.

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. I

N A S A T E C H N I C A L T R A N S L A T I O N

N A S A TT F - 5 1 9

HELICOPTERS

CALCULATION A N D DESIGN

Volume 11. Vibrations and Dynamic Stability

by M . L. M Z , et

d Z .

Mashinostroyeniye Press Moscow, 1967

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS A N D S P A C E ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON:;

a:

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

Illll 1 1 llllll11IllIllI 1 l 0068972

NASA TT F-519

HELICOPTERS Volume II.

- CALCULATION AND DESIGN

Vibrations and Dynamic Stability By M. L. Mil', et al.

Translation of "Vertolety . Raschet i proyekt irovaniye. 2. Kolebaniya i dinamicheskaya prochnost' ." "Mashinostroyeniye" Press, Moscow, 1967.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

~ ~
~

-~

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information Springfield, Virginia 22151 CFSTI price $3.00

I I l111lI 1ll11ll1l1111l1111l1l1lIl I I

M O T AT ION
The work "Helicopters, Calculation and Design11 i s published i n t h r e e volumes : Vol.1 Aerodynamics; VoLII Vibrations and Dynamic Strength; Vol.111- Design.

The second volume gives a n account of c e r t a i n problems of t h e t h e o r y of v i b r a t i o n s and methods of c a l c u l a t i n g stresses set up during such v i b r a t i o n s i n h e l i c o p t e r s i n f l i g h t , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , i n t h e r o t o r blade. Methods are presented f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e and f o r c a l c u l a t i n g h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s which permit determining t h e amplitudes of t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s and comparing them w i t h t h e noms of comfort. For t h e f i r s t t i m e i n Soviet literature, t h e problem of coupled v i b r a t i o n s of r o t o r and f u s e l a g e i s examined. The theory of s e l f - e x c i t e d o s c i l h t i o n s of a s p e c i a l type known as '!ground resonance" i s discussed i n d e t a i l . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e occurrence of such v i b r a t i o n s i n a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground, during t a k e o f f and landing run, and under f l i g h t conditions are examined. S p e c i a l cases, l i t t l e e l u c i d a t e d i n t h e g e n e r a l Literature, of c a l c u l a t i n g bearings t h a t operate under s p e c i f i c conditions of r o l l i n g a r e examined i n a s e p a r a t e chapter. The same chapter g i v e s a n account of t h e theory and method of c a l c u l a t i n g a new t y p e of thrust bearing of high load c a p a c i t y and bearings under compound loads. The book i s intended f o r engineers of design o f f i c e s , s c i e n t i f i c workers, graduate students, and t e a c h e r s of higher i n s t i t u t e s of learning. It might be u s e f u l t o engineers of h e l i c o p t e r manufacturers and t o s t u d e n t s f o r f u r t h e r i n g t h e i r knowledge of t h e v i b r a t i o n s and d y d c s t r e n g t h of h e l i c o p t e r s . C e r t a i n s e c t i o n s of t h e book w i l l be u s e f u l a k o t o f l i g h t and t e c h n i c a l staffs of helicopter f l i g h t units. There are 35 tables, i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and

47 r e f e r e n c e s .

Cand. Tech. Sci. R.A.Mikheyev,

Reviewer

% -

Numbers i n t h e margin i n d i c a t e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e f o r e i g n text.

ii

PREFACE The f i r s t volume of t h e work "Helicopters, Calculation and Designl, publ i s h e d i n 1966, w a s devoted t o aerodynamics: t h e o r y and methods of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s and a n aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r s of various configurations.

L2

T h a t volume included a n account of t h e t h e o r y of r o t o r f l u t t e r which usuall y belongs t o t h e category of a e r o e l a s t i c i t y - a n area between aerodynamics and mechanical s t r e n g t h .
The p r e s e n t , second volume i s a l o g i c a l c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e f i r s t and i s devoted t o v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h s of h e l i c o p t e r s . The problems of t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of h e l i c o p t e r s con-prise no fundamentall y new a s p e c t s i n comparison G t h what i s known i n a i r c r a f t construction. With r e s p e c t t o v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h , h e l i c o p t e r s e x h i b i t a number of pec u l i a r i t i e s which were recognized when t h e y f i r s t appeared as a new type of f l y i n g machine. These p e c u l i a r i t i e s loomed l a r g e during - i f one may use t h e exp r e s s i o n - t h e " s t r u g g l e f o r existence11 of this new type of c r a f t i n t h e o v e r a l l system of a i r t r a n s p o r t m e a n s not r e q u i r i n g a i r f i e l d s . The r e c i t a l of t h e problems of v i b r a t i o n and dynaxdc s t r e n g t h of t h e helic o p t e r begins w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of a method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of i t s r o t o r blade, which are similar i n fundamental equations and methods of s o l u t i o n t o t h o s e used i n t h e t h e o r y of f l u t t e r but have a d i f f e r e n t t r e n d s i n c e u l t i m a t e l y t h e c a l c u l a t i o n reduces mainly t o a s o l u t i o n of t h e p u r e l y mec h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h problem, namely t o a determination of variable s t r e s s e s a c t i n g i n t h e blade, and then, w i t h t h e use of d a t a on t h e f a t i g u e limits of a s p e c i f i c s t r u c t u r e , t o a determination of s e r v i c e l i f e , i.e., blade l i f e . Problems of v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h are important not only from t h e viewpoint of r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e c r a f t . Also t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of machines, and hence t h e i r economy, depends on t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e s e problems.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , this volume examines current methods of c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade, performed on high-speed e l e c t r o n i c computers which permits determining t h e variable s t r e s s e s set up i n t h e blade.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e Itground resonancelt mode of #bration, j u s t as a study of t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a s t r u c t u r e , c o n s t i t u t e t h e p r i n c i p a l theme of t h e theory of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s . Elimination of Ifground resonance" Vibrations which, i f they arise and develop f u r t h e r , lead t o d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e c r a f t on t h e ground and, i n t h e case of m u l t i r o t o r configurations, a l s o i n t h e air, has always been one of t h e main problems confronting t h e designer. The p,roblem of Vibrations of h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s , examined from t h e viewpoint of crew and passenger comfort, i s a l s o quite i n p o r t a n t . It i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o estimate t h e acuteness of this problem when
iii

t h i n k i n g of t h e power of t h e constant source of such v i b r a t i o n s operating i n a highly variable v e l o c i t y f i e l d .

a huge r o t o r

The last chapter of this volume i s devoted t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of s p e c i a l bearings, a n e c e s s i t y i n designing many of t h e h e l i c o p t e r components and t h u s representing a t r a n s i t i o n a l chapter t o t h e t h i r d volume on IIHelicopter Designrv. The volume "Design11 w i l l g i v e a brief s t u d y of t h e main problems i n layout of h e l i c o p t e r s , s e l e c t i o n of t h e b a s i c parameters of h e l i c o p t e r s including winged types, and auxiliary propulsion units such as t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s o r supplementary j e t engines. Economic considerations of a v i a t i o n engineering, of importance i n designing, w i l l also be presented.

T h i s volume a l s o p r e s e n t s a d i s c u s s i o n of problems of balancing, c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , and s t a b i E t y from t h e viewpoint of s e l e c t i n g parameters f o r t h e c o n t r o l system, a s w e l l as problems of designing i n d i v i d u a l components of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

The second volume W i b r a t i o n s and Dynamic Strength11 was w r i t t e n by: Introduction, M.L.Mil, ; Chapter I, A.V.Nekrasov, Chaipters I1 and 111, L.N. Section l l of Chapter I w a s w r i t t e n by A.V. Grodko; Chapter IV, M.A.Leykand. Nekrasov i n c o ~ b o r a t i o n w i t h engineer Z.Ye .Shnurov. I n preparing t h e manuscript t h e authors were a s s i s t e d by engineers F.L. Zarzhevskaya, V.M .Kostromin, and I .V.Kurov. I n this volume, we made use of t h e engineers Yu .A .Myagkov, 0 . P .Bakhov, V .F. S.Ye .Sno, V.G.Pashkin, N.F.Shevnyakova, N.A.Matske#ch, V. I.Kiryushkina, and A.G r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n s performed by Khvostov, S. A. Gohbtsov, V.M .Pchelkin, N.M.Kiseleva, L.V.Artamonova, V.F.Semina, .Orlova.

The reviewer, R A.Mikheyev, o f f e r e d many valuable coment s

Engineer L.G.Rudnitskiy w a s i n charge of t h e f i n a l p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e manus c r i p t f o r publication. The authors express t h e i r s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o t h e s e coworkers.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface

.......................................................... Introduction ..................................................... CHAPTER I ELASTIC VIBRATIONS AND B L A D E STRBGTH .................

Section 1 . Problems of Calculation, Basic Assumptions, and Derivation of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Blade Bending Deformations 1 . Ultimate Purpose of Calculating E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations 2. Calculation of Blade S t r e n g t h 3 . F l i g h t Regimes Detrimental t o t h e Fatigue S t r e n g t h of t h e S t r u c t u r e 4. Assumption of a Uniform Induced Velocity F i e l d 5. Assumptions i n Calculating Aerodynamic b a d s on t h e Blade P r o f i l e 6. Relation of Deformations due t o Bending i n Two Mutually Perpendicular Directions and Corresponding A s s q t i o n s f o r C a l c u l a t i o n 7. Consideration of Torsional Deformation of a B l a d e i n Calculations of F l e x u r a l Vibrations 8. Two C a l c u l a t i o n Steps i n Blade Design: Calculation of Natural Vibration f i e quency and Calculation of S t r e s s e s 9. Idealized Blade Models Used i n Calculation 10. Derivation of t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Bending i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force F i e l d a t Vibrations i n t h e Flapping Plane 1 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Bending i n t h e Rotor Plane of Rotation S e c t i o n 2. Free Vibrations of t h e Blade of a Nonrotating Rotor 1. Method of Calculation f o r S o l u t i o n of t h e I n t e g r a l Equation of Blade Vibrations 2. Calculation of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies of a Blade Model w i t h D i s c r e t e l y D i s t r i b u t e d Parameters 3. Condition of Orthogonality and Calculation of Successive Natural Vibration Harmonics 4.. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Calculation of Natural Vibration Frequencies ami Modes of a E n g e d Blade 5. Calculation of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies of a Blade as a Simply Supported Beam S e c t i o n 3 . Approximate Method of Determining t h e Natural Blade

iii

1 1 1

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Page Vibration Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force Field 1 . Use of B.G.GalerkinTs Method f o r Determining t h e N a t u r a l Blade Vibration Frequencies 2. Resonance Diagram of Blade Vibrations 3. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Parameters t o Eliminate Resonance during Vibration i n t h e Flapping Plane 4. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Parameters t o Eliminate Resonances i n t h e Plane of Rotation Section 4. Calculation of Natural Blade VibrationModes and Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force Field 1. Purpose and Problems of Calculation 2. k n i t s of A p p l i c a b i l i t y of C a l c u l a t i o n Methods Reducing t o a S o l u t i o n of t h e I n t e g r a l Equation of Blade Vibrations 3. Possible Methods of Calculating Free Blade Vibrations i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force f i e l d 4. Three-Moment Method f o r Calculating Natural Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force f i e l d 5 . Determination of Bending Moments on t h e Basis of Known Forces 6 . Determination of Displacements from Known Bending Moments 7 . Case of a Blade Rigidly Attached a t t h e Root 8 . Possible S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n Calculating t h e Coefficients 9 . Certain Results of Calculating t h e N a t u r a l Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies Section 5. Torsional Vibrations of a Blade 1 . Problems Solved i n Calculating Torsional Vibrations 2. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of T o r s i o n a l Blade Vibrations 3. Determination of t h e Natural Torsional Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies 4. Determination of t h e Natural V i b r a t i o n Modes and Frequencies of a Rotor as a Whole Section 6. Combined F l e x u r a l and Torsional Blade Vibrations 1. Coupling of F l e x u r a l and Torsional Vibrations 2. Method of Calculating Binary Vibrations 3. E f f e c t of Coup%ng between Bending and Torsion a t Natural Vibration Frequency Section 7 . Forced Blade Vibrations 1 . Use of B.G.GalerkinTs Method f o r Calculating Blade Defomnations. Determination of S t a t i c Deformations of a Blade 2. Determination of Blade Deformations w i t h P e r i o d i c Application of a n ESrternal Load

............................................ ....... ...... ... .........................................

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29

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31 32 34 36 36 37 39 39 k6

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....................... ......... 5. C a l c u l a t i o n of Vibrations a t Application Phase of M e r n a l b a d Variable over t h e .................................. Blade Length .,........... 6. Aerodynamic Load on a Rigid Blade 7. Determination of t h e Blade Flapping ................................. Coefficients 8. Simplified Calculation of E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations ..................................... Section 8. Calculation of Bending Stresses i n a Blade a t Low and Moderate Flying Speeds .... .......... 1 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Distinguishing Flying Regimes a t Low and Moderate Speeds ........... 2. Method of Calculating Stresses ............... 3. A s s q t i o n s i n Determining Induced ................................... Velocities 4. Mathematical Formulas f o r Induced Velocity F i e l d Determtnation ................. 5. Transformations of Mathematical Formulas i n P a r t i c u l a r Cases .......................... 6. Numerical Determination of t h e Irrtegrals J(F,) and J(F,) .............................. 7. Assumptions Adopted i n Aerodynamic ......................... Force Determinations 8. Mat hematical Formulas ............. ........... 9. Conversion t o an Equivalent Rotor ............
4. Amplitude Diagram of Blade Vibrations
Forced Blade 'Vibrations

3. Simplified Approach t o Calculation of

81

83

84
85
89

93 97 97 97
98
1 0 0

102
103
107

107
111

of Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E L . Differerrtial Equation of Blade Vibrations and i t s S o l u t i o n 12. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e Left-Hand Side of t h e Equations i n Table 1.8 13. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e Right-Hand Side of t h e Equation of Table 1.8 1 4 . . S y s t e m of Equations a f t e r S u b s t i t u t i o n of Eqs,(8.34) and (8.38) 1 5 . General Computational Scheme 1 6 . Determination of Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s 17. Computational Program 1 8 . Comparison of Calculation w i t h Ekperiment a t Low F l y i n g Speed 19. Comparison of Calculation w i t h Ekperiment a t Moderate-Speed Mode 20. P o s s i b i l i t i e s of Further Refinement of Calculation Results Section 9. Calculation of B l a d e B e n d i n g Stresses, w i t h Consideration of t h e Nonlinear Dependence of

1 0 . Basic Assumptions Used i n Calculation

111 112

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Page Aerodynamic C o e f f i c i e n t s on P r o f i l e Angle of Attack an3 Mach Nmber 1 . F l i g h t Regimes 2. Determination of Aerodynamic Loads 3 . Method of Blade Calculation as a System whose Motion i s Coupled by Prescribed Vibration Modes 4. Mathematical Formulas f o r a Blade Model w i t h D i s c r e t e Parameters 5. Consideration of a Variable Induced Velocity f i e l d 6. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations 7. Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Method Proposed by L.N.GrodJso and O.P.E!akhov 8 . Sequence of Operations i n Recalculation and P r a c t i c a l Evaluation of Different I n t e g r a t i o n Steps 9 . Comparison of Results by Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n M e t hods w i t h C a l c u l a t i o n of Harmonics 1 0 .s o m e C a I c u k t i o n ResuIt.s Section 10. Calculation of F l e x u r a l Vibrations w i t h Direct Determination of t h e Paths of Motion of P o i n t s of t h e Blade 1 . P r i n c i p l e of t h e Method of C a l c u l a t i o n 2. Determination of E l a s t i c Forces Applied t o a Point of t h e Blade by Adjacent Segments 3 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n of Eqs.(m.l) 4. Equations of Motion f o r a Multihinge A r t i c u l a t e d Blade Model 5. Sequence of Operations i n Calculating E l a s t i c Vibrations by t h e Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Met hod 6. Method of Calculation w i t h Inverse Order of Determining Variables i n Numerical Integration 7. Comparative Evaluation of Various Methods of Calculating F l e x u r a l Blade Vibrations Section 1 1 . Fatigue S t r e n g t h and Blade Ufe 1 . Testing a S t r u c t u r e t o Determine i t s Service Life 2 . Dispersion of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of M u r a n c e i n Fatigue Tests 3. Basic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Fatigue S t r e n g t h of S t r u c t u r e 4. Stresses Set Up i n t h e Blade S t r u c t u r e i n Flight v i ii

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5. m o t h e s i s of E n e a r Summation of Damage
P o t e n t i a l a& Average Equivalent Amplitude of A l t e r n a t i n g Stresses 6. Dispersion of t h e Amplitudes of A l t e r n a t i n g Stresses i n a n Assigned F l i g h t Regime 7. Method of Calculating Service E f e w i t h t h e Use of R e l i a b i l i t y Coefficients 8 . Method of A.F.Selikhov f o r Calculating t h e Required S a f e t y Factor w i t h Respect t o t h e Number of Cycles llN 9. Determination of S l o g a t Given F i d u c i a l Probability 1 0 . Dispersion i n t h e S t r e s s Levels f o r Various S t r u c t u r a l Specimens and Reliability Margin w i t h Respect t o t h e Amplitude of Alternating Stresses l l . Method of Determining t h e R e l i a b i l i t y Margin I , Proposed , by A.F.Selikhov 12. Example of Calculation of Service Life 13. Possible Ways of Detemnining t h e M i n i m u m Endurance L i m i t of a S t r u c t u r e Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Approaches i n Determining t h e Necessary R e l i a b i l i t y Margins, and Estimation of t h e i r Accuracy 15. Blade S t r e n g t h Requirements i n Design Selection 16. S t r e n g t h of a Blade w i t h Tubular S t e e l Spar 17. S t r e n g t h of a Blade w i t h Duralumin Spar 1 8 . Effect of Service Conditions on Fatigue S t r e n g t h of Spars

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.............................. .................................... ............................................... ............................ CHAPTER I1 HELICOPTEE VIBRATIONS ............................. ............. Section 1 . Forces Causing Helicopter Vibrations 1 . E x c i t a t i o n Frequencies ........................
2. Dependence of t h e Frequency Spectrum of Exciting Forces on t h e Harmonic Content of Blade Vibrations Section 2. F l e x u r a l Vibrations of t h e Fuselage as an E l a s t i c Beam 1 . Calculation of Forced Vibrations of a n E l a s t i c Beam by t h e Method of m a n s i o n i n Natural Modes 2. Dynamic R i g i d i t y of a Beam. Resonance and Antiresonance 3. Application of t h e Method of Dynamic R i g i d i t y t o t h e Vibration Analysis of Side-by-Side Helicopters

20 5

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II I I I I 1 1 1 l1 I1 1 1 1 1 1 lIlII I1 I

Page Method of A u x i l i a r y Mass U f e c t of Damping Forces. Vibrations at Resonance Section 3. V i b r a t i o n Analysis w i t h Consideration of Fuselage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 1. Fuselage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Lateral and V e r t i c a l Vibrations 2. Calculation of Fuselage Vibrations i n t h e Plane of Symmetry by t h e Method of Residues 3. Consideration of t h e EXfect of Shearing Deformation Section 4. Combined Vibrations of t h e System Fuselage-Rotor 1 . Vibrations of t h e System Fuselage-Rotor 2 . Calculation of t h e Natural Rotor Blade Vibrations i n t h e Plane of Rotation, w i t h Consideration of E l a s t i c i t y of t h e Rotor Shaft and Attachment t o t h e Fuselage

4.. 5.

