Adaptive-neuro-fuzzy inference system approach for transmission line fault classication and location incorporating effects of power swings

M.J. Reddy and D.K. Mohanta Abstract: In the present milieu, changes in regulations and the opening of power markets have manifested in the form of large amount of power transfer across transmission lines with frequent changes in loading conditions based on market price. Since conventional distance relays may consider power swing as a fault, tripping because of such malfunctioning would lead to serious consequences for power system stability. A frequency domain approach for digital relaying of transmission line faults mitigating the adverse effects of power swing on conventional distance relaying is presented. A wavelet-neuro-fuzzy combined approach for fault location is also presented. It is different from conventional algorithms that are based on deterministic computations on a well-dened model for transmission line protection. The wavelet transform captures the dynamic characteristics of fault signals using wavelet multi-resolution analysis (MRA) coefcients. The fuzzy inference system (FIS) and the adaptive-neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) are both used to extract important features from wavelet MRA coefcients and thereby to reach conclusions regarding fault location. Computer simulations using MATLAB have been conducted for a 300 km, 400 kV line and results indicate that the proposed localisation algorithm is immune to effects of fault inception, angle and distance. The results contained here validate the superiority of the ANFIS approach over the FIS for fault location.

Introduction

As reported by the Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society on power swing and out-of-step considerations on transmission lines, changes in regulations and the opening of the power markets are causing rapid changes in the way the power grid is operated [1]. Large amounts of power are commonly shipped across a transmission system that was not designed for such transactions. Power plant systems are being upgraded to get every possible megawatt out. The results of these upgrades often make the generating units more susceptible to instability [1]. During power swings because of variation of rotor angles, the angle between two areas of the power system uctuates [2]. If the swing is stable, the uctuations die down. However, unstable swings result in progressive separation of angle between two areas of the power system, causing large swings of power, large uctuations of voltages and currents and eventual loss of synchronism between such areas [2]. When the two areas are in phase, the voltages are maximum and currents are minimum, and when the two areas are out of phase by 1808, currents are at peak and voltages are close to zero [2]. Since the system frequency is a function of rotor speed, the
# The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2008 doi:10.1049/iet-gtd:20070079 Paper rst received 16th February and in revised form 12th September 2007 The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology (Deemed University), Mesra, Ranchi 835215, India E-mail: d_mohanta@yahoo.com

frequency of voltages and currents during power swings is not constant. The frequency of occurrence of voltage/ current maxima depends on the rate of change of the power angle between the two areas and is characterised by a slip frequency. The slip frequency can be as low as 1 3 Hz (slow swing) and as high as 4 7 Hz (fast swing) [2, 3]. When the power angle difference is close to 1808, the voltage and current values are such that the apparent impedance seen by a conventional distance relay can be within the set impedance value of the relay. This can be misinterpreted as a three-phase fault [2]. A frequency domain approach is therefore being proposed using the wavelet multi-resolution analysis (MRA) technique that incorporates the effect of power swings and classies faults so as to increase the reliability of a digital relay. The edice for almost all fault-location schemes is deterministic computation with the assumption that system modelling is based on conventional mathematical tools such as differential equations. Such a system representation, however, is not well suited for dealing with ill-dened and uncertain systems [4, 5]. On the other hand, a fuzzy inference system (FIS) using fuzzy if-then rules can model the qualitative aspects of human knowledge and restoring process without a quantitative analysis. Thus, fuzzy logic has received great attention in a milieu conspicuous by the absence of a simple and well-dened mathematical model, characterised by non-random uncertainties associated with vagueness and imprecision in real-time systems [6 10]. The most signicant contribution of our proposed approach is that it can detect and classify transmission line faults even during power swings. With the onset of power system liberalisation, characterised by dynamic loading, the proposed digital relay can mitigate the
235

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2008, 2, (2), pp. 235 244

limitation of a conventional distance relay, which may misinterpret a power swing as a fault and cause false tripping. In addition, the wavelet coefcients, along with an FIS as well as ANFIS, are also being used for location of transmission line faults. A sample three-phase 300-km, 400-kV line has been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK software [6] and the results contained here validate the superiority of the wavelet-ANFIS approach over the FIS approach for the location of a fault. 2 Introduction to wavelet MRA

