Soviet Union

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"USSR" and "CCCP" redirect here. For other uses, see USSR (disam i!uation) and CCCP (disam i!uation). "So"iet" redirects here. For the term itsel#, see so"iet (council). For other uses, see So"iet (disam i!uation).

!"#$% &$'($"!$) "#$% * "+,-($#. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik. Union of Soviet Socialist /ep01lics
2344 5 2332

!lag

"oat of arms

6otto #$%&'()$** +,'- ,($)., ,%'/*.01(',23 (4ranslit.: Proletarii "se$h stran, so%edin%a%tes&) 5nglish translation: 6or7ers of the 8orld, unite3 7nthem 'he (nternationale (9:;;<9:==) )%mn o# the So"iet Union (9:==>9::9)

8apital 9an:0a:e;s<

?osco8 Russian (de facto), 9= other official languages

=overnment =eneral Secretary > 9:;;<9:;= (first) > 9:BC<9::9 (last)

!ederal socialist republic

@ladimir Aenin

?i7hail Dorbachev

>remier > 9:;E<9:;= (first) > 9::9 (last) ?istory > 5stablished Gecember EH, 9:;; Gecember ;I 9::9; @ladimir Aenin

Fvan Silayev

> Gisestablished 7rea > 9::9

;;,=H;,;HH 7mJ (B,I=:,CEB sK mi)

>op0lation > 9::9 est. Gensity 80rrency @nternet T9A 8allin: code ;:E,H=L,CL9 9E.9 M7mJ (EE.: MsK mi) Ruble (SUR) .su NL S0cceeded 1y Russia

>receded 1y Russian Soviet

!ederative Socialist Republic 4ranscaucasian Socialist !ederative Soviet Republic U7rainian Soviet Socialist Republic Oyelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic 5stonia Aatvia Aithuania

Oelarus U7raine ?oldova Deorgia Prmenia PQerbaiRan SaQa7hstan UQbe7istan 4ur7menistan SyrgyQstan 4aRi7istan 5stonia Aithuania Aatvia

9 ;

Tfficial names of the USSR

Tn ;9 Gecember 9::9, eleven of the former socialist republics declared in Plma>Pta (8ith the t8elfth republic > Deorgia > attending as an observer) that 8ith the formation of the "ommon8ealth of Fndependent States the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ceases to eUist.

4he Union of Soviet Socialist /ep01lics (abbreviated USS/, Russian: V%WX V%+'(,Y*- V%Z*)&*,(*[',Y*- \',]^_&*Y, VVV\`aib tr.: So%u* So"ets$i$h Sotsialistiches$i$h Respu li$, SSSR), also called the Soviet Unionc9d (Russian: V%+'(,Y*1 V%WXb tr.: So"ets$% So%u*), 8as a constitutionally socialist state that eUisted in 5urasia from 9:;; to 9::9. 5merging from the Russian 5mpire follo8ing the Russian Revolution of 9:9L and the Russian "ivil 6ar of 9:9B<9:;9, the USSR 8as a union of several Soviet republics, but the synecdoche Russiaeafter its largest and dominant constituent stateecontinued to be commonly used throughout the statefs eUistence. 4he geographic boundaries of the USSR varied 8ith time, but after the last maRor territorial anneUations of the Oaltic states, eastern Poland, Oessarabia, and certain other territories during 6orld 6ar FF, from 9:=C until dissolution the boundaries approUimately corresponded to those of late Fmperial Russia, 8ith the notable eUclusions of Poland, most of !inland, and Plas7a. 4he Soviet Union became the primary model for future "ommunist states during the "old 6arb the government and the political organiQation of the country 8ere defined by the only political party, the "ommunist Party of the Soviet Union.

!rom 9:=C until dissolution in 9::9ea period 7no8n as the "old 6arethe Soviet Union and the United States of Pmerica 8ere the t8o 8orld superpo8ers that dominated the global agenda of economic policy, foreign affairs, military operations, cultural eUchange, scientific advancements including the pioneering of space eUploration, and sports (including the Tlympic Dames and various 8orld championships). Fnitially established as a union of four Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR gre8 to contain 9C constituent or gunion republicsg by 9:CI: Prmenian SSR, PQerbaiRan SSR, Oyelorussian SSR, 5stonian SSR, Deorgian SSR, SaQa7h SSR, SirghiQ SSR, Aatvian SSR, Aithuanian SSR, ?oldavian SSR, Russian S!SR, 4aRi7 SSR, 4ur7men SSR, U7rainian SSR, and UQbe7 SSR. (!rom anneUation of the 5stonian SSR on Pugust I, 9:=H up to the reorganisation of the Sarelo>!innish SSR into the Sarelian PSSR on July 9I, 9:CI, the count of gunion republicsg 8as 9I.)

8ontents
chided

9 history o 9.9 Revolution and the foundation of a Soviet state o 9.; Unification of the Soviet Republics o 9.E Stalinfs rule o 9.= Post>Stalin Soviet Union o 9.C Reforms of Dorbachev and dissolution ; Politics o ;.9 Aeaders of the Soviet Union E !oreign relations = Republics C 5conomy I Deography L Population and society o L.9 iationalities o L.; Religious groups B "ulture : Pudio 9H See also 99 References 9; References 9E 5Uternal lin7s

?istory
+ain article, )istor% o# the So"iet Union

4he Soviet Union is traditionally considered to be the successor of the Russian 5mpire and of its short>lived successor Provisional Dovernment under Deorgy jevgenyevich Avov and then PleUander Serens7y. 4he last Russian 4sar, iicholas FF, ruled until ?arch, 9:9L 8hen the 5mpire 8as overthro8n and a short>lived Russian provisional government too7 po8er, the latter to be overthro8n in iovember 9:9L by @ladimir Aenin. !rom 9:9L to 9:;;, the predecessor to the Soviet Union 8as the Russian Soviet !ederative Socialist Republic (RS!SR), 8hich 8as an independent country as 8ell as other Soviet republics at the time. 4he Soviet Union 8as officially established in Gecember 9:;; as the union of the Russian (colloKuially 7no8n as Oolshevist Russia), U7rainian, Oelarusian, and 4ranscaucasian Soviet republics ruled by Oolshevi7 parties.

/evol0tion and the fo0ndation of a Soviet state

?odern revolutionary activity in the Russian 5mpire began 8ith the Gecembrist Revolt of 9B;C, and although serfdom 8as abolished in 9BI9, its abolition 8as achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. P parliament ethe State Gumae8as established in 9:HI after the Russian Revolution of 9:HC, but the 4Qar resisted attempts to move from absolute to constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and 8as aggravated during 6orld 6ar F by military defeat and food shortages in maRor cities.

@ladimir Aenin addressing a cro8d in 9:;H. P spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the 8artime decay of Russiafs economy and morale, culminated in the toppling of the imperial government in ?arch 9:9L (see !ebruary Revolution). 4he tsarist autocracy 8as replaced by the Russian Provisional Dovernment, 8hose leaders intended to establish liberal democracy in Russia and to continue participating on the side of the 5ntente in 6orld 6ar F. Pt the same time, to ensure the rights of the 8or7ing class, 8or7ersf councils, 7no8n as soviets, sprang up across the country. 4he Oolshevi7s, led by @ladimir Aenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the soviets and on the streets. 4hey seiQed po8er from the Provisional Dovernment in iovember 9:9L (see Tctober Revolution). Tnly after the long and bloody Russian "ivil 6ar of 9:9B<9:;9, 8hich included foreign intervention in several parts of Russia, 8as the ne8 Soviet po8er secure. Fn a related conflict 8ith Poland, the gPeace of Rigag in early 9:;9 split disputed territories in Oelarus and U7raine bet8een Poland and Soviet Russia.