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Section 1 . S t a b i l i t y of Rotor on an E l a s t i c Base 1. Statement of Problem and Equations of Motion 2. S t a b i l i t y Analysis and Basic Results 3. Physical P i c t u r e of Rotor Behav5or i n t h e Presence of Ground Resonance 4. Rotor on an I s o t r o p i c Elastic Base S e c t i o n 2. Lateral Vibrations of a Single-Rotor Helicopter 1 . Preliminary Comments 2. Lateral and Angular S t i f f n e s s of Landing Gear. F l e x u r a l Center 3. Natural L a t e r a l Vibrations of a Helicopter 4. Determination of Damping C o e f f i c i e n t s 5. Combined Action of t h e System Shock Strut-Pneumatic Tire 6. Reduction of t h e Problem t o C a l c u l a t i o n of a Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Base 7. Analysis of t h e Results of Ground Resonance Calculations S e c t i o n 3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Damping of k d i n g Gear and Blade. Influence on Ground Resonance 1 . Determination of t h e Damping C o e f f i c i e n t of t h e Landing Gear Shock Absorber 2. E f f e c t of Locking of t h e Shock Absorber as a Consequence of F r i c t i o n a l Resistance of t h e Gland and Self-Excited Vibrations of t h e Helicopter 3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade Dampers and t h e i r Analysis

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Page E f f e c t of Flapping Motion of Rotor on Ground Resonance S e c t i o n 4. Ground Resonance of a Helicopter during Ground Run 1 . S t i f f n e s s and Damping of a Wobbling T i r e 2. Calculation of Ground Resonance and Results 3. Ground Resonance on Breaking Contact of t h e Tires w i t h t h e Ground S e c t i o n 5. Ground Resonance of Helicopters of Other Configurations 1 . General Comments 2. Calculation of L a t e r a l Natural Vibrations w i t h Consideration of Three Degrees of Freedom 3. Calculation of Natural Helicopter Vibrations i n t h e Plane of Symmetry ( b n g i t u d i n a l Vibrations) 4 . Reduction of t h e Problem t o Calculation of a Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Base 5 . Self-Excited Vibrations i n F l i g h t of a Helicopter w i t h a n E l a s t i c Fuselage Section 6 . S e l e c t i o n of Basic Parameters of Landing Gear and Blade Dampers. Design Recommendations 1 . S e l e c t i o n of Blade Damper C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 2. Rotor w i t h I n t e r b l a d e a s t i c Elements and Dampers 3 . S e l e c t i o n of S t i f f n e s s and Damping C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r landing Gears 4. C e r t a i n Recommendations f o r Landing Gear Design

4.

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325 330 330 335 337 339 339 340 347 352 354 356 357 361 364. 367 369
370

................................... ...................... ........... ....... ..... ................................... ............. ................................... CHAPTER I V THEX)RETICAL PRINCIPLES OF CAEULATING BEXRIJTGS . . . ... O F M A I N KELICOPTER C O M P O N E N T S Section 1 . Equations of S t a t i c Equilibrium of R a d i a l and .. Radial-Thrust Ball Bearings under Combined Load Section 2. Calculation of R a d i a l and Radial-Thrust B a l l Bearings under Combined Loads, f o r Absence of M i s a l i g m e n t of t h e Races ...... ................. 1 . Pressure on B a l l s .............................

S e c t i o n 3. C e r t a i n Problems i n Calculating Radial-Thrust B a l l Bearings w i t h Consideration of Misalignment of t h e i r Races under h a d

................................. ...................................... Capacity 4. E f f e c t of Axial b a d . on Bearing Performance ... 5 . Approximate Solutions of Equations (2.1) and (2.2) ..................................... 6 . Relative Displacements of Races ...............
2. Reduced Loads

3 . S t a t i s t i c a l Theory of Dynamic had-Carrying

377 377 384 385 393 397 403

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........................... ................ ........ Force ......................................... 4. Limit Dependences on Small Loads .............. 5 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of h a d between Rows of E!a& of Double-Row Radial-Thrust Ball Bearings ..... 6 . Exanples of Calculation ....................... Section 4. Calculation of Tapered R o l l e r Bearings under ................................... Combined Loads 1 . Calculation of Single-Row Tapered R o l l e r ....................................... Bearings Remarks on Calculation of Bearing Assemblies of Two Tapered R o l l e r Bearings ................ ....... ......... Section 5 . Calculation of Vibrating Bearings 1 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Mechanism of Wear of A n t i f r i c t i o n Bearings under Vibration .................................... Conditions 2. Lubrication of Highly Loaded Vibrating Bearings i n t h e Presence of Small Vibration .................................... Amplitudes 3. Calculation of Hub Bearings i n Main Tail Rotors . ... .. . . . . . ........ . . ... . ........... .. 4. Calculation of Bearings f o r t h e P i t c h Control and Control Mechanisms ........................ Section 6 . Theory S e l e c t i o n of Basic Parameters of Thrust Bearings w i t h llSlewed!l R o l l e r s .. ..... . ........... 1 . Determination of t h e Time T, ..... . ........... . S e l e c t i o n of Angles of Slope of Cage Seats ....
1 . Basic Relationships 2. Case of !!Pure!* Moment 3. Simultaneous Action of Moment and Axial
2.
and

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426 426

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431 433 434 435

441
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453

and

References

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4.
3. F r i c t i o n Losses
Additional Considerations of Optimal Thrust Bearing Design w i t h !lSlewedll R o l l e r s 5 . Example of Calculating a Thrust Bearing w i t h !lSlewedl! R o l l e r s

2.

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INTFDDUCTION

Lz

A s soon as a n a i r c r a f t engine of s u f f i c i e n t power and l i g h t i n weight had been created and t h e first h e l i c o p t e r took o f f from t h e ground, problems of balancing, c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , and s t a b i l i t y of this c r a f t arose. These were mainl y aerodynamic problems. If we consider t h e f i r s t f l i g h t of de l a Cierva,ts a u t o g i r o s i n 1925-1926 t o be t h e s t a r t of f l i g h t of rotary-wing a i r c r a f t , t h e n we can say t h a t t h e s t a t e d problems w e r e mainly solved i n t h e f i r s t decade (1926-1936) of t h e i r development. The new t y p e of f l y i n g machine w a s t h u s cured of i t s 1lchildhood diseases11

However, as soon as t h e f i r s t series-produced machines appeared and t h e y w e r e placed i n s e r v i c e , more s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c i e s of h e l i c o p t e r s became apparent such as, f o r example, f a t i g u e due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t dynamic s t r e n g t h of c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r a l members.

New dynamic problems a r o s e with t h e wider p r a c t i c a l use of autogiros and e s p e c i a l l y of h e l i c o p t e r s , which entered t h e scene a t t h e end of t h e T h i r t i e s and beginning of t h e F o r t i e s on a new improved t e c h n i c a l basis. These probhms p e r t a i n e d p r i m a r i l y t o o s c i l l a t i o n s and v i b r a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l elements and of t h e h e l i c o p t e r as a whole, which are harmful owing t o t h e stresses set up i n t h i s case, o r are impermissible from t h e viewpoint of necessary crew and passenger comfort, and a l s o i n c l u d e t h e problem of s e r v i c e l i f e of s t r u c t u r a l elements operating under high v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s . The l a t t e r problem, namely t h e i n c r e a s e i n s e r v i c e l i f e , i s c o n s t a n t l y gaining in importance s i n c e t h e amortization and o v e r a l l l i f e of a h e l i c o p t e r , determined by t h e l i f e times of i t s components, has an e f f e c t on t h e cost-effectiveness i n i t s use as a means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . The s e r v i c e l i f e , i n t u r n , i s determined mainly by t h e l e v e l of t h e v a r i a b l e stresses set up i n t h e s t r u c t u r e ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e accuracy w i t h which t h e s e are c a l c u l a t e d i s one of t h e b a s i c problems of a dynamic s t r e n g t h analysis of h e l i c o p t e r s .
A t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r of a conventional a i r c r a f t operates p r a c t i c a l l y i n a n axial flow and, l i k e an engine, sets up no noticeable v a r i a b l e stresses i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l members. Only t a k e o f f , landing, and f l i g h t under conditions of atmos p h e r i c turbulence (and, on m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t , maneuvers) c r e a t e appreciable dynamic loads on t h e a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e , 'but a t r e l a t i v e l y f e w load cycles (of t h e order of t e n s and hundreds of thousands of c y c l e s ) during t h e l i f e t i m e of t h e a i r c r a f t . I n this case, one can speak about repeated s t a t i c loads.

The loads on t h e h e l i c o p t e r are @ t e d i f f e r e n t . Its main s t r u c t u r a l members are loaded dynamically, t h e number of loadings o f t e n exceeding t e n s of m i l l i o n s of c y c l e s during i t s lifetime. T h i s i s due p r i m a r i l y t o t h e asymmetric flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , which r o t a t e s and simultaneously advances. I n s o doing, /6 t h e blade i s s u b j e c t t o variable aerodynamic loads as a consequence of t h e change i n relative flow v e l o c i t y and angles of a t t a c k of i t s s e c t i o n s . A l l f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e blade are t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hub and r o t o r controls. The f o r c e s and moments a r r i v i n g from d i f f e r e n t blades are mutually compensated, w i t h t h e exception of loads a c t i n g w i t h frequencies whose r a t i o t o t h e r o t o r rpm i s

~~

I IIIIIIIIII 1i

a m u l t i p l e of t h e blade number. These loads are t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e f u s e l a g e and t o t h e nonrotating p a r t of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system and t h e r e set up noticeable variable stresses *
Thus, t h e problem of v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h s i n h e l i c o p t e r cons t r u c t i o n i s not only much broader t h a n i n a i r c r a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n but, i n many cases, has no d i r e c t analogy i n t h e latter. Recognition of t h e importance of t h e problems of dynamic s t r e n g t h was not immediately obvious. Thus, even t h e causes of t h e first a c c i d e n t s of a u t o g i r o s i n 1936-1937, during which t h e s e c r a f t overturned i n t h e a i r , were a t t r i b u t e d f o r long t o i n s u f f i c i e n t dynamic s t a b i l i t y . I n tkis r e s p e c t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , inv e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e d y d c s of a r o t o r w i t h hinged b l a d e s a t c u r v i l i n e a r motion o f t h e c r a f t w e r e undertaken ( s e e Sect.2, Chapt.11 of Vol.1). T h i s theory later found wide a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of problems of dynamic s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of h e l i c o p t e r s . However, i t never uncovered t h e t r u e cause of t h e above-mentioned a c c i d e n t s . A s was subsequently r e a l i z e d , t h e cause w a s ins u f f i c i e n t dynamic s t r e n g t h of t h e r o t o r blades. These problems w e r e recognized l i t e r a l l y by hit and miss. The f i r s t experimental a u t o g i r o s and h e l i c o p t e r s w e r e small and t h u s had a r a t h e r high s t r u c t u r a l r i g i d i t y . However, t h e first i n c r e a s e i n s i z e immediately encountered considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s . For i n s t a n c e , on t h e A-4 autogiro, which had a diameter somewhat l a r g e r t h a n i t s predecessor t h e 2EA autogiro, s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s arose owing t o i n s u f f i c i e n t t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade. The blade angle, i n t h e first f l i g h t , increased so much due t o t o r s i o n a l deformation t h a t a u t o r o t a t i o n was impossible and t h e f l i g h t a h o s t ended i n crackup. The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of this phenomenon was completed w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of a paper on t h e dynamic t w i s t i n g of a r o t o r blade i n f l i g h t [see (Ref .2) 1, i n which t h e first suggestions were made as t o t h e n e c e s s i t y of matching t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and t h e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e , and i n which considerations of t h e e f f e c t of blade p r o f i l e on s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of t h e c r a f t were examined. T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n a s y m e t r i c p r o f i l e s , ensuring a l a r g e r e s e r v e of a u t o r o t a t i o n , which were adopted i n t h e engineering p r a c t i c e of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r construction. A set of d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s was used f o r t h e blade arrangement. The recommendations i n t h e above paper were s u f f i c i e n t t o prevent f l u t t e r i n t h e f i r s t Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s which had a r o t o r span of about I-!+ m. The development of t h e Soviet h e l i c o p t e r i n d u s t r y i s characterized by l a r g e r s t e p s t h a n that of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n d u s t r y i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ( t h i s a l s o enabled Soviet designers, who had s t a r t e d l a t e r t o build h e l i c o p t e r s , t o c r e a t e machines v a s t l y s u p e r i o r t o modern f o r e i g n h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o l i f t capacity and s i z e ) . Whereas, a f t e r t h e first s u c c e s s f u l f l i g h t of t h e Sikorsky S-5l w i t h a r o t o r span of I-!+ m b u i l t i n 1947, t h e Americans, i n 1950-1951, began working on a c r a f t w i t h a r o t o r of 15.5 m diameter ( S - 5 5 ) , t h e Soviet designers, a f t e r c r e a t i n g t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a &m r o t o r , constructed as e a r l y as 1952 t h e Mi-4 and Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h 21-m r o t o r s . It i s not s u r p r i s i n g that such a jump i n s i z e l e d t o a new p r e v i o u s l y unencountered phenomenon: I n both c r a f t , t h e r o t o r began t o f l u t t e r during t h e first t a k e o f f . W e readily coped w i t h this problem, but problems of t h e t h e o r y of f l u t t e r had t o w a i t a long t i m e f o r s o l u t i o n . 2

I b B
i

We first encountered this new phenomenon i n A p r i l 1952 w i t h t h e Mi-4 he=copter, when it was ready f o r i t s maiden t a k e o f f . A t onset of overspeeding, t h e blades began t o f l a p i n a random manner, bending t o a n ever i n c r e a s i n g ext e n t and t h r e a t e n i n g t o s t r i k e t h e airframe. The test crew r e a l i z e d t h a t this was a new phenomenon never before encountered. T h i s c o n s t i t u t e d so-called f l u t t e r of t h e r o t o r blades. A t that t h e , no one thought of t h e f a c t t h a t this w a s t h e very same t y p e of f l u t t e r under study by many s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e USSR and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . According t o t h e d a t a available a t that time, f l u t t e r was not expected s i n c e it w a s thought t o arise at about 500 r p m r a t h e r t h a n a t a r o t o r r p m of 100-110, as a c t u a l l y happened i n t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r . The d e c i s i v e f a c t o r f o r t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r i n this case w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a r g e f o r c e s generated on a r o t o r of such a diameter produced appreciable deformation of t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h contro1,which i s equivalent t o a decrease i n t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blades, and also t h e f a c t that a l a r g e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator ( c l o s e t o u n i t y ) had been s e l e c t e d f o r t h e s e machines; this p o i n t had been disregarded i n e a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of f l u t t e r . A s a r e s u l t t h e r e was no reason t o t h i n k of h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t s , s i n c e f l u t t e r set i n appreciable before t h e operating r p m of t h e r o t o r was reached,

It became c l e a r , i n studying t h e p a t t e r n of f l u t t e r (flapping, bending, and t w i s t i n g of t h e blades) t h a t this phenomenon could be prevented only by u t i l i z i n g t h e torques from t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s generated during displacement of t h e blade s e c t i o n s on flapping. Without a s s o c i a t i n g r o t o r f l u t t e r w i t h wing f l u t t e r t h e mutual p o s i t i o n of c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , f l e x u r a l where - as known f o r long axis, and c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e i s of prime importance, we simply attached counterweights t o s e v e r a l p o i n t s along t h e blade l e n g t h t o c r e a t e moments of i n e r t i a of opposite s i g n during v i b r a t i o n s and t h e n repeated start-up of t h e r o t o r ; we h e d i a t e l y understood t h a t we had i n hand a reliable means of stopping f l u t t e r .

Thus, w i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e this problem w a s p r a c t i c a l l y solved, and by May

1952 t h e first f l i g h t s w i t h t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r w e r e made.

A t t h e same time, f l u t t e r occurred a l s o on t h e Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r which had t h e same hub and automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l a s d i d theMi-4 h e l i c o p t e r but t h e b l a d e s w e r e of d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n (with l a r g e r flexural and t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y ) . However, as a consequence of t h e f a c t that t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and t h e parameters of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator were d e c i s i v e i n t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r , we a l s o encountered f l u t t e r of t h e very same form and a t t h e same r p m on t h e blades of t h e Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r as w e l l as on t h e Mi-& h e l i copter. Thus, w i t h i n s e v e r a l weeks a p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n w a s found f o r preventing flutter, which i s used even now. The s c i e n t i f i c theory, however, t o determine whether f l u t t e r w i l l o r Will not occur and - i f it d i d OCCUT a t what rpm and i n w h a t form, w a s developed by us during t h e subsequent f o u r years.

It should be s t a t e d tht, a f t e r completion of s t u d i e s of f l u t t e r on t h e ground (by shifting t h e c e n t e r i n g of t h e blade forward it was p o s s i b l e t o tldrivef1 it beyond t h e M t s of t h e working r p m and even beyond t h e maxi permissible rpm of t h e engine on t h e ground), t h e r e s t i l l e x i s t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i t s occurrence i n f l i g h t . T h i s l e d t o d e t r i m e n t a l happenings. I n January 1953,
3

I I1 I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Il1 lIllIll

c r a s h of a Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r took place, whose causes were not s a t i s f a c t o r i l y defined f o r almost three years. Inspection revealed t r a c e s of impact of t h e blades on t h e cockpit. T h i s had never been observed before. We should note that, during normal f l a p p i n g motion, t h e blade does not come i n t o contact w i t h t h e cabin unless t h e lower r e s t r i c t o r s of blade overhang o r coning s t o p s are ruptured i n t h e air.

/8

It i s obvious t h a t our s e a r c h f o r t h e cause of this accident was d i l i g e n t , when r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e c r a s h d i d not stop e i t h e r a c t u a l f l i g h t s o r series production of this prototype.
During 1954, a number of p i l o t s observed a n unusual phenomenon i n f l i g h t , which came t o be known as IXalibernyy effect!! ( a f t e r t h e p i l o t who was t h e first t o n o t i c e i t ) . Kaliberqyy e s t a b l i s h e d that i n a power descent a t a blade sett i n g angle of about 6 - yo, t h e blades began t o f l a p out of t h e i r coning angle. T h i s stopped a f t e r r e s e t t i n g t h e blades t h a t had a somewhat d i f f e r e n t t r a n s v e r s e centering. However, two y e a r s later, when f l i g h t - t e s t i n g a set of blades f o r absence of t h e IlKalibernyy e f f e c t " , i.e., during a power descent w i t h a n angle of p i t c h of 6 703', this phenomenon became s o predominant, a t such s t r o n g flapping of t h e blades, t h a t it was d i f f i c u l t t o make a forced landing w i t h t h e c r a f t . It should be mentioned here t h a t c l o s e t o t h e ground, upon changing t o another regime, t h e blade f l a p p i n g stopped and t h e c r a f t behaved normally. A v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a f t e r t h e f l i g h t revealed ruptured blade f o o t i n g s (so-called movable s l o t t e d t r a i l i n g edge of t h e blade), which i n d i c a t e d bending of t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . Everything e l s e was i n good working order. It was decided t o make a d e t a i l e d checkout of this h e l i c o p t e r w i t h t h e same set of blades. F l i g h t tests were c a r r i e d out t o check and study this phenomenon.

Measurements of t h e blades showed t h a t t h e c e n t e r i n g had s h i f t e d by about

l $ of t h e chord more rearward t h a n i t s p o s i t i o n a t t h e t h e of t h e blades leavi n g t h e manufacturer. T h i s can be explained as follows: The blades w e r e sheathed w i t h plywood. The c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of plywood i s about a t 50% of t h e chord. Therefore, as soon as t h e wood s w e l l s and i n c r e a s e s i n weight due t o t h e absorbed moisture, t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e e n t i r e blade Will s h i f t toward t h e t r a i l i n g edge. The above happening w i t h t h e h e l i c o p t e r occurred i n autumn when t h e humidity was high. During t h e s e tests it was a l s o conclusively e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r of blade f l a p p i n g and t h e motions of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k during f l i g h t i n a l%libernyy effect11 regime a r e completely analogous t o t h e f l a p p i n g and motion of t h e s t i c k recorded i n ground t e s t s where blades are caused t o f l u t t e r by a n a r t i f i c i a l l y created tail-heaviness. T h i s complex procedure made it p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e phenomenon occurring i n f l i g h t was i d e n t i c a l with t h a t noted on t h e ground. Thus it w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e IIKalibernyy e f f e c t " i s none o t h e r t h a n t h e onset of f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t . On t h e basis of this conclusion it was conjectured t h a t t h e e a r l i e r unexplained f l i g h t accident i n which t h e blades s t r u c k t h e cockpit w a s a l s o nothing else t h a n f l u t t e r of t h e blades i n f l i g h t a r i s i n g at a r o t o r rpm a t which it d i d not appear when o p e r a t i n g on t h e ground.
4;

On t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r , f l u t t e r sets i n p r i m a r i l y i n t h i s regime.