Wavelet applications for transmission-line faults based on time-domain analysis are enriched by some interesting research studies [11 18]. During arcing faults, the current magnitude does not change appreciably because of high impedance. In contrast with the time-domain approach, we use the amplitude of the second and third harmonics generated during a fault to locate the faults in a transmission line and to effectively deal with non-stationary signals using discrete wavelet transform (DWT) [19]. The DWT of a signal is given by   1 X n lam o DWT(x, m, n) p x( k ) c (1) am am o l o
m where the parameters are am o and lao and l and m are integer variables [14]. The actual implementation of DWT is done by MRA [14]. In the case of transmission-line fault analysis in a power system, the sub-band information is seen to provide useful clues that indicate how faults can be best located and classied. By randomly shifting the point of fault on the transmission line, a number of simulations are carried out using MATLAB/SIMULINK software [6]. The generated time domain current signal for each case is analysed using a wavelet transform. A sampling rate of 12.5 kHz is selected. Daubechies wavelet Db4 is used as the mother wavelet since it has shown good performance results for power system fault analysis [2, 13]. Based on this sampling time, we decomposed the signal into 12th levels. Table 1 gives the range of frequency bands for coefcients up to 12th levels. From Table 1 it is observed that d6 (detail coefcients of the fault current signal at the sixth level) gives the frequency components corresponding to the second and

third harmonics. Also among different coefcients pertaining to different decomposition levels, the summation of only the sixth level detail coefcients (d6) is being considered for the analysis, because the absolute values of the summation of the sixth level detail coefcients for all values of inception angles are found to be higher compared with those of the other levels. This indicates that the total area that have the characteristics of the sixth level detail coefcient outputs is more than that of other levels. On this basis, the summation of the sixth level detail coefcients, namely, Sa , Sb and Sc of the original fault currents of the three phases Ia , Ib and Ic is being used for the purpose of classication and location of faults on the transmission line. Table 2 shows the summation of detail coefcients for different decomposition levels for a three-phase (ABC) fault created at 10 km from the relay with a fault impedance of 1 V. Fig. 1 depicts the fault signal waveform for three phases along with wavelet detail coefcients from the rst to sixth level decomposition as well as the approximation coefcients for the sixth level during a line to ground (AG) fault involving phase A. Db4 is used as a mother wavelet and the fault is considered to have occurred 100 km away from the source end, with a fault inception angle of 08 and fault impedance of 0.01 V. It can be seen from Table 1 that d11 and d12 give the frequency ranges for both fast as well slow power swings respectively [2, 3, 20 24]. Among the summation of coefcients for different decomposed levels, only that corresponding to the sixth level (d6) is considered for the analysis of fault classication and location. Similarly the summation of coefcients for the 11th level (d11) is considered for discriminating power swings from shunt faults in transmission lines. 3 Fault classication incorporating the effect of power swings The transmission line faults in a power system are usually classied as single line to ground (L-G), double line to ground (L-L-G), line to line (L-L), three-phase symmetrical (L-L-L) and three-phase symmetrical ground (L-L-L-G) faults. The fault-inception angle has a considerable effect on the current samples in different phases in a three-phase system. Therefore wavelet transform coefcients of postfault signals as conrmed through several simulation studies also get affected by the fault inception angle [17]. The proposed fault classication algorithm given below shows the effect of power swings occurring during faults, as shown in Fig. 2. Let Sa , Sb and Sc be the summation of values for detail coefcients of fault current signals for phases a, b and c, respectively, of a three-phase transmission line. When the summation of detail coefcients, namely, Sa , Sb and Sc is equal to zero for both the 6th and 11th levels, then the fault can be either an L-L-L or L-L fault. The discrimination between these two types of faults is based on the fact that the magnitudes of Sa , Sb and Sc at level 6 (detail coefcients signal) are comparable with each other in the case of an L-L-L fault. But in the case of an L-L fault, the summation of detail coefcients of any two faulted phases, namely, either of Sa Sb or Sb Sc or Sc Sa tends to nearly equal zero, but the detailed summation coefcient of the remaining healthy phase is very small and almost negligible compared with the absolute value of the other two phases having equal values with opposite signs. If the summation of Sa , Sb and Sc is equal to zero only for the 11th level (within a tolerance range of +0.25), then it is a case of power swing with either an L-L or L-L-L fault.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

