 99$ R ,*3g, to protect )ith *edicine C.,. 1$19 R ,*.#., leaf, to!acco C.,. 1$21 R ,*.#1, leaf Df these t)o co"nates for plants, or *edicinal plants, the *ore )idespread, 4tS4, proto4Bant(, is also identified as 0tree0 =C.,. 1%29> and 0stick0 =C.,. 1%#1>. 5he other ter*s denote *edicinal (ses of plants or the process of pro4 tectin" )ith *edicine, ,*3g, . 5o!acco, introd(ced fro* -*erica, )as assi*i4 lated to the 9estern Bant( co"nates, 4kaya4, 4kayi4. 8 199 8

B.1$ C.,. L12 R 4c-*6 4 c(ppin" horn C.,. LL$ R 4c-mo 4 c(ppin" horn C.,. L#9 R 4cumi* 4 !leed !y c(ppin" C.,. %$$ R 4dumi* 4 !leed !y c(ppin" ?astern and 9estern Bant( ter*s for the c(ppin" horn and for the process of !leedin" !y c(ppin" s(""est that these are part of an old syste* of therapy, altho("h there *ay have !een an even older co"nate that is no) lost. 8 2$$ 8

B.11 C.,. K$ R 4b3nd3 4 "host C.,. K1 R 4mb3nd3 4 *edicine *an C.,. 19K R 4b-* 4 to c(re C.,. 19J R 4b-* 4 to divine, to c(re !y divinin" 5here are t)o related 9estern Bant( ter*s for healer, divinin", or the process of healin". banda s(""ests *edi(*ship in so*e settin"s. 5he distri!(tion of the ter* b-* s(""ests an earlier e2pansion in 9estern Bant(. 8 2$1 8

B.12 C.,. 1$%2 R 4*1t0 4 fetish, char*

C.,. 1$%# R 4*1t0 4, or 4*1c0 4, spirit 5his 9estern Bant( concept and practice is present as a visi!le *edicine or o!4 1ect in its )estern distri!(tion. -t its so(th and eastern e2pansion, or frontier, it co*es to !e identified *ainly as spirit. +ts eastern4*ost occ(rrence is d(e to the e2pansion of F(!a infl(ence in the si2teenth cent(ry a*on" the ,en"a4,ena lin"(istic "ro(p =9aite 19&%>. 8 2$2 8

B. 1# C.,. 1L%L R 4$/mb3 4 )hite clay C.,. 1L%% R 4$/mb/ 4 )hite clay 5he (se of )hite clay or kaolin is pervasive in ,(!4,aharan rit(al, !(t this ter* for it is 9estern Bant(. 5hat this co"nate is ancient is seen fro* its presence a*on" the 5iv of ?astern @i"eria, in the p(tative ori"in area of Bant( lan"(a"es. 8 2$# 8

B.1L C.,. JKJ R 4donda 4 sore - co**on co"nate of ?astern Bant( ori"in. 8 2$L 8

B.1K C.,. 2L$ R 4c.bi 4 )itch, )itchcraft C.,. 1&&L R 4#.bi 4 ordeal, poison 5hese t)o related co"nates of ?astern Bant( ori"in *ay !e related to the 5iv notion tsa) , or tsa'i =see Bohannan 19K&>, the evidence of )itchcraft s(!stance in the !o)els of a corpse. 8 2$K 8

B.1J C.,. J19 R 4d1mu 4 spirit 5his apparently ancient and proto4Bant( co"nate for spirits, (s(ally ancestral, is )idespread in n"o*a rit(als. &ulu *ay !e the 9estern Bant( co(nterpart for this. 8 2$J 8

B.1% C.,. 29# R 4c3ng5 4 fetish, char* 5he ?astern Bant( co(nterpart of 4*1c0 4 =B.12>, !oth of )hich, accordin" to /(thrie, *ay have replaced $1ng4 =B.K>. 8 2$% 8

B.1& C.,. L%1 R 4dagud 4 practice *edicine, divine, foretell Dagud is the ?astern Bant( co(nterpart to mb3nd3 and b-* =B.11>, )hich to"ether s(pplanted 4g3ng3 4 =B.L> in certain instances. 8 2$& 8

B.19 C.,. %1K R 4dungu 4 M(l(n"(, M(r(n"(, /od C.,. 92K R 4+amb/ 4 /od C.,. 191% R 4#amb/ 4 or 4n#amb/ 4 /od R 48eza 4, /od R M(k(l(, @k(l(, -ncient Dne, /od 5hese are e2a*ples of n(*ero(s ter*s for /od (sed in the attri!(tion of illness etiolo"ies that contrast to h(*an4ca(sed or spirit4ca(sed etiolo"ies. D!en"a =19&K:1K2M1K#> is the so(rce for the distri!(tion of the last t)o ter*s. 8 2$9 8

A++en)#: C In! %*men a #on A((om+an&#ng 7ea'#ng R# *a'! #n Cen %a' an) So* he%n A"%#(a
+nitial na*es refer to ethnic entities. n(*!ers in parentheses refer to /(thrie<s lin"(istic "ro(pin"s sho)n on *ap C.1 and related *aps in appendices - and B. na*es in 3(otation *arks refer to therape(tic rit(al or association, or na*e cited in te2t. vocal arran"e*ent and instr(*ental co*!ination are in order of type: idiophone, *e*!rophone, aerophone, and chordophone. ,o(rces are "iven at end of entry.

E9*a e*%
Mon"o4?konda =C.J1a> 0?li*a0: voice [ bo*'asa rasp ele$o rattles )histle lo*ombe zither =+M@A N+nstit(te des M(sEes @ationa(2 d( AaireO recordin" %K.#.# 1 !y Boilo> Mon"o4?konda =C.J1a> 0?li*a0: voice [ bo*'asa rasp !ell ele$o rattles )histle lo*ombe zither =+M@A recordin" %K.#.% 1 !y Boilo> Mon"o4?konda =C.J1a> 0?li*a0: voice [ ingengele !ell bo*'asa rasp ilongo kettle dr(* =+M@A recordin", %K.#.& 1 !y Boilo> @to*!a =Binshasa> =C.#Ka> 0?li*a0: voice =1 fe*ale healer, 2 fe*ale novices> [ L rasps ilongo kettle dr(* =+M@A recordin", %K.%.2 # !y F(dion"o> Mon"o4@"elentand( =C.J1a> 0Ae!ola0: voice [ !ell do(!le "on" dr(* =+M@A recordin", %K.#.11 1 !y Boilo> Mon"o4@k(ndo =C.J1b > 0@zondo0: voice [ ba*'asa rasp ilongo kettle dr(* =+M@A recordin" %K.#.1K J Boilo> 8 21$ 8

Mon"o4Bat)a =C.J$> 0@zondo0 =+lako>: choir =+M@A recordin" %J.#.2$ 2 !y Boilo> Mon"o =C.J$> 0Bon"ita0: 2 soloists [ choir [ rattles =+M@A recordin" %K.J.1 L !y P(ersin and ?sole> 5etela =C.%1> 09etsi0: 1 *ale 2 fe*ales [ 2 di'olo cala!ash rattles lo*ombe trapezoid dr(* =+M@A recordin" %K.&.% # !y P(ersin and ?sole> 5etela =C.%1> 0heatin" son"0: 2 fe*ales choir =+M@A recordin" %K.&.% K !y P(ersin and ?sole> 8 211 8 Mon"o4Ba"and( =C.J#> 0@kan"a0: 2 soloists K healers choir [ # isanga rattles elonza !ell mo$ati horn