--

The v i b r a t i o n s of a hinged blade i n f l u t t e r , unlike t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a conventional a i r c r a f t Wing, are capable of a f l a p p i n g motion whose amplitude builds up u n t i l t h e blade impacts on t h e coning s t o p s and, a f t e r breaking these, strikes t h e cabin. That this phenomenon w a s not uncovered f o r a long time can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e erroneous assumption based onmodel tests t h a t , if f l u t t e r on t h e ground i s e l i m i n a t e d , i t cannot occur i n air during forward motion. However, p r a c t i c a l experience and, la te r, more rigorous experiments w i t h h e l i c o p t e r s and, f i n a l l y , corresponding t h e o r i e s have shown t h a t t h e r e are f l i g h t regimes i n which f l u t t e r a t t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r Will not occur on t h e ground but may occur i n flight.

La

It should be s t a t e d t h a t , as e s t a b l i s h e d i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e phenomenon of f l u t t e r a l s o had been observed e a r l i e r on h e l i c o p t e r s . Already i n 1949, t h e Mi-1 h e l i c o p t e r was equipped with a r o t o r w i t h wider blades t o i n c r e a s e t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r r e l a t i v e t o flow separation. I n f l i g h t , this r o t o r produced buff e t i n g which could not be eliminated. After t h e t h e o r y of f l u t t e r had been worked out and a l l a s p e c t s of this phenomenon had been c l a r i f i e d , it became poss i b l e not only t o a t t r i b u t e t h e j o l t i n g of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r with wide blades t o a n approach of t h e regime t o f l u t t e r but also,and without f u r t h e r d i f f i c u l t y , t o design and construct ( i n 1956) a 35-meter r o t o r f o r t h e Mi-6 and Mi-10 h e l i copters. P e r f e c t i o n of this r o t o r w a s confirmed by t h e f a c t t h a t a week a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l takeoff t h e new heavy Mi-6 h e l i c o p t e r w a s able t o complete t h e t r a i n i n g f l i g h t f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Air Parade on Aviation Day a t Tushino. Neither t h e n nor l a t e r d i d anything detrimental, a s s o c i a t e d with f l u t t e r , occur with t h e s e c r a f t . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l aspect of t h e f l u t t e r problem.

Of no less importance i s t h e problem of determining v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s i n blades, which i s solved by studying t h e i r forced v i b r a t i o n s .

During t h e f i r s t decade of t h e i r development, h e l i c o p t e r rotors were a c t u a l l y designed without p r e c a l c u l a t i o n of variable s t r e s s e s a r i s i n g i n f l i g h t . A t t h a t t i m e , c a l c u l a t i o n was cumbersome and i n a c c u r a t e and o f t e n completed only a f t e r t h e c r a f t w a s a t t h e a i r f i e l d . It was only t h e development of computat i o n a l methods f o r v a r i a b l e stresses, allowing t h e use of high-speed d i g i t a l computers, t h a t permitted designing blades w i t h d e l i b e r a t e s e l e c t i o n of r i g i d i t y and mass d i s t r i b u t i o n s o as t o avoid harmful resonance, reduce t h e stress l e v e l , and t h u s ensure long s e r v i c e l i f e and blade r e l i a b i l i t y .

It should be noted t h a t refinement of stress a n a l y s i s f o r blades l e d t o f u r t h e r development i n depth and e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic theory. As s h m i n t h e first volume, refinement of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f l i g h t d a t a d i d not make it necessary t o develop t h e c o q l e x and cumbersome v o r t e x t h e o r y of a r o t o r . Nevertheless, it i s only t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y t h a t permits determining t h e nonuniformity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , causing variable blade loading a t frequencies that e x c i t e f l e x u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades of second, t h i r d , and higher harmonics. Therefore, i n stress analysis, o n l y t h e v o r t e x theory can give r e s u l t s c l o s e t o t h o s e observed i n reality.
Vibrations c o n s t i t u t e d another no less important problem. This problem has always been one of t h e most d i f f i c u l t i n t h e development of r o t a r y wing a i r c r a f t .

Dozens of Soviet and f o r e i g n designs, i n t e r e s t i n g from t h e Viewpoint of concept i o n and f l i g h t data, never came t o completion owing t o t h e high level of vibration. I n conventional a i r c r a f t , t h e sources of v i b r a t i o n are not as powerful as i n h e l i c o p t e r s . Furthermore, both engines and p r o p e l l e r s which are t h e main v i b r a t i o n e x c i t e r s i n conventional a i r c r a f t can be adequately i s o l a t e d from t h e s t r u c t u r e by means of s p e c i a l shock absorbers. High-frequency resonance /Ip produced by such e x c i t e r s can be eliminated quite e a s i l y by comparatively minor modifications of t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n a h e l i c o p t e r , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p e r t u r b i n g f o r c e s produced by t h e r o t o r s are appreciably g r e a t e r t h a n i n a conventional a i r c r a f t , t h e frequencies from t h e slowly r o t a t i n g r o t o r are r a t h e r l o w and, i n combination w i t h t h e n a t u r a l o s c i l l a t i o n frequencies of t h e fuselage, engine, wing, or t a i l u n i t , give rise t o resonance leading t o appreciable vibrat i o n s w i t h a n amplitude of displacement which, i n s t e a d y f l i g h t regimes, reaches magnitudes of t h e o r d e r of 0.3 0.4 rmn and i n short-time regimes, p r i o r t o landing of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , even 1 2 mm i n t h e crew cabin.

Resonance w i t h fundamental t o n e s of t h e natural f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s o f t e n are p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o damp out by changing t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n a n a l r e a d y b u i l t machine. Therefore, it i s w o r t a n t t o make a c o r r e c t estimate of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e f u s e l a g e and t o c a l c u l a t e t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude i n designing t h e c r a f t . I n overcoming v i b r a t i o n s , main emphasis m u s t be on reducing t h e magnitudes of variable f o r c e s produced by t h e r o t o r and a c t i n g on t h e fuselage. These f o r c e s are caused by blade v i b r a t i o n . 31 t u r n , such blade v i b r a t i o n s may be l a r g e r or smaller depending on t h e closeness of t h e i r natural frequencies t o t h e frequencies of t h e external e x c i t a t i o n sources. I n a l l cases, closeness t o resonance w i l l l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e i n blade stresses. However, i f t h e v i b r a t i o n s occur w i t h t h e harmonic frequency z b + 1 ( o r z b - 1 for v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ) o r w i t h t h e harmonic frequency zb f o r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e (where zb i s t h e number of blades), t h e n t h e f o r c e s are s m e d and t r a n s m i t t e d over t h e hinges t o t h e hub and t h r o u g h ' i t t o t h e fuselage, causing v i b r a t i o n . V e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s , which are t h e t y p e most d i s a g r e e a b l y perceived by man, are l a r g e l y caused by f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , s i n c e t h e s e forces, applied high above t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e helicopter, c r e a t e appreciable moments that e x c i t e flexural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e fuselage. I n this case, it i s natural t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t Vibration amplitudes (antinodes) are reached at t h e ends of t h e f u s e l a g e and hence i n t h e cockpit.

It w a s found that, i n determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of h e l i c o p t e r blades, it must be considered t h a t t h e r o t o r hub does not remain f i x e d during t h e v i b r a t i o n s i n c e i t i s a t t a c h e d t o a n e l a s t i c fuselage. Thus, i n a n a n a l y s i s of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e c r a f t should be t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e dynamic s y s t e m w i t h e l a s t i c blades hinged t o a hub a t t a c h e d t o a n e l a s t i c fuselage.

It i s obvious that it i s only l a t e l y that such a c a l c u l a t i o n scheme could be developed and made available f o r study. A s f a r as we know, we are t h e first,

i n this book, t o present a method of c a l c u l a t i n g h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e design s t a g e , Later i n this volume, we w i l l d i s c u s s s e l f - e x c i t e d o s c i l l a t i o n s of a helicopter, g e n e r a l l y known as Itground resonance" Designers f i r s t encountered t h e phenomenon of ground resonance more than 30 years ago when one of t h e first Soviet autogiros, t h e A-6 (designed by V.A. Kuznetsov), was equipped w i t h low-pressure t i r e s which w e r e new at that t i m e . The o l e o s t r u t s were removed from this h e l i c o p t e r . An unexpected v i b r a t i o n occurred i n t h e first t a k e o f f attempt. The h e l i c o p t e r rocked from wheel t o wheel at c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g amplitude, f i n a l l y jumping upward so t h a t t h e wheels broke contact w i t h t h e ground. The takeoff ended i n failure. Since t h e tests w e r e recorded by a motion-picture camera, it was p o s s i b l e / 1 1 t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e blades had executed i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g e r v i b r a t i o n s about t h e drag hinge. These v i b r a t i o n s , which occurred i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d , produced a p e r i o d i c displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e e n t i r e l i f t i n g system r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub and t h u s e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helic o p t e r standing on t h e ground. It i s obvious that, if t h e frequency of d i s placements of t h e r o t o r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y coincides w i t h t h e frequency of m t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on pneumatic t i r e s , such v i b r a t i o n s a r e able t o i n c r e a s e . It would seem t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l aspect of t h e phenomenon i s c l e a r . The energy that f e d t h e s e i n c r e a s i n g v i b r a t i o r s w a s e i t h e r t h e energy of t h e engine t u r n i n g t h e r o t o r or, w i t h t h e engine cut out, t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e rotating rotor. However, numerous i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , which are s t i l l i n progress, were needed t o develop t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance and t o s t u d y i t s new manifestations, p o s s i b l y i n new b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r i n g configurations and s t r u c t u r e s . The f i r s t t h e o r e t i c a l work explaining t h e nature of s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e "ground resonancell t y p e was done as e a r l y as 1936 by 1.P.Bratukhin and B.Ya. Zherebtsov. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s made it p o s s i b l e t o eliminate ground resonance i n t h e world's l a r g e s t autogiro, t h e A-15 w i t h a r o t o r span of 18 m which was constructed i n 1936 from t h e design by V.A.Kuznetsov In t h e d e s i g n of t h e hub of this autogiro, s p r i n g s mounted t o t h e and M.L.Milf. b h d e - v i b r a t i o n r e s t r i c t o r around t h e drag hinge were used. The s p r i n g s were given t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e blades i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , which eliminated Itground resonancelt. There i s no doubt that, a t t h e t i m e , t h e phenomenon of ground resonance was a l s o known i n t h e Western Countries and had undergone some study t h e r e , s i n c e even t h e first s u c c e s s f u l de l a Cierva autogiros, f o r example t h e C-19, had e l a s t i c couplings (shock absorbers) connected t o t h e blades over f r i c t i o n dampers. However, many designers continued f o r some time t o produce autogiros without dampers i n t h e drag hinges. A model of such a machine was t h e A-7 a u t o g i r o It made s u c c e s s f u l f l i g h t s without dampers on developed i n 1937 by N.I.Kamov. t h e r o t o r hub. The s e c r e t of t h e success w a s t h e f a c t that this w a s t h e first t i m e a t r i c y c l e landing g e a r was used, which ensured a p r a c t i c a l l y v e r t i c a l

I 1 I l1 1 1 l III

p o s i t i o n of t h e r o t o r a x i s during engine r e w i n g before t a k e o f f and a f t e r t h e landing stop. This caused small i n i t i a l p e r t u r b a t i o n s due t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blades i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , s i n c e t h e i n i t i a l d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e blades are produced by t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y onto t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . Another important p o i n t was t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e i n t h e hinges (at t h a t tine, bronze bushings were used i n t h e hinges), which cannot be disregarded i n t h e presence of appreciable c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s ; i n this case t h e y produced suffic i e n t l y l a r g e damping. On one occasion, t h e p i l o t S.A.Korzinshchikov after one of t h e f l i g h t s f o r g o t t o push t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k immediately a f t e r landing and t h u s d i d not change t h e c r a f t from a three-point landing ( t a i l s k i d and main landing gear) t o a standard p o s i t i o n (with support on t h e f r o n t l e g ) ; ground resonance occurred a f t e r subsequent decrease i n r o t o r rpm aJing t o t h e l a r g e i n i t i a l disturbance i n blade d e f l e c t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ( t h e a x i s of 4 . " t o t h e ground), causing t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n w a s i n c l i n e d a t an angle of 1 blades t o break and t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o be damaged. Thus, t h e problem assumed c o n s t a n t l y newer a s p e c t s from one experimental model t o another. Since, a t t h a t time, no exact c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e required damping of blade v i b r a t i o n s e x i s t e d ( i n t h e presence of ground resonance v i b r a t i o n s , t h e damping of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e c r a f t by shock absorbers on t h e landing gear i s of equal / 1 2 importance), designers attempted t o s e l e c t a minimum value of t h e f r i c t i o n moment of t h e hub damper. T h i s w a s d i c t a t e d by t h e d e s i r e t o reduce v a r i a b l e bending moments s e t up i n t h e presence of a damper during forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades i n f l i g h t .

A s i s known, f r i c t i o n dampers cause v i b r a t i o n s a t t h r e s h o l d e x c i t a t i o n . If t h e e x c i t a t i o n i s small, %.e., t h e e x c i t a t o r y moment i s smaller t h a n t h e f r i c t i o n mment, no v i b r a t i o n s Will appear. However, v i b r a t i o n s may suddenly arise i n a h e l i c o p t e r which i s fail-proof w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground resonance and had a l r e a d y been i n a c t u a l s e r v i c e . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t , i n a given case, t h e i n i t i a l p e r t u r b a t i o n s may be g r e a t e r t h a n usual. This case occurred i n t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r when t a x i i n g o b l i q u e l y a c r o s s deep r u t s made by a t r u c k . I n t h i s case, a random disturbance of tilt s t r o n g l y rocked t h e c r a f t on i t s pneumatic tires, causing it t o acquire such l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e damping i n t h e hub became inadequate and ground resonance arose. The p i l o t G.A.Tinyakov remedied this i n a simple manner by t a k i n g o f f ; this stopped t h e v i b r a t i o n s s i n c e t h e e l a s t i c coupling, i.e., t h e coupEng with t h e ground, w a s broken.

This case suggested t h e need f o r making use of viscous f r i c t i o n , i.e., ins t a l l i n g hydraulic blade v i b r a t i o n dampers i n t h e hub, f o r which t h e moment of f r i c t i o n does not remain constant but i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e vibration amplitude.
However, p r a c t i c e c o n s t a n t l y required improvement and development of t h e t h e o r y i n this a r e a . One merely need r e c a l l t h e g e n e r a t i o n of ground resonance when t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s attached t o i t s moorings, w i t h t h e engine operating. Several c a s e s of ground resonance were observed a l s o when t h e wheels of t h e helicopter, i n t d i n g during takeoff o r landing, had only s l i g h t ground contact, so that t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r cane c l o s e t o t h e weight of t h e c r a f t

and t h e shock s t r u t s w i t h t h e u s u a l p r e t i g M e n i n g w e r e f u l l y extended. The diff e r e n c e between t h e weight and t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e c r a f t was absorbed only by t h e pneumatic t i r e s .

It i s obvious t h a t , i n this case, not only W i l l t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e c r a f t change but t h e r e a l s o W i l l be no damping of t h e s t r u t s . Thus, ground resonance occurred here which had never been observed i n a h e l i c o p t e r t h a t w a s not moored o r w a s not taxiing, a t very small wheel loading.
To avoid s t r u t s , which absorbing t h e t a c t with the such cases, we began using so-called two-chamber landing-gear were shock s t r u t s provided w i t h a second low-pressure chamber f o r v i b r a t i o n energy of t h e c r a f t when it made only s l i g h t ground conpneumatic tires w h i l e t h e main s t r u t s were not operative.

Problems of t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance are e s p e c i a l l y important f o r twin-rotor configurations when t h e e l a s t i c system coupling both r o t o r s , be it t h e fuselage i n t h e fore-and-aft o r t h e Wing i n t h e side-by-side configuration, has low natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies. In t h e presence of such v i b r a t i o n s , app r e c i a b l e displacements of t h e r o t o r hub may t a k e p l a c e , c r e a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of energy t r a n s f e r between blade o s c i l l a t i o n s and o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e l i f t i n g s t r u c t u r e . Vibrations of this type are p o s s i b l e not only on t h e ground but a l s o i n flight.

A similar problem arises i n designing t a i l r o t o r s w i t h drag hinges mounted t o a f l e x i b l e t a i l boom.

The development of harmonic and improved c r a f t i s p o s s i b l e only if t h e des i g n e r i s s u f f i c i e n t l y competent not only i n g e n e r a l problems of design b u t a l s o i n s p e c i a l problems having t o do w i t h t h e t h e o r y and c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n d i - & 3 , v i d u a l elements.
A modern h e l i c o p t e r contains many e s s e n t i a l highly loaded mechanical components whose r e l i a b i l i t y and s e r v i c e l i f e depend i n many r e s p e c t s on t h e performance of t h e bearing assemblies. Consequently, h e l i c o p t e r designers should be familiar w i t h t h e t h e o r y and c a l c u l a t i o n of roller bearings. This p e r t a i n s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o cases of t h e work of r o l l e r bearings i n complex combinations of e x t e r n a l loads and i n t h e presence of rocking motion of low amplitude.
For this reason, we included a chapter giving answer t o t h e o r y and c a l c u l a t i o n of bearing assembPies of hubs, c y c l i c o t h e r u n i t s . One of t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g problems described t h e t h e o r y of s p e c i a l t h r u s t r o l l e r bearings i n which, owing of t h e r o l l e r s a t a n angle t o t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , t h e cage not only v i b r a t e s along w i t h t h e movable c o l l a r i n g motion o u s l y r o t a t e s i n one d i r e c t i o n . This prevents l o c a l wear of i n c r e a s e s t h e l i f e t i m e of t h e bearing.

problems of t h e p i t c h control, and i n Chapter I V i s t o the positioning - during t h e rockbut a l s o continut h e raceways and

It should be noted t h a t t h e use of such bearings i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of r o t o r hubs r e s u l t e d i n a n appreciable i n c r e a s e i n s e r v i c e Life.

Hellcopter engineering requires a high g e n e r a l l e v e l of t h e o r e t i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c training of t h e d e s i g n engineer, s i n c e dynamic problems a r e of much

g r e a t e r importance f o r h e l i c o p t e r s ( r o t a r y wing a i r c r a f t ) t h a n f o r r e g u l a r aircraft ( p r o t o t es w i t h f i x e d wing, although l a t e l y a l s o including tilt wings and variable sweq?. T k i s i s confirmed by t h e fact t h a t t h e f e w designers who made notable c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e development of h e l i c o p t e r engineering and especiall y t h o s e who had p r a c t i c a l success, were simultaneously outstanding s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i s t s . These i n c l u d e B.N.Yurtyev, Prof. A.M.Cheremukhin, and Prof. I.P. b a t u k h i n who, i n t h e Thirties, w e r e t h e developers of t h e first Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s from t h e lEA t o t h e I l E A prototypes; Prof. Focke, t h e designer of t h e FW-61 and FA-223 h e l i c o p t e r s i n Germany; one of t h e p i o n e e r s of a v i a t i o n Louis Breguet; Prof. Doran who c r e a t e d t h e first f i e n c h h e l i c o p t e r s ; and many o t h e r s .

It should be noted t h a t t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l of t h e o r e t i c a l t r a i n i n g of des i g n e r s working for t h e foremost h e l i c o p t e r engineering firms of t h e world i s very high, as far as can be judged from t h e l i t e r a t u r e . For this reason, n e i t h e r t h e engineer-calculator nor t h e designer working i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering should have any d i f f i c u l t y i n a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e material presented below.
The authors hope t h a t this second volume w i l l f i n d r e a d e r s and be found useful.
+$
K

+$

The i n s e r t s show photographs of t h e main Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s i n series production. These are t h e first Soviet series-produced h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h p i s t o n engines M i - 1 and Mi-4, developed i n 1949 and 1952. Having been produced i n l a r g e numbers, t h e s e prototypes range now among t h e most widespread v a r i a n t s of helicopters. Other photographs show t h e Mi-6 h e l i c o p t e r w i t h two turboprop engines /uc developed i n 1957 and t h e Mi-10 h e l i c o p t e r (1962) which i s a f l y i n g crane w i t h a high landing gear,adapted f o r l i f t i n g and t r a n s p o r t i n g heavy s t o r e s r i g i d l y mounted on t h e underbelly. I n 1965, a world l i f t i n g record f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w a s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h this cargo c r a f t : 25 t o n s were l i f t e d t o a height of 2830 m. The next p i c t u r e s g i v e t h e Mi-2 and Mi-$ h e l i c o p t e r s which are a second generation of Soviet l i g h t and medium versions. The l i f t i n g systems of t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 were r e t a i n e d on these, but t h e s i n g l e p i s t o n engine w a s replaced by two turboprop engines.