Table 1: Frequency band for wavelet detail coefcient corresponding to 1 12 decomposition levels (Sampling rate is 12.5 kHz)
Wavelet detail coefcients for 1 12 decomposition levels d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10 d11 d12 236 31256250 1562.53125 781.251562.5 390.62781.25 195.31390.62 97.65195.31 48.8297.65 24.4148.82 12.2024.41 6.10 12.20 3.05 6.10 1.52 3.05 Frequency band, Hz

Table 2:

Summation of wavelet detailed coefcients (Sa) for phase A during ABC fault for 1 to 6 decomposition levels
Summation of level 1 coefcients Summation of level 2 coefcients Summation of level 3 coefcients Summation of level 4 coefcients Summation of level 5 coefcients Summation of level 6 coefcients

Fault inception angle

coefcients (Sa) for phase A 0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 coefcients (Sb) for phase B 0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 coefcients (Sc) for phase C 0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 0.92913 2 0.10404 2 1.0373 2 0.13629 2 0.47231 2 0.93312 2.8496 2 1.0853 2 0.01923 2 2.4837 1.6649 0.66039 2 0.20215 0.069977 0.14077 2 0.43528 1.1191 2 1.7054 0.44996 2 1.0206 2 0.99781 2 0.61475 0.15287 2 0.11365 2 0.22714 0.82666 2 0.7388 0.16344 0.5366 0.87595 1.6013 2 1.2054 2 1.1753 2 0.25165 0.3234 2 1.1186 2 2.6713 2 1.5476 2 0.91919 1.7353 2 4.7538 2 1.6565 2 1.7167 2 3.0403 2 3.605 2.9177 2 6.8321 3.0874 2 3.8735 2 3.2759 7.8539 23.569 29.086 26.452 28.421 22.251 7.6294 8.7417 23.984 40.203 2 2.293 0.10339 2.4197 0.45735 1.643 2 0.72444 2 0.95565 0.36188 0.009982 2.6467 2 2.5526 2 1.0462 0.61225 2 1.0408 0.68952 2 0.22545 2 0.33931 0.43153 2 0.26121 1.1119 1.3364 0.70422 2 0.59321 2 1.0948 0.27357 0.661 0.22212 2 0.06016 2 0.38686 2 1.035 2 2.2047 1.4727 2.6281 3.0199 0.24695 2 0.46381 0.21662 0.75892 0.73935 2 1.5636 3.049 2 2.0667 0.20866 2.4422 2 3.6351 3.3101 2 0.15154 2 2.0426 1.6989 0.26754 2 11.939 2 30.241 2 39.189 2 24.042 2 9.074 2 14.527 2 22.566 2 20.225 2 31.305 2 32.857 1.3639 0.000651 2 1.3824 2 0.32106 2 1.1707 1.6576 2 1.894 0.7234 0.009248 2 0.163 0.88765 0.38584 2 0.4101 0.97082 2 0.83029 0.66073 2 0.77984 1.2738 2 0.18874 2 0.09128 2 0.33861 2 0.08947 0.44033 1.2085 2 0.04644 2 1.4877 0.51668 2 0.10328 2 0.14974 0.15901 0.60337 2 0.2673 2 1.4528 2 2.7682 2 0.57035 1.5824 2.4547 0.78872 0.17984 2 0.17167 1.7047 3.7233 1.5081 0.59817 7.2401 2 6.2278 6.9836 2 1.0448 2.1745 3.0083 4.0855 6.6723 10.103 2 2.4101 2 19.347 2 7.724 14.937 11.484 7.321 2 7.3461