=+M@A recordin" %L.J.K 2 !y P(ersin> Mon"o4Ba"and( =C.J#> 0@kan"a0: vocal handclappin" [ isanga rattles =+M@A recordin" %L.J.% 1 !y P(ersin> Boyela4Male*ad1a =C.%L> 09etsi 9<okonda0 =Bali*o>: 1 fe*ale [ 2 *ales [ choir [ elan+a "on" isanga rattles ifange horn =+M@A recordin" %L.J.2# # !y P(ersin> Boyela4Makand1a =C.%L> 09etsi 9<okonda0 =Bali*o>: 1 fe*ale 1 *ale choir [ bo#ende rattles elond+a "on" lo*ombe trapezoid dr(* basuli sticks =+M@A recordin" %L.J.1J L !y P(ersin> Boyela4Makand1a =C.%L> 09etsi 9<okonda0 =Bali*o>: # fe*ales fe*ale choir [ rattles [ ilon+a "on" [ n*ombe dr(* [ ifonge horn =+M@A recordin" %L.J.2# K !y P(ersin> Boyela4Makand1a =C.%L> 0?kata0 0Ficit0: # fe*ales choir handclappin" [ !ell rattles trapezoid dr(* 2 *e*!rane dr(*s ifonge horn =+M@A recordin" %L.J.2K 1 !y P(ersin> Boyela4Makand1a =C.%L> 0Ficit0: 1 fe*ale choir [ ifonge horn =+M@A recordin" %L.J.19 # !y P(ersin> Boyela4Makand1a =C.%L> 09etsi 9<okenda0: 2 fe*ales fe*ale choir [ isanga rattles n*ombe trapezoid dr(* =+M@A recordin" %L.J.#$ 2 !y P(ersin> @"!aka4Ma!o =C.LK> 0@zo*!o0: vocal solo #$4voice choir =+M@A recordin" %K.J.#2 1 !y P(ersin and ?sole> B(d1a =C.#%> 0*(sic of healin"0: L *ales [ 1 sanza hand piano 2 rattles =+M@A recordin" %K.J.KJb J and %>

Ea! e%n Ba#%e

9are"a ='.2K> 0B(tii 0: ad(lt *ale choir [ lar"e dr(* s*all dr(* perc(ssion stick =+M@A recordin" %L.1L.J J !y Bishilo>

So* he%n Sa$anna

F(nda45shok)e =B.11> 0son" of healin"0: + fe*ale soloist choir [ lubemb do(!le "on" ngom dr(* *a*a*as+ dr(* sticks =+M@A recordin" %K.2.1# L !y /anse*ans> F(nda =F.K2> 0healin" son"s0: L fe*ales =+M@A recordin" %K.2.1L J and 1K 1 !y /anse*ans> Pende =F.11> 0@"o*!o0 divination: 1 fe*ale [ dimba 2ylophone =+M@A recordin" &$.2.2 L# !y Mal(tshi> Pende =F.11> 0:a*!a0: fe*ale vocal [ ngoma dr(* =+M@A recordin" &$.2.2 #LML2 !y Mal(tshi> 8 212 8

Gaka =:.#1> 0divination0: diviner assistant choir [ nkoko trapezoid dr(* ngoma dr(* =+M@A recordin"s %L.L.2 1# and %L.1J.L K> F(vale =B.1L> 0:a*!a0: fe*ale vocal choir [ ngoma dr(*s =,prin" 19%&> @de*!( =F.K2> 0dr(*s of affliction0: solo choir [ ngoma dr(*s =5(rner 19J&>

.ongo6A 'an #(
9oyo =:.1L> 0divination son"0: fe*ale and *ate vocal [ ngond+i do(!le "on" bintha*idi rattles 2 ngoma,ngoma trapezoid dr(*s $itu )histles =+M@A recordin" &1.2.9 # !y P(ersin> 9oyo =:.1L> 0@kazi M!(*!a Maveko0 n*isi son": fe*ale and *ale vocal [ tshingoma trapezoid dr(* =+M@A recordin" &1.2.K 1 !y P(ersin> 9oyo =:.1L> 0Male*!e @yenda B)a*iye Fali0 n*isi son": fe*ale vocal handclappin" =+M@A recordin" &$.1.1 11 !y P(ersin> Bon"o4Mpan"( =:.1J"> 0@kita0: & fe*ales [ rattles 2 ngoongi do(!le "on"s moondo sin"le *e*!rane dr(* =Ciparisse 19%2>

Ea! A"%#(a
,(k(*a ='ar es ,alaa*> =7.2$> 0M(n"ano0: solo choir [ ngoma dr(*s Mat(*!e ='ar es ,alaa*> =P.1#> 0Manian"a0: solo choir [ shakers ngoma dr(* Mat(*!e ='ar es ,alaa*> =P.1#> 0M!(n"i0: vocal [ )ood "on"s K ngoma dr(*s Ai"(a ='ar es ,alaa*> =/.#1> 0Mar(hani0: vocal [ shakers K do(!le *e*!rane dr(*s Ai"(a ='ar es ,alaa*> =/.#1> 0Msa"!iro0: vocal [ shakers

So* hea! A"%#(a

Aez(r( =,.12>: vocal [ mbira hand pianos rattles ngoma dr(*s =7ry 19%J:11&> 5aa!)a =M.L1> 0F(*!(0: vocal choir [ rattles 2 ngoma dr(*s =Co!erts 19&&:fi". 2> ,hona =,.1$> 0Bira dza )adzimu 0: vocal [ mbira hand pianos )ith "o(rd resonators =Berliner 19&1> 8 21# 8

So* he%n A"%#(a

;enda =,.21> 0ngoma dza )adzimu 0: soloist choir [ shaker n"o*a drums =Blackin" 19%#> ,)azi =,.L#> 0san"o*a0: soloists choir [ tigomene *etal and *e*!rane dr(*s

9estern Cape =,.L$ and K$> 0amagqira 0: soloists choir [ *etal and *e*!rane dr(* 8 21K 8

No e!
1 Se #ng! an) Sam+'e! #n A"%#(an C*' ! o" A""'#( #on
1. 5his is one of n(*ero(s references thro("ho(t this )ork to the interface of n"o*a and Christianity. Fater, in the acco(nt of 5anzanian n"o*a, a si*ilar interface appears !et)een +sla* and n"o*a. +n a s(rvey overvie) )ork of this type, + have not !een a!le to e2plore syste*atically the *any )ays in )hich there has !een interpenetration of n"o*a )ith the )orld reli"ions. Focal histories, partic(lar *ission policies, reactions of local a(thorities, and partic(lar decisions !y infl(ential individ(als )o(ld !e ele*ents affectin" the interfaces. 2. +t is possi!le that the ubulau drink taken !y the novices 1(st prior to this *o*ent )as a hall(cino"en !ased on a plant in"redient (sed in the drink. :o)ever, + )as (na!le to p(rs(e this or other (ses of *edication in n"o*a in any detail !eca(se of the s(rvey nat(re of the pro1ect. 5he phar*acopoeia of n"o*a is of co(rse an entire additional pro1ect related to -frican *edicine in "eneral, !eyond the scope of this )ork.

2 I)en #"&#ng Ngoma 7#! o%#(a' an) Com+a%a #$e Pe%!+e( #$e!
1. Fe2icostatistics is the *ethodolo"y !y )hich phonetic, *orpholo"ical, and *orphophonolo"ical feat(res are correlated across a n(*!er of pres(*a!ly "enetically related lan"(a"es. :i"her fre3(encies than rando* cl(sters of correlated feat(res are held to de*onstrate "enetic or historic co**onality. 5he ,)adesh list of 1$$ le2ical ite*s, co**on to all kno)n )orld lan"(a"es, has also !een (sed in this research on Bant( lan"(a"es. 2. 5he *ost si"nificant contin(ation of /(thrie<s )ork has !een carried on !y the 5erv(ren le2icostatistical pro1ect, initiated !y -ndrE Co(pez, -lfred Mee(ssen, and Jan ;ansina in the 19K$s and headed today !y Gvonne Bastin of the Fin"(istic 'epart*ent of the M(sEe Coyal de +<-fri3(e Centrale, 5erv(ren, Bel"i(*. -dditional research )ork in the Bant( paradi"* is !ein" cond(cted !y the Centre +nternational des Civilisations Banto(es, of Fi!reville, /a!on, incl(din" so*e coastal archaeolo"ical research to esta!lish the lo)er threshold of the +ron -"e in the 9estern Bant( e2pansion. #. D!en"a<s chapter 05radi4prati3(e et santE chez les Banto(0 =19&K:19K421%> concentrates on a co*parative reconstr(ction of M!ochi and M!(l( and related lan"(a"es of 9estern ?3(atorial -frica, essentially 9estern Bant(, and does not !enefit fro* the )ork of /(thrie.