Unification of the Soviet /ep01lics

Tn Gecember ;B, 9:;; a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the RS!SR, the 4ranscaucasian S!SR, the U7rainian SSR and the Oyelorussian SSR approved the 4reaty of "reation of the USSR and the Geclaration of the "reation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 4hese t8o documents 8ere confirmed by the 9st "ongress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by heads of delegationsc;d > ?i7hail Salinin, ?i7ha 4s7ha7aya, ?i7hail !runQe and Drigory Petrovs7y, Ple7sandr "hervya7ovcEd respectively on Gecember EH, 9:;;. 4he first foreign state to recogniQe the Soviet Union 8as the Frish Republic. Tn !ebruary 9, 9:;= the USSR 8as recogniQed by the Oritish 5mpire. 4he intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet po8er in 9:9L. P large part of this 8as performed according to Oolshevi7 Fnitial Gecrees, documents of the Soviet government, signed by @ladimir Aenin. Tne of the most prominent brea7throughs 8as the DT5ART plan, that envisioned a maRor restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. 4he Plan 8as developed in 9:;H and covered a ten to 9C year period. Ft included construction of a net8or7 of EH regional po8er plants, including ten large hydroelectric po8er plants, and numerous electric>po8ered large industrial enterprises.c=d 4he Plan became the prototype for subseKuent !ive>jear Plans and 8as basically fulfilled by 9:E9.cCd

StalinBs r0le

Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 9:;E to his death in 9:CE.

4he "athedral of "hrist the Saviour in ?osco8 during its 9:E9 demolition. TrganiQed religion 8as suppressed in the Soviet Union. !rom its beginning years, government in the Soviet Union 8as based on the one>party rule of the "ommunist Party (Oolshevi7s).cId Pfter the economic policy of 6ar "ommunism during the "ivil 6ar, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coeUist 8ith nationaliQed industry in the 9:;Hs and total food reKuisition in the countryside 8as replaced by a food taU (see ie8 5conomic Policy). Soviet leaders argued that one party rule 8as necessary because it ensured that fcapitalist eUploitationf 8ould not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of Gemocratic "entralism 8ould represent the peoplefs 8ill. Gebate over the future of the economy provided the bac7ground for Soviet leaders to contend for po8er in the years after Aeninfs death in 9:;=. Oy gradually consolidating his influence and isolating his rivals 8ithin the party, Deorgian Joseph Stalin became the leader of the Soviet Union by the end of the 9:;Hs. Fn 9:;B, Stalin introduced the !irst !ive>jear Plan for building a socialist economy. 6hile encompassing the internationalism eUpressed by Aenin throughout the course of the Revolution, it also aimed for building socialism in one country. Fn industry, the state assumed control over all eUisting enterprises and undertoo7 an intensive program of industrialiQationb in agriculture collective farms 8ere established all over the country. Ft met 8idespread resistance from 7ula7s and some prosperous peasants, 8ho 8ithheld grain, resulting in a bitter struggle bet8een the 7ula7s against the authorities and poor peasants. !amines occurred causing millions of deaths and surviving 7ula7s 8ere politically persecuted and many sent to Dulags to do forced labour. P 8ide range of death tolls has been suggested, from as many as IH million 7ula7s being 7illed suggested by Ple7sandr SolQhenitsyn to as fe8 as LHH thousand > by Soviet ne8s sources.cLd Social upheaval continued in the mid>9:EHs. Stalinfs Dreat Purge of the party 7illed many gTld Oolshevi7sg 8ho had participated in the Tctober Revolution 8ith Aenin. jet despite the turmoil of the mid> to late 9:EHs, the Soviet Union developed a po8erful industrial economy in the years before 6orld 6ar FF.

Soviet soldiers fighting in the ruins of Stalingrad, 9:=;, the bloodiest battle in human history and a maRor turning point in 6orld 6ar FF. 4he Soviet Union lost around ;L million people during the 8ar, almost half of all 6orld 6ar FF casualties. 4he 9:EHs sa8 closer cooperation bet8een the 6est and the USSR. Fn 9:EE, diplomatic relations bet8een the United States and the USSR 8ere established. !our years later, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces in the Spanish "ivil 6ar against the iationalists, 8ho 8ere supported by !ascist Ftaly and iaQi Dermany. ievertheless, after Dreat Oritain and !rance concluded the ?unich Pgreement 8ith iaQi Dermany, the USSR dealt 8ith the latter as 8ell, both economically and militarily, by concluding the iaQi>Soviet ionaggression Pact, 8hich made possible the occupation of Aithuania, Aatvia, 5stonia and the invasion of Poland in 9:E:. Fn late iovember 9:E:, unable to force !inland into agreement to move its border ;C 7ilometres bac7 from Aeningrad by diplomatic means, Stalin ordered the invasion of !inland. Plthough it has been debated 8hether the Soviet Union had the intention of invading iaQi Dermany once it 8as strong enoughcBd, Dermany itself bro7e the treaty and invaded the Soviet Union in 9:=9. 4he Red Prmy stopped the iaQi offensive in the Oattle of ?osco8, and the Oattle of Stalingrad, lasting from late 9:=; to early 9:=E, became a maRor turning point of the 8ar, after 8hich Soviet forces drove through 5astern 5urope to Oerlin before Dermany surrendered in 9:=C (see Dreat Patriotic 6ar). Plthough ravaged by the 8ar, the Soviet Union emerged victorious from the conflict and became an ac7no8ledged superpo8er. Guring the immediate post8ar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then eUpanded its economy, 8hile maintaining its strictly centraliQed control. 4he Soviet Union aided post>8ar reconstruction in the countries of 5astern 5urope 8hile turning them into Soviet satellite states, founded the 6arsa8 Pact in 9:CC, later, the "omecon, supplied aid to the eventually victorious "ommunists in the Peoplefs Republic of "hina, and sa8 its influence gro8 else8here in the 8orld. ?ean8hile, the rising tension of the "old 6ar turned the Soviet Unionfs 8artime allies, the United Singdom and the United States, into enemies.