When the summation of Sa , Sb and Sc is not equal to zero for both the 6th and 11th levels, but the absolute value of summation of Sa , Sb and Sc for the 11th level is greater than that of the sixth level, a power swing exists either with L-G or L-L-G faults. When the summation of Sa , Sb and Sc for the 6th and 11th levels are non-zero, but the absolute value pertaining to the 11th level is less than that of the sixth level, then the comparison of absolute values of any pair made out of Sa , Sb and Sc are calculated. If any one of these conditions, that is, jSaj jSbj or jSbj jScj or jScj jSaj is satised, it is an L-G fault. If none of these conditions is satised, it is an L-L-G fault. The faultclassication algorithm is depicted in Fig. 2. 4 Fuzzy models for fault location using wavelet MRA coefcients Let Sa , Sb and Sc be the summation of the sixth-level detail coefcients for current signals of the three phases a, b and c respectively. Although the summation of MRA coefcients, such as Sa , Sb , Sc , contains all information regarding the
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

frequency components associated with any fault in a transmission line, they are in raw data form. Thus, such coefcients have inherent uncertainties as in the case of any kind of raw data. In order to represent such uncertainty in an expert system, the analysis begins from the fundamental model of uncertainty based on fuzzy logic [7 10]. Such an analysis leads to a rule-based expert system development to effectively extract the information from available data to reach a coherent conclusion. The knowledge of experts is extremely vital for obtaining coherent conclusions and such knowledge is represented by some rules, so as to minimise the overall uncertainty. As in any rule-based system, the rules are chained together by what is called the FIS. This paper employs an FIS for the location of transmissionline faults, as explained in the next section. 4.1 Fault location using FIS

The basic structure of the FIS is a model that maps input characteristics to input membership functions, input membership function to rules, rules to a set of output
237

Fig. 1 Wavelet MRA up to sixth level for AG fault with Db4 as mother wavelet created at a distance of 100 km from source end having fault inception angle of 08 and fault resistance of 0.01 V

characteristics, output characteristics to output membership functions and the output membership function to a singlevalued output or a decision associated with the output. Also, fuzzy inference is employed to model systems whose rule structure is essentially predetermined by the users interpretation of the characteristics of variables in the model [6]. The wavelet transform coefcients Sa , Sb , Sc (summation of sixth level detail coefcients for current signal) corresponding to three post-fault phase currents are the basis for fault location and, therefore these values are used as inputs to the FIS. Fault distance from the source end (D) is considered as an output fuzzy variable, as shown in Fig. 3. The standard fuzzy membership numbers, called triangular fuzzy numbers are used to represent the uncertain parameters [7 9]. Such membership functions are derived from the capacity of human beings, their innate intelligence and understanding involving contextual and semantic knowledge as well as linguistic truth-values about an issue. This type is more similar to human thinking, which
238

denes the possibility as a range rather than a point. For example, a linguistic declaration such as Sa will surely be not below 0 or above 0.4 and the best estimate is 0.25 will be translated into a triangular fuzzy number, [0, 0.25, 0.4] instead of a crisp value of 0.25. Usually Sa , Sb and Sc values decrease as the fault distance increases from the source end, as represented in Fig. 4a through a triangular membership function with a decreasing trend. The universe of discourse for each fuzzy variable is quantied into a number of fuzzy sets, known as linguistic variables. The universe of discourse is considered from 0 to 1 because normalised values are used for input fuzzy variables for computational simplicity. Each input variable is quantised into three linguistic variables such as LOW (L), MEDIUM (M) and HIGH (H) for the abovementioned universe of discourse spanning over 0 to 1, as shown in Fig. 4a. Similarly the universe of discourse for the output variable is the length of the transmission line. This universe of discourse is divided into linguistic variables according to different fault zones. For the case
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

Fig. 2 Fault classication algorithm including the effect of power swing

study, the universe of discourse is quantised into ten linguistic variables, from Z1 to Z10, corresponding to ten fault zones, as shown in Fig. 4b. The expert system database is obtained by extensively simulating the system during normal and fault conditions of a transmission line under investigation. The inputs are combined together and also linked with the output, based on the expert system database, through different rules to get the fuzzy output; the output is then defuzzied using the centroid rule to get the crisp value [21].
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