1 0

CHAPTER I
ELASTIC VIBRATIONS AND BLADE STFENGTH Calculation of e l a s t i c Vibrations i s a necessary element i n t h e process of developing new blade designs. It forms an i n s e p a r a b l e p a r t of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of blade s t r e n g t h .

/ 1 5

To develop h e l i c o p t e r blades it i s necessary t o s o l v e many preserrtly quite complex t e c h n o l o g i c a l and designproblems. I n t h e i r s o l u t i o n , account must be t a k e n of t h e most d i v e r s e requirements and p r i m a r i l y of t h e requirement of high f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e . The work of designing blades u s u a l l y involves t h e following b a s i c s t e p s : S e l e c t i o n of materials f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l members, determination of optimal parameters, and design of t h e blade. S e l e c t i o n of t h e best t e c h n o l o g i c a l processes ensuring highest f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of i t s main s t r e s s e d elements, and manufacture of t h e blade. F l i g h t t e s t s w i t h a n a l y s i s of stresses set up i n f l i g h t . Dynamic tests and e v a l u a t i o n of t h e blade s e r v i c e l i f e . Performance of t h e complex of f i n a l i z i n g , including work on reduction of a c t i v e s t r e s s e s and i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e . Acceptance tests and start of series production. Analysis of o p e r a t i o n of series-produced blades under various high-load and endurance conditions and layout of f i n a l designs f o r blade s e r i e s based on t h e a n a l y t i c a l d a t a . Calculations of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s are required a t many s t a g e s of this work, but p r i m a r i l y a t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e which terminates with t h e a c t u a l blade design. I n s e l e c t i n g t h e blade parameters and i t s s t r u c t u r a l materials, one of t h e main c r i t e r i a i s t h e magnitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses s e t q~ i n f l i g h t and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s e s t r e s s e s and o t h e r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e . It i s only by c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e s e s t r e s s e s can be determined and a n estimate made of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e a t this s t a g e . To d e s i g n t h e blade w i t h i n t h e required - u s u a l l y r a t h e r s h o r t p e r i o d , t h e designer should have a v a i l a b l e modern methods and computational means t o o b t a i n a r a p i d s o l u t i o n t o any number of p o s s i b l e problems.
O f similar importance i s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n t h e f i n a l i z i n g s t a g e . A s a r u l e , i n new blade designs t h e variable stresses are excessive, confronting t h e designer w i t h t h e problem of t h e i r reduction. For this, t h e occurrence pat/ 1 6 t e r n of s t r e s s e s measured i n f l i g h t must be confirmed by c a l c u l a t i o n , followed by devising means f o r t h e i r r e d u c t i o n by varying sme of t h e parameters. To attempt a s o l u t i o n of this problem without c a l c u l a t i o n g e n e r a l l y means excessive l o s s of t i m e i n checking u n v e r i f i e d assumptions and w a s t e of considerable funds i n manufacturing a blade that might be r e j e c t e d a f t e r f l i g h t t e s t i n g .

11

I1

I 111111111llIlIII

A reduction of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i s extremely important and permits not only a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e blade but a l s o a n improvement i n m e c h a n i c a l and f l y i n g cpalities of a h e l i c o p t e r such as, f o r example, f l y i n g speed and l i f t capacity, which i n modern h e l i c o p t e r s are o f t e n l i m i t e d because of s t r e n g t h conditions.

Solution of a l l t h e s e problems would not be e x c e s s i v e l y d i f f i c u l t i f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s would s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l coincide With t h o s e observed during i n - f l i g h t stress a n a l y s i s . Unfortunately, this i s not always t h e case s i n c e c a l c u l a t i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y give r e s u l t s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r p r a c t i c e . Calculations f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies a r e most reliable. Usually, a n accuracy of t h e order of *2% i s achieved. Therefore, a l l c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e exclusion of resonance y i e l d high r e l i a b i l i t y . C a l c u l a t i o n s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses a t c r u i s i n g and maxi" f l y i n g speeds are noticea b l y l e s s r e l i a b l e . The stress values obtained i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s u s u a l l y a r e 15-25% lower t h a n stresses measured i n f l i g h t . Consequently, t h e s t r e s s analyses i n t h e s e regimes do not always s a t i s f y t h e designer. Nevertheless, t h e e r r o r can be compensated t o a c e r t a i n extent by i n t r o d u c i n g i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a c o r r e c t i o n allowing f o r a constant divergence from experiment.

A s t i l l g r e a t e r e r r o r i s p o s s i b l e i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses a t low flying speeds.

It i s obvious from t h e above that t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r a l t e r n a t i n g blade stresses require f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n . Nevertheless, p r a c t i c e has shown t h a t parameter s e l e c t i o n and blade f i n i s h i n g without even t h e s e imperfect methods i s r a t h e r i n e f f e c t i v e . Therefore, this Chapter W i l l g i v e a d e t a i l e d account of various c a l c u l a t i o n methods. I n our opinion, this W i l l give t h e reader a n i d e a of a l l f e a t u r e s of blade loading i n f l i g h t , sharing p o s s i b l e approaches f o r c a l c u l a t i o n , f o r determining and estimating t h e advantages and shortcornings of various methods and, f i n a l l y , providing engineers concerned with such problems bases f o r extension of s t u d i e s and improvements of c a l c u l a t i o n methods.
Along w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of various methods of c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s , on which main emphasis i s placed, this Chapter a l s o p r e s e n t s t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of stress analysis f o r blades and of s e r v i c e l i f e determination 1 I . ) . (Sect . With r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i c d a t a on t h e s e l e c t i o n of blade parameters, we thought it p r e f e r a b l e t o i n c l u d e this problem i n t h e S e c t i o n :!Blade Design11 forming p a r t of t h e third volume of this book. Section 1 . Problems of Calculation, Basic Assumptions, and Derivation of D i f f e r e q t i a l Equations of Blade BendinE Deformations

1 . Ultimate Pumose of Calculating E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations

The c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s i s necessary i n solving a number of problems c r e a t e d i n t h e designing and debugging of a h e l i c o p t e r . The

12

M i - 1 Helicopter.

Mi-4

Helicopter.

Mi-6 Helicopter

M i - l O Helicopter Crane

+--

Mi-$ Helicopter

1111II I

II II

most important of t h e s e i s t h e problem of determining a l t e r n a t i n g blade bending stresses. Determination of t h e s e stresses forms t h e major p a r t of t h e s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n . Therefore, t h e main problem i n this Chapter i s t o determine t h e /1-7 e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade f o r c a l c u l a t i n g i t s s t r e n g t h .

A determination of blade v i b r a t i o n s i s necessary a l s o f o r solving many o t h e r problems. Without c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s it i s impossible t o determine t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r , t h e hub, i t s c o n t r o l s , and on t h e transmission of t h e engine d r i v e . A determination of alternate loads exerted on t h e h e l i c o p t e r by t h e r o t o r blades l a r g e l y solves t h e problem of analyqing helicopter vibrations. Also of i n t e r e s t i s t h e problem of t h e e f f e c t of blade v i b r a t i o n s on t h e handling qualities of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The l i m i t a t i o n s inposed on t h e f l y i n g qualities by f l o w s e p a r a t i o n due t o t h e r o t o r blades are determined p r i m a r i l y by t h e permissible amplitude of blade v i b r a t i o n s . With a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s e amplitudes, t h e variable f o r c e s i n t h e c o n t r o l s and t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n c r e a s e . Therefore, a c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s permits t h e most a c c u r a t e estimate of t h e limits of h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes w i t h res p e c t t o f low-separation conditions.
and p r i m a r i l y t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s - afTo some extent, blade v i b r a t i o n s f e c t t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r even when f a r removed from regimes w i t h flow s e p a r a t i o n .

W e w i l l d i s c u s s t h e f i r s t of t h e above problems i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .
2. Calculation of Blade S t r e n g t h

Calculation of blade s t r e n g t h involves a determination of t h e constant and variable stresses a t a l l p o i n t s of t h e blade s t r u c t u r e , under d i f f e r e n t loading conditions. The most dangerous of t h e s e w i l l be s i n g l e d out as t y p i c a l cases calculated f o r s t r u c t u r a l strength. Usually, i n t h e development of new blades, when t h e time a l l o t e d f o r performing and processing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i s limited, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o reduce EXperience has shown t h a t it suft h e number of c a l c u l a t e d cases t o a m i n i " . f i c e s t o examine a s i n g l e case of blade loading under ground operating conditions of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and s e v e r a l cases i n f l i g h t a t d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes. The first case n e c e s s i t a t e s c a l c u l a t i n g a blade supported on t h e v e r t i c a l r e s t r i c t o r of t h e hub a f t e r f u l l o r p a r t i a l stoppage of t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . T h i s occurs when t h e r o t o r i s not r o t a t i n g or i s i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e of overspeeding o r else i s stopped a f t e r t h e f l i g h t . I n t h e absence of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s o r i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g upon hipact of t h e blade a g a i n s t t h e coning s t o p set up appreciable bending s t r e s s e s . I n t h i s case, compressive stresses are e s p e c i a l l y dangerous f o r blade s t r e n g t h . Experiments show t h a t i n d i v i d u a l blade overloads, a t which considerable compressive s t r e s s e s are s e t up, my a f f e c t t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e and hence i t s s e r v i c e l i f e . Usually, s t a t i c stresses due t o bending of t h e blade under t h e e f f e c t of i t s own weight are l i m i t e d t o values of crG = 25 - 28 k g / d f0r.a

13

I1 I I I I l1111l11lIlIII III

blade w i t h a s t e e l s p a r and of oG = 7.0 spar.

- 7.5

kg/mm2 f o r a blade w i t h a duralumin

From t h e computational viewpoint, this case p r e s e n t s no d i f f i c u l t i e s ; t h e r e f o r e , we w i l l not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s it here. Other cases p e r t a i n t o d i f f e r e n t h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes when constant and v a r i a b l e stresses from blade bending are added t o t h e permanent stresses due t o c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . T h i s combination of loads i s highly d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e blade s t r u c t u r e .

3. F l i g h t Regimes Detrimental t o t h e Fatigue S t r e n g t h

of t h e S t r u c t u r e

/18

I n - f l i g h t stress analyses have shown t h a t h e l i c o p t e r blades are s u b j e c t t o appreciable alternate loads having a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h i n two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f l i g h t regimes. The first type of f l i g h t regime i n c l u d e s low-speed modes,when t h e f l y i n g speed i s 3 8% of t h e blade t i p speed (1-1 = 0.03 - 0.08). In t h e s e regimes t h e r e i s a marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e flexural v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of t h e blades, causing a corresponding i n c r e a s e i n t h e v a r i a b l e stresses.

The h e l i c o p t e r uses t h e above range of f l y i n g speeds i n a c c e l e r a t i o n , horiz o n t a l f l i g h t at s t e a d y low speed, and i n t h e braking regime. Usually t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s arise i n t h e braking regime. Appreciable stresses may arise a l s o i n a s t e e p descent at low h o r i z o n t a l speed. With r e s p e c t t o speeds g e n e r a l l y are t r a n s p o r t missions. c i s e l y t h e s e regimes respect t o fatigue. t h e conditions of loading of t h e s t r u c t u r e , f l i g h t s a t low short-term regimes, a t least f o r h e l i c o p t e r s used f o r However, because of t h e high stresses p r e s e n t , it i s pret h a t o f t e n determine t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e blade w i t h

The second t y p e of regime d e t r i m e n t a l t o f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h has t o do w i t h high-speed modes. These comprise p r i m a r i l y f l i g h t s at c r u i s i n g and maxi speeds. A f l i g h t a t c r u i s i n g speed i s u s u a l l y t h e longest f l i g h t mode and t h u s imposes considerable f a t i g u e s t r e s s e s on t h e s t r u c t u r e .
A marked i n c r e a s e i n v a r i a b l e stresses a t low speeds can be a t t r i b u t e d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e appreciable nonunifomkty of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d created, during t h e s e regimes, i n t h e flow through t h e r o t o r . Moreover, i n a b s o l u t e magnitude, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s here reach u m values i n comparison w i t h a l l o t h e r f l i g h t modes. Therefore, t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e magnitude of stresses i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y a t low speeds. The v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d l e a d s t o v a r i a b l e aerodynamic blade loading. Urder t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e loads t h e blade executes flexural Vibrations which set up considerable v a r i a b l e stresses.

A t high f l y i n g speeds, v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads are generated mainly as a consecpence of f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e relative flow v e l o c i t y and changes i n angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade sec.tions w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. The v a r i a b l e

I"

induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i n t h e s e regimes has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e magnitudes of t h e aerodynamic load. I n s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s sometimes necessary t o allow f o r r o t o r overspeeding which might occur i n f l i g h t a t a s t e e p rise i n c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . T h i s W i l l a l s o cause a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e constant component of stresses i n t h e blade.

4..

A s s w t i o n of a Uniform Induced Velocity Field

It i s obvious from t h e above that a c a l c u l a t i o n of v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads a t low speeds i s impossible without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e variable induced velocity field.
On a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed, t h e a b s o l u t e magnitude of induced velocit i e s decreases. The e f f e c t of t h e i r nonuniformity on t h e magnitudes of aerodynamic loads a l s o diminishes. Therefore, beginning w i t h average f l y i n g speeds, when p 2 0.2, it can be approximately assumed i n c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e blade stresses that t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i s uniform, <.e., t h a t t h e induced vel o c i t i e s are constant over t h e r o t o r d i s k area. T h i s assumption l e a d s t o /19 s i g n i f i c a n t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of a l l computations and t o a marked decrease i n c a l c u l a t i o n time. For this reason, it i s widely used i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . However, t h e accuracy of t h e r e s u l t s , with c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this assumpt i o n , o f t e n i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e designer. Thus, it i s o f t e n necessary t o abandon this assumption when c a l c u l a t i n g moderate and high-speed modes.

5. A s s m t i o n s i n C a l c u l a t i w Aerod.vnamic Loads on t h e
Blade P r o f i l e

In a l l methods of c a l c u l a t i o n presented i n t h i s Chapter it i s assumed t h a t aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade p r o f i l e can be determined by making use of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r s t e a d y flow p a s t a n i n f i n i t e l y long wing i n a p l a n e - p a r a l l e l stream. An unsteady state of t h e flow i s t a k e n i n t o account only a t values of t h e p r o f i l e angles of a t t a c k at which downwash i s introduced.
Consequently, t o determine f o r c e s a c t i n g on a p r o f i l e member, it i s suffic i e n t t o determine i t s angle of a t t a c k CY and t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y U of t h e flow p a s t it. Then, knowing
CY

and M =

U (where a 8
0

a,,

i s t h e v e l o c i t y of sound), we

c a n determine from t h e p r o f i l e p o l a r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and c, and hence t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e p r o f i l e . If necessary, one can a l s o determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t m,

If, i n t h e f l i g h t mode under study, t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k does not exceed CY LJ 9 ' and i f t h e Mach number i s not higher t h a n M LJ 0.5, t h e n we can disregard i t s i n f l u e n c e and assume t h a t
c,=c;a,

IlIllllIlIll I1 I

I I I1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lIlI I I I I

where cy" i s t h e tangent of t h e angle of s l o p e f o r t h e r e l a t i o n cy = f ( a ) .

T h i s a s s q t i o n i s used i n c a l c u l a t i n g l o a d s i n f l i g h t m o d e s s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r from s e p a r a t i o n i n which, furthermore, we can d i s r e g a r d t h e c o q r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t of t h e flow

The p o s s i b i l i t y of using various assumptions i n t h e method of determining aerodynamic f o r c e s i s of g r e a t value i n s e l e c t i n g t h e method of stress a n a l y s i s t o be used i n t h e case i n question. As a consequence, it is suggested t o use d i f f e r e n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t regimes. Below, we w i l l d i f f e r e n t i a t e between three t y p e s Of regimes f o r each of which optimum r e s u l t s can be obtained by d i f f e r e n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n . These are low-, moderate-, and high-speed modes. I n t h e low-speed mode, it i s unavoidable t o t a k e account of t h e v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y field but l i n e a r aerodynamics can be used a t average blade loading. A t moderate f l y i n g speeds, t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y field need be considered only i n solving s p e c i a l problems r a i s e d by t h e n e c e s s i t y of differe n t i a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l high harmonics of t h e aerodynamic loads. It i s almost always unnecessary a t t h e s e speeds t o consider nonlinear r e l a t i o n s i n determini n g t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s . Finally, i n t h e high-speed mode which i s c l o s e t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n limit, consideration of t h e s e n o n l i n e a r i t i e s becomes mandatory, whereas t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d can be d i s r e garded i n most cases. The above considerations r e s u l t i n i n d i v i d u a l methods of c a l c u l a t i o n t i e d m i n w i t h s p e c i f i c f l i g h t regimes.

6 . Relation of Deformations due t o Bending i n Two MutuaLly P e wendicu l a r Directi o n s and Corresp onding A s s m p t ions
f o r Calculation Usually, a h e l i c o p t e r blade i s designed such t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l e l a s t i c moments of i n e r t i a of i t s s e c t i o n s d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n magnitude. Therefore, t h e blade i s considered as a bar extended by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , each p o r t i o n of which has d i f f e r e n t r i g i d i t i e s i n two mutually perpendicular d i r e c t i o n s . To c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s , l e t us lay p l a n e s through t h e axis of t h e bar along t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l axes of t h e s e c t i o n which w i l l be designated as p l a n e s of ma,ximum and minimum r i g i d i t y (Fig.l.11. Frequently, t o produce aerodynamic blade t w i s t not only t h e frame forming

i t s contour i s t w i s t e d but a l s o i t s spar. I n t h i s case, t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e p r i n c i p a l e l a s t i c axes of t h e s e c t i o n vary over t h e l e n g t h of t h e blade, changi n g it i n t o a geometrically t w i s t e d bar. I n o t h e r cases, aerodynamic t w i s t i s obtained o n l y by t u r n i n g t h e frame of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e spar.
I n f l i g h t , external f o r c e s a c t on t h e blade p r o f i l e i n widely d i f f e r i n g d i r e c t i o n s . T h i s changes t h e problem of blade bending i n t o a highly complex three-dimensional problem.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e degree of geometric twist of h e l i c o p t e r blades i s only

16

P l a n e of chord

P l a n e of minimum rigidity

P l a n e of rotation'

moderate (of t h e o r d e r of 6 1 2 ' ) and appreciably less than i s feasible i n a i r c r a f t p r o p e l l e r s o r i n compressor and t u r b i n e blades. A s shown by various estimates, t h e e f f e c t of such twist on t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i s only s l i g h t . Therefore, i n a l l t h e methods of calcul a t i o n presented here we w i l l d i s r e g a r d t h e degree of twist of t h e e l a s t i c axes of t h e blade s p a r and w i l l a s s q e that t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e of maximum and m i n i " blade r i g i d i t y i s constant over i t s length.

T h i s assumption permits p r o j e c t i n g a l l e x t e r n a l f o r c e s onto t h e s e p l a n e s and solving two e l a s t i c a l l y unrelated two-dimensional problems of blade bendi n g i n two mutually perpendicular direct i o n s . After performing t h e stress analyses f o r various p o i n t s of t h e blade s e c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s of both c a l c u l a t i o n s can be summed.

Fig.l.1 P o s i t i o n of t h e Spar a t Geometric Twist Obtained by Turning t h e Frame R e l a t i v e t o t h e Spar (cpb = const).