< 3o#ng Ngoma The Te: *%e o" Pe%!ona' T%an!"o%ma #on
1. + a* inde!ted to 5he*!inkosi 'yeyi of ?ast Fondon, ,o(th -frica, for translatin" and interpretin" the transcription of this 9estern Cape event. 2. +n so*e interpretations of A(l( divination, this a"ree*ent, contained in the ver! )uma , is t(rned into confession, u*u)uma , )hich is e2tracted fro* the client !y the diviner after a series of interro"ations. -2el4+var Ber"l(nd offers a vivid acco(nt of a divination of this sort in the conte2t of A(l( independent

Christians =Ber"l(nd 19&9:11#411K>. #. Blackin"<s identification of other son" styles in the (niverse of all ;enda initiation *(sic incl(des: n#imbo dza u se)hetha , son"s for dancin" ro(nd, s(n" !y "irls dancin" co(nterclock)ise aro(nd the dr(*s, incl(din" a 0son" of dis*issal0 and a 0recr(itin" son"0. n#imbo dza )hah'ira , son"s of the *asked dancers, )ith varyin" te*po to acco*pany different phases of the dance and distinctive rhyth*s to *ark vario(s steps. and n#imbo dza mila#o , son"s of the la)s of the school, s(n" !y novices and any "rad(ates present =19%#:L$EL1>.

= 7o4 Ngoma 0o%5! O" Co)e! an) Con!(#o*!ne!!

1. 5he ter* bugaboo , or boogaboo , has a Central -frican ori"in dra)n directly fro* the 9estern Bant( reli"ion and healin" voca!(lary. ;ass =19%9:1$J> traces it to bu*a lubu*a , to divine, or cons(lt a diviner. 2. +n se*iotic parlance, appropriately called 0shifters.0

@ 7o4 Ngoma 0o%5! The So(#a' Re+%o)*( #on o" 7ea' h

1. + have e2plored definitions of health else)here =Janzen 19&K:JL4J%. 19&9, in ,(llivan, ed.. and 7eier*an and 1anzen: forthco*in">. 5he first t)o of these disc(ssions concentrate on a series of health concepts, incl(din" 0health as )hat physicians do,0 0health as the a!sence of disease,0 <<health as f(nctional nor*ality,0 <<health as adaptation,0 0positive health,0 and 0health (topias,0 alon" )ith 0the social reprod(ction of health.0 +n ,(llivan, ed., 19&9, these are interlaced )ith 0ver!al concepts0 in -frican healin". Positive health indicators are diffic(lt to encaps(late or codify since they depend (pon partic(lar pro"ra*s to carry the* o(t. Most national !io*edical health pro"ra*s are defined in ter*s of 0the a!sence of disease0 and lend the*selves to de*o"raphic indicators of *ortality, *or!idity, and fertility. + have tried to develop the 0social reprod(ction0 definition of health !eca(se it see*s (ni3(ely s(ited to eval(ate n"o*a rit(al healin".

/#2'#og%a+h&
-hern, ?. 19%9 5he pro!le* of efficacy: ,tron" and )eak illoc(tionary acts. an =n.s.> 1L:1M1%. -ro*, ,. 19&K Pol#$honies et $ol#r#thmies instrumentales d9Afrique centrale. 2 vols. Paris: ,ociEtE d<?t(des Fin"(isti3(es et -nthropolo"i3(es de 7rance =,?F-7>. -("E, M., ed. 19&K Cnter$reting illness . ,pecial iss(e of Histor# and Anthro$olog# 2, 1:1M1#. -("E, M., and C. :erzlich, eds. 19&L 8e sens du mal: Anthro$ologie( histoire( sociologie de la maladie . Paris: ?ditions des archives conte*poraines.

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Lamilies di)ided: !he im$act of migrant labour in 8esotho . Johannes!(r": Cavan Press. @avarro, ;. 19%L 5he (nderdevelop*ent of health or the health of (nderdevelop*ent. Cnternational <ournal of Health Ser)ices , L. @eedha*, C. 19J% Perc(ssion and transition. @eher, -. 19J2 - physiolo"ical e2planation of (n(s(al !ehavior in cere*onies involvin" dr(*s. Human "iolog# #L, 2:1K1M1J$. @"(!ane, :. See also ,i!isi. 19%% "od# and mind in Dulu medicine: An ethnogra$h# of health . @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press. 19&1 -spects of clinical practice and traditional or"anization of indi"eno(s healers in ,o(th -frica. Social Science and edicine 1KB, #:#J1M#JJ. @siala Miaka Maken"o 19%9 Fe @kita, rite et thErapie. /decine traditionnelle au Daire . ,pecial iss(e R/)ue de Recherche Scientifique , 11M#J. Binshasa: +nstit(te de CEcherche ,cientifi3(e. 19&2 Personal co**(nication. 8 2#$ 8 D!en"a, 5. 19&K 8es "antu: 8angues( $eu$les( ci)ilisations . Fi!reville, Paris: Centre +nternational des Civilisations Bant(. ?ditions PrEsence -fricaine. Parsons, 5. 19L9 !he structure of social action . @e) Gork: 7ree Press. 19K1 !he social s#stem . @e) Gork:7ree Press. Phillipson, '. 9. 19%K 5he chronolo"y of the +ron -"e in Bant( -frica. <ournal of African Histor# 1J, #:#21M#L2. 19%J an 2:J$JMJ1L.

-rcheolo"y and Bant( lin"(istics. %orld Archeolog# &, 1:JKM&2. 19%% 5he spread of the Bant( lan"(a"e. Scientific American 2#J =-pril>: 1$JM11L. 19&$ F<e2pansion Banto(e en -fri3(e orientale: Fes te*oi"na"es de l<archEolo"ie et de la lin"(isti3(e. +n 89e:$ansion "antoue , ed. F. M. :y*an and J. ;oorhoeve, JL9M%1L. Paris: ,?F-7. 19&K -n archeolo"ical re4consideration of Bant( e2pansion. Polo*e, ?. C. 19&$ 5he reconstr(ction of proto4Bant( c(lt(re fro* the le2icon. +n 89e:$ansion "antoue , ed. F. M. :y*an and J. ;oorhoeve, %%9M%91. Paris: ,?F-7. Prins, /. 19%9 'isease at the crossroads: 5o)ards a history of therape(tics in B(lozi since 1&%J. Social Science and edicine 1#B, L:2&KM#1J. 19&J Cevie) of 8emba EFGHIEJKH. <ournal of African Histor# 2%: L&&MK$$. Can"er, 5. D. 19%K Dance and societ# in Eastern Africa: !he "eni Ngoma . Fondon: 9illia* :eine*ann. 19&K Peasant consciousness and guerrilla 'ar in Dimbab'e . Fondon: Ja*es C(rrey. Berkeley and Fos -n"eles: University of California Press. Cies*an, P. 19&K Cevie) of 8emba EFGHIEJKH. Research in African 8iterature , J2LMJ2%. Co!erts, -. 7. 19&& 5hro("h the !a*!oo thicket: 5he social process of 5a!)a rit(al perfor*ance. !he Drama Re)ie' #2, 2:12#M12&. Co("et, /. 19&K usic and trance: A theor# of the relations bet'een music and $ossession . Chica"o and Fondon: University of Chica"o Press. ,al(*, M. -. n.d. Ngoma #a ,a(tter, /. 19JJ se'e( Pemba . 'ar es ,alaa*. Mi*eo. untu 2:J9M&L.

