Cell theory

In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory that describes the properties of cells, which are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. The initial development of the theory, during the mid-17th century, was made possible by advances in microscopy; the study of cells is called cell biology. Cell theory is one of the foundations of biology.The observations of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the development of the cell theory. The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells and living things. The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below: 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the most basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing, living cells. Definition: The Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of biology. Credit for the formulation of this theory is given to german scientists Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolph Virchow. The Cell Theory states:

All living organisms are composed of cells. They may be unicellular or multicellular. The cell is the basic unit of life. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the ideas that:

Energy flow occurs within cells. Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell. All cells have the same basic chemical composition.

Cell theory is the idea that the cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms and that new cells are formed from other existing cells.
Cell theory is the idea that the cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms and that new cells are formed from other existing cells. This theory is one of the foundations of modern biology. First formulated in the early 1800s in landmark publications by Mathias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, the foundations of this theory began in the mid-1600s through advances in microscopy. Today, it is held that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, all vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.

Cilia vs Flagella
Cilia and flagella are cell organelles that are structurally similar but are differentiated based on their function and/or length. Cilia are short and there are usually many (hundreds) cilia per cell. On the other hand, flagella are longer and there are fewer flagella per cell (usually one to eight). Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are structurally identical, the beating pattern of the two organelles can be different. The motion of flagella is often undulating and wave-like, whereas the motile cilia often perform a more complicated 3D motion with a power and recovery stroke.

Comparison chart
Cilia are short, hair like appendages Definition extending from the surface of a living cell. Cross Nexin arm present. section Length Short

Flagella are long, threadlike appendages on the surface of a living cell. Nexin arm absent.

Longer than cilia, can vary Wave-like, undulating, sinusoidal, slow Motion Rotational, like a motor, very fast moving movement compared to cilia Density Many (hundreds) per cell Few (less than 10) per cell Found in Eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells Pronounced as fla-gel-ah, is the plural of Pronounced as silly-ah, is the plural of flagellum. From Latin word for whip. Etymology cilium. From Latin word for eyelash.

OK, let's start by getting a few thing straight. Cilia (pronounced "silly-ah", from the Latin for "eyelash") (and not spelt "cillia") is the plural of cilium. A cilium is a microscopic hairlike process extending from the surface of a cell. Capable of rhythmic motion, it acts in unison with other cilia to cause the movement of the cell or the surrounding medium. Flagella (pronounced "fla-gel-ah") (not spelt "flagellae") is the plural of flagellum - long, threadlike appendages on certain cells which function as organs of locomotion. Cilia beat in organized, rythmic waves - rigid in the power stroke, flexible in recovery. Under the microscope, cilia are usually revealed by a flickering appearance.

How to use microscopy and analysis

Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy. Optical and electron microscopy involve the diffraction, reflection, or refraction of electromagnetic radiation/electron beams interacting with the specimen, and the subsequent collection of this scattered radiation or another signal in order to create an image. This process may be carried out by wide-field irradiation of the sample (for example standard light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy) or by scanning of a fine beam over the sample (for example confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy). Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a scanning probe with the surface of the object of interest. The development of microscopy revolutionized biology and remains an essential technique in the life and physical sciences.

Optical microscopy
Optical or light microscopy involves passing visible light transmitted through or reflected from the sample through a single or multiple lenses to allow a magnified view of the sample.[1] The resulting image can be detected directly by the eye, imaged on a photographic plate or captured digitally. The single lens with its attachments, or the system of lenses and imaging equipment, along with the appropriate lighting equipment, sample stage and support, makes up the basic light microscope. The most recent development is the digital microscope, which uses a CCD camera to focus on the exhibit of interest. The image is shown on a computer screen, so eye-pieces are unnecessary. Limitations

Limitations of standard optical microscopy (bright field microscopy) lie in three areas;

This technique can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively. Diffraction limits resolution to approximately 0.2 micrometres (see: microscope). Out of focus light from points outside the focal plane reduces image clarity.

Live cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, since the internal structures of the cell are colourless and transparent. The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different structures with selective dyes, but this often involves killing and fixing the sample. Staining may also introduce artifacts, apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen ame extent by specific microscopy techniques that can non-invasively increase the contrast of the image. In general, these techniques make use of differences in the refractive index of cell structures. It is comparable to looking through a glass window: you (bright field microscopy) don't see the glass but merely the dirt on the glass. There is a difference, as glass is a denser material, and this creates a difference in phase of the light passing through. The human eye is not sensitive to this difference in phase, but clever optical

solutions have been thought out to change this difference in phase into a difference in amplitude (light intensity).
Techniques Main article: Optical microscope

In order to improve specimen contrast or highlight certain structures in a sample special techniques must be used. A huge selection of microscopy techniques are available to increase contrast or label a sample.

Four examples of transilumination techniques used to generate contrast in a sample of tissue paper. 1.559 m/pixel.

Bright field illumination, sample contrast comes from absorbance of light in the sample.

Cross-polarized light illumination, sample contrast comes from rotation of polarized light through the sample.

Dark field illumination, sample contrast comes from light scattered by the sample.

Phase contrast illumination, sample contrast comes from interference of different path lengths of light through the sample.