The blade s e c t i o n p r o f i l e permits i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e of t h e s p a r i n t h e chord plane and limits t h e chords i n a perpendicular d i r e c t i o n . Thus, t h e plane of maximum r i g i d i t y i s u s u a l l y c l o s e t o a plane passing through t h e blade chord. T h i s circumstance, as w e l l as t h e f a c t t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s i n t h e chord plane i s u s u a l l y smaller t h a n i n t h e plane perpendicular t o it, causes t h e magnitude of t h e bending s t r e s s e s t o be g r e a t e r i n t h e plane of m i n i m u m r i g i d i t y and lower i n t h e plane of maximum r i g i d i t y . A study of modern blade designs, where t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s approximately i d e n t i c a l i n omnidir e c t i o n a l bending, i n d i c a t e s t h a t bending i n t h e plane of minimum r i g i d i t y i s (21 considerably more dangerous. I n p r a c t i c e , a l l d i f f i c u l t i e s u s u a l l y have t o do w i t h t h e need of ensuring adequate bending s t r e n g t h i n this plane. Therefore, we w i l l here d i s c u s s methods of c a l c u l a t i n g blade v i b r a t i o n s only i n t h e plane of m i n i m u m r i g i d i t y . For c a l c u l a t i o n s i n this plane, we can use t h e a d d i t i o n a l assumptions t h a t t h e p l a n e of m i n i m u m r i g i d i t y coincides w i t h t h e plane going through t h e r o t o r a x i s . Below, we will designate this p l a n e as t h e f l a p p i n g plane.

7. m i de r a t i o n of Torsional Deforma3ion of a Blade

_ inCalculations

of

_Flexural Vibrations

Torsional deformations change t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s and hence t h e a e r o d y d c f o r c e s a c t i n g on them. Therefore, t h e s e deformations should be t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of aerodynamic loads and vibrat i o n s of a blade. However, t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s ent a i l s considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s and g r e a t l y complicates t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . A t t h e same time, this does by no means always l e a d t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved r e s u l t s . Therefore, t o r s i o n a l deformation should be t a k e n i a t o account only i n cases of a c t u a l need, f o r e x q l e whenever t h e f l e x u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s

1 7

I I I l lIl lIl I I I Il I1 I I I

I III

I 111111l1111l111l1l1l1 l 1 1l

a r e amplified on approach t o bending f l u t t e r ; however, this i m p l i e s an inadequate margin of s a f e t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o f l u t t e r and m u s t be considered impermissible. To allow f o r t o r s i o n a l deformations, a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of bending-torsional blade v i b r a t i o n s m u s t be solved. Its s o l u t i o n i s obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n of f l u t t e r . Such a method of c a l c u l a t i o n , known as t h e general method of c a h d a t i o n of blade f l u t t e r and bending stress, has been given i n t h e first volume of this book (Sect.7, Chapt.IV). Here, we Will d e s c r i b e only methods of c a l c u l a t i n g f r e e t o r s i o n a l (Sect .5) and bending-torsional v i b r a t i o n s (Sect . 6 ) .

8 . Two Calculation Steps i n Blade DesiKn: C a l c u l a t i o n of Natural Vibration Frequency and Calculation of S t r e s s e s
If a newly designed h e l i c o p t e r blade does not d i f f e r excessively i n geom e t r i c and mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from a n a l r e a d y manufactured and t e s t e d blade, it can be a s s e r t e d t h a t i n i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes t h e v a r i a b l e blade s t r e s s e s w i l l be approximately t h e same as i n t h e prototype blade. However, this r u l e i s v i o l a t e d when, as a consequence of some change i n i t s parameters, t h e blade i s i n resonance w i t h some harmonic of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s .

Blade-design p r a c t i c e shows t h a t s u f f i c i e n t l y reliable blades can be developed only i f none of i t s n a t u r a l frequencies coincides w i t h t h e frequencies of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and a c t u a l l y t h e s e are f a r a p a r t . This p e r t a i n s t o b h d e v i b r a t i o n s both i n t h e p l a n e of minimum r i g i d i t y and i n t h a t of maximum r i g i d i t y . Naturally, it i s obvious t h a t not a l l harmonics of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , but only those whose magnitude i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e t q~ high s t r e s s e s , a r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e s t r e n g t h of material. Usually, absence of resonance i s mandatory f o r harmonics not higher t h a n t h e 8 t h r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r rpm. Higher harmonics of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s have l i t t l e e f f e c t . Thus, i f a rough e r r o r i n s e l e c t i n g t h e blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s impermiss i b l e , v a r i a b l e stresses can be kept w i t h i n p e r m i s s i b l e limits by preventing t h e occurrence of resonance. I n this case, t h e r e i s no need t o c a l c u l a t e t h e variable stress amplitudes. Thus, t h e experimental designer can o f t e n U t himself t o t h e f i r s t s t a g e of blade c a l c u l a t i o n : determination of i t s natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies and p l o t t i n g of t h e resonance diagram.

It follows from t h e above t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of blade frequencies and n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes i s not only an auxiliary s t e p i n stress a n a l y s i s but has a n independent value as a preliminary s t e p i n blade s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n s .

9 . Idealized Blade Models Used i n Calculation

In p e r f o d n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e blade must be represented as some idealized mechanical model f o r which a l l adopted i n i t i a l a s s q t i o n s would hold, s o t h a t l a t e r - during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e r e would be no need t o use approximate mathematical operations

I-'

11111

With c a l c u l a t i o n on computers, t h e problem should be programmed such t h a t i t s s o l u t i o n becomes p o s s i b l e w i t h any prescribed accuracy a t t a i n a b l e by t h e computer A s shown by p r a c t i c a l experience, c a l c u l a t i o n m e t hods u t i l i z i n g approximate mathematical operations o f t e n l e a d t o o t h e r misconcepts. I n m a q y cases, it i s impossible t o complete t h e c a l c u l a t i o n because of some inaccuracy i n t h e comput a t i o n s . For example, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes by t h e method of successive approximations a n e n t i r e s e r i e s of i n t e g r a l s must be calculated. T h i s i s o f t e n done by t h e t r a p e z o i d a l method. A t a l i m i t e d number of i n t e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l s , this method r e s u l t s i n such a l a r g e e r r o r t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n modes of higher harmonics whose o r d i n a t e s are c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e form of small d i f f e r e n c e s of l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s , t h e method of successive approximations ceases t o converge.

This f a c t n e c e s s i t a t e s s p e c i a l c a u t i o n i n using approximate methods of c a l c u l a t i o n . Consequently, i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o introduce a s i m p l i f i e d i d e a l i z e d blade model which could be c a l c u l a t e d a t maximum permissible accuracy on t h e computer.
Three d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of mechanical models a r e known, which a r e frequently used i n c a l c u l a t i o n s .

Beam model w i t h continuously d i s t r i b u t e d Darameters. In this model, t h e blade i s represented as a beam w i t h continuously d i s t r i b u t e d r i g i d i t i e s EI, l i n e a r mass m, and parameters determining t h e magnitude of t h e l i n e a r aerodynamic load.
Such a model i s highly convenient i n d e r i v i n g i n i t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equat i o n s and i n applying known approximate s o l u t i o n methods t o them t u t i s unsuitable f o r performing numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s . Below, we w i l l f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r t o such a model i n d e r i v i n g working formulas s o t h a t , i n t h e s t a g e of numerical c a l c u l a t i o n , we can use formulas derived by analogy and p e r t a i n i n g t o a model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters. I n t h e s e formulas, a l l i n t e g r a l s of f u n c t i o n s dependi n g on t h e blade r a d i u s a r e replaced by t h e sums of d i s c r e t e q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o a series of f i x e d blade r a d i i .
__ Beam model w i t h concentrated weights. In this model, t h e blade i s represented as a system of coupled concentrated weights. The coupling between t h e s e weights i s accomplished by small weightless beams having a l o n g i t u d i n a l constant f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y e q u a l t o t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e corresponding blade elements.

I n determining t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s , it i s assumed t h a t t o each weight i s attached a s e p a r a t e s m a l l Wing whose area i s e q u a l t o t h e area of t h e corresponding blade element. Usually, i t i s assumed that t h e area i s

/23

where tl-l,l

and t l , i + l

= l e n g t h s of adjacent segments i n t o which t h e blade i s

divided i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n ;
b i = blade chord i n t h e s e c t i o n between t h e s e segments.

I I I 1 l1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I lI

T h i s model most a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of a r e a l blade. For this reason, it w i l l be used i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s i n almost a l l cases.

However, we should mention t h a t t h e beam model has t h e s e favorable propert i e s only i f t h e number of p a r t s z i s e q u a l t o 25 - 30 o r more. A s soon as this number decreases, t h e t y p e of deformations of t h e beam model begins d i f f e r i n g g r e a t l y from t h a t of t h e deformations of t h e blade. T h i s will be i l l u s t r a t e d i n more d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 10, Subsection 3. Furthermore, t h e use of t h e beam model o f t e n l e a d s t o a r a t h e r complicated system of equations and a t times even i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . In such cases, t h e simpler hinge blade model can be used. f i n g e model of blade. In this model, t h e blaue i s represented as a multihinge chain c o n s i s t i n g of a b s o l u t e l y r i g i d weightless l i n k s whose masses are concentrated i n t h e hinges. The flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s simulated by e l a s t i c members concentrated i n t h e hinges. Under t h e a c t i o n of external f o r c e s , t h e a x i s of this c h a i n t a k e s t h e form of a broken l i n e r a t h e r t h a n of a smooth l i n e as i n t h e beam-type model. T h i s f a c t , j u s t as t h e t a s k of s e l e c t i n g t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e e l a s t i c members, introduces a c e r t a i n e r r o r when changing from a blade t o a mechanical model.

A t t h e same time, t h e use of t h e hinge model l e a d s t o such g r e a t s i r q l i f i c a t i o n of t h e working formulas t h a t it o f t e n becomes p o s s i b l e t o use improved methods of c a l c u l a t i o n which were not f e a s i b l e when using t h e beam model. T h i s compensates t h e f a u l t s i n h e r e n t t o this model. It should be mentioned t h a t , on a decrease i n t h e number of segments i n t o which t h e blade i s separated i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e models begin t o d i f f e r markedly from t h e p r o p e r t i e s of a r e a l blade. However, f o r t h e hinge model t h e s e e r r o r s do not i n c r e a s e as r a p i d l y as f o r t h e beam model. A s a consequence, t h e hinge model may be more suitable i n rough methods of calculat i o n , when t h e blade i s divided i n t o a small number of segments, say of t h e order of 10 1 2 .

10. Derivation of th.e D i f f e r e n t i a l Eguation of-Blade Bending i n a C e n t r i f w a l Force Field a t Vibrations i n t h e F l a m i n g Plane

Let us r e p r e s e n t t h e blade as a beam w i t h continuously d i s t r i b u t e d parameters. For our study, l e t us i s o l a t e a n element of t h e beam of l e n g t h d r . The f o r c e s a c t i n g on this element are p l o t t e d i n Fig.l.2.

Let us t h e n c o n s t r u c t t h e equation of equilibrium of this element, l i m i t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o values of t h e f i r s t order of smallness. Then, t h e s u m of t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e f o r c e s onto t h e y-axis can be w r i t t e n as
YYdr +- clQ = 0,

(1.3)

and t h e s u m of t h e moments of a l l f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t A

20

where
W = l i n e a r external load on t h e blade ; Q = shearing f o r c e i n t h e blade section; M = bending moment; N = centrifugal force i n the blade s e c t i o n .

.L&

*om eq.(1.3) we o b t a i n
W=-Q'.

(1.5)

Here and below t h e prime denotes d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect t o t h e blade r a d i u s . Fig.l.2 Diagram of Forces Acting on a Blade Element. After d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of eq.( l4), we o b t a i n
Q' =-1M" $. [Ng'j'.

(1.6)

S e t t i n g M = EIy" and s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( 1.6) i n t o eq.( 1.5), we o b t a i n t h e known d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of bending deformations of a blade i n a c e n t r i f y g a l force field:

Let us r e p r e s e n t t h e external load W, c o n s i s t i n g of aerodynamic and i n e r t i a loads, i n t h e form

where
T m
= =

l i n e a r aerodynamic load; l i n e a r mass of t h e blade.

Here, t h e two d o t s denote d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e . After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(1.8) equation of blade v i b r a t i o n s

i n t o eq,( 1 . 7 ) , we o b t a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l

l.Y!y'1'-!.4'y'&-mlj

. . . .

. ' / I

(1.9)

I n a vacuum, when t h e aerodynamic load T i s e q u a l t o zero, eq.(1.9) will d e s c r i b e f r e e blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e field:

The s o l u t i o n of this equation o f f e r s c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s .

For this reason,

I III I

S e c t i o n 2 will first g i v e i t s s o l u t i o n f o r t h e case N = 0 p e r t a i n i n g t o a n o w r o t a t i n g blade.

ll. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Bending i n t h e Rotor Plane of R o t a t i o n

On bending of t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , owing t o c o n c e n t r i c i t y of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d , t h e blade element W i l l be s u b j e c t t o an add.5t i o n a l f o r c e which d i d not e n t e r t h e equations i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane. With cons i d e r a t i o n of this, eq.(1.8) should be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

W = Q -!- dmx-mx,
where

(1.U

Q = aerodynamic f o r c e i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ; = displacement of t h e blade elements i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(l.U.) i n t o a n equation analogous t o eq.(1.7) but /25 w r i t t e n f o r t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , we o b t a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of blade bending i n t h i s p l a n e

[ E / s " ] "- [Nx']' -w2mx nix= Q .

(1.12)

This equation d i f f e r s from eq.( 1.9) only by t h e a d d i t i o n a l term w'mx.

S e c t i o n 2. Free Vibrations of t h e Blade of a N o n r o t a t i w Rotor

1 . Method of Calculation f o r Solution of t h e I n t e g r a l Equation of Blade Vibrations

Calculation of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of t h e blade of

a nonrotating r o t o r has been e x t e n s i v e l y described i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e [see, f o r example (Ref . 1 ) ] . I n this Section, we W i l l b r i e f l y r e p e a t c e r t a i n fundamental
premises and somewhat r e f i n e t h e formulas used f o r p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s .

Let us e x e n e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of Vibrations derived f o r t h e model of a blade w i t h continuous* d i s t r i b u t e d parameters. If we s e t N = 0 i n eq.(l.lO), it Will t a k e t h e form

Setting

y =y sin pf
and s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(2.1),
we o b t a i n

(2.2)

I n our f u r t h e r computations, we W i l l omit t h e Vinculum over y.

Let us

22

i n t e g r a t e eq.( 2.3) w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n Of t h e boundary conditions of t h e blade attachment. For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t us take t h e case of a blade r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d a t t h e r o o t , w i t h t h e folloWing boundary conditions: a t r = 0 ; y = 0; y' = 0 ; a t r = R; M = 0 ; Q = 0 . By quadruple i n t e g r a t i o n , eq.( 2.3) i s transformed i n t o a n i n t e g r a l equation of t h e form
r r

y= p 2

5 (5
R R
J r r

mydr2.

0 0

Equation (2.4) i s solved by t h e conventional method of successive approximations. Prescribing a n a r b i t r a r y form Of y, normalized i n some manner, f o r examp l e

l e t us s u b s t i t u t e it i n t o t h e right-hand

s i d e of eq.(2.4).

After i n t e g r a t i o n , we o b t a i n a f u n c t i o n
r r

R R

such t h a t y = p2u. From this, using t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 5 ) , we o b t a i n

p2"u

1
R

where uR i s t h e value of u a t r

R.

W e t h e n r e p e a t t h e same operation, taking t h e new value

y = p2u.

(2.8)

After c a r r y i n g out t h e above operations several t i m e s , it W i l l be found t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n mode y and t h e frequency p converge t o d e f i n i t e values which c o n s t i t u t e t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l equations (2.4).
The method of successive a p p r o ~ m a t i o n s , applied i n t h i s manner, yields a determinable mode y converging t o t h e mode of t h e lower harmonic of t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s . To determine t h e subsequent harmonics, it i s necessary t o s a t i s f y t h e cond i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n overtones. T h i s c o n d i t i o n w i l l be discussed i n Subsection 3. I n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method presented here, it i s important t o s e l e c t a s u f f i c i e n t l y exact method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l equation (2.6). If t h e blade parameters are given i n t h e form of continuous

23

I1 l1l 1 l l I I IIIII I

1111lIlI1

f u n c t i o n s , t h e n t h e simplest method of c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l s (2.6) i s t h e t r a p e z o i d a l method g e n e r a l l y employed i n such cases. However, as a l r e a d y indicated above, i n c a l c u l a t i n g higher v i b r a t i o n overtones t h e u n c e r t a i n t y introduced by this o p e r a t i o n l e a d s t o such extensive e r r o r s t h a t t h e method becomes u s e l e s s f o r p r a c t i c a l urposes. T h i s drawback i s eliminated i f , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l s (2.67, we use t h e method obtained from a s t u d y of t h e mechanical model of a blade w i t h d i s c r e t e l y d i s t r i b u t e d parameters.

2. Calculation of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies of a Blade Model w i t h D i s c r e t e l x D i s t r i b u t e d Parameters

For t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , we w i l l use a beam-type model w i t h concentrated loads For this, l e t us d i v i d e t h e blade i n t o z segments. ( s e e Sect.1, Subsect.9). The l e n g t h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l segments can be d i f f e r e n t . The weight of t h e blade i s concentrated along t h e edges of t h e s e segments i n t h e form of i n d i v i d u a l d i s c r e t e loads w i t h mass mi. The flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s represented by a stepped curve, so that it remains constant over t h e l e n g t h of each segment (Fig J.3). J u s t as i n Subsection 1 , we w i l l first examine t h e case of a blade f i x e d a t t h e r o o t . The o p e r a t i o n defined by eq.(2.6) can be c a r r i e d out e x a c t l y here. Actually, l e t us use a n a r b i t r a r y form of displacement of t h e loads of t h e Here, t h e system of d i s c r e t e values of y l ( i = 0, 1 2, 3, z model yl being t h e s eria l number o f t h e concenkrated loads of t h e model) W i l l be designated as t h e mode of displacement. As above [see eq.(2.5)], we set yz = 1. I f t h e displacements yi are known, we can deter.nine t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of t h e loads on t h e i r v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency p = 1 . These are determined by t h e expression

...

Fi=miyi.

(2-9)

Knowing t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s , we can d e t e h n e a l l bending moments by a system of simple r e c u r s i v e formulas of t h e form

Mi= k, <+I [Fi+l-ui+lMi+l-6i+lM<+~],

( 2 . 1 0 )

where h,l+l is t h e l e n g t h of t h e blade s e c t i o n between t h e i - t h and i + l - t h c o b c e n t r a t e d mass. The c o e f f i c i e n t s ai and bl are determined by t h e formulas

La2

A c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e bending moments by eqs.(2.10) should start fron: t h e end of t h e blade, f i r s t p u t t i n g i = z - 1 and t h e n equating t h e bending moments .Mz and M,+l t o zero.

24

I 1

11111 I 1 .1 11.11111111

11111 11111

I I

After d e f i n i n g t h e bending moments, it i s easy t o determine t h e blade deformations. A s above, t h e blade d e f o m t i o n s during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency p = 1 w i l l be denoted by t h e symbol U .

Fig.l.3

Calculation Model of Blade. r e c u r s i v e formulas of

(2.W

(2.12)

Here,
(2.13)

Calculation of t h e deformation ui should begin from t h e blade root, a f t e r s e t t i n g uo = 0, i n conformity w i t h t h e boundary conditions adopted here. All q u a n t i t i e s w i t h negative s u b s c r i p t should a l s o be equated t o zero. Thus, carrying out t h e operations (2.10) and (2.11), a p p l i c a b l e t o a beam model w i t h a d i s c r e t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of parameters, l e a d s t o c a l c u l a t i o n of exact values of u i .

After determining p2 i n t h e same manner as before [see eq.(2.7)]

p2=- 1
uz

and using t h e new values

i .