De l9Atlantique au Lleu)e Congo: 7ne geogra$hie du sous,$eu$lement . 2 vols. Paris, Fa :aye: Mo(ton. 8 2#1 8 ,ava"e, M. 19%9 5he political econo*y of health in ,o(th -frica. +n Economics of health in South Africa , ed. 7. 9ilson and /. 9escott, 1L$M1J$. Johannes!(r": Cavan Press. ,chneider, '. M. 19&L A critique of the stud# of *inshi$ . -nn -r!or: University of Michi"an Press. ,hileondoa M()isi, D. 19%J O basa(O Ngoma #a 7tamaduni %etu . 'ar es ,alaa*: Ministry of C(lt(re. ,horter, -. 19%L East African societies . Fondon and Boston: Co(tled"e Z Be"an Pa(l. ,i!isi, :. See also @"(!ane. 19%J 5he place of spirit possession in A(l( cos*olo"y. +n Religion and social change in Southern Africa , ed. M. 9hisson and M. 9est, L&MK%. Cape 5o)n: 'avid Philip. ,indzin"re, @. 19&K :ealin" is as healin" does: Pra"*atic resol(tion of *isfort(ne a*on" the ,en(fo =+vory Coast>. Histor# and Anthro$olog# 2:##MK%. ,*ith, M. /. 19%L Cor$orations and societ# . Fondon: /erald '(ck)orth Z Co. ,o(th -frican +nstit(te of Cace Celations 19&# Sur)e# of race relations in South Africa EJPQ . Johannes!(r": ,o(th -frican +nstit(te of Cace Celations. ,pencer, P. 19&K Societ# and the dance . Ca*!rid"e: Ca*!rid"e University Press. ,prin", -. 19%& ?pide*iolo"y of spirit possession a*on" the F(vale of Aa*!ia. +n %omen in ritual and s#mbolic roles , ed. J. :och4,*ith and -. ,prin", 1JKM19$. @e) Gork and Fondon: Plen(* P(!lishin".

19&K :ealth care syste*s in north)est Aa*!ia. +n African healing strategies , ed. B. M. d( 5oit and +. :. -!dalla, 1#KM1K$. D)erri, @e) Gork, Fondon: 5rado4Medic Books. ,tevens, P. 19&L Cevie) of 8emba EFGHIEJKH. African Arts &L:29M#1. ,tock, C. 19&J 0'isease and develop*ent0 or 05he (nderdevelop*ent of health0: - critical revie) of "eo"raphical perspectives on -frican health pro!le*s. Social Science and edicine 2#, %:J&9M%$$. ,t(art, C. :. 19&J Cevie) of 8emba EFGHIEJKH. Africana <ournal 1#:2#KM2#%. ,(llivan, F. ?. 19&J ,o(nd and senses: 5o)ard a her*ene(tics of perfor*ance. Histor# of Religions 2J, 1:1M##. 8 2#2 8 ,)antz, F. 9. 19%L !he role of the medicine man among the Daramo of Dar,es,Salaam . Ph.'. dissertation, University of 'ar es ,alaa*. ,)antz, M. F. 19%$ Ritual and s#mbol in transitional Daramo societ# . Uppsala, ,)eden: /leer(p =,t(dia Missionalia Upsaliensia H;+>. 19%J 5he spirit possession c(lts and their social settin" in a Aara*o coastal society. Ethnologia Lennica 1M 2:2%M#9. 19%%a 'yna*ics of the spirit possession pheno*enon in eastern 5anzania. +n D#namics and institution , ed. :. Biezais, 9$M111. -!o, 7inland: ,cripta +nstit(ti 'onneriani -!oensis +H. 19%%b Methodolo"ical notes on c(lt(ral research a*idst planned develop*ent: - case st(dy on spirit possession. !emenos: Studies in Com$arati)e Religion 1#:1KLM1%L. 19%9 Co**(nity and healin" a*on" the Aara*o in 5anzania. Social Science and ,)aziland Central ,tatistical Dffice 19%9 S'azi $o$ulation census EJRF ;ol. +. M!a!ane: Central ,tatistical Dffice. edicine 1#&:1J9M1%#.

5e*kin, D. 19%# :ealth and disease. +n Dictionar# of the histor# of ideas , #9KML$%. @e) Gork: Charles ,cri!ner<s ,ons. 5ho*pson, C. 7. 19&# Llash of the s$irit . @e) Gork: Cando* :o(se. 5(rner, ;. 9. 19J% !he forest of s#mbols: As$ects of Ndembu ritual . +thaca, @.G.: Cornell University Press. 19J& !he drums of affliction: A stud# of religious $rocesses among the Ndembu of Dambia . D2ford: Clarendon Press. 19%K Re)elation and di)ination in Ndembu ritual . +thaca: Cornell University Press. Unsch(ld, P. 19%K Medico4c(lt(ral conflicts in -sian settin"s, an e2planatory theory. Social Science and #12. ;an Bins!er"en, 9. 19%% Ce"ional and non4re"ional c(lts of affliction in )estern Aa*!ia. +n Regional cults , ed. C. P. 9er!ner. Fondon, @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press =-,- 1J>. 19&1 Religious change in Dambia . Fondon: Co(tled"e Z Be"an Pa(l =-frican ,t(dies Centre Feiden>. ;an Bins!er"en, 9., and M. ,choffeleers, eds. 19&K !heoretical e:$lorations in African religion . Fondon, Boston, Mel!o(rne, and :enley: Co(tled"e Z Be"an Pa(l. ;an @oten, 7. 19&1 Central -frica. +n Neneral histor# of Africa CC: Ancient ci)ilizations of Africa , ed. /. Mokhtar. Fondon: :eine*ann ?d(ca 8 2## 8 tional Books. Berkeley, Fos -n"eles, Fondon: University of California Press. Paris: U@?,CD =)ith colla!oration of '. Cahen and P. de Maret>. ;an Dnselen, C. 19%J Chibaro . Fondon: Pl(to Press. edicine 9:#$#M

;ansina, J. 19%9M&$ Bant( in the crystal !all. Histor# in Africa J:2&%M###. %:29#M#2K. 19&L 9estern Bant( e2pansion. <ournal of African Histor# 2K:129M1LK. 199$ Paths in the rainforests . Madison: University of 9isconsin Press. ;ass, 9. B. 19%9 !he "antu s$ea*ing heritage of the 7nited States . Fos -n"eles: Center for -fro4-*erican ,t(dies, University of California, Mono"raph 2. 9a"ner, C. 19&J S#mbols that stand for themsel)es . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 9aite, /. 19&% P(!lic health in pre4colonial ?ast4Central -frica. Social Science and 9e!ster, '. 19&2 Personal co**(nications. 9er!ner, C., ed. 19%% Regional cults . Fondon, @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press =-,- Mono"raph 1J>. 19&9 Ritual $assage( sacred +ourne# . 9ashin"ton, '.C., and Manchester: ,*ithsonian +nstit(tion Press and Manchester University Press. 199$ B)iti in reflection: Dn the f("(e of "ender. <ournal of Religion in Africa 2$, 1:J#M91. 9ilson, M. 19#J Reaction to conquest . Fondon: D2ford University Press. 9orld Bank 19&K %orld de)elo$ment re$ort . /eneva: 9orld Bank. 9orld :ealth Dr"anization 19%& Primar# health care . /eneva: 9orld :ealth Dr"anization. 19%9 Statistical annual EJRP . /eneva: 9orld :ealth Dr"anization. Go(n", -. 19%% edicine 2L, #:19%M2$&.

Drder, analo"y and efficacy in ?thiopian *edical divination. Culture( 2:1&#M2$$. Aaretsky, +., and C. ,ha*!a("h

edicine and Ps#chiatr# 1,

19%& S$irit $ossession and s$irit mediumshi$ in Africa and Afro,America . @e) Gork and Fondon: /arland P(!lishin". 8 2#L 8 Ailaoneka Bad(*a, /. 19%2 A theatrical descri$tion of fi)e !anzanian dances N@"o*aO. Master<s thesis, University of 'ar es ,alaa*. Aola, +. 19JJ C(lt(re and sy*pto*s: -n analysis of patients< presentin" co*plaints. American Sociological Re)ie' #1:J1KMJ#$. 8 2#K 8

In)e:
A
-!do*inal disease, 1#2 , 1J# -!d(l Pattah of Macina, #1 -hern, ?., 1#1 -*e!iasis, 1J# -ncestor<s tooth, as ca(se of sickness, 1L$ -n2ieties, va"(e, L$ -ppetite, lack of, 19 , 2L , 92 -ro*, ,., 122 412# -("E, M., &J

/
Backache, 2J , 2% , #% Bacterial infection, 1J# Bad1(: c(lt of affliction, Mai4@do*!e ori"in, Aaire, 11 .