!irst human in space, juri Dagarin

>ostCStalin Soviet Union

Joseph Stalin died on ?arch C, 9:CE. Fn the absence of an acceptable successor, the highest "ommunist Party officials opted to rule the Soviet Union Rointly, although a struggle for po8er too7 place behind the facade of collective leadership. ii7ita Shrushchev, 8ho had 8on the po8er struggle by the mid>9:CHs, denounced Stalinfs use of repression in 9:CI and eased repressive controls over party and society 7no8n as de> StaliniQation. Pt the same time, Soviet military force 8as used to suppress nationalistic uprisings in hungary and Poland in 9:CI. Guring this period, the Soviet Union continued to realiQe scientific and technological pioneering eUploitsb to launch the first artificial satellite, Sputni7 9b a living dog, Aai7ab and later, the first human being, juri Dagarin, into 5arthfs orbit. @alentina 4eresh7ova 8as the first 8oman in space aboard @osto7 I on 9I June 9:IE, and PleUey Aeonov became the first person to 8al7 in space on ?arch 9B 9:IC. Shrushchevfs reforms in agriculture and administration, ho8ever, 8ere generally unproductive, and foreign policy to8ards "hina and the United States suffered difficulties, including those that led to the Sino>Soviet split. Shrushchev 8as retired from po8er in 9:I=. !ollo8ing the ousting of Shrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued, lasting until Aeonid OreQhnev established himself in the early 9:LHs as the preeminent figure in Soviet political life. OreQhnev presided over a period of -.tente 8ith the 6est 8hile at the same time building up Soviet military strengthb the arms buildup contributed to the demise of Gktente in the late 9:LHs. Pnother contributing factor 8as the Soviet invasion of Pfghanistan in Gecember 9:L:. 4hroughout the period, the Soviet Union maintained parity 8ith or superiority to the United States in the areas of military numbers and technology, but this strained the economy. Fn contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of OreQhnevfs death in

9:B; 8as one of aversion to change. 4he long period of OreQhnevfs rule had come to be dubbed one of gstandstillg (X),(%1), 8ith an aging and ossified top political leadership. Pfter some eUperimentation 8ith economic reforms in the mid>9:IHs, the Soviet leadership reverted to established means of economic management. Fndustry sho8ed slo8 but steady gains during the 9:LHs. Pgricultural development continued, but could not 7eep up 8ith the gro8ing consumption and the USSR had to import food products li7e grain. Gue to the lo8 investment in consumer goods, the USSR 8as largely only able to eUport ra8 materials, notably oil, 8hich made it vulnerable to global price shifts. ?oreover, human 8elfare in the Soviet Union 8as 7eeping behind 6estern and socialist "entral>5uropean levels, after initially converging in the 9:CHs and IHfs. 5ven in absolute measurements, Soviet citiQens 8ere becoming less healthy bet8een the 9:IHs and 9:BC: the crude death rate climbed from I.: per 9,HHH in 9:I= to 9H.E in 9:BH.c:d

/eforms of =or1achev and dissol0tion

Perestroi$a (gRestructuringg) poster featuring Soviet leader ?i7hail Dorbachev 48o developments dominated the decade that follo8ed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Unionfs economic and political structures, and the patch8or7 attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Pfter the rapid succession of juri Pndropov and Sonstantin "hernen7o, transitional figures 8ith deep roots in OreQhnevite tradition, beginning in 9:BC ?i7hail Dorbachev made significant changes in the economy (see Perestroi7a, Dlasnost) and the party leadership. his policy of !lasnost freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. 6ith the Soviet Union in bad economic shape and its sattelite states in eastern europe abandoning communism, Dorbachev moved to end the "old 6ar. Fn 9:BB, the Soviet Union abandoned its nine>year 8ar 8ith Pfghanistan and began to 8ithdra8 forces from the country. Fn the late 9:BHs, Dorbachev refused to send military support to defend the Soviet Unionfs former sattelite states, resulting in multiple communist regimes in those states being forced from po8er, 8ith the final blo8 to the Fron "urtain 8ith the 8est being destroyed 8ith the tearing do8n of the Oerlin 6all and 5ast and 6est Dermany pursuing unification.

Fn the late 9:BHs, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves to8ards or even declaration of sovereignty over their territories, citing Prticle L; of the USSR "onstitution, 8hich stated that any constituent republic 8as free to secede.c9Hd Tn Ppril L, 9::H a la8 8as passed, that a republic could secede, if more than t8o thirds of that republicfs residents vote for it on a referendum.c99d ?any held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their o8n national legislatures in 9::H. ?any of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union la8s in 8hat 8as 7no8n as g4he 6ar of Aa8sg. Fn 9:B:, the Russian S!SR, 8hich 8as then the largest constituent republic (8ith about half of the population) convened a ne8ly elected "ongress of Peoplefs Geputies. Ooris jeltsin 8as elected the chairman of the "ongress. Tn June 9;, 9::H, the "ongress declared Russiafs sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass la8s that attempted to supersede some of the USSRfs la8s. 4he period of legal uncertainty continued throughout 9::9 as constituent republics slo8ly became de facto independent. P referendum for the preservation of the USSR 8as held on ?arch 9L, 9::9, 8ith the maRority of the population voting for preservation of the Union in nine out of fifteen republics. 4he referendum gave Dorbachev a minor boost, and, in the summer of 9::9, the ie8 Union 4reaty 8as designed and agreed upon by eight republics 8hich 8ould have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser federation.

Fn an iconic photograph by the Pssociated Press broadcast 8orld8idec9;djeltsin (far left) stands on a tan7 to defy the Pugust "oup in 9::9. 4he signing of the treaty, ho8ever, 8as interrupted by the Pugust "oupean attempted coup dfktat against Dorbachev by hardline "ommunist Party members of the government and the SDO, 8ho sought to reverse Dorbachevfs reforms and reassert the central governmentfs control over the republics. Pfter the coup collapsed, jeltsin came out as a hero 8hile Dorbachevfs po8er 8as effectively ended. 4he balance of po8er tipped significantly to8ards the republics. Fn Pugust 9::9, Aatvia and 5stonia immediately declared restoration of full independence (follo8ing Aithuaniafs 9::H eUample), 8hile the other 9; republics continued discussing ne8, increasingly looser, models of the Union. Tn Gecember B, 9::9, the presidents of Russia, U7raine and Oelarus signed the OelaveQha Pccords 8hich declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the

"ommon8ealth of Fndependent States ("FS) in its place. 6hile doubts remained over the authority of the OelaveQha Pccords to dissolve the Union, on Gecember ;9, 9::9, the representatives of all Soviet republics eUcept Deorgia, including those republics that had signed the OelaveQha Pccords, signed the Plma>Pta Protocol, 8hich confirmed the dismemberment and conseKuential eUtinction of the USSR and restated the establishment of the "FS. 4he summit of Plma>Pta also agreed on several other practical measures conseKuential to the eUtinction of the Union. Tn Gecember ;C, 9::9, Dorbachev yielded to the inevitable and resigned as the president of the USSR, declaring the office eUtinct. he turned the po8ers that until then 8ere vested in the presidency over to Ooris jeltsin, president of Russia. 4he follo8ing day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, recogniQed the collapse of the Soviet Union and dissolved itself. 4his is generally recogniQed as the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. ?any organiQations such as the Soviet Prmy and police forces continued to remain in place in the early months of 9::; but 8ere slo8ly phased out and either 8ithdra8n from or absorbed by the ne8ly independent states.

>olitics
+ain article, Politics o# the So"iet Union

4he Sremlin in ?osco8, the official residence of the government of the USSR. 4he government of the Soviet Union administered the countryfs economy and society. Ft implemented decisions made by the leading political institution in the country, the "ommunist Party of the Soviet Union ("PSU). Fn the late 9:BHs, the government appeared to have many characteristics in common 8ith liberal democratic political systems. !or instance, a constitution established all organiQations of government and granted to citiQens a series of political and civic rights. P legislative body, the "ongress of Peoplefs Geputies, and its standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, represented the principle of popular sovereignty. 4he Supreme Soviet, 8hich had an elected chairman 8ho functioned as head of state, oversa8 the "ouncil of ?inisters, 8hich acted as the eUecutive branch of the government. 4he chairman of the "ouncil of ?inisters, 8hose selection 8as approved by the Supreme Soviet, functioned as head of government. P constitutionally based Rudicial branch of government included a court system, headed by the Supreme "ourt, that 8as responsible for overseeing the observance of Soviet la8 by government bodies. Pccording to the 9:LL Soviet "onstitution, the government had a federal structure, permitting the republics some

authority over policy implementation and offering the national minorities the appearance of participation in the management of their o8n affairs.