4.2 Fault location using adaptive-neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) An ANFIS is considered to be an adaptive network very similar to neural networks. An adaptive network has no synaptic weights, but has so-called adaptive and nonadaptive nodes. It works like an adaptive network simulator of Takagi Sugenos fuzzy controllers [25 28]. This adaptive network is functionally equivalent to an FIS. Using a given input/output data set, the ANFIS adjusts all the
239

Fig. 3 Fuzzy inference system

membership function parameters using the back-propagation gradient descent and the least squares methods for nonlinear and linear parameters, respectively [25 28]. As in the case of FIS, the ANFIS for fault location considers the summation of sixth level detail wavelet coefcients, namely, Sa , Sb , Sc as three inputs and also the expert system obtained previously through simulations. Each input variable for ANFIS was segregated into three linguistic variables with triangular membership functions and then the network was trained using an expert system database in MATLAB ANFIS GUI, which utilises inbuilt commands to automatically adjust all the membership function parameters. 5 Simulation and results

A three-phase power system model has been considered for the simulation study. It has one generator, a bus-bar, a transmission line and a load that is connected to the end of the transmission lines through a load bus. The length of the transmission line considered is 300 km having a source

voltage (Vs) of 400 kV. The positive sequence parameters such as resistance, inductance and capacitance of the transmission line are 2.34 V, 95.10 mH and 1.24 mF, respectively, per phase for each 100 km of length. The negative sequence line parameters are the same as the positive sequence parameters. The zero sequence line parameters are 38.85 V, 325.08 mH, 0.845 mF, respectively, per phase for each 100 km of length. The positive and negative sequence of source impedance (Zs) are (0.45 j5) V per phase, and the zero sequence impedance is one-and-a-half times the positive sequence impedance. An active power of 500 MW and a reactive power (inductive) of 20 MVAR have been considered as load for the case studies [14]. Dynamic loading, as mentioned in Table 3, has been incorporated in the MATLAB/SIMULINK model for generating power swings. The results contained in Tables 4 7 validate the efcacy of the proposed classication algorithm for different fault conditions without power swing as well as with power swing. For example, if fault AB occurs at a distance of 100 km from the source end and has a fault-inception angle of 1808, the Sa , Sb and Sc values corresponding to the 6th and 11th levels are calculated to check whether for both the levels Sa Sb ,Sc 0 or not. If for the both the levels Sa Sb ,Sc 0, it is further investigated whether the sixth level Sa Sb 0 or Sc Sb 0 or Sa Sc 0 or not. If Sa Sb 0, it is an AG fault. Similarly, for all other types of faults, LG, LL, LLG and LLL, different cases have been extensively investigated for about 1000 simulations with different values of fault impedance and fault-inception angles. The effect of power swings also has been incorporated. Thus, it was veried that the algorithm consistently yielded the correct classication, though all cases have not been reported as it would be voluminous. The absolute magnitude of Sa , Sb and Sc is an indication of the occurrence of a fault. Before the occurrence of the fault, there would be no harmonics and these values would be of low magnitude, as shown in Table 8. But when a fault occurs, harmonics are generated, leading to higher absolute values for Sa , Sb and Sc. The values of Sa , Sb and Sc are incorporated in Table 8 for different faults. Based on an expert system database obtained from extensive simulations, rules have been framed for the FIS editor (Mamdani type) using the Fuzzy Logic Tool Box of MATLAB for evaluating the output distance (D). Out of the 27 rules, a few illustrative examples have been given, based on the expert system.. For example, if Sa , Sb

Table 3: Effect of dynamic loading for the generation of power swing in the system
Loading cycle duration upto 1st 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 Load, MW 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