in Binshasa, 19 Bant( lan"(a"es and c(lt(res, & , K% 4J#. 9estern, 11 41L, J$ 4J#, JL , J% , J& , %# , 19& 42$#. e2pansion, K9 4J#. *ap of, J$ . ?astern, J$ 4J#, %# , 2$# 42$%. le2icon of healin" and health in, J# 4J9. hypothesis of e2pansion, and n"o*a, %# 4%L. na*es of, 1&1 41&&. and distri!(tion of therape(tic co"nates, 1&9 42$&. and instr(*ents of healin" rites, 2$9 421# Barrenness, 1$J , 11& , 1J2 41JK Bastin, G., K9 Bateson, /., 12L , 1%J Ber"er, +., %J Berliner, P., %$ Bernstein, B., 1$$ Betani =,)aziland> Colle"e of 'iviners, #% 4K$ Bi!ea(, /., 12 Bilharzia, L# , 1J# Bil(*!(: c(lt of affliction, F(!a ori"in, 11 . in Binshasa, 1L 41&. *(sic for, 212 Bira, ,hona rite co*para!le to n"o*a, 212 Blackin", J., %$ , 1$& , 12J Blood, hi"h press(re of, ca(sed !y fear of others, L$ Bon"ita, rite of affliction, Mon"o ori"in, 21$ Boone, D., %$ 4%2 Boorse, C., J Booth, @., 1L Botoli, F., 2# 42K, #2 , 12J Bo(rdie(, P., J , 1K% 41K& Bo(r"(i"non, ?., 1#L

Brideprice, affliction d(e to nonpay*ent of, 1J BWhr*an, ;., and @. /3o*fa, 119 412$, 1#% B(kav( =eastern Aaire>, n"o*a in, 92 49#, 9% 49& B(rrid"e, B., 1## B(tii, rite of affliction, 9are"a ori"in, 211 B(yeye, ,(k(*a snake4handlin" n"o*a, 1K$ 41K1 Bya*(n"( F(f(n"(la )a Chi!an"a4!an"a, 92 49#, 9% 49&

C
Cald)ell, J., 1KJ Call and response, LL , %2 , 11$ . consist 8 2#J 8 across continent, %2 . !asis of 0doin" n"o*a,0 111 411J Cancer, 2% Cape 5o)n, 1$ , #J , J$ . rationale for research site, K 4J. n"o*a in, K$ 4KK, 1JK 41%$. 0doin" n"o*a0 in, 11$ 411& Centre +nternational des Civilisations Banto(es =C+C+B->, Fi!reville, /a!on research center, K9 Chav(nd(ka, /., 1%1 41%2 Chen"a, @., #2 4#K, 1K$ . See also M(n"ano Christianity: and n"o*a, 1K , #2 , %% , 9& , 21K . in n"o*a lyrics, 111 411&, 121 Cok)e people =Aaire, -n"ola, Aa*!ia>, %K Color =red )hite !lack> sy*!olis*, & ,1K , 1J , 1% , 1& , #& 4#9, L% , K$ , K2 , KL , JL , 1L2 , 1%L . spirits classified in ter*s of, 9K 499. co(rse thro("h 0the )hite,0 1$1 41$L, 1J& Co*aroff, J., 1#& Cordell, '., 1KJ

Corin, ?., 1& 419, 1#1 , 1#% 41#& Cornet, J., 2i Cory, :., 2 , & , 21 422, 1K$ 41K1 Co(rlander, :., 12J 412% Csordas, 5., 1#1 , 1#& C(lt of affliction: defined, 1 , 1$ . (r!an chan"es in, 1& 42$. See also @"o*a C)ezi =also B(C)ezi>: rite of affliction of Cyan"o*!e ori"in, 21 . in ,(k(*aland, 22 . in 'ar es ,alaa*, %J

3
'ance, co*petition, 22 , #L , KL , 1$9 , 111 411J, 11& , 122 , 1L9 , 1J# . See also 'r(*. Chyth*. ,on". ,on"4dance 'ar es ,alaa*, 1$ , J$ , 9$ , 1L2 41L#. rationale as research site, K 4J. n"o*a in, 2$ 421, 22 4#K 'a)son, M., 1KL 'eCrae*er, 9., # 'e :e(sch, F., # , J$ , && , 9K , 1#L 41#J 'e*aret, P., # , K9 'evisch, C., 12 , 1#1 , 1LK , 1L& 'ia!etes, 2% 'ia"nosis, L1 . of *isfort(ne, 9$ 49L 'iarrhea, #1 'isco(rse: on spirits and illness cases, K$ . st(died, to esta!lish criteria of therape(tic efficacy, 1#1 . e2pressions of n"o*a disco(rse, 1L# . as c(rin" 3(alities of ver!al therapy, 1LL . "rid of, in n"o*a, 1LK . centrality of, in n"o*a interaction and kno)led"e, 1%J .

See also Bno)led"e. Cit(al. ,on". ,on"4dance 'ivination: in Bil(*!(, 1L , #K ff. 0thro)in" !ones,0 L2 . in ,)aziland, #% 4K$. in ,o(th -frica, K$ . *edi(*ship vs. *echanistic, L2 4L#, L& 4K$. relationship to c(lts of affliction, 91 492. femba type, 9L . of *isfort(ne, 9$ ff. and spirits, 1$1 . co**(nicative str(ct(re of, 12# . @"o*!o type, Pende, 211 . See also 'ia"nosis 'izziness, 1% , 19 , 92 D2g( d2g.( d2g1( d2g2 , proto4Bant( co"nate: h(*an4ca(sed *isfort(ne, force of )ords, JK 4JJ, J% , J& , 9$ , 1L1 , 192 . addressed in n"o*a healin", &K , 9$ . and spirit fields, 9L Donda =eastern Bant(, sore>, JL 'oyal, F., J 'rea*s, 12 , 19 , 1#% , 1#9 . of ani*als, 19 . of people, #% . of ancestors, #& . of str(""les, 92 . of ?(ropeans, 1L$ 'r(*, dr(**in", 1 , 2K , 2J , LL , J# , J& , %$ 4%2. needed to !rin" o(t the spirit, L% . p(rpose of, in healers< theories of n"o*a, 1L# . See also M(sical instr(*ents D-.d( d-.d0( d-.1d/ =proto4Bant(, to !eco*e ill>, J# , 191 '(ala people =Ca*eroon>, JJ '(!os, C., J

'(rkhei*, ?., %& , &$ , 9& , 1%#

E
?fficacy: of therapy, % . co*parative criteria of, 1#$ 41#1. of n"o*a in ,o(thern ,avanna fertility enhance*ent, 1JL 41JK ?hret, C., K9 , J2 ?kata, rite of affliction, Boyela ori"in, 211 ?koi people =@i"eria>, J$ , JJ ?li*a, rite of affliction, ?3(ate(r, @. Aaire, ori"in, 11 , 2$9 ?naa*a =Mana>, rite of affliction, B(kav(, of Bashi ori"in, 9% ?ntertain*ent, and n"o*a, #2 4#K ?3(ate(r re"ion =@. Aaire>, Ae!ola, c(lt of affliction fro*, 1& 419 ?tiolo"y of disease, illness: children<s illness and death, 12 , 2# , 1J2 . ordinary vs. sheitani , 2% . -frican vs. non4-frican, L$ . umbelelo( mego( res(ltin" fro* interpersonal tensions, L$ . ama*ubalo , res(ltin" fro* !roken *oral precepts, L$ , 9# . d(e to )eakness, LL . deter*ine after hospital has 0failed,0 LL . 0of /od0 vs. h(*an4 8 2#% 8 ca(sed, JK 4JJ. spirit fields and, 9L 41$1. conflict, interpersonal, as ca(se of illness, 1#% . (lti*ate, and partic(lar si"ns and sy*pto*s, 1#% . link !et)een, and partic(lar si"ns and sy*pto*s, 1#% ?yesi"ht, loss of, 2J

F
7ace, t)isted, distorted, 2J 7ear, of poverty, !y 9hites, L$ 7eld*an, &2 7ertility enhance*ent n"o*a, 1J1 41JK

7evers, 12 , 19 , 92 , 1J# . conv(lsive, #1 7o2, C., # 7rankel, ,., 1K9 7reidson, ?., J 7ry, P., %%