6hite house, ;HHI Fn practice, ho8ever, the government differed mar7edly from 6estern systems. Fn the late 9:BHs, the "PSU performed many functions that governments of other countries usually perform. !or eUample, the party decided on the policy alternatives that the government ultimately implemented. 4he government merely ratified the partyfs decisions to lend them an aura of legitimacy. 4he "PSU used a variety of mechanisms to ensure that the government adhered to its policies. 4he party, using its nomen$latura authority, placed its loyalists in leadership positions throughout the government, 8here they 8ere subRect to the norms of democratic centralism. Party bodies closely monitored the actions of government ministries, agencies, and legislative organs. 4he content of the Soviet "onstitution differed in many 8ays from typical 6estern constitutions. Ft generally described eUisting political relationships, as determined by the "PSU, rather than prescribing an ideal set of political relationships. 4he "onstitution 8as long and detailed, giving technical specifications for individual organs of government. 4he "onstitution included political statements, such as foreign policy goals, and provided a theoretical definition of the state 8ithin the ideological frame8or7 of ?arUism>Aeninism. 4he "PSU leadership could radically change the constitution or rema7e it completely, as it did several times throughout its history.

P 9:E; Soviet poster for Fnternational 6omenfs Gay. 4he "ouncil of ?inisters acted as the eUecutive body of the government. Fts most important duties lay in the administration of the economy. 4he council 8as thoroughly under the control of the "PSU, and its chairmanethe Soviet prime ministere8as al8ays a member of the Politburo. 4he council, 8hich in 9:B: included more than 9HH members, 8as too large and un8ieldy to act as a unified eUecutive body. 4he councilfs Presidium, made up of the leading economic administrators and led by the chairman, eUercised dominant po8er 8ithin the "ouncil of ?inisters. Pccording to the "onstitution, as amended in 9:BB, the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union 8as the "ongress of Peoplefs Geputies, 8hich convened for the first time in ?ay 9:B:. 4he main tas7s of the congress 8ere the election of the standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, and the election of the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, 8ho acted as head of state. 4heoretically, the "ongress of Peoplefs Geputies and the Supreme Soviet 8ielded enormous legislative po8er. Fn practice, ho8ever, the "ongress of Peoplefs Geputies met infreKuently and only to approve decisions made by the party, the "ouncil of ?inisters, and its o8n Supreme Soviet. 4he Supreme Soviet, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and the "ouncil of ?inisters had substantial authority to enact la8s, decrees, resolutions, and orders binding on the population. 4he "ongress of Peoplefs Geputies had the authority to ratify these decisions. 4he Rudiciary 8as not independent. 4he Supreme "ourt supervised the lo8er courts and applied the la8 as established by the "onstitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. 4he "onstitutional Tversight "ommittee revie8ed the constitutionality of la8s and acts. 4he Soviet Union lac7ed an adversarial court procedure 7no8n to common la8 Rurisdictions. Rather, Soviet la8 utiliQed the system derived from Roman la8, 8here Rudge, procurator and defense attorney 8or7ed collaboratively to establish the truth. 4he Soviet Union 8as a federal state made up of fifteen republics Roined together in a theoretically voluntary unionb it 8as this theoretical situation that formed the basis of the Oyelorussian and U7rainian SSRsf membership in the United iations. Fn turn, a series of territorial units made up the republics. 4he republics also contained Rurisdictions intended to protect the interests of national minorities. 4he republics had their o8n constitutions, 8hich, along 8ith the all>union "onstitution, provide the theoretical division of po8er in the Soviet Union. Pll the republics eUcept Russian S!SR had their o8n communist parties. Fn 9:B:, ho8ever, the "PSU and the central government retained all significant authority, setting policies that 8ere eUecuted by republic, provincial, oblast, and district governments. For more details on this topic, see So"iet la/.

9eaders of the Soviet Union

+ain article, 0ist o# leaders o# the So"iet Union 4he de #acto leader of the Soviet Union 8as the !irstMDeneral Secretary of the "PSU. 4he head of government 8as considered the Premier, and the head of state 8as considered the chairman of the Presidium. 4he Soviet leader could also have one (or both) of these positions, along 8ith the position of Deneral Secretary of the party. 4he last leader of the Soviet Union 8as ?i7hail Dorbachev, serving from 9:BC until late Gecember 9::9. Aist of Soviet Premiers ("hairman of the "ouncil of Peoplefs "ommissars of the USSR (9:;E<9:=I)b "hairman of the "ouncil of ?inisters of the USSR (9:=I<9::H)b Prime ?inister of the USSR (9::9)) Aist of Soviet heads of state ("hairman of the "entral 5Uecutive "ommittee of the Pll>Russian "ongress of Soviets (9:9L<9:;;)b "hairman of the "entral 5Uecutive "ommittee of the USSR (9:;;<9:EB)b "hairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (9:EB<9:B:)b "hairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (9:B:<9::H)b President of the Soviet Union (9::H<9::9))

Forei:n relations
+ain article, Forei!n relations o# the So"iet Union ?ap of "omecon (9:BI) 8hich includes the Soviet Union and its allies.
members members 8ho did not participate associates observers

Tnce denied diplomatic recognition by the capitalist 8orld, the Soviet Union had official relations 8ith practically all nations of the 8orld by the late 9:=Hs. 4he Soviet Union also had progressed from being an outsider in international organiQations and negotiations to being one of the arbiters of the 8orldfs fate after 6orld 6ar FF. P member of the United iations at its foundation in 9:=C, the Soviet Union became one of the five permanent members of the Ui Security "ouncil 8hich gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions (see Soviet Union and the United iations).