Ill

1 1 1 1 1 1Ill 1 I1111

we repeat a l l operations u n t i l t h e method of successive approxjmations conJ28 verges. Usually, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s considered completed as soon as t h e d i f ference i n t h e values of y i , i n two successive approximations, i s l e s s than t h e prescribed accuracy e y

3. Condition of Orthogonality and Calculation of Successive

Natural Vibration Harmonics The above method of successive approximations permits a d e t e r m i m t i o n of t h e lower harmonic of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s . I n determining t h e higher harmonics, it i s necessary t o s a t i s f y t h e conditions of independence of t h e v i b r a t i o n s with respect t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics.

Iet us imagine that f r e e blade v i b r a t i o n s ' i n vacuum occur simultaneously The v i b r a t i o n energy f o r each of t h e with respect t o two modes and
modes can be determined s e p a r a t e l y from t h e amplitude values of t h e k i n e t i c energy'? :

dj)

dm).

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t o t a l energy of t h e system v i b r a t i n g simultaneously with respect t o two modes can be determined from t h e amplitude value of t h e t o t a l k i n e t i c energy:

The system has this k i n e t i c energy at t h a t i n s t a n t of time when t h e blade, during v i b r a t i o n , p a s s e s t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n simultaneously with respect t o t h e Owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values of t h e n a t u r a l and two modes v i b r a t i o n frequency, such a p o s i t i o n a r i s e s r e l a t i v e l y sekiom, but can be e a s i l y created a r t i f i c i a l l y by p r e s c r i b i n g t h e appropriate v i b r a t i o n phases a t t h e

hJ)

dm) .

i n i t i a l instant.
If t h e amplitudes with respect t o each of t h e component modes of v i b r a t i o n do not change i n time, then t h e i r energy, determined by eqs.(2.16), a l s o remains constant.
The t o t a l v i b r a t i o n energy should always be equal t o t h e s u m of t h e energ i e s of t h e component motions, i.e.,

45

For s i m p l i c i t y , here and belm t h e constant 1/2 i s omitted i n t h e values of t h e k i n e t i c and p o t e n t i a l energy of v i b r a t i o n s

26

A s follows from eq.(2.17),

this i s p o s s i b l e only i f

zm,
I

y p y p ) =0.

This condition i s known as t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics. A more rigorous d e r i v a t i o n of this condition will be given i n Section 2 of Chapter 11.
I n c a l c u h t i n g any j-th harmonic, a l l previous harmonics t o which t h e subs c r i p t m = 0, 1 , 2, j 1 corresponds, should a l r e a d y have been calculated.

..., -

To s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y i n determining t h e mode of t h e /29 j - t h harmonic by t h e method of successive approximations, we w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e unknown mode y $ j ) as

(2.20)
where y j m ) are p r e v i o u s l y determined natural v i b r a t i o n modes.
, The constants C

are determined from t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y (2.19)

by t h e formulas

(2.21)

The value of t h e frequency of t h e j-th harmonic i s c a l c u l a t e d from

':P
ug-

1
,,1-j-1
*

3 c,
m-0

(2.22)

Knowing p2, we can determine t h e v i b r a t i o n mode from eq.( 2 . x ) ) .

4.

F _recruencies and Modes of a Hlwed Blade

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Calculation of Natural Vibration

A l l above-presented computations p e r t a i n i n g t o a r i g i d l y f i x e d blade c a n e a s i l y be extended t o a blade w i t h hinge attachment a t t h e r o o t . For this case, t h e i n t e g r a l equation

(2.4)

t a k e s t h e following form:

27

where t h e constant C , i s determined from t h e c o n d i t i o n of equating t o zero t h e s u m of t h e moments of a l l i n e r t i a f o r c e s relative t o t h e hinge. For a model w i t h a d i s c r e t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e parameters, this c o n d i t i o n can be w r i t t e n as

It i s obvious t h a t this c o n d i t i o n satisfies t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode, which we W i l l tentatively c a l l t h e fundamental v i b r a t i o n mode. If this mode i s normalized i n conformity w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 5 ) , t h e n i t can be w r i t t e n as

Thus, i n c a l c u l a t i n g a hinged blade it must be t a k e n i n t o account t h a t t h e mode of i t s fundamental i s known beforehand and i s p r e s c r i b e d by means of eq.(2.25) and, i n c a l c u l a t i n g a l l subsequent harmonics beginning w i t h t h e first, it i s a l s o necessary t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y t o t h e fundamental (2.a). Here, we can determine t h e f u n c t i o n s ui by t h e same formulas as t h o s e given i n Subsection 2.

5. C a l c u k t i o n of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies

of a Blade as a Simply Surmorted Beam

It f r e q u e n t l y i s necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e frequency of synchronous vib r a t i o n s of t h e blade and h e l i c o p t e r fuselage. I n this case t h e r o t o r hub itself, being t h e p o i n t of attachment of t h e blade, may be displaced t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e . The c a l c u l a t i o n s of such v i b r a t i o n s are very easy t o perform when using a blade model representing a simply supported beam. Then, i n d e t e d d n g t h e synchronous v i b r a t i o n s of r o t o r and fuselage, it s u f f i c e s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e mass of t h e fuselage m, reduced t o t h e r o t o r ( s e e f i g . l . 3 ) and t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade.
Calculation of t h e blade as a simply supported beam can be performed by t h e formulas given i n Subsection 2, except t h a t a l l n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes should be a d d i t i o n a l l y orthogonalized t o t h e mode of t h e second fundamental:
y p = 1r c o l - s t ,

(2.26)

which i s equivalent t o s a t i s f y i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n of equating t o z r o t h e sum of a l l i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g during t h e v i b r a t i o n s .

T h i s method of c a l c u l a t i o n , w i t h s l i g h t refinements, can be used a l s o f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of t h e fuselage, which will be taken up i n Chapter 1 1 .

S e c t i o n 3. Approximate Method of Determining t h e Natural Blade Vibration Frequencies i n a - CGjtirifwal Force Field

1 . Use of B..G,GalerUnfs-Method

f o r Determining t h e Natural-Blade Vibration Freauencies

The method of B.G.Galerkin e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s .

i s widely used f o r solving various problems of

The i d e a of G a l e r k i n f s method and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i o n of d i f ferential equations i s r a t h e r thoroughly covered i n t h e literature [seej f o r example, t h e manual Washinostroyeniyel1 (Mechanical Engineering), Vol.1, Book 1 , Mashgiz, 19473.

Here, we will not r e p e a t conclusions t h a t can be found i n o t h e r sources b u t will i l l u s t r a t e t h e use of this method on a number of simple examples.
I n Subsection 10 of Section 1 i n this Chapter, we derived a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . On s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o it t h e q u a n t i t y y i n t h e form of eq.(2.2), t h e n this equation t a k e s t h e following form (we have omitted here t h e vinculum of y) :
[E/yf]-[Ny]-p2my
= 0.

(3.1)

Let us assume t h a t t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d do not d i f f e r from t h e corresponding modes c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e case N = 0. Then, t a k i n g i n t o account that t h e v i b r a t i o n modes yj) are known, l e t us s u b s t i t u t e some mode yj) (3.1) and, a f t e r multiplying a l l terms of t h e equation by this same m:z:oyJs, i n t e g r a t e t h e obtained expressions over t h e blade length.
The obtained equation, a f t e r c e r t a i n transformations, can be represented i n t h e form

The i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g this equation

L11

have a well-defined p h y s i c a l meaning, namely: CEI = e l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade as soon as, during flexural v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h

29

harmonic, t h e blade shows extreme d e f l e c t i o n s from t h e equilibrium positiorr:+; CN = p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade w h i l e bending i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . Here, j u s t as i n eq.(3.3), d i f f e r e n t harmorjlcs of t h e natural Vibrations can be studied. The t o t a l p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade w h i l e bending i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d according t o t h e formula of yj) can be w r i t t e n as

cz = c,,

-+CN.

(3.5)

In f l e x u r a l v i b r a t i o n s when t h e blade p a s s e s through t h e equilibrium posit i o n , t h e rate of displacement of i t s p o i n t s reach maxi values:
=p y ( j ) .

( 3 06)

I n this case, t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e blade can be determined by t h e formula

R

K,=p2

J 171 [ y ( j ) I 2 d r .
0

(3.7)

I n free v i b r a t i o n s , t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade w h i l e bending w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode yJ) i s converted i n t o k i n e t i c energy when t h e blade p a s s e s t h e equilibrium p o s i t i o n . The e q u a l i t y of t h e amplitude values of t h e p o t e n t i a l and k i n e t i c energy of t h e blade i s expressed by eq.(3.2).
From eq.(3.2), t h e freqgency of t h e j - t h harmonic of natural blade vibrat i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d can be obtained. T h i s frequency i s d e t e r mined by t h e formula

where p o j = n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e blade without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of centrifugal forces; k, = a c o e f f i c i e n t allowing f o r t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s .

Here,

36

This holds w i t h a n accuracy t o w i t h i n a constant equal t o 1 / 2 , which i s omitted i n e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 3 1(So&)., , ani (3.7).

30

I n eq.(3.lO), , ,N

i s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e blade s e c t i o n a t

u)

1. , &

Equation (3.9) f o r t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency without consideration of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s can be obtained i f t h e method of B.G.Galerkin i s applied t o eq.(2.3) i n t h e same manner. The expressions derived here f o r t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequency i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d are approximate. However, c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t , i n many cases, t h e s e expressions g i v e a n accuracy completely s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes. A more thorough e v a l u a t i o n of t h e accuracy of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l be given i n Section 4..

2. ~. Resonance_Dia-q%i& .~ of Blade Vibrations

As mentioned above, i n blade designing c a l c u l a t i o n s are required t o preclude p o s s i b l e resonances of natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies w i t h t h e harmonics of external f o r c e s , which might s e t up appreciable variable stresses. A s s t a t e d before, t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on a blade i n f l i g h t a r e of s u b s t a n t i a l magnitude, up t o harmonics not exceeding t h e 8th. Higher harmonics of aerodynamic f o r c e s are s o small i n magnitude t h a t they can be disregarded.
The frequencies of forced v i b r a t i o n s , which are a source of concern i n blade c a l c u l a t i o n s , can be determined by means of t h e formula

, 2, 3, where n = 1

..., 8.

Equation (3.8) permits c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e dependence of natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of various harmonics on t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . Equations (3.8) and (3.11), p l o t t e d j o i n t l y on one graph, are u s u a l l y . 4 and 1.5 g i v e resonance diagrams c a l l e d t h e blade resonance diagram. Figures 1 constructed f o r blades w i t h d i f f e r e n t parameters encountered i n p r a c t i c e . These diagrams are p l o t t e d i n relative values. Both t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency p and t h e r o t o r r p m refer t o a c e r t a i n operating value of t h e rpm,q,,

The resonance diagram p e r m i t s t r a c i n g , i n graphic form, t h e d i r e c t i o n toward which t h e blade parameters should be changed s o as t o eliminate resonance i n t h e e n t i r e range of operating r o t o r rpm.

3. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Parameters t o Eliminate Resonance

during V i s r a t i o n i n t h e Flapping P l a n e

A s c r u t i n y of t h e resonance diagrams, constructed f o r t h e d i v e r s e blades, shows that t h e y do not d i f f e r g r e a t l y , The e x i s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e can mostly be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e f l e m a l b l a d e r i g i d i t y . Less o f t e n and t o a lesser degree, t h e cause i s a d e v i a t i o n i n t h e blade mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s can be explained i n a simple manner. Actually, t h e designer m u s t be guided by a l a r g e number of various requirements, which l i m i t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of varyi n g t h e blade parameters and ultimately 1-d t o t h e c r e a t i o n of blades w i t h c l o s e l y adjacent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The following conditions p l a c e t h e main r e s t r i c t i o n on extensive v a r i a t i o n s i n blade parameters:

1 . The height of t h e s p a r i s l i m i t e d by t h e blade p r o f i l e and cannot be increased much, s i n c e a n i n c r e a s e i n r e l a t i v e p r o f i l e t h i c k n e s s will automaticall y d e t e r i o r a t e t h e L/D r a t i o of t h e r o t o r . T h i s p l a c e s an upper limit on t h e magnitude of flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade. L22
2. The bending d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade under i t s own weight should not be excessive, s i n c e it w i l l lead t o d i f f i c u l t i e s i n laying out t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Bending stresses i n t h e spar, set up by dead weight, should not exceed known magnitudes which are s e l e c t e d from s t r e n g t h conditions w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p o s s i b l e dynamic overloadThese considerations ings limit t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of reduction i n blade r i g i d i t y .

Resonance Diagrams of Various Types Fig.l.4 of Blades i n t h e Flapping Plane.

3. The weight of t h e blade i s confined w i t h i n even c l o s e r limits. The endeavor t o i n c r e a s e t h e weight f a c t o r of a h e l i c o p t e r f o r c e s t h e d e s i g n e r t o reduce t h e blade weight t o a migimum. However, this l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n v a r i a b l e stresses due t o bending, a c t i n g i n t h e blade during f l i g h t and hence leading t o a decrease i n i t s s e r v i c e Life. Therefore, t h e blade weight u s u a l l y i s decreased u n t i l t h e s p a r starts being s u b j e c t t o i n c r e a s i n g variable stresses. A s a r e s u l t , blade weight i s s t r i c t l y dependent on r o t o r

32

s i z e and on t h e s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e material from which t h e r o t o r spar i s fabricated.

As a consequence, t h e resonance diagrams of d i f f e r e n t blades vary i n p r a c t i c e w i t h i n limits that are bounded on one hand by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a highly r i g i d blade and on t h e o t h e r by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of. a n adequate s e r v i c e life of low-rigidity blades.
For a given t o t a l s t r u c t u r a l weight, a blade of " a 1 r i g i d i t y i s ob& t a i n e d i f t h e spar material i s arranged along t h e contour of t h e p r o f i l e , i.e., i f t h e spar i s i n s c r i b e d i n t h e blade p r o f i l e . I n this case a l a r g e percentage of t h e blade weight can be p u t i n t o i t s power member, t h e spar. Such blades u s u a l l y are most advantageous from t h e aspect of magnitude of e f f e c t i v e stresses, b u t t h e y are d i f f i c u l t t o manufacture. Blades w i t h a free form of t h e spar c r o s s s e c t i o n ( f o r exanple, of t u b u l a r shape) which are not i n s c r i b e d i n t h e blade p r o f i l e are simpler t o manufacture. However, such blades have l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e t o bending and provide t h e least f a v o r a b l e resonance diagram during v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane.
The following blade t y p e s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d w i t h respect t o dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane: Blades-of- low r i a i d i t s i n t h e flaming plane. Such blades are u s u a l l y emp l o y e d i n a s t r u c t u r e made of t u b u l a r s t e e l s p a r s , w i t h a frame not s u b j e c t t o bending. In Fig.l.4 t h e broken l i n e shows t h e resonance diagrams f o r a blade whose r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane i s a t t h e lower E m i t of r i g i d i t y encountered i n p r a c t i c e . With such parameters, t h e blade e n t e r s i n t o resonance of t h e second tone w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic and of t h e t h i r d tone w i t h t h e s i x t h harmonic of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s , which i s t h e reason f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of appreciable These resonances are s t r e s s e s of t h e same frequencies ( s e e a l s o Fig.1.66). e s p e c i a l l y manifest a t low speeds where t h e s t r e s s e s of a blade of this type are Therefore t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e , as even higher t h a n a t maximum speed (Fig.l.64). a r u l e , i s l i m i t e d by t h e l e n g t h of t h e i r s t a y i n low-speed modes. Blades of low r i g i d i t y are u s u a l l y unfavorable w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t r e n g t h and s e r v i c e l i f e b u t are o f t e n used s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e e a s i e s t t o manufacture. Blades of moderate r i a i d i t s i n t h e flaming plane. With a n i n c r e a s e i n r i g i d i t y , t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade move away from t h e s e resonances. T h i s permits t h e designing of r a t h e r s u c c e s s f u l blades. I n Fig.l.4 t h e resonance diagram of this blade i s shown as a s o l i d l i n e . A s follows from t h e diagram, t h e second t o n e of v i b r a t i o n s of such a blade has s t i l l not approached t h e f i f t h harmonic, w h i l e t h e t h i r d t o n e w a s somewhere between t h e seventh and e i g h t h harmonics. Designwise, t h e s e are u s u a l l y blades w i t h a cont o u r ( o r c l o s e t o this shape) spar i n s c r i b e d i n t h e p r o f i l e . The s p a r can be e i t h e r s t e e l o r duralumin.

It i s impossible t o o b t a i n a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n r i g i d i t y without i n c r e a s i n g t h e blade weight. Moreover, even a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n r i g i d i t y may l e a d t o resonance of t h e second t o n e w i t h t h e f i f t h harmonic of t h e external f o r c e s . Therefore, only heavy blades of g r e a t l y increased r i g i d i t y can be t h e next poss i b l e type i n t h e sequence of i n c r e a s i n g r i g i d i t y .

33

IIIIII I1 I1 I 1

Heaw blades of high r i a i d i t s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane. I n i n c r e a s i n g t h e weight of a given blade, p u t t i n g this weight i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e spar, t h e r i g i d i t y can be increased s o much that t h e frequency of t h e second tone w i l l be above t h e f i f t h harmonic. In this case, t h e resoriance diagram shown i n Fig.l.4 by t h e dot-dash l i n e is p o s s i b l e . Lower variable stresses w i l l a c t i n t h e spar of a blade w i t h this resonance diagram, but t h e blades w i l l be somewhat heavier i n comparison w i t h blades of moderate r i g i d i t y . However, f o r small h e l i c o p t e r s i n which t h e r e l a t i v e r o t o r weight i s low, such a n i n c r e a s e i n blade weight i s feasible

It should be noted t h a t , i n evaluating t h e dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of various blades i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e first tone of blade vibrat i o n has been completely disregarded. Usually t h e first tone l i e s between.the second and t h i r d harmonics and i t s l o c a t i o n can be changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y only & i n s t r u c t u r e s d i f f e r i n g by some s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s , f o r example, j e t r o t o r s w i t h engines on t h e blade t i p o r r o t o r s w i t h nonhinged blades. The n e g l i g i b l e d i s placement i n n a t u r a l frequency of t h e first t o n e observed f o r ordinary r o t o r s g e n e r a l l y does not g r e a t l y a f f e c t t h e magnitudes of t h e e f f e c t i v e variable stresses.

4 . . Selection

of B~kde. Par.a!neters_ to-El&n$+&ei n t h e Plane. o f . Rotati-on

=Reso.w.nces ..