/aisie, ,., 1J2 N3ng3 , proto4Bant( ter* for healer, doctor, for *edicine, 2# , #1 , J% 4J&, 19# . See also @<an"a /eertz, C., &J /iles, F., 1#J /l(ck*an, M., && /o!let4;anor*elin"en, ;., 1$# , 1#1 , 1J2 41JK /onorrhea, 2% /oody, J., 1KJ /3o*fa, @., 119 412$, 1#% /reen, 5., 2ii /reen!er", J., K9 /re"ory, J., and ;. Piche, 1KJ /(thrie, M., J2 4J& /ynecolo"ical and o!stetrical disorders, 19 , 92 . *iscarria"e, 1$J , 1J2 . threatened, 1JK . *enstr(al, 1J2 . dys*enorrhea, 1J# . s(!fec(ndiry, 1J# . "enital tract disease, 1J# . See also 7ertility enhance*ent. +nfertility

7
Hamba : shrine type ,o(thern ,avanna, J% , 1$# . Chiha*!a, 11& 4119. +ha*!a, 1L$ .

as reprod(ction enhancin" n"o*a, a*on" F(vale, 1J2 41JL. and n"o*a a*on" Pende, 211 . Gaka, 212 . F(vale, 212 :ar)ood, -., J :assan, +., 2J 429, 12J , 1L# :assan, D., 2K 429, 1L2 41L# :eadache, 19 , 2L , 2J , 2% , 2& , 29 , LK , K1 , 92 ,1#2 , 1L2 :ealin": distinct fro* reli"ion, in scholarship, L . distinctive feat(res of Central -frican, &J :ealth: definitions of, J 4%, 1KL , 21J 421%. indicators of, 1KK 41KJ. social reprod(ction of, 1KJ 41J$ :eart: !(rn )ith an2iety, 19 , 92 . rapid or arhyth*ic !eat, 19 . fear of attack, K1 . fail(re, KL . afflictions, 1#2 :eine, B., K9 , J$ :e*!a people =Aaire>, JJ :e*orrhoids, 2% :ook)or*, 1J# :(2ley, 7., 12% :(y"ens, P., JL 4JK :y"iene, ideas of, in -frican healin", 2$ :y*an, F., K9 :ysteria, ver!al =loss of speech>, 1#2

I
+llness, acceptin", as first sta"e of therapy, K1 +*potence, 19 , #1 +nfectio(s disease, 1JJ +nfertility, 12 , 1# . )idespread zone of, 1J2 41JK

+nstit(tion, % , %& , &$ 4&#, 1%# 41%9. variations, L . defined, &$ . synthetic *odel of -frican therape(tic, its risks and !enefits, &J +sla*, and n"o*a, #$ 4#2 +solation, 19 +so*a, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# , 1J2

J
Jo!lessness, 1o! an2iety, as ca(se of illness, K1

.
Bakozi, rite of affliction in B(kav(, of C)andaise and Fe"a ori"in, 9% Balan"a people =Ai*!a!)e>, 9K Bayon"<(, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1L$ Billin"i, rite of affliction of ,)ahili coast, 21 Bin"iri4n"iri, M., #$ 4#2 Binshasa, rationale for research site, K 4J, J$ , 1#% . grands rites in, 11 42$, 92 Binya*(kera, rite of affliction of ,)ahili coast, 2J Blein*an, -., 1#1 Bno)led"e: of n"o*a, codified in note!ook, 2% . 0s(rvival kno)led"e0 and n"o*a, 1$9 , 1%J . i*plicit, in sy*!ols and *etaphors, 1#1 . ancestral sanction of, 1L1 . content of, in n"o*a, not overdeter*ined !y possession, 1L9 41K1. consens(al !asis of, in healin", 1K2 Bon"o re"ion, people =Fo)er Aaire>, %K , 1$& , 12$ 4121, 1L% 41L&. @kita, rite of, 12 41L. c(lts of affliction and historic trade, LK , JL 4J&, 1J$ 41J1 8 2#& 8

L
Fa*!eck, M., %J , 9J , 1#& Fast, M., and /. Chav(nd(ka, 1%1 41%2 Feach, ?., 12L Feadership: sickness of, 12 . recr(it*ent to, in n"o*a, 1#& Fe*a, /., 2i , 12 Fe*!a: Fo)er Aaire c(lt of affliction, & , %& 4%9, 12# 412L, 1#1 41#2. definin", as n"o*a, &2 4&#. lyrics in, 12$ 4121, 1LJ . interpreted, 1L% 41L&. and social reprod(ction, 1J$ 41J1 Fesotho, social reprod(ction in, 1K& 41K9 Festhae"e, C., 1KJ FEvi4,tra(ss, C., 1## Fe)is, +., # , &9 , 1#L 41#J Fichindika, rite of affliction, coastal ,)ahili, 2J Fiha*!a, -., 1$9 , 1%J Fokote, rite of affliction, Boyela ori"in, 211 Foved( people =,o(th -frica>, L$ F(!a people, J$ , %# , 1J2 41JK. Bil(*!( rite of, 1L 41& F(*!(. See Bil(*!( F(vale people =Aa*!ia>, # , 1#J , 1J2 41JK

M
Ma!iala Mandela, 2i , 19 42$, 92 Ma!(za, +., #% 4L9, 9# 49L, 1L1 Madness, fear of, #% Mado"oli, rite of affliction, ,)ahili coast ori"in, 21 . e2plained, 2J a+ini , spirits in ,)ahili n"o*a, of -ra!ic ori"in, 2# Makala, ?. B., 2ii , 2K 429, ##

Makh(!(, F., 2ii , JL Malaria, 1J# Manian"a: rite of affliction, Bil)a ori"in, 21 . in 'ar es ,alaa*, e2plained, 2# 4 2K . paraphernalia (sed, 2L 42K. *(sic for, 212 Maranhao, 5., 1LL asheitani , spirits, of -ra!ic ori"in, 2# Mat(*!e, people, coastal 5anzania, 2# , J$ M!a!ane4Manzini, ,)aziland, rationale as research site, K , J$ . See also ,)aziland M!ochi people =/a!on>, JJ M!o*!o: rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# . F(!a4,ha!a, 1J2 41JL M!(n"i: rite of affliction, Bil)a ori"in, 21 . in 'ar es ,alaa*, e2plained, 2# . paraphernalia (sed, 2K . *(sic for, 212 Medicine, 2% , && , 1$J , 1#9 , 1L& . co*!ination of, in therapy, 2$ , #1 . in *obe !asket, 2L , 2K , LJ , 1$J , 1L& . in !eaded "o(rds, 2& . in antelope horn, 29 . in trance divination, L# , LK . in !(cket, K2 . dr(**in" (p, 1$& . revealed in son"4dance, 11L . "iven to assist patient to talk, 1L# . defined as syste*, 1KL Medi(*ship, L# 4K$. defined, in ,)aziland, LK . perfor*ed, in femba divination, LJ 4K$, 9L . in Ai*!a!)ean )ar, %J .