Aeft to right: Deneral Secretary of the "ommunist Party Joseph Stalin, President !ran7lin G. Roosevelt of the United States, and Prime ?inister 6inston "hurchill of the United Singdom. 4he Soviet Union emerged from 6orld 6ar FF as one of the 8orldfs t8o superpo8ers, a position maintained for four decades through its hegemony in 5astern 5urope (see 5astern Oloc), military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially into space technology and 8eaponry. 4he Soviet Unionfs gro8ing influence abroad in the post8ar years helped lead to a "ommunist system of states in 5astern 5urope united by military and economic agreements. Ft overtoo7 the Oritish 5mpire as a global superpo8er, both in a military sense and its ability to eUpand its influence beyond its borders. 4he "ouncil for ?utual 5conomic Pssistance ("T?5"Ti M "omecon M "?5P M "P?5), (Russian: V%+'( lY%.%m*[',Y%1 +X)*m%]%m%n* > Vop), 9:=: < 9::9, 8as an economic organiQation of communist states and a 7ind of 5astern Oloc eKuivalent toebut more geographically inclusive than ethe 5uropean 5conomic "ommunity. 4he military counterpart to the "omecon 8as the 6arsa8 Pact, though "omeconfs membership 8as significantly 8ider.c9Ed 4he descriptive term "omecon 8as often applied to all multilateral activities involving members of the organiQation, rather than being restricted to the direct functions of "omecon and its organs.c9=d 4his usage 8as sometimes eUtended as 8ell to bilateral relations among members, because in the system of socialist international economic relations, multilateral accords e typically of a general nature e tended to be implemented through a set of more detailed, bilateral agreements.c9Ed 5stablished in 9:=: the Soviet>dominated "ouncil for ?utual 5conomic Pssistance ("T?5"Ti) led by ?osco8, served as a frame8or7 for cooperation among the planned economies of the Soviet Union, and, later, for trade and economic cooperation 8ith the 4hird 6orld. 4he military counterpart to the "omecon 8as the 6arsa8 Pact. 4he Soviet economy 8as also of maRor importance to 5astern 5urope because of imports of vital natural resources from the USSR, such as natural gas. ?osco8 considered 5astern 5urope to be a buffer Qone for the for8ard defense of its 8estern borders and ensured its control of the region by transforming the 5ast 5uropean countries into satellite states. Soviet troops intervened in the 9:CI hungarian Revolution and cited the OreQhnev Goctrine, the Soviet counterpart to the U.S. Johnson Goctrine and later iiUon Goctrine, and helped oust the "Qechoslova7 government in 9:IB, sometimes referred to as the Prague Spring. Fn the late 9:CHs, a confrontation 8ith "hina regarding the USSRfs rapprochement 8ith the 6est and 8hat ?ao perceived as Shrushchevfs revisionism led to the Sino>Soviet split. 4his resulted in a brea7 throughout the global "ommunist movement and "ommunist regimes in Plbania and "ambodia choosing to ally 8ith "hina in place of the USSR. !or a time, 8ar bet8een the former allies appeared to be a possibilityb 8hile relations 8ould cool during the 9:LHs, they 8ould not return to normality until the Dorbachev era.

ii7ita Shrushchev and "uban President !idel "astro at the United iations building in 9:IH. Guring the same period, a tense confrontation bet8een the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in "uba spar7ed the "uban ?issile "risis in 9:I;. 4he SDO ("ommittee for State Security) served in a fashion as the Soviet counterpart to both the !ederal Oureau of Fnvestigation and the "entral Fntelligence Pgency in the U.S. Ft ran a massive net8or7 of informants throughout the Soviet Union, 8hich 8as used to monitor violations in la8. 4he foreign 8ing of the SDO 8as used to gather intelligence in countries around the globe. Pfter the collapse of the Soviet Union, it 8as replaced in Russia by the S@R (!oreign Fntelligence Service) and the !SO (!ederal Security Service of the Russian !ederation).

Aeonid OreQhnev and Jimmy "arter sign SPA4 FF treaty, June 9B, 9:L:, in @ienna. 4he SDO 8as not 8ithout substantial oversight. 4he DRU (?ain Fntelligence Girectorate), not publiciQed by the Soviet Union until the end of the Soviet era during perestroi7a, 8as created by Aenin in 9:9B and served both as a centraliQed handler of military intelligence and as an institutional chec7>and>balance for the other8ise relatively unrestricted po8er of the SDO. 5ffectively, it served to spy on the spies, and, not surprisingly, the SDO served a similar function 8ith the DRU. Ps 8ith the SDO, the DRU operated in nations around the 8orld, particularly in Soviet bloc and satellite states. 4he DRU continues to operate in Russia today, 8ith resources estimated by some to eUceed those of the S@R c9Edc9=d. Fn the 9:LHs, the Soviet Union achieved rough nuclear parity 8ith the United States, and eventually overtoo7 it. Ft perceived its o8n involvement as essential to the solution of

any maRor international problem. ?ean8hile, the "old 6ar gave 8ay to -.tente and a more complicated pattern of international relations in 8hich the 8orld 8as no longer clearly split into t8o clearly opposed blocs. Aess po8erful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the t8o superpo8ers 8ere partially able to recogniQe their common interest in trying to chec7 the further spread and proliferation of nuclear 8eapons (see SPA4 F, SPA4 FF, Pnti>Oallistic ?issile 4reaty). Oy this time, the Soviet Union had concluded friendship and cooperation treaties 8ith a number of states in the non>"ommunist 8orld, especially among 4hird 6orld and ion> Pligned ?ovement states li7e Fndia and 5gypt. iot8ithstanding some ideological obstacles, ?osco8 advanced state interests by gaining military footholds in strategically important areas throughout the 4hird 6orld. !urthermore, the Soviet Union continued to provide military aid for revolutionary movements in the 4hird 6orld. !or all these reasons, Soviet foreign policy 8as of maRor importance to the non>"ommunist 8orld and helped determine the tenor of international relations.

Dorbachev in one>on>one discussions 8ith U.S. President Ronald Reagan. Plthough myriad bureaucracies 8ere involved in the formation and eUecution of Soviet foreign policy, the maRor policy guidelines 8ere determined by the Politburo of the "ommunist Party. 4he foremost obRectives of Soviet foreign policy had been the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over 5astern 5urope. Relations 8ith the United States and 6estern 5urope 8ere also of maRor concern to Soviet foreign policy ma7ers, and relations 8ith individual 4hird 6orld states 8ere at least partly determined by the proUimity of each state to the Soviet border and to Soviet estimates of its strategic significance.

Soviet troops 8ithdra8ing from Pfghanistan in 9:BB. Pfter ?i7hail Dorbachev succeeded Sonstantin "hernen7o as Deneral Secretary of the "PSU in 9:BC, he introduced many changes in Soviet foreign policy and in the economy

of the USSR. Dorbachev pursued conciliatory policies to8ards the 6est instead of maintaining the "old 6ar status Kuo. 4he Soviet Union ended its occupation of Pfghanistan, signed strategic arms reduction treaties 8ith the United States, and allo8ed its allies in 5astern 5urope to determine their o8n affairs. !ollo8ing the dissolution of the Soviet Union on Gecember ;C, 9::9, Russia 8as internationally recognisedc9Cd to be the legal successor to the Soviet state on the international stage. 4o that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt, and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its o8n. 4o prevent subseKuent disputes over Soviet property, gQero variantg agreements 8ere proposed to ratify 8ith ne8ly independent states the status Kuo on the date of dissolution. (U7raine is the last former Soviet republic not to have entered into such an agreement.) 4he end of the Soviet Union also raised Kuestions about treaties it had signed, such as the Pnti>Oallistic ?issile 4reatyb Russia has held the position that those treaties remain in force, and should be read as though Russia 8ere the signatory.c9Id For more details on this topic, see +ilitar% histor% o# the So"iet Union.