In designing a blade, absence of resonance must be ensured a l s o i n t h e plane of maximum blade r i g i d i t y , which can be approximately considered t o coinc i d e w i t h t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . The p l a n e of maximum blade r i g i d i t y u s u a l l y coincides w i t h t h e plane of t h e chord. Therefore, t h e r i g i d i t y chara c t e r i s t i c s of a blade i n this plane may vary i n wider limits t h a n i n t h e f l a p ping plane. Beginning w i t h a c i r c u l a r tube, t h e cross s e c t i o n of t h e s p a r can i n c r e a s e t o a s i z e occupying p r a c t i c a l l y t h e e n t i r e p r o f i l e from t h e leading t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge. However, t h e r e are c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s a l s o i n this plane. Thus, a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e width of t h e s p a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e chord i s c e r t a i n t o lead t o a shift i n blade centering toward t h e t r a i l i n g edge, which i s u s u a l l y impermissible from t h e viewpoint of requirements f o r t h e prevention of f l u t t e r . Furthermore, a n i n c r e a s e i n width of t h e s p a r may be accompanied by a n i n c r e a s e i n variable stresses. A decrease i n r i g i d i t y of t h e s p a r by reduction of i t s width automatically leads t o a decrease i n t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade. T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s one of t h e f a c t o r s preventing t h e c r e a t i o n of blades of low r i g i d i t y i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . I n evaluating t h e resonance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n it i s mainly necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e first and sometimes a l s o t h e second harmonic of blade v i b r a t i o n . The e x c i t a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s by higher harmonics i s not as l i k e l y . Blades can be subdivided i n t o t h e following types, based on t h e i r dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e p l a n e of maximum r i g i d i t y : Blades of m i n i , r i g i d i t s i n t h e p-lane. of r o t a t i o n . T h i s type of blade u s u a l l y includes t h o s e w i t h a tubular spar and a frame not s u b j e c t t o bending. The natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t M s t y p e of blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n

34

are approximately t h e same as i n t h e t h r u s t plane or even somewhat lower, due t o t h e f a c t that t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k j [see eq.(3.8)] i n t h e p l a n e i n question i s somewhat lower ( t h i s w i l l be t a k e n up i n Sect . 4 , Subsect .4). The first harmonic v i b r a t i o n s i n this case i s g e n e r a l l y somewhat higher t h a n t h e second harmonic of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s s o that m s e r i o u s t r o u b l e i s c r e a t e d by this resonance. The s i t u a t i o n becomes worse f o r t h e second harmonic. T h i s might e n t e r i n t o resonance w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic of external f o r c e s . Generally, this l e a d s t o a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n stresses of this p a r t i c u l a r frequency i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . In Fig.l.5 t h e dashed l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e resonance diagram f o r a blade whose r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n l i e s a t t h e lower l i m i t of r i g i d i t y encountered i n p r a c t i c e . T h i s blade i s c l o s e t o resonance of t h e second harmonic w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic of external f o r c e s .
Blades of lo? r-i-gidLt.y-int h e p-l+ne of r o t a t i o n . If t h e r i g i d i t y of a blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n i s somewhat increased, s o t h a t i t s f i r s t tone remains between t h e second and t h i r d harmonics and t h e second tone g e t s out of resonance w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic., t h e n t h e blade w i l l be adequate w i t h respect t o s t r e s s e s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . It should be noted t h a t , w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n r i g i d i t y , resonance of t h e second tone w i t h t h e f i f t h harmonic t o t h e r o t o r , & rpm must be prevented. PI" P r a c t i c e has shown t h a t , a t this resonance, t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n inc r e a s e r a t h e r strongly, which might even a f f e c t t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e . The resonance diagram of blades of low r i g i d i t y i n t h e plane of rot a t i o n , for which t h e second t o n e i s between t h e f i f t h and s i x t h harmonics, i s shown i n Fig.l.5 by s o l i d lines.
~~

0 . 2

0.4

0 . 6

0.8

1.0

n/nq

Fig.l.5

Resonance Diagrams of Various Types of Blades i n t h e Plane of Rotation.

Blades of low r i g i d i t y i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n are widely used i n p r a c t i c e , and as a r u l e , cause no t r o u b l e s associated with vibrations i n this plane. However, t h e i r rigidity characteristics i n t h e p l a n e of f l a p p i n g are often close t o those f o r blades of law r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, which are d i s t i n g u i s h e d by high stresses a t low f l y i n g speeds. On i n c r e a s i n g t h e blade r i g i d i t y i n t h e flapp i n g plane, t h e r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n o f t e n i s simultaneously increased.

35

This makes it necessary t o use blades of even g r e a t e r r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i on. Blades of moderate and high r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . Blades of moderate r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n u s u a l l y i n c l u d e t h o s e whose fundamental l i e s between t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h harmonics of external forces, w h i l e t h e second t o n e i s l o c a t e d i n a frequency range w i t h such weak e x c i t a t i o n s that it can be disregarded. I n Fig.l.5, t h e frequency of t h e fundamental of t h e s e blades is shown by a double l i n e . Blades of high r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i n c l u d e those whose frequency i n t h e fundamental l i e s above t h e f o u r t h harmonic of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s (dot-dash l i n e i n Fig.l.5).

L X z

Blades of moderate and high r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n can be fabricated w i t h moderate stresses. However, i n t h e p r a c t i c a l use of such blades diff i c u l t i e s o f t e n arise, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a decrease i n blade frequency as a consequence of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment p o i n t t o t h e fuselage. T h i s must d e f i n i t e l y be t a k e n i n t o account i n designing blades of t h i s type. Section

4. Calculation

of Natural Blade V i b r a t i o n Modes and Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f w a l . Force- _Field

1 . P m o s e and Problems. of C a l c u l a t i o n
A s mentioned i n S e c t i o n 1 , Subsection 8, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of t h e blade must be determined i n s o l v i n g two types of t e c h n i c a l problems that impose d i f f e r e n t demands on t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n .
The first t y p e i n c l u d e s problems i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i m of modes and frequencies i s c a r r i e d out t o s e l e c t blade parameters that w i l l prevent t h e appearance of resonance. I n t h i s case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s cumpleted by c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e resonance diagrams, and t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes p l a y only t h e r o l e of intermediate r e s u l t s and are not used later. Therefore, i n c u r r e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s of this type, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of a given blade i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i s assumed t o coincide w i t h t h e mode of a nonrotating blade. The e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i s t a k e n i n t o account only i n t h e values of frequencies computed from energy r e l a t i o n s h i p s determined by eq.(3.8). Such a r a t h e r s h p l e method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s f u l l y adequate f o r t h e purposes involved. The second t y p e i n c l u d e s problems i n which t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies are used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g forced v i b r a t i o n s , w i t h a determination of variable s t r e s s e s set uy, i n t h e blade s t r u c t u r e . To o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s here, it i s important t o allow f o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t introduce t e n s i l e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode.

It will be shown i n this Section t h a t c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y change t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e blade. The e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i s e s p e c i a l l y manifest i n t h e form of curvature d i s t r i b u t i o n of a n e l a s t i c l i n e over t h e blade l e n g t h and, t o a lesser extent, i n t h e mode of displacement of i t s elements. A change i n t h e form of curvature d i s t r i b u t i o n n a t u r a l l y l e a d s

36

t o a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending s t r e s s e s over t h e blade. The e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l forces on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s over t h e blade length i s f e l t most a t s i t e s of a marked drop i n f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y and a t sites of concentrated loadings.

It should be noted that, i n determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes with consideration of c e n t r i f u g a l forces, c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e encountered that must be examined i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .
2. Emits of A p p l i c a b i l i t y of _CalculationMethods Reducing & & i o n of t h e Intenral-Equation of Blade Vibrations

To c a l c u l a t e t h e f r e e v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d ,

i t i s convenient t o use t h e same method as f o r t h e blades of a nonrotating r o t o r .

However, the method of successive approldmations ( s e e Sect .2), which involves solVing t h e i n t e g r a l equation (2.1), cannot be applied i n a l l cases t o t h e solt i o n of eq.(3.1) describing natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e & field.

It was shown i n Section 2, Subsection 1 that, with a fourfold i n t e g r a t i o n of eq.(2.1), t h e problem reduces t o solving t h e i n t e g r a l equation (2.4). This equation can be w r i t t e n i n a somewhat differerrt form

where M i n e r t =

JJ
rr

RR

mydr2 i s t h e bending moment due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g upon

. blade v i b r a t i o n s with a frequency p = 1

In t h e same manner, on i n t e g r a t i n g e ~ ~ ( 3 . 1 th ) e problem reduces t o solving an equation of t h e f o l l a J i n g form:

where M C a f i s t h e bending moment due t o c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a t an angular v e l o c i t y : of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r w = 1

M, . . = myrdr
r

s
R

- y s mrdr;
P
r

y=-.

02

P2

The method of successive a p p r o a t i o n s applied t o eq.(k.l) y i e l d s s a t i s f a c t o r y convergence i n a l l cases of r o t o r c a l c u l a t i o n but, applied t o eq.(4.3), it w i l l converge o n l y i n a c e r t a i n range of values of t h e parameter y .

37

I 1111I I lIl

Figure 1.6 gives t h e resonance diagram f o r a conventional h e l i c o p t e r 'Dlade--w i t h hinged attachment t o t h e hub. I n this graph, t h e r o t o r r p m i s l a i d off on t h e a b s c i s s a and t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies on t h e o r d i n a t e . The values f o r t h e natural frequencies, obtained by solving eq.(4.3) w i t h t h e method of successive approximations, are shown i n Fig.l.6 by d o t s . Opposite each dot, we entered t h e corresponding value of t h e parameter y and t h e number of approximations s necessary f o r achieving t h e required accuracy of 0.001. The graph i n d i c a t e s that, at d e r t a i n values of y, t h e value of s begins t o i n c r e a s e r a p i d l y and t h e method of successive approximations ceases t o converge.

--

Fig.l.6 Resonance Diagram of Helicopter Blade i n t h e Thrust Plane, Constructed by t h e Method of Successive Approximations.

If follows from F'ig.l.6 that, i n t h e o p e r a t i n g r p m range f o r h e l i c o p t e r blades, this method permits a determination of natural frequencies of t h e t h i r d and higher harmonics but only i f a l l harmonics of t h e v i b r a t i o n s are determined f o r a constant value of t h e parameter y, which only approximately corresponds t o conditions of t h e formulated p h y s i c a l problem. If, i n t h e process of successive approximations, t h e parameter y 53 r e f i n e d f o r a given value of angular v e l o c i t y w, t h e n t h e method w i l l converge only i n a n rpm range appreciably smaller t h a n t h e operating rpm.

38

T h i s requires t h e use of o t h e r methods t h a t a f f o r d a more reliable r e s u l t i n t h e e n t i r e rpm range of t h e r o t o r .

3 . Possible Methods of Calculating Fr-e. Blade Vibrations i n a Cegtrifmal Force F i e l d

. .

Various methods can be used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequenc i e s and modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . Of Soviet work, published on this s u b j e c t matter, we should mention three a p e r s (Ref.4, 8, 1 0 ) . Papers w e r e a l s o published i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s (Ref .33, 347. I n these, a r a t h e r cumbersome method i s presented which, moreover, does n o t y i e l d a high accuracy of t h e f i n a l r e s u l t s des i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n should be c a r r i e d out t o not l e s s t h a n t h e 10 h t o 1 2 t h s i g n i f i c a n t figure.

Here, we will p r e s e n t a method which, i n our opinion, i s t h e most convenient f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . The process i s based.on t h e three-moment method used by T.Morris and W.Tye (Ref.32) i n c a l c u l a t i n g bending s t r e s s e s i n a blade extended by cent r i f u g a l f o r c e s . The Morris and Tye method i s a l s o presented elsewhere (Ref. 12)

The three-moment method,applied t o c a l c u l a t i o n of a blade extended by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , has a number of s i g n i f i c a n t advantages, t h e main one being t h a t i t does not r e q u i r e a high accuracy i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n process. The calcul a t i o n s can even be c a r r i e d out w i t h a n ordinary s l i d e r u l e . The three-moment method has long been i n use f o r c a l c u l a t i n g n a t u r a l frequencies, and has been programmed on t h e e l e c t r o n i c computers IlStrela11 and Calculation of t h e first e i g h t harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n s t a k e s o n l y M-20. about 3 minutes on t h e IlStrelaIt computer. A l a r g e number of t h e 1Qrz most d i v e r s e c a l c u l a t i o n s have been performed. The re,sults indic a t e t h e extreme convenience and g r e a t r e l i a b i l i t y of this method.

It should be noted t h a t , when using a computer program f o r such a c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e r e i s no need or any s i m p l i f i e d methods of calculat i o n , f o r example, t h o s e mentioned i n Section 3 .
0 -

Yo

Yo

4.

Fig.l.7

Polygon of Forces Acting on Two Adjacent. Blade Elements.

Three-Moment Method f o r Calcul a k i n g Natural Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force F i e l d

To d e r i v e t h e computational formulas, we used t h e blade beam m o d e l w i t h concentrated loads, discussed

39

IIIIIII

a l r e a d y i n Section 2, Subsection 2 . As before, we p r e s e n t t h e flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade as a stepped curve, s o that it remains constant over t h e length of each segment (see Fcig.l.3). We will assume t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e t o be applied only t o t h e loads. Therefore, this value W i l l be constant over t h e length of each segment. We w i l l a l s o assume t h a t t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s absorbed by a s p e c i a l attachment of zero weight, free t o move v e r t i c a l l y .

It i s obvious t h a t such an i d e a l i z e d c a l c u l a t i o n scheme w i l l be reliable i f t h e number of segments z i s taken as s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e . Usually t h e blade i s divided i n t o no less t h a n 25 - 30 segments (elements)
The method proposed later c o n s i s t s i n determining t h e natural o s c i l l a t i o n modes and f r e q e n c i e s of such an i d e a l i z e d scheme, without a d d i t i o n a l assumptions.

Let us examine.two adjacent blade segments, d e f l e c t e d under t h e e f f e c t of As usual, we i n e r t i a f o r c e s from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r (Fig.l.7). w i l l examine only small d e f l e c t i o n s .
The equation of equilibrium of each of t h e segments under t h e e f f e c t of f o r c e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e given segment can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form of zero-equality of t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l t h e s e f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o some p o i n t . In this case, we must include i n t h e sum of t h e moments of t h e s e f o r c e s t h e shearing f o r c e Q and t h e bending moment M a c t i n g i n t h e cross s e c t i o n . Then, t h e sum of t h e moments of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade segment 0 r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t 0 can be written a s

&

MI-Mo--No~ (~i-yo)

Qoilol=O.

(4.6)

The sum of t h e moments of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e segments 1 t h e p o i n t 1 reads

- 2 relative

to (4.7)

Mz-MI-N~z
Here,

(~2-yi) + Q 1 2 l i 2 = 0 .

After dividing e q ~ ~ ( 4 . 6and ) (k.7), r e s p e c t i v e l y , by t o l N o , adding them, we o b t a i n t h e f o l l d n g equation of equilibrium:

and t12N12 and

I n t h e same manner as eq.(4.8), f o r a l l o t h e r blade segments.

we can write t h e equations of equilibrium

Esra"g, as usual, o n l y small displacements of t h e blade elements, we first determine t h e deformations of t h e segment 1 2. The equation of deformat i o n s of t h e element 1 2 can be w r i t t e n , as conventional [see eq.(3.1)1,

The i n e r t i a term is absent here, s i n c e i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r e applied only at . const and t h e boundaries of t h e segment. Taldng i n t o consideration that E1 = N = const over t h e l e n g t h of t h e segment and a l s o that EIy" = M, we o b t a i n

where

The s o l u t i o n of eq.(4.9) i n t h e following manner:

can be w r i t t e n i n terms of hyperbolic functions,

The c o e f f i c i e n t s A and B are found from t h e f o l h w i n g boundary conditions: f o r x = 0 Mx = Ml; f o r x = t,,M, = M,. From this, it follows that

A = M2 * L M.
sinha1
tanha,

'

B=M,,
where
cy,

= p1 I,,

.
we o b t a i n

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o eq.(k.lo),

y = y ,

Twice i n t e g r a t i n g eq.(k.ll), assuming y' .= a t x = tl,, we o b t a i n e i t h e r

PI,

y = y, at x = 0 and y'

= $ ,

or

The equation of deformations f o r t h e segment 0

1 can be w r i t t e n by analogy

41

.-

w i t h t h e second equation of t h e system (4.12):

After changing a l l s i g n s i n e ~ ~ ( 4 . 1 3 to ) t h e opposite and adding t o t h e first equation of t h e system (4.12), we o b t a i n

b~Yo+alYl blY~.zdoMo+ciM1 +diM2.

(4.14)

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e left-hand s i d e of eq.(k.&) f o r t h e bending moments i n t o t h e equation of equilibrium of t h e elements [eq.(4.8)], we o b t a i n t h e following e quation:

Repeating t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r o t h e r segments of t h e blade, we o b t a i n a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e unknown f u n c t i o n s of t i m e yi and Mi, which i s w r i t t e n out below.

T h i s system, expressed i n t h e form of tables, c o n s i s t s of two systems of equations (4.16) and (4.17), e a c h of which comprises z + 1 equations.

AnJr of t h e equations occupying one row i n Table 1 . 1 r e p r e s e n t s a polynomial whose c o e f f i c i e n t s are e n t e r e d i n t h e squar'es. All terms of t h e polynomial rep r e s e n t t h e products of some c o e f f i c i e n t determined by eqs.(&.l8), (4.21), (4.23) and (koa) (4.27) as w e l l as t h e unknown functions M i and yl o r t h e second d e r i v a t i v e of yi w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e .

Only t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are errtered i n t h e squares of Table 1 . 1 w h i l e t h e f u n c t i o n s themselves, simultaneously e n t e r i n g s e v e r a l equat i o n s , a r e given i n a s e p a r a t e row above t h e tables. The described system of equations a l s o i n c l u d e s equations of t h e type of eq.(&.U), p e r t a i n i n g only t o t h e r o o t and t i p segments of t h e blade and COThese equations are needed f o r c a l c u l a t t a i n i n g t h e boundary values Bo and $, i n g t h e boundary value problems.
O

The obtained system of equations has t h e f o l k n c h g form:

Table 1 .1

42

The following notations were adopted i n constructing t h e above equations:

a,=O.

e, =0. c, =e,;
Cl =e*-1

J
f e,;

c, =e,,,

(4.23)

43

I llllIlIllll I I I I 11l1l1l1111l1l1l1l1l11ll1I I I I

h, =do

-m,;

hi=di -mi; h,=O.

g o =co -no;
g,=c, -n1; g, =c, -n,.

(4.W

I
1

I n eqs.(4.26)

and (4.27),

a s s of t h e i - t h load given below, mi i s t h e m

Here, t h e s u b s c r i p t k denotes t h e number of t h e row i n Table 1 . 1 . To solve t h e system of equations i n Table 1 . 1 , it i s convenient t o use t h e method of successive approximations. With r e s p e c t t o this system of equations, this involves t h e following: The functions of time yi (t), M i(t), and pi ( t ) e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e systems (4.16) and (4.17) are represented in t h e following form:

Y l ( 4 =iii sin p t ; M,(t)=M,sinpt;

Pr (4=PI sin p t ,
where t h e l e t t e r s yi Mi, and pi now denote only amplitude values of t h e s e functions. Then, bearing i n m i n d that yi ( t ) = -p2yi s i n p t and canceling f o r s i n p t , we o b t a i n a system of a l g e b r a i c equations analogous t o t h e system (4.16) and O n l y t h e values of p2 w i l l appear on t h e right-hand s i d e s of t h e system (4.17). of equations analogous t o eq.(4.16). Let us begin t h e method of successive approximations a f t e r assigning some , / & as t h e zeroth approximation. The second s u b s c r i p t here denotes t h e f u n c t i o n yl nqnber of t%e approximation. The f u n c t i o n ylo t a k e n as t h e zeroth approximation should somehow be normed, f o r example

4-4

tJz=

1.

If t h e f u n c t i o n yi i s known, then t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s e n t e r i n g t h e righthand s i d z of eqs.(4.16) can be determined w i t h an accuracy t o w i t h i n a constant factor p

For t h e t i m e being, we Will assume p = 1 . Then, eqs.(4.16) Will y i e l d t h e values of t h e bending moments Mi and t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade a t t h e r o o t Bo. N e x t , from t h e known values of M i and Bo we can determine, over eqs.(&.l7), t h e displacements of t h e blade axis during deformation which, f o r t h e case p = 1 , we Will denote by ui such that
yi=p2U<.

(4.29)

After determining t h e displacements ut. we can d e f i n e t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency p. Its value i s obtained on t h e basis of eqs.(4.2?) and (4.29) i n t h e following manner :

Then, i n conformity w i t h eq.(4.29) first a p p r o ~ m a t i o n )f u n c t i o n

we determine t h e r e f i n e d ( a f t e r t h e

The e n t i r e process i s repeateu u n t i l t h e required accuracy i s achieved.

T h i s method of successive approximations results i n t h e determined mode yi being reduced t o t h e mode of t h e lower harmonic of t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s .

In determining successive harmonics, t h e c o n d i t i o n of orthogonality must be s a t i s f i e d . The operations required when obeying t h e condition of o r t h o g o n a l i t y are t h e same as f o r a blade of a nonrotating r o t o r (se.e Subsect.3 of Sect.2).
The above equations are e q u a l l y suitable f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l d b r a t i o n frequencies i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e and i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . When c a l c u l a t i n g i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , t h e above values of t h e frequencies should be corrected by t h e formula

w2,

where w i s t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . The method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes remains t h e same, irr e s p e c t i v e of t h e p l a n e i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed.