Fig. 4 Input and output variables

a Fuzzy input variables (Sa, Sb, Sc) b Fuzzy output variables (D)
240

9 10 End of 10

Table 4: Validation of fault classication algorithm for a fault occurring at 100 km from the source end with FIA of 1808 for LL and LLL faults (without power swing)
Fault type Level Sa Sb Sc Sa Sb Sc 0 6th level Satised (Y/N) S a Sb 0 6th level Sb Sc 0 6th level Sa S c 0 Type of fault classied

satised (Y/N) satised (Y/N) satised (Y/N) AB BC CA ABC 6th 11th 6th 11th 6th 11th 6th 11th 4.9539 2 29.327 0.87252 2 0.0056 2 3.6827 2 30.46 2 0.54919 2 39.857 2 4.3133 2 0.6407 Y 2 23.32 2 8.8232 2 7.3011 2 0.2318 2 6.0009 2 7.6414 12.785 6.0066 Y 7.9506 Y 7.3068 Y 3.9148 Y 36.461 27.073 Y N N N LLL(ABC) Y 8.1902 Y N N Y LL (CA) N Y N LL (BC) Y N N LL (AB)

Table 5: Validation of fault classication algorithm for a fault occurring at 100 km from the source end with FIA of 1808 for LG and LLG faults (without power swing)
Fault type Level Sa Sb Sc Sa Sb Sc 0 Is 11th level satised (Y/N) (with in + 0.25) satised (Y/N) Is jSa Sb Scj jSa Sb Scj for 6th level ? (Y/N) AG BG CG ABG BCG CAG 6th 11th 6th 11th 6th 11th 6th 11th 6th 11th 6th 11th 2.2701 2 0.9351 1.0407 2 0.0694 0.795 2 0.1041 3.3119 2 29.522 2 0.0723 2 1.8173 2 29.951 2 0.3206 2 0.7296 N 2 5.8385 2 6.1691 N 2 5.4974 2 0.4725 N 2 6.7664 2 0.3093 2 6.0994 23.16 2 7.4958 2 0.3538 2 5.9784 5.943 N N N N N N N N N Y (jSaj jSbj) N N N LG(CG) LLG LLG LLG 4.2224 N 7.7008 N 6.0506 N 7.7878 N 6.8529 N 5.7352 N 36.954 N N N Y (jSaj jScj) LG(BG) N N Y (jSbj jScj) LG(AG) Is 6th level jSaj jSbj, Or jSbj jScj, Or jScj jSaj (Y/N) Type of fault classied

Sa Sb Sc 0 for 11th level .

2 5.9447 2 0.5897 N

2.94372 2 9.0735

Table 6: Validation of fault classication algorithm for a fault occurring at 100 Km from the source end with FIA of 1808 for LL and LLL faults (with power swing)
Fault type Level Sa Sb Sc Sa Sb Sc 0 Satised (Y/N) Is 11th Level Sa Sb Sc 0 (With in + 0.25) Satised (Y/N) power swing with L-L fault power swing with L-L-L fault 6th 11th 6th 11th 2 1.481 63.679 2 5.7928 89.422 2 0.7297 2 69.964 2 5.0466 2 44.71 3.3139 6.4687 11.056 2 44.467 N N N N Y Y power swing with L-L or L-L-L Fault power swing with L-L or L-L-L fault pType of fault classied

and Sc are low, then the output D is Z10. Similarly if Sa , Sb and Sc are medium, then the output D is Z5. If Sa , Sb are Sc are high, then the output D is Z1. Defuzzication using the centroid method is used to get crisp values for D [6]. Inputs are combined through if-then rules, given by experts, by an FIS editor (Mamdani type) to give fuzzed output from Z1 Z10. The FIS graphical structure is shown in Fig. 5.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

Different types of faults, (L-G), (L-L-G), (L-L), (L-L-L) and (L-L-L-G) faults have been extensively investigated with different fault-impedance values and fault-inception angles for location of faults in a transmission line. It was veried that the algorithm consistently yielded the correct location as far as the fault zone is concerned. As far as actual distance is concerned, the defuzzied values had a maximum error of 6.5%.
241

Table 7: Validation of fault classication algorithm for a fault occurring at 100 km from the source end with FIA of 1808 for LG and LLG faults (with power swing)
Fault type Level Sa Sb Sc Sa Sb Sc 0 Is 11th level satised (Y/N) (with in + 0.25) Satised (Y/N) Is jSa Sb Scj j Sa S b Sc j for 6th level? (Y/N) power swing with L-G fault 6th 11th power swing with L-L-G fault 6th 11th 2 4.2697 20.494 2 1.7502 68.391 2 0.5098 2 2.2158 2.1425 N 5.8227 N N Y N Y power swing with L-G or L-L-G fault 2 0.9693 2 4.2905 N 2 65.542 6.0123 N power swing with L-G or L-L-G fault Type of fault classied

Sa Sb Sc 0 for 11th level .