/ep01lics
+ain article, Repu lics o# the So"iet Union See also, 1 lasts o# the So"iet Union

Soviet Union administrative divisions, 9:B: 4he Soviet Union 8as a federation that consisted of Soviet Socialist /ep01lics (SS/). 4he first Republics 8ere established shortly after the Tctober Revolution of 9:9L. Pt that time, republics 8ere technically independent from one another but their governments acted in closely coordinated confederation, as directed by the "PSU leadership. Fn 9:;;, four Republics (Russian S!SR, U7rainian SSR, Oelarusian SSR, and 4ranscaucasian S!SR) Roined into the Soviet Union. Oet8een 9:;; and 9:=H, the number of Republics gre8 to siUteen. Some of the ne8 Republics 8ere formed from territories acKuired, or reacKuired by the Soviet Union, others by splitting eUisting Republics into several parts. 4he criteria for establishing ne8 republics 8ere as follo8s: 9. to be located on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to be able to eUercise their right to secessionb ;. be economically strong enough to survive on their o8n upon secessionb and

E. be named after the dominant ethnic group 8hich should consist of at least one million people. 4he system remained almost unchanged after 9:=H. io ne8 Republics 8ere established. Tne republic, Sarelo>!innish SSR, 8as disbanded in 9:CI, and the territory formally became the Sarelian Putonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (PSSR) 8ithin the Russian S!SR. 4he remaining 9C republics lasted until 9::9. 5ven though Soviet "onstitutions established the right for a republic to secede, it remained theoretical and very unli7ely, given Soviet centralism, until the 9::9 collapse of the Union. Pt that time, the republics became independent countries, 8ith some still loosely organiQed under the heading "ommon8ealth of Fndependent States. Some republics had common history and geographical regions, and 8ere referred by group names. 4hese 8ere Oaltic Republics, 4ranscaucasian Republics, and "entral Psian Republics. The /ep01lics of the Soviet Union

Fla:

/ep01lic

8apital

Prmenian SSR

jerevan

PQerbaiRan SSR

Oa7u

Oyelorussian SSR

?ins7

5stonian SSR

4allinn

Deorgian SSR

4bilisi

SaQa7h SSR

Plma>Pta

SirghiQ SSR

!runQe

Aatvian SSR

Riga

Aithuanian SSR

@ilnius

2 J

?oldavian SSR

Sishinev

2 2

Russian S!SR

?osco8

2 4

4aRi7 SSR

Gushanbe

2 D

4ur7men SSR

Pshgabat

2 E

U7rainian SSR

Siev

2 F

UQbe7 SSR

4ash7ent

Kconomy
+ain article, 2conom% o# the So"iet Union

4he GneproD5S, one of many hydroelectric po8er stations in the Soviet Union Prior to its dissolution the USSR had the second largest economy in the 8orld after the United States.c9Ld 4he economy of the Soviet Union 8as the modern 8orldfs first centrally planned economy. Ft 8as based on a system of state o8nership and managed through 3osplan (the State Planning "ommission), 3os an$ (the State Oan7) and the Dossnab (State "ommission for ?aterials and 5Kuipment Supply). 4he first maRor

proRect of economic planning 8as the DT5ART plan, 8hich 8as follo8ed by a series of other !ive>jear Plans. 4he emphasis 8as put on a very fast development of heavy industry and the nation became one of the 8orldfs top manufacturers of a large number of basic and heavy industrial products, but it lagged behind in the output of light industrial production and consumer durables. Pgriculture of the Soviet Union 8as organiQed into a system of collective farms ($ol$ho*es) and state farms (so"$ho*es) but it 8as relatively unproductive. "rises in the agricultural sector reaped catastrophic conseKuences in the 9:EHs, 8hen collectiviQation met 8idespread resistance from the 7ula7s, resulting in a bitter struggle of many peasants against the authorities, and famine, particularly in U7raine (see holodomor), but also in the @olga River area and SaQa7hstan. Ps the Soviet economy gre8 more compleU, it reKuired more and more 8omparison 1etLeen USS/ and US economies ;23I3< compleU disaggregation of accordin: to 233J 8@7 World Fact1ookM2HN control figures (plan USS/ US targets) and factory inputs. DGP (9:B: > millions r) ;,IC:,CHH C,;EE,EHH Ps it reKuired more communication bet8een the Population (July 9::H) ;:H,:EB,=I: ;CH,=9H,HHH enterprises and the planning DGP Per "apita (r) :,;99 ;9,HB; ministries, and as the number of enterprises, Aabour force (9:B:) 9C;,EHH,HHH 9;C,CCL,HHH trusts, and ministries multiplied, the Soviet economy started stagnating. 4he Soviet economy 8as increasingly sluggish 8hen it came to responding to change, adapting costqsaving technologies, and providing incentives at all levels to improve gro8th, productivity and efficiency. ?ost information in the Soviet economy flo8ed from the top do8n and economic planning 8as often done based on faulty or outdated information, particularly in sectors 8ith large numbers of consumers. Ps a result, some goods tended to be underproduced, leading to shortages, 8hile other goods 8ere overproduced and accumulated in storage. Some factories developed a system of barter and either eUchanged or shared ra8 materials and parts, 8hile consumers developed a blac7 mar7et for goods that 8ere particularly sought after but constantly underproduced. "onceding the 8ea7nesses of their past approaches in solving ne8 problems, the leaders of the late 9:BHs, headed by ?i7hail Dorbachev, 8ere see7ing to mold a program of economic reform to galvaniQe the economy. ho8ever, by 9::H the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Dovernment spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises reKuired state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 9::9, almost all of the 9C former Soviet republics have dismantled their Soviet>style economies.

=eo:raphy

+ain article, 3eo!raph% o# the So"iet Union 4he Soviet Union occupied the eastern portion of the 5uropean continent and the northern portion of the Psian continent. ?ost of the country 8as north of CHs north latitude and covered a total area of approUimately ;;,=H;,;HH sKuare 7ilometres (B,I=:,CHH sK mi). Gue to the sheer siQe of the state, the climate varied greatly from subtropical and continental to subarctic and polar. 99t of the land 8as arable, 9It 8as meado8s and pasture, =9t 8as forest and 8oodland, and E;t 8as declared gotherg (including tundra). 4he Soviet Union measured some 9H,HHH 7ilometres (I,;HH mi) from Saliningrad on the in the 8est to Ratmanova Fsland (Oig Giomede Fsland) in the Oering Strait, or roughly eKuivalent to the distance from 5dinburgh, Scotland, 8est to iome, Plas7a. !rom the tip of the 4aymyr Peninsula on the Prctic Tcean to the "entral Psian to8n of Sush7a near the Pfghan border eUtended almost C,HHH 7ilometres (E,9HH mi) of mostly rugged, inhospitable terrain. 4he east>8est eUpanse of the continental United States 8ould easily fit bet8een the northern and southern borders of the Soviet Union at their eUtremities.

>op0lation and society

+ain article, -emo!raphics o# the So"iet Union

4his map sho8s the 9:L= geographic location of various ethnic groups 8ithin the Soviet Union 4he Soviet Union 8as one of the 8orldfs most ethnically diverse countries, 8ith more than ;HH distinct ethnic groups 8ithin its borders. 4he total population 8as estimated at ;:E million in 9::9, having been the Erd most populous nation after "hina and Fndia for decades. Fn the last years of the Soviet Union, the maRority of the population 8ere Russians (CH.LBt), follo8ed by U7rainians (9C.=Ct) and UQbe7s (C.B=t). Tther ethnic groups included Prmenians, PQerbaiRanis, Oelarusians, 5stonians, Deorgians, SaQa7hs, SyrgyQ, Aatvians, Aithuanians, ?oldovans, 4aRi7s, and 4ur7men as 8ell as Pb7haQ, Pdyghes, Pleuts, Pssyrians, Pvars, Oash7irs, Oulgarians, Ouryats, "hechens, "hinese, "huvash, "ossac7s, 5ven7s, !inns, DagauQ, Dermans, Dree7s, hungarians, Fngushes,