L e t us make a more d e t a i l e d study of c e r t a i n operations i n performing one approximation

45

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I l1 1 1I l

5. Determination of Bending Moments on t h e Basis of

Known Forces

kt us begin w i t h a determination of t h e bending moments on t h e basis of known i n e r t i a f o r c e s e n t e r i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.(4.16), which we d e t e r mine i n each approximation, assigning a t f i r s t t h e value p2 = 1 .
After p r e s c r i b i n g some v i b r a t i o n mode yi , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of eqs.(l+..l6) can be determined which will be denoted here by Fk

The c o e f f i c i e n t s Fk can be determined from t h e formulas

L &
(4.33)

o r , s t i l l better, from

where

Q3r-l,k

=?miyi.
1. 2

7 .

Then, t h e system of equations (4.16) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o l l a J i n g form ( Table 1.2) :

To s o l v e this system, we must know two a d d i t i o n a l equations which t a k e t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n i n t o consideration. These equations can be t h e following: a t r i g i d attachment of t h e blade r o o t

Po=();

a t r i g i d attachment of t h e blade t i p
pz=0.

A t hinged attachment of t h e blade t i p s o r w i t h completely free t i p s , wehave Mo = 0 and M, = 0.

Below, we will d i s c u s s only t h e two most common cases where t h e blade t i p i s free (M, = 0) w h i l e t h e r o o t e i t h e r has a hinged support (M, = 0) o r a r i g i d attachment (po = 0 )

L e t us examine t h e first case i n which t h e blade i s hinged, i.e., Mo = 0. Here, t o determine t h e bending moments we use o n l y t h e equations encased by a s o l i d l i n e i n t h e system (4.35); from t h e f i r s t equation we can t h e n determine t h e value of t h e angle of blade r o t a t i o n i n t h e hinge Bo. From t h e l a s t equaHowever, we t i o n of t h e system (4.35) we could a l s o determine t h e value of B, do not need this value f o r f u r t h e r s o l u t i o n . The equation i t s e l f i s used only i f pz = 0, a case r a r e l y encountered i n p r a c t i c e .

I n solving t h e system (4.35), it may e a s i l y happen t h a t t h e wrong p a t h i s s e l e c t e d , leading t o t h e appearance, during s o l u t i o n , of s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s of l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s , which might completely r u i n t h e r e s u l t even when using a comp u t e r providing an accuracy t o 10 decimal p l a c e s .
We propose here a r e p e a t e d l y verifzed procedure, which permits performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on a n ordinary s l i d e r u l e . We d i v i d e t h e first equation of t h e system (4.35), w r i t t e n f o r a hinged blade, by g l and t h e second equation by hl:

, &

Subtracting eq.(4.36)

from eq.(4.37)

and introducing t h e following notations:

we o b t a i n a n equation analogous t o eq.(4.36):

I n combination w i t h t h e next equation of t h e system (4.35), this equation Repeating forms a system of two equations analogous t o eqs.(4.36) and (4.37). t h e described operations a c e r t a i n n m b e r of t i m e s , we u l t i m a t e l y o b t a i n one equation of t h e following form: (4.39)

47

1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I Il

After determining t h e moment M,,1, we determine t h e moment M,-a, and s o on up t o t h e moment MI. I n o t h e r words, t h e moment M, i s determined each t i m e i s a l r e a d y determined. The formula f o r determining t h e when t h e moment moment M i can be w r i t t e n on t h e basis of eqs.(&.36) and (4.3e) i n t h e following manner :

After obtaining t h e bending moments, t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e r o o t hinge Bo i s determined by means of t h e formula

The second s t e p i n t h e method of successive approximations involves d e t e r mining t h e blade deformations from known values of t h e bending moments Mi and t h e angle of blade r o t a t i o n i n t h e hinge Bo

6. Determination of Displacements from Known Bendinn Moments

Displacements of t h e blade i n deformation which - i n conformity w i t h t h e are denoted by u l can be determined from t h e system (4.17). However, above it can be demonstrated that t h e equations of t h e system (4.17) are inadequate f o r determining a l l values of u,.

Actually, f o r determining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e curve a t a known curvature & d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e length, when given t h e values of Mi, and a t a known value of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n a t one p o i n t Bo, one more c o n d i t i o n imposed on t h e values of displacements i s necessary. I n this case, t h e last equation of t h e system ( 4 . 1 7 ) , which i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e value of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n a t another p o i n t B,, i s a c t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e f i r s t equation s o t h a t it can be w r i t t e n out e x c l u s i v e l y by analogy w i t h t h e system ( 4 . 1 6 ) . Thus, t h e a d l i a r y condition e i t h e r Will be t h e condition
u o =0,

if t h e r e i s a support a t t h e blade r o o t , o r e l s e t h e c o n d i t i o n

i f t h e blade i s regarded as free on two s i d e s of t h e beam. The condition (4.43) coincides w i t h t h e expression obtained from t h e c o n d i t i o n of orthogonality w i t h t h e fundamental of t h e v i b r a t i o n s

ylo) = 1=const.

Calculating t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t comprise t h e a l r e a d y determined values of M i and & , and leaving only t h e first of t h e two i d e n t i c a l equations, we obt a i n t h e following system of equations which, i n combination w i t h eqs.(4.42) and (4.43), permits determining a l l values of ul (see Table 1.3)
Table 1.3

(4.44)

Here, we have introduced t h e following notations:

I n this formula, a t i

E , and t o consider t h e value of d,,

-1, it i s necessary t o s u b s t i t u t e Bo f o r t h e values of as e q u a l t o u n i t y (ct, = 1 ) .

With t h e condition (4.42), t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e system (4.44.) reduces t o determining t h e values of u1 from simple recurrence r e l a t i o n s of t h e type of
1

u I = - 61-1

[ D ~ ~ l - b I ~ ~ u I ~ ~ - a I ~ ~ u I ~ l ] . (4-46)
t h e values of ul
& ? ,

On solving t h e system (4.44.) w i t h t h e condition (4.43), can be represented as

ui =uo+ Ei,

(4.47) a f t e r which t h e value of

where Yo = 0, and we can determine Ui from eqs.(4.46), uo can be determined by means of t h e formula

0 uo= -- Ii- - z i-0

2 m i

The f u r t h e r course of successive approximations has been described above.

49

II Illl I I1 l1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l1 ll l lIl l I I I I I

I n t h e examined case of hinged blade attachment at t h e r o o t , t h e method of successive a p p r o h a t i o n s leads a t first t o a determination of t h e mode of t h e fundamental, which, when t h e blade hinge coincides w i t h t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , w i l l coincide w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e . It i s natural t h a t , i n this p a r t i c u l a r case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s should begin d i r e c t l y w i t h determination of t h e f i r s t harmonic, c a r r y i n g out i n each approximation orthogonalization t o t h e fundamental which W i l l be assumed as coinciding w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e . I n most designs, t h e r o o t hinge of a h e l i c o p t e r blade i s s e t o f f from t h e
a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r by some amount ro, which may be as much as

3 - 1 0 %

of t h e blade r a d i u s . The presence of this o f f s e t causes t h e mode of t h e fundamental of a hinge-suspended blade t o d e v i a t e s l i g h t l y from a s t r a i g h t l i n e and t h e n a t u r a l frequency t o d i f f e r noticeably from a n amount equal t o t h e rpm of t h e r o t o r . To i l l u s t r a t e this e f f e c t , we will p r e s e n t (see M g . 1 . a ) a graph of t h e mode of t h e fundamental, f o r a l a r g e o f f s e t of t h e axis of r o t o r r o t a t i o n from t h e root hinge.

7. Case of a Blade R i a i d l y Attached a t t h e Root

The c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode f o r a blade r i g i d l y f i x e d a t t h e r o o t d i f f e r s l i t t l e from t h e above case of hinged attachment. The first s t a g e of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , involving a determination o f t h e bendi n g moments Mi, i s c a r r i e d out i n t h e same manner as described above, except t h a t we now s o l v e t h e system o u t l i n e d by a broken l i n e i n t h e table of eq.(4.35). T h i s system i n c o r p o r a t e s one more equation i n which, by v i r t u e of t h e boundary conditions, we set p = 0. T h i s condition i s used a l s o i n solving t h e system e f f i c i e n t Do i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e formula

(4.44.), i n which

t h e co-

8 . Possible S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n C a l c u l a t i w t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s

W e would l i k e t o emphasize t h a t , i n cases i n which t h e blade i s divided i n t o a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of segments s o t h a t t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ai i n eqs.(k.X)) i s l e s s t h a n 0.05 - 0.08, it i s p o s s i b l e t o s i m p l i f y eqs.(4.21) and (4.22) on replacing t h e i r hyperbolic functions by t h e f i r s t terms of t h e i r expansion i n series.
Actually, i n eqs.(4.21) and (4.22) we s e t
a3

sinha=a+-+-+.
31

a5

tanha=a--

a3

+15-...=a--

51 2a5

.
ru

a3

a3 3

and neglect t h e values a2 w i t h respect t o unity.

Then t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s di

and e, can be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e approximate formulas

These s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s render t h e c a l c u l a t i o n somewhat l e s s laborious, which i s important when using manual means.

9 . C e r t a i n - e s u l t g of CalculatinE t h e Natural Blade

--

Vibration- Modes and &e auencies

Here w e d i s t i n g u i s h two problems which a r e of prime i n t e r e s t from our p o i n t of v i e w .

Harmonic o f V i brations

Frequei Approximate

Method
Hinged s u s p e n s ion a t b lad e r o o t First Second Ihi rd R i g i d attachment a t blade root First Second

Exact Method

405.3 708.5 1069.7

404.3 705.9 1069.0

rence of-sharp bends i n t h e blade under t h e e f f e c t of l o c a l phenomena of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r i g i d i t y and mass parameters over t h e blade length. The occurrence of such f l e x u r e s i s charact e r i s t i c f o r beams extended by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and i s never observed i n t h e absence of extension by c e n t r i f u g a l forces

bt us begin w i t h t h e first problem: W e a l r e a d y noted i n Subsection 1 212.1 194.7 of Section 3 t h a t t h e approfimate 463.7 461.9 method of c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l blade h ir d 821.5 817.5 frequencies i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d , which i s based on t h e assumption t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes do not d i f f e r i n t h e Dresence o r absence of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , y i e l d s completely s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u i t s a t t h e s e frequency values.
To confirm this assumption, l e t us p r e s e n t t h e values of t h e natural vibrat i o n frequencies of t h e f i r s t three harmonics of hinged and r i g i d h e l i c o p t e r blades i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . The values of t h e frequencies c a l c u l a t e d by t h e approximate energy method (see Sect .3) are shown i n t h e second column of Table 1.4. For comparison, t h e t h i r d column contains t h e exact values of frequencies c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method presented i n this Section.

A comparison of t h e frequency values presented i n Table 1.4 shows t h a t , a t hinged suspension of t h e blade, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r values i s q u i t e small. A t r i g i d attachment, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s somewhat g r e a t e r but s t i l l moderate. Therefore, as pointed out above, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h t h e purpose of preventing t h e p o s s i b l e occurrence of resonance, t h e approximate method g i v e s s a t i s f a c t o r y results.
Centrifugal f o r c e s have a s t r o n g e r e f f e c t on t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes and e s p e c i a l l y on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending moments and curvature of t h e e l a s t i c l i n e over t h e blade length. Y l
1.0

, &

0.6
82

-0.2
YZ

. 8 shows hinged modes of t h e figure 1 first five harmonics (excluding t h e fundamental) f o r t h e same blade as i n Table 1.4, w h i l e Fig.l.9 g i v e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending moments corresponding t o t h e s e modes. The s o l i d l i n e s i n f i g s . l . 8 and 1.9 ( j u s t as i n Figs.l.10, 1 . 1 1 , and 1.12) r e p r e s e n t t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d , and t h e broken l i n e s i n d i c a t e t h e same modes f o r a nonrotating blade.
Figure 1.10 shows t h e natural vibrat i o n modes and t h e corresponding bending moments f o r t h e first two harmonics of. a blade f i x e d a t t h e r o o t .

A s i n d i c a t e d by a l l t h e s e graphs, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of c e n t r i f u g a l forces, i n c e r t a i n blade s e c t i o n s , has a noticeable e f f e c t on t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode, a p o i n t e s p e c i a l l y manifest i n bending moment diagrams and hence i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending stresses over t h e blade length. T h i s e f f e c t i s stronger, t h e lower t h e harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending moments over t h e blade l e n g t h during i t s v i b r a t i o n i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i s characteri z e d by a n i n c r e a s e i n bending moments i n c e r t a i n blade segments due t o t h e i r dee w i l l c a l l this l o c a l i n c r e a s e i n bending moments crease i n adjacent segments. W a llconcentration of bending momentsll. The occurrence of such concentrated bending moments i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e presence of l a r g e concentrated loads and marked decreases i n flexural r i g i d i t y i n t h e blade s t r u c t u r e . Concentrated bending moments lead t o an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of bending stresses a t various blade segments, caused by sharp f l e x u r e s of t h e b h d e a t t h e s e segments. 52 Fig.l.8 Modes of . t h e First Five Harmonics of a Blade i n a Centrif u g a l Force Field and at n = 0.

T h i s i s of considerable i n t e r e s t f o r p r a c t i c e and t h u s should be s t u d i e d i n greater detail.

The nature of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i s l a r g e l y determined by t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e magnitudes of e l a s t i c and c e n t r i f u g a l forces. If t h e flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t (as i s o f t e n t h e case, e s p e c i a l 1 i F i r s t overtone n t h e p l a n e of rot a t i o n of t h e r o t o r 7 and i f t h e c e n t r i fuga1 f o r c e s are i n s i g n i f i c a n t (low rpm of r o t o r ) , t h e n t h e v i b r a t i o n mode Will d i f f e r l i t t l e from that of a nonrotating blade.
If, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s low and t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a r e appreciable, t h e n t h e form of blade deformation i s determined mainly by i n e r t i a and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and depends l i t t l e on t h e e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e blade. I n t h i s case, t h e form of blade deformation during Vib r a t i o n d i f f e r s l i t t l e from t h e form of deformation of a n i d e a l f l e s b l e heavy s t r i n g s t r e t c h e d by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . T h i s phenomenon i s g e n e r a l l y observed during v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e thrust p l a n e of blades i n modern h e l i c o p t e r s .

, &

Quantitatively, t h e r e l a t i o n between e l a s t i c and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s can be estimated from t h e c o e f f i c i e n t CY which r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e e l a s t i c pot e n t i a l energy t o t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade due t o bending i n the centrifugal force field:

a=cEr_. chf
Fig.l.9 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Bending Moments over a Blade Vibrating w i t h Respect t o t h e Modes of t h e First Five Harmonics i n a Cent r i f u g a l Force F i e l d and when n = 0. The values of CEI and CN are described (3.4). i n e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 3and ) When CY > 1, t h e e f f e c t of t h e e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e blade i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . When cy < 1 , t h e opposite i s observed.

Table 1.5 g i v e s t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy f o r a hinged blade whose T h i s blade can be regarded modes of o p e r a t i o n are shown i n F'igs.1.8 and 1.9. as a t y p i c a l h e l i c o p t e r blade.

53

- ..

l l l l l I1 l l lIl Il

I l l Ill

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy given i n Table 1 . 5 confirm t h e a s s u p t i o n t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade, w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, a p p r o h a t e s a n i d e a l flexible heavy s t r i n g extended by c e n t r i f u g a l forces, for which Q = 0. The p r o p e r t i e s of a blade and of an e l a s t i c s t r i n g draw c l o s e r t o g e t h e r , t h e lower t h e overtone of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s .
A b a s i c feature of a n extended i d e a l e l a s t i c s t r i m i s t h a t i t s a x i s undergoes sharp-bends a t t h e p o i n t s of a p p l i c a t i o n of concentrated l a t e r a l MI f o r c e s and a t s i t e s where t h e s t r i n g makes contact w t t h r i g i d ;loo0 elements. Such a sharp f l e x u r e g e n e r a l l y occurs a t t h e s i t e where YI t h e s t r i n g i s embedded o r clamped. If a r i g i d segment i s i n s e r t e d i n t o 2000 to t h e s t r i n g , sharp bends w i l l form along t h e edges of this segment. Therefore, i n cases when t h e propioao 0.5 e r t i e s of t h e blade and t h o s e of t h e s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g approach more closely, t h e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s become manifest a l s o i n deformat i o n s of t h e blade. O f course, a n e l a s t i c blade, no matter how low 0.5 i t s flexural r i g i d i t y might be, woo cannot undergo such sharp bends. U 0 Nevertheless, sharp bends inherent t o a n i d e a l e l a s t i c s t r i n g are -1000 t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e blade and & -2000 cause sharp a l t e r n a t i n g bendings of i t s a x i s . These bends are ac-3000 companied by concentrations of -4000 bending moments and a n i n c r e a s e i n bending stresses a t t h e p o i n t s of -5000 flexure Modes of First and Second Fig.l.10 L e t us examine s e v e r a l examples Overtones of Natural Vibrations of a that confirm this assumption. Rigid Blade.

Figure 1 . 1 1 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending moments over t h e blade length, corresponding t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e first and second harmonics w i t h a load almost equal t o t h e weight of t h e blade and l o c a t e d a t a relattve r a d i u s F = 0.48.

A t t h e p o i n t of attachment of t h e load, t h e r e i s a marked concentration of bending moments leading t o a n i n c r e a s e i n stresses by a f a c t o r of almost 2 i n comparison w i t h a nonrotating blade. The i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e b h d e of a segment of high r i g i d i t y l e a d s t o a concentration of bending moments i n t h e area However, s i n c e a n i n c r e a s e i n flexural r i g i d i t y of this segment (Eg.1.12). l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e moment of r e s i s t a n c e over t h e l e n g t h of t h e r i g i d

TABLE 1.5

Harmonic o f Vib r ation s

segment, t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s e s w i l l arise along t h e edges of t h e segment, i.e., where t h e i d e a l r i g i d s t r i n g would undergo sharp bends.
of Rotation

&

First Second 'Ihird Fourth

0.083 0.332 0.629 1.116

2.2 3.7 7.7

The occurrence of t h e same propert i e s of a n i d e a l e l a s t i c s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g explains t h e occurrence of sharp concentrations of bending moments i n t h e case of r i g i d blade attachment, s i n c e a flexible s t r i n g would have, a t t h e s i t e of attachment, t h e same sharp bend as a hinged blade.

The bending moment corresponding t o t h e first harmonic i n t h e case of a r i g i d blade r i s e s by a f a c t o r of almost 6 ( s e e Fig.l.10) i n comparison w i t h t h e nloment of a nonrotating blade. Such a sharp concentration of bending moments has a noticeable e f f e c t even on t h e values of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n f r e quencies (see Table 1.4). T h i s MI g r e a t l y reduces t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a n 900 approfimate method ( s e e Sect .3) , as 800 a p p l i e d t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of a blade w i t h r i g i d attachment a t t h e r o o t . 700
600
SOD

4 00

300
200

IGO
0

ML
1000

I n p r a c t i c e it i s o f t e n necessary t o introduce a d d i t i o n a l hinges i n t o t h e r o t o r blade o r t o shift t h e posit i o n of t h e hinges a l r e a d y present i n t h e hub design. The n e c e s s i t y of providing a d d i t i o n a l hinges has t o do w i t h t h e need t o reduce t h e bendi n g s t r e s s e s a t some blade segment o r w i t h t h e change i n i t s n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency.

- 1000
Fig.l.11 Bending Moment during Vibrat i o n s w i t h Respect t o t h e First and Second Overtone, f o r a Load a t Radius r = 0.48 Close i n WeigM t o t h e Weight of t h e Blade.

Let us now i n v e s t i g a t e t h e manner i n which bending deformations of a blade a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l hinge. It w a s mentioned earlier t h a t t h e blade of a h e l i c o p t e r i s c l o s e i n i t s characteristics t o a stretched e l a s t i c string. A s t r e t c h e d chain, with hinges continuously d i s t r i b u t e d over i t s length, behaves l i k e a n e l a s t i c s t r i n g . Therefore, we can assume t h a t a h e l i c o p t e r blade t a k e s approximately t h e same shape as an extended multihinged chain during deformation. Thus, it i s l o g i c a l that t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l

55

i i

1 1 1 1 1 l1 lIll

kg-n

600

400
200

Fig.l.12

Mode of Bending Moment