Table 8:
Pre fault Level Level 6

Sa , Sb and Sc coefcients for pre fault and post-fault condition for different faults
Post fault Sa 0.87252 Sb 2 0.23183 Sc 2 0.64069 Type of fault AB BC CA ABC AG BG CG ABG BCG CAG Level level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 level 6 Sa 4.9539 0.87252 2 3.6827 5.4919 1.2701 1.0407 0.795 3.3119 0.94372 2 1.8173 Sb 2 4.3133 2 8.8232 2 0.23183 2 8.6414 2 0.32069 2 5.4974 2 0.30934 2 5.9447 2 9.0735 2 0.3538 Sc 2 0.64074 7.9506 3.9148 8.0922 2 0.72968 2 0.47254 4.2224 2 0.5897 7.7878 5.7352

Fig. 5 Detailed diagram of FIS for fault location

242
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

Fig. 6 Comparison of % error for fault distance using FIS and ANFIS models for LG, LLG, LL and LLL faults respectively
a b c d e f g h i j Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison Comparison of of of of of of of of of of % % % % % % % % % % error error error error error error error error error error for for for for for for for for for for AG fault BG fault CG fault ABG fault BCG fault CAG fault AB fault BC fault CA fault ABC fault
243

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008

As the number of fault zones increases, the associated rules also increase and optimisation of rules becomes a cumbersome task. Therefore, in order to increase accuracy, the ANFIS has been implemented. The neural network associated with ANFIS trains the membership functions for minimisation of error.. The network has been trained through three thousand epochs for which the error is about 3%. A hybrid learning technique [25 28] has been used for network training. A comparison of errors for fault location obtained from FIS and ANFIS is given in Fig. 6. The results contained in these tables validate the superiority of ANFIS over FIS for fault location. 6 Conclusions

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

The frequency domain approach using wavelets is very effective for detection and classication of transmission line faults, even during power swings. The different harmonic components generated during power swings and faults are captured by a wavelet for developing a generalised algorithm. As far as fault location is concerned, both wavelet-fuzzy as well as wavelet-neuro-fuzzy approaches have been used. It is observed that the expert module compiled through extensive simulations is extremely useful when used in the FIS and ANFIS to extract important features embedded in fault signals, because these signals are infested with uncertainties, being in raw data form. The superiority of ANFIS over FIS has been validated through case studies and ANFIS seems to be promising for real-time digital relaying applications, owing to its accuracy as well as lesser computational time for fault location. 7 References

18 19 20

21

22

1 Power swing and out-of-step considerations on transmission lines, A Report to the Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society, 2005, pp. 1 59, http://www.ewh.ieee. org/r6/san_francisco/pes/Flyers/PowerSwingOOs.pdf 2 Brahma, S.M.: Use of wavelets for out of step blocking function of distance relays. Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, June 2006, pp. 1 5 3 Mechraoui, A., and Thomas, D.W.P.: A new blocking principle with phase and earth fault detection during fast power swings for distance protection, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1995, 10, (3), pp. 12421248 4 Ferrero, A., Sangiovanni, S., and Zappitelli, E.: A fuzzy set approach to fault-type identication in digital relaying, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1995, 10, pp. 169 175 5 Omar, Y.A.S.: Combined fuzzy-logic wavelet-based fault classication technique for power system relaying, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 2004, 19, (2), pp. 582589 6 The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, and Wavelet Toolbox Matlab7.0, The Math Works, Inc., http//:www.mathworks.com 7 Mohanta, D.K., Sadhu, P.K., and Chakrabarti, R.: Fuzzy markov model for determination of fuzzy state probabilities of generating units including the effect of maintenance scheduling, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 2005, 20, (4), pp. 21172124 8 Mohanta, D.K., Sadhu, P.K., and Chakrabarti, R.: Fuzzy reliability evaluation of captive power plant maintenance scheduling