Fnuit, Je8s, Salmy7s, Sara7alpa7s, Sarelians, Sets, Soreans, AeQgins, ?aris, ?ongols, ?ordvins, ienetses, Tssetians, Poles, Roma, Romanians, Rusynsccitation neededd, 4ats, 4atars, 4uvans, Udmurts, ja7uts, and others. ?ainly because of differences in birth rates among the Soviet nationalities, the share of the population that 8as Russian steadily declined in the post>6orld 6ar FF period.c9Bd

Oationalities
4he eUtensive multinational empire that the Oolshevi7s inherited after their revolution 8as created by 4sarist eUpansion over some four centuries. Some nationality groups came into the empire voluntarily, others 8ere brought in by force. Russians, Oelarusians and U7rainians shared close cultural ties 8hile, generally, the other subRects of the empire shared little in commoneculturally, religiously, or linguistically. ?ore often than not, t8o or more diverse nationalities 8ere co>located on the same territory. 4herefore, national antagonisms built up over the years not only against the Russians but often bet8een some of the subRect nations as 8ell. !or many years, Soviet leaders maintained that the underlying causes of conflict bet8een nationalities of the Soviet Union had been eliminated and that the Soviet Union consisted of a family of nations living harmoniously together. Fn the 9:;Hs and early 9:EHs, the government conducted a policy of 7oreniQatsiya (indigeniQation) of local governments in an effort to recruit non>Russians into the ne8 Soviet political institutions and to reduce the conflict bet8een Russians and the minority nationalities. Tne area in 8hich the Soviet leaders made concessions perhaps more out of necessity than out of conviction, 8as language policy. 4o increase literacy and mass education, the government encouraged the development and publication in many of the gnational languagesg of the minority groups. 6hile Russian became a reKuired su 4ect of study in all Soviet schools in 9:EB, in the mainly non>Russian areas the chief language of instruction 8as the local language or languages. 4his practice led to 8idespread bilingualism in the educated population, though among smaller nationalities and among elements of the population that 8ere heavily affected by the immigration of Russians, linguistic assimilation also 8as common, in 8hich the members of a given non>Russian nationality lost facility in the historic language of their group.c9:d 4he concessions granted national cultures and the limited autonomy tolerated in the union republics in the 9:;Hs led to the development of national elites and a heightened sense of national identity. SubseKuent repression and RussianiQation fostered resentment against domination by ?osco8 and promoted further gro8th of national consciousness. iational feelings 8ere also eUacerbated in the Soviet multinational state by increased competition for resources, services, and Robs, and by the policy of the leaders in ?osco8 to move 8or7ersemainly Russianseto the peripheral areas of the country, the homelands of non>Russian nationalities. Oy the end of the 9:BHs, encouraged in part by Dorbachevfs policy of glasnost, unofficial groups formed around a great many social, cultural, and political issues. Fn some non> Russian regions ostensible green movements or ecological movements 8ere thinly

disguised national movements in support of the protection of natural resources and the national patrimony generally from control by ministries in ?osco8.

/eli:io0s :ro0ps
+ain article, Reli!ion in the So"iet Union Plthough the Soviet Union 8as officially secular, it supported atheist ideology and suppressed religion, though according to various Soviet and 6estern sources, over one> third of the people in the Soviet Union professed religious belief. "hristianity and Fslam had the most believers. 4he state 8as separated from church by the Gecree of "ouncil of Peoplefs "omissars on January ;E, 9:9B. 48o>thirds of the Soviet population, ho8ever, had no religious beliefs. Pbout half the people, including members of the "PSU and high>level government officials, professed atheism. Tfficial figures on the number of religious believers in the Soviet Union 8ere not available in 9:B:. "hristians belonged to various churches: TrthodoU, 8hich had the largest number of follo8ersb "atholicb and Oaptist and various other Protestant denominations. Dovernment persecution of "hristianity continued unabated until the fall of the "ommunist government, 8ith Stalinfs reign the most repressive. Stalin is Kuoted as saying that g4he Party cannot be neutral to8ards religion. Ft conducts an anti>religious struggle against any and all religious preRudices.g Fn 6orld 6ar FF, ho8ever, the repression against the Russian TrthodoU "hurch temporarily ceased as it 8as perceived as ginstrument of patriotic unityg in the 8ar against gthe 8estern 4eutonicsg. Repression against Russian TrthodoU restarted from ca. 9:=I on8ards and more forcibly under ii7ita Shrushchev. Fn 9:9=, before the revolution, there 8ere over C=,HHH churches, 8hile during the early years of Stalinfs reign that number 8as counted in the hundreds. Oy 9:BB, the number had decreased to roughly L,HHH. Fmmediately follo8ing the fall of the Soviet government, churches 8ere re>opening at a recorded rate of over thirty a 8ee7. 4oday, there are nearly ;H,HHH.ccitation neededd Plthough there 8ere many ethnic Je8s in the Soviet Union, actual practice of Judaism 8as rare in "ommunist times. Fn 9:;B, Stalin created the Je8ish Putonomous Tblast in the far east of 8hat is no8 Russia to try to create a gSoviet uiong for a proletarian Je8ish culture to develop. 4he over8helming maRority of the Fslamic faithful 8ere Sunni. 4he PQerbaiRanis, 8ho 8ere Shiite, 8ere one maRor eUception. 4he largest groups of ?uslims in the Soviet Union resided in the "entral Psian republics (SyrgyQstan, 4aRi7istan, 4ur7menistan, and UQbe7istan) and SaQa7hstan, though substantial numbers also resided in "entral Russia (principally in Oash7iria and 4atarstan), in the iorth "aucasian part of Russia ("hechnya, Gagestan, and other autonomous republics) and in 4ranscaucasia (principally in PQerbaiRan but also certain regions of Deorgia).

Tther religions, 8hich 8ere practiced by a relatively small number of believers, included Ouddhism (mostly @aRrayana) and paganism (8hich 8as largely shamanic), a religion based on spiritualism. 4he role of religion in the daily lives of Soviet citiQens thus varied greatly.

80lt0re
+ain article, Culture o# the So"iet Union

6or7er and Sol7hoQ 6oman over the northern entrance to the Pll>Soviet 5Uhibition "entre in ?osco8 (today the Pll>Russia 5Uhibition "entre) 4he culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSRfs LH>year eUistence. Guring the first eleven years follo8ing the Revolution (9:9B<9:;:), there 8as relative freedom and artists eUperimented 8ith several different styles in an effort to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Aenin 8anted art to be accessible to the Russian people. 4he government encouraged a variety of trends. Fn art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically eUperimental, proliferated. "ommunist 8riters ?a7sim Dor7y and @ladimir ?aya7ovs7y 8ere active during this time. !ilm, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the stateb much of director Sergei 5isensteinfs best 8or7 dates from this period. Aater, during Joseph Stalinfs rule, Soviet culture 8as characterised by the rise and domination of the government>imposed style of Socialist realism, 8ith all other trends being severely repressed, 8ith rare eUceptions (e.g. ?i7hail Oulga7ovfs 8or7s). ?any 8riters 8ere imprisoned and 7illed.c;HdPlso religious people 8ere persecuted and either sent to Dulags or 8ere murdered in their thousandsc;9d though the ban on the TrthodoU "hurch 8as temporarily lifted in the 9:=Hs, in order to rally support for the Soviet 8ar against the invading forces of iaQi Dermany. Under Stalin, prominent symbols that 8ere

not in line 8ith communist ideology 8ere destroyed, such as TrthodoU "hurches and 4sarist buildings. !ollo8ing the Shrushchev 4ha8 of the late 9:CHs and early 9:IHs, censorship 8as diminished. Dreater eUperimentation in art forms became permissible once again, 8ith the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical 8or7 began to be produced. 4he regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realismb thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Furii 4rifonov concerned themselves 8ith problems of daily life rather than 8ith building socialism. Pn underground dissident literature, 7no8n as samiQdat, developed during this late period. Fn architecture Shrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to highly decorated style of Stalinfs epoch. Fn the second half of 9:BHs, Dorbachevfs policies of perestroi7a and glasnost significantly eUpanded freedom of eUpression in the media and press, eventually resulting in the complete abolishment of censorship, total freedom of eUpression and freedom to criticise the government.c;;d 4he follo8ing articles contain information on specific aspects of Soviet culture:

Soviet art Soviet music Soviet education Soviet cinema Philosophy in the Soviet Union Soviet television Oroadcasting in the Soviet Union @oluntary Sports Societies of the USSR Soviet Union at the Tlympics USSR "hess "hampionship Palace of "ulture Research in the Soviet Union Soviet Oallroom dances Soviet Student Tlympiads Dreat Soviet 5ncyclopedia "ensorship in the Soviet Union Dlavlit SamiQdat

70dio

iational Pnthem of the Soviet Union

See also
+ain article, 0ist o# So"iet Union5related topics

Gates of establishment of diplomatic relations 8ith the USSR Groughts and famines in Russia and the USSR history of the Soviet Union (9:CE>9:BC) history of the Soviet Union (9:BC>9::9) human rights in the Soviet Union Saliningrad Tblast (see also: Derman 5ast Prussia) Aist of leaders of the Soviet Union Aist of Soviet Republics Population transfer in the Soviet Union Post>Soviet states Prometheism Premier of the Soviet Union President of the Soviet Union Public holidays in the Soviet Union SovietiQation Soviet 8ar in Pfghanistan "ollapse of the Soviet Union ?ilitary history of the Soviet Union

/eferences
9. ;. E. =. C. I.
P Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 6ritannica P ;/0ssian<@oted Unanimously for the Union P ;/0ssian<"reation of the USSR at Shronos.ru P LH jears of Didroproe7t and hydroelectric Po8er in Russia P ;/0ssian< Tn DT5ART Planeat SuQbassenergo P 4he consolidation into a single>party regime too7 place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, 8hich included the period of 6ar "ommunism and an election in 8hich multiple parties competed. See Aeonard Schapiro, 'he 1ri!in o# the Communist Autocrac%, Political 1pposition in the So"iet State, First Phase 787797822. "ambridge, ?P: harvard University Press, 9:CC, 9:II. L. P ?atthe8 6hite according to ?atthe8 6hitefs research B. P ;/0ssian< ?elftiu7hov, ?i7hail. Upushchenn%i shans Stalina, So"ets$ii Soiu* i or: a *a 2"ropu 9:E:<9:=9. ?osco8: @eche, ;HHH. FSOi C>LBEB>99:I>E :. P 6. 4ompson, 'he So"iet Union under 6re*hne", (5dinburgh, ;HHE), p. :9 9H. P 4he red blueseSoviet politics by Orian "roQier, ;ational Re"ie/, June ;C, 9::H 99. P Trigins of ?oral>5thical "risis and 6ays to Tvercome it by @.P.GroQhin honoured Aa8yer of Russia 9;. P Robert A. hilliardb ?ichael ". Seith (;HHI). 'he 6roadcast Centur% and 6e%ond, a 6io!raph%
o# American 6roadcastin!. 5lsevier, p. ;L9. FSOi H;=HBHCLH=. 9E. v a b c ?ain Fntelligence Pdministration (DRU) Dlavnoye RaQvedovatelfnoye Upravlenie > Russia M Soviet Fntelligence Pgencies 9=. v a b 4he S@R Russiaws Fntelligence Service 9C. P "ountry Profile: Russia !oreign x "ommon8ealth Tffice of the United Singdom 9I. P ?emorandum of Understanding, PcK6eb, L !ebruary ;HHL 9L. v a b g9::H "FP 6orld !actboo7g. "entral Fntelligence Pgency. Retrieved on ;HHB>HE>H:.

9B. P Oarbara P. Pnderson and Orian G. Silver, gGemographic Sources of the "hanging 5thnic "omposition of the Soviet Union,g Population and -e"elopment Re"ie/ 9C (Gecember 9:B:): IH:<ICI. 9:. P Oarbara P. Pnderson and Orian G. Silver. 9:B=. g5Kuality, 5fficiency, and Politics in Soviet Oilingual 5ducation Policy, 9:E=<9:BH,g American Political Science Re"ie/ LB (Gecember): 9H9:<9HE:. ;H. P Rayfield ;HH=, p. E9L>E;H. ;9. P Rayfield ;HH=, p. 9;9>9;; ;;. P gDorbachev, ?i7hail.g 5ncyclopydia Oritannica. ;HHL. 5ncyclopydia Oritannica Tnline. ; Tct. ;HHL zhttp:MM888.britannica.comMebMarticle>:HEL=HC{. gUnder his ne8 policy of glasnost (|openness}), a maRor cultural tha8 too7 place: freedoms of eUpression and of information 8ere significantly eUpandedb the press and broadcasting 8ere allo8ed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticismb and the countryfs legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule 8as eventually completely repudiated by the government.g

/eferences

Prmstrong, John P. 'he Politics o# 'otalitarianism, 'he Communist Part% o# the So"iet Union #rom 78<= to the Present. ie8 jor7: Random house, 9:I9. Oro8n, Prchie, et al, eds.: 'he Cam rid!e 2nc%clopedia o# Russia and the So"iet Union ("ambridge, US: "ambridge University Press, 9:B;). Dilbert, ?artin: 'he Routled!e Atlas o# Russian )istor% (Aondon: Routledge, ;HH;). Doldman, ?inton: 'he So"iet Union and 2astern 2urope ("onnecticut: Dlobal Studies, Gush7in Publishing Droup, Fnc., 9:BI). Drant, 4ed: Russia, #rom Re"olution to Counter5Re"olution, Aondon, 6ell Red Publications,9::L ho8e, D. ?elvyn: 'he So"iet Union, A 3eo!raphical Sur"e% ;nd. edn. (5stover, US: ?acGonald and 5vans, 9:BE). SatQ, uev, ed.: )and oo$ o# +a4or So"iet ;ationalities (ie8 jor7: !ree Press, 9:LC). ?oore, Jr., Oarrington. So"iet politics, the dilemma o# po/er. "ambridge, ?P: harvard University Press, 9:CH. Rayfield, Gonald. Stalin and )is )an!men, 'he '%rant and 'hose >ho ?illed #or )im. ie8 jor7: Random house, ;HH= (hardcover, FSOi H>ELC>CHIE;>;)b ;HHC (paperbac7, FSOi HELCLCLL9I). RiQQi, Oruno: g4he bureaucratiQation of the 8orld : the first 5nglish ed. of the underground ?arUist classic that analyQed class eUploitation in the USSRg , ie8 jor7, ij : !ree Press, 9:BC. Schapiro, Aeonard O. 'he 1ri!in o# the Communist Autocrac%, Political 1pposition in the So"iet State, First Phase 787797822. "ambridge, ?P: harvard University Press, 9:CC, 9:II.

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