See also 'ivination. Possession. %% . 5rance Meillasso(2, C., 1K% Mental dist(r!ance, 2J , 2% , 1L$ Metaphor: 9 , 1$9 , 12& 41#1, 1LK 41L9. !rid"in" do*ains, 11% . trance as, of e2perience, 12& , 129 , 1#J . defined, 1L% . of healin" and transfor*ation, 1L& . of 0diffic(lt e2perience,0 and re4 cr(it*ent to n"o*a, 1LK , 1L9. See also Cit(al. ,y*!ol. 5rope Me(ssen, -., K9 Mikanda4Mikanda, rite of affliction, Upper Aaire and Biv( ori"in, 11 Mills, J., 2ii , 1J9 Mind, *e*ory loss, 1% . lack of presence, 19 , 92 Mitchell, J. C., 2 Mit(*!a, rite of affliction, B(kav(, 9% , 9& , 99 Miz(ka, Mz(ka: rite of affliction, ?ast -frican, Biv( ori"in, 11 . in 'ar es ,alaa*, 2# . in Binshasa, 11 Morsy, ,., J Moza*!i3(e, n"o*a in, 9K Mpo*!o: rite of affliction, Mai4@do*!e Aaire ori"in, 11 . in Binshasa, 19 Msa"hiro: 5anzanian rite of affliction, 21 . 'ar es ,alaa*, e2plained, 2# , 2J . perfor*ed, 2& 429. *(sic for, 212 Mshi(, ?., 2# , 2% M(chona, 1#9 41L$ M(di*!e, ;. G., &2 ,1LJ 41L%

M(lan"oyi, rite of affliction, B(kav(, of Fe"a, Ain"a, ,on"e, 9% M(n"ano: rite of affliction, ,(k(*a and @ya*)ezi ori"in, in 'ar es ,alaa*, #2 4##. perfor*ed, #L 4#K. *(sic of, 212 M(rray, C., J , 1K& 41K9 M(sical instr(*ents, in healin", J9 4%L, 2$9 421#

N
@<an"a: rite of affliction, possi!ly @"oni ori"in, 21 , 9K . spirits affectin", 2# . e2plained, 2J , 9K . perfor*ed, 29 4#$. See also /]n"] 8 2#9 8 @avarro, ;., 1KL @de!ele, people =,. -frica, Ai*!a!)e>, #K , #% , J$ @de*!( people =9. Aa*!ia>, s(!1ect of ;. 5(rner<s research, 1 4#, J$ , %% , 1$& ,1#9 41L$, 1J2 @dika, -., 2ii , K1 , 1L2 @eedha*, C., 12% @eher, -., 12% @ervo(s !reakdo)n, LK @et)orks, % , 1J% Ng2m3 =proto4Bant(, dr(*, son"4dance>: defined, 1 . research on, 2 4J. perfor*ance of, 1J 41%, 2& 4#$, ## 4 #K , LL 4L&, K2 4KL, 11$ 411J. as "(ilds in ,(k(*a society, 22 . in relation to +sla*, #1 4#2. of entertain*ent, in 'ar es ,alaa*, #2 4#K. and stress on divination of @"(ni societies, #K 4#%. in ,)aziland, #% 4K$.

initiation to, in Cape 5o)n, K1 4KK. as proto4Bant( co"nate, J& 4J9. hypothesis of historic ori"in, %# 4%L. s(**ary of patterns of representation of, %9 . ontolo"y of, as (ni3(e instit(tion, &$ 4&#. as (ncapt(red po)er !ase, 1%% . distri!(tion of co"nate in Bant( lan"(a"es, 19% @"(!ane, :., 2ii , # , L9 , JK , 1%$ . See also ,i!isi @"(ni lan"(a"e and peoples, & , #& 4KK, %& @kan"a, rite of affliction, Mon"o, 211 N*isi =*1c0 >, 12 , JL , J% , J& , %2 , %L , %& 4%9, && , 1$J , 1#9 , 2$1 . *(sical acco*pani*ent, a*on" 9oyo, 212 @kita, Fo)er Aaire Bon"o c(lt of affliction for linea"e, ho(sehold and individ(al )ell!ein", 11 , 12 41L, 1$# , 1#K , 1J2 @k(la: rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# . F(vale, 1J2 . *(sic in, 212 @ose!leedin", LK , K1 , 1L2 @sen"a people =Moza*!i3(e>, %L @siala Miaka Maken"o, 2i , 12 41# @ya*(le*(le, rite of affliction, B(kav(, of Bate*!o and Bashi ori"in, 9& @ya*)ezi people =eastern 5anzania>, ## , J$ , %K @ze*!ela, B., 1L 41&, 1JK @zo*!o, rite of affliction, @"!aka ori"in, 211 @zondo, rite of affliction, Mon"o ori"in, 2$9 421$

O
D!en"a, 5., JL 4JJ

P
Pains, va"(e, L$ Paralysis, 2J Parsons, 5., J Pedi people =,. -frica>, #K , #%

Pende people =Aaire>, J% Phillipson, '., K9 Poll(tion, of death, 111 411# Possession, 1 , & , 19 , 2# , #2 , %9 , &9 , 1$$ , 1#L 41#9. and spirit classes, 2# , #2 . in dances, 29 . )ith *edi(*ship, L# . as trance, #% , 1L1 41L#. in Bil(*!(, 1K 41&. n"o*a practice, )itho(t, 2J . and divination, 9L . distinction of !elief in, and trance, 1#L . theories of, 1#K 41#J. as *inor ca(se of illness in Ae!ola, 1#% . *inor feat(re of n"o*a, e2a""erated !y scholars, 1L$ 41L1. as hypothesis or ideolo"y, 1L9 41K2. See also Medi(*ship. ,pirit. 5rance Po)er: controlled and (ncontrolled, # . a(thority, social rene)al, and healin", 12 . liaison of n"o*a to party in po)er, 2& . n"o*a in relation to soverei"n po)er of state, %K 4%J. )eak states or se"*entary societies, %9 . and efficacy of n"o*a rite, 1L9 . le"iti*acy of n"o*a, attraction of state, 1%1 . n"o*a as (ncapt(red po)er !ase, 1%% Prins, /., 2 , # Prohi!ition, in health and illness, JL 4JK. See also 5rans"ression Psycholo"ical distress, 12 , 1& P(rification, *etaphors and techni3(es of, JL , &9 , 1$1 , 111 P-t.( $-t/ =proto4Bant(, !oil, sore, )o(nd>, J# , 19$

C
P(est for therapy, &J , 1$#

R
Can"er, 5., 2 , %% Ceprod(ction enhance*ent, 1J1 41JK Cespiratory disorder, 1L$ . asth*a, 2% Chyth*, 1 , J9 , 1LL . of )ords, 1$& . polyrhyth*s, 122 412#. distinctive, in each n"o*a, 12J . and trance, 12J 412& Cies*an, P., &2 Cite of passa"e, &% 4&9 Cit(al: defined, 12L 412J. and *(sic in n"o*a, 12J 412&. s(**arized, 1%L . See also C(lt of affliction. Metaphor. ,y*!ol Cit(alization: of affliction, 1 . c(lt of affliction as, in h(*an society, && . as added levels of te2t, and reasons for, in n"o*a, 12L 412K 8 2L$ 8 Co!erts, -., 1L Co("et, /., 12% C(hani: rite of affliction, ,)ahili coast ori"in, 21 . in 'ar es ,alaa*, in relation to +sla*, #$ 4#1 C(n"(, rite of affliction, ,)ahili coast ori"in, 21

S
,acrifice, 1K . in Cape 5o)n n"o*a, K1 4KL, 1JJ . )hen occ(rrin" in n"o*a rites, &9 . theories of, in n"o*a, 1$L 41$K ,a(tter, /., 1J$ ,ava"e, M., J ,chneider, '., &$ 4&1 ,choffeleers, 1#L ,e*ali, +. -. J., 2i , 2# ,haker, rattle, 1J , #$ . "o(rd, 2L ,hakin" of !ody, 2L ,han"ani people =Moza*!i3(e>, #% , #& ,hirika la Mada)a ya Biasili =Dr"anization of 5raditional Medicine, coastal 5anzania>, 2K , 2% , %9 , 1L2 , 1%$ 41%2 ,hona people =Ai*!a!)e>, %$ 4%1, %# ,i!isi, :., 9& 499. See also @"(!ane ,indzin"re, @., 1#1 ,kin, rash, 19 , 92 , 1#2 ,*ith, M. /., &$ ,nake4handlin", in 5anzanian n"o*a, 1L9 41K1 ,o!h(za #% ,ocial reprod(ction: of health, J 4%, 1KJ 41K9. profiles of, 1K9 41%2 ,on", sin"in", 1 , J , 1J 41%, #& , #9 , LL , K2 , J9 , 1$& , 1$9 , 111 411J, 119 , 12$ , 121 , 12J , 1L# , 1LK , 1L% , 1K1 , 1%L , 1%K . co**on and personal, in n"o*a, 11& 4122. call and response in, 11% , 122 412J. *etaphors in, 1LJ . and inchoate feelin"s of 0diffic(lt e2perience,0 1K2 ,on"4dance, 1 , #K , KL , 1$9 , 111 411J, 11& , 122 , 1L9 , 1J# ,orcery, L$ . See also 9itchcraft