23

24

25 26

27

28

incorporating uncertain forced outage rate and load representation, Electr. Power Syst. Res., 2004, 72, (1), pp. 73 84 El-Hawary, M.E. (Ed.): Electric Power Applications of Fuzzy System (IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, 1998) Timothy Ross, J.: Fuzzy logic with engineering applications (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Singapore, 1995) Magnago, F.H., and Abur, A.: Fault location using wavelets, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1998, 13, (4), pp. 1475 1480 Yan, F., Chen, Z., Liang, Z., Kong, Y., and Li, P.: Fault location using wavelet packets. Proc. IEEE Conf. Power System Technology, 2002, vol. 4, pp. 2575 2579 Osman, A.H., and Malik, O.P.: Protection of parallel transmission lines using wavelet transform, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 2004, 19, (1), pp. 49 55 Mahanty, R.N., and Dutta Gupta, P.B.: An improved method for digital relaying of transmission lines, Electr. Power Compon. Syst., 2004, 32, pp. 10131030 Liang, J., Elangovan, S., and Devotta, J.B.X.: Application of wavelet transform in traveling wave protection, Electr. Power Energy Syst., 2000, 22, pp. 537 542 Chanda, D., Kishore, N.K., and Sinha, A.K.: A wavelet multiresolution analysis for location of faults on transmission lines, Electr. Power Energy Syst., 2003, 25, pp. 5969 Chanda, D., Kishore, N.K., and Sinha, A.K.: Application of wavelet multiresolution analysis for classication of faults on transmission lines. IEEE Conf. Convergent Technologies for Asia-Pacic Region, TENCON, 2003, vol. 4, pp. 14641469 Evrenosoglu, C.Y., and Abur, A.: Traveling wave based fault location for teed circuits, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 2005, 20, (2), pp. 11151121 Mallat, S.G.: A theory for multiresolution signal decomposition: the wavelet representation, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell., 1989, 11, (7), pp. 674 693 Lin, X., Liu, P., and Cheng, S.: Effective transmission line fault detection during power swing with wavelet transform. Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, January 2000, vol. 3, pp. 23 27, pp. 1950 1955 Luo, X., and Kezunovic, M.: A novel digital relay model based on SIMULINK and its validation based on expert system. Proc. IEEE Conf. Transmission and Distribution Conf. and Exhibition: Asia and Pacic, 2005, pp. 1 6 Mechraoui, A., and Thomas, D.W.P.: A new principle for high resistance earth fault detection during fast power swings for distance protection, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1997, 12, (4), pp. 14521457 Su, B., Dong, X.Z., Bo, Z.Q. et al.: Fast detector of symmetrical fault during power swing for distance relay. Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 1216 June, 2005, vol. 2, pp. 18361841 Khoradshadi-Zadeh, H.: Evaluation and performance comparison of power swing detection algorithms. Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 12 16 June 2005, vol. 2, pp. 18421848 Jang, J.S.R.: ANFIS: adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference system, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern., 1993, 23, (3), pp. 665 685 Takagi, T., and Sugeno, M.: Derivation of fuzzy control rules from human operators control actions. Proc. IFAC Symp. Fuzzy Information, Knowledge Representation and Decision Analysis, July 1983, pp. 5560 Rojas, I., Bernier, J.L., Rodriguez-Alvarez, R., and Prieto, Z.: What are the main Functional Blocks Involved in the design of adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems?. Proc. IEEE-INNS-ENNS International Joint Conf. Neural Networks, 2427 July 2000, vol. 6, pp. 551556 Abdelrahim, E.M., and Yahagi, T.: A new transformed input-domain ANFIS for highly nonlinear system modeling and prediction. Proc. Canadian Conf. Electrical and Computer Engineering, 1316 May 2001, vol. 1, pp. 655 660

244

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 2, No. 2, March 2008