,otho45s)ana people =Fesotho, Bots)ana, ,o(th -frica>, K$ 4KK, 1J% ,o(l, loss, as ca(se of child<s illness, LJ ,pirits, 12# . loss of contact )ith, 12 . evil, 1& , 19 , 1#% . of ven"ef(l ancestors as ca(se of sickness, LJ . displeas(re over (nfinished *arria"e, as ca(se of sickness, LJ . hypothesis of recr(it*ent to c(lt of affliction, 92 , 1L# , 1LK . fields, 9L 41$1. in Moza*!i3(e, 9K . in ,)aziland, 9K 49J. in ,o(th -frica, 9J . in coastal 5anzania, 9J . in eastern Aaire, 9% . in A(l(land, 9& . in divination co**(nicative str(ct(res, 12# . spirit lo"ic, 1#L 41#9. displeas(re of, 1L$ . relation to trance, 1L$ 41L#. See also Medi(*ship. Possession. 5rance ,prin", -., 2 4#, 1$# , 1#1 , 1#J , 1J2 41JK ,tevens, P., &2 4&# ,till!irth, 1J2 , 1JK . See also /ynecolo"ical and o!stetrical disorders ,tock, C., 1KJ ,t(art, C., &2 ,(k(*aland, people =)estern 5anzania>, & , 21 422, ## 4#L, %% , 121 , 1#K , 1K$ 41K1. and )ork of :. Cory in, 2 . n"o*a in, 21 422 ,(k( people =Aaire>, J% ,)antz, F., 2 , #$ , 1%1 ,)antz, M. F., 2 , 21 , #$ ,)aziland, people: rationale as research site, K 4J. n"o*a in, #K 4K$, %K , 9# , 9L , 9& 499, 1L$ 41L1.

spirit fields in, 9K 49J ,y*!ol, ,y*!olis*, K& . as attri!(te of instit(tion, &$ . 0dr(*0 as sy*!ol of therape(tic instit(tion, &2 4&#. of color, in n"o*a, 1$1 41$K. that stands for itself, 1$& , 1$9 . nonver!al, 121 . in rit(al, 12K . reprod(ction of, 1K% . and state control, 1%1 . ,ee also Metaphor. 5rope ,y*pto*4si"n: a!sence of specificity, in n"o*a affliction, KK , 9L . of *isfort(ne, in n"o*a, 92 49L. in Ae!ola, 1#%

T
5anzanian Ministry of C(lt(re, M(sic 'ivision, 2ii , ## 4#L, 1K$ , 1%K . licensin" n"o*a, #2 , 1%1 5eke people =Con"o>, J% 5herape(tic traditions: indi"eno(s -fri4 can, defined, 1 42. research strate"y in st(dy of, K 4J. *i*icry of 9estern, 2$ . or"anized into association, 2% ff. +sla*ic4-ra!ic, and n"o*a, 2% 42&, #1 4#2, 1#J . licensin" of, #2 4##, 1%1 . Christian faith healin", LL , 1#& 41#9. !io*edicine, LL , K1 , 1KL . psychoanalysis, KK , 1LL . psychotherape(tic interpretation, of n"o*a, 1#% , 1#& . 9estern self4help, 1L2 , 1%% . fa*ily therapy, 1LL . See also :ealth. Bno)led"e. 9orld :ealth Dr"anization

5herapy: individ(al and collective *echanis*s of, % , 1# , 1L , 21 . )ith )hite po)der =$/mb3 >, 1K , 1J , J% , 1$1 , 8 2L1 8 1$L . secl(sion, co(nselin", rit(al, 19 , 21 , LK , K1 , 1J# . initiation as, 19 , K1 4KK. paraphernalia for, in 'ar es ,alaa*, 2K . 0o(tlinin"0 person )ith *edicine, 2& . readin" and prayer, #1 . n"o*a for, vs. entertain*ent, #2 . i**(nization a"ainst snake!ite, )ith veno*, #K . *editative and co(nselin", #% . thro("h force of )ords, JJ . proto4Bant( co"nates of, JJ 4J&. characteristic feat(res of Central -frican, &J , && . 0co(rse thro("h )hite0 as, 1$1 41$L. sacrifice as, 1$L 41$K. her!al, dietary, and rit(al, 1J# . !eneficial and deliterio(s, in reprod(ction enhance*ent, 1JL . See also 'ivination. 'r(*, dr(**in". ?fficacy. Medicine. @"o*a 5herapy *ana"e*ent, J& , 1$# 5ho*pson, C. 7., 12% 5hon"a people =Moza*!i3(e>, #% 4#&, 1#K . ;anda( a*on", 1#K 5iv people =@i"eria>, J$ , JJ 5raditional Medicine Cesearch Unit, M(hi*!ili :ospital, 'ar es ,alaa*, 2i , #$ 5rance: in Bil(*!(, 1J , 1& , 92 , 1$$ . fe*!a, in ,)aziland, LK . and *(sical rhyth*s, 12% 412&. rise and decline, presence and a!sence of, in n"o*a, 1L$ 41L1. See also Medi(*ship. Possession. ,pirits 5rans"ression, of social r(les, ca(se of si"n4sy*pto*s, 1#% .

See also Prohi!ition 5rope: 0doin" n"o*a0 as do*inant, 1$& . and diffic(lt e2perience, 1LK , 1L9 . See also Metaphor. Cit(al. 1K$ . ,y*!ol 5(!erc(losis, K1 , %% , 1J9 5(k(ka, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1L$ 5(rner, ;. 9., 1 , 2 , 21 , JL , %% , &# , && , 1$# 41$K, 1$& , 119 , 12K , 1#9 41L$, 1J2 41JL !'asa =sickness, call, to initiation>, little sy*pto*4si"n specificity in, KK , 1#% , 1L$ 5)in pre"nancies, 1J2

U
Unsch(ld, P., 1%1 41%2 Urinary tract disease, 1J#

V
;an Bins!er"en, 9., # , 1#L ;an @oten, 7., K9 , J1 ;an Dnselen, C., %J ;ansina, J., # , K9 , J$ , J1 ;enda people =,o(th -frica>, %1 , 1$& , 12J ;isions, #% . of ancestors, #& ;o*itin", #1 . !lood, #% , LK

0
9aite, /., J% 9eakness, of !ody, 2L 9e!ster, '., 9K 9ei"ht, loss or e2cess, 19 , 2L , 92 9er!ner, C., %J , 9L 49K, 9% 9est, M., 2ii 9etsi49okenda, rite of affliction, 5etela ori"in, 21$ 9ilson, M., #

9itchcraft, 2$L . as ca(se of sickness, 1J , J# , 1#% 9orld Bank, 1KK , 1K& 9orld :ealth Dr"anization, 1KL 41KK, 1K& 9(!)an"(, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# , 1J2

D
Hhosa people =,o(th -frica>, & , #% , K$ 4K1, %1 , %K , 9J , 9& 499, 119 412$, 1JJ 41J&

Y
Gaka people =Aaire>, J% Gesia F(ther Bin", 2ii Goder, C., 1KK Go(n", -., 1#1

B
Aaire, Fo)er, in coastal trade, 1J$ 41J1 Aa*!ia: n"o*a in 9est of, # . and the 0infertility zone,0 1J2 Aara*o people =coastal 5anzania>, 2J 4#K,1%$ 41%1 Aaretzsky, +., 9K Ae!ola: c(lt of affliction in ?3(ate(r, @. Aaire, and Binshasa, & , 11 , 2$9 . (r!an chan"es, 1& 419. de"ree of trance in, 1#% Ai"(a people =coastal 5anzania>, 2J 4#K, 1%$ 41%1 Aola, +., J A(l( people =,o(th -frica>, #K , #% , #& , K$ 4K1, JL 4J& passi*, %K , 9& 499, 1JJ 41J& 8 2L2 8 'esi"ner: U.C. Press ,taff Co*positor: Presti"e 5ypo"raphy 5e2t: 1$ 1# ,a!on

'isplay: ,a!on Printer: 5ho*son4,hore, +nc. Binder: 5ho*son4,hore, +nc.

Preferred Citation: Janzen, John M. Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft#%%9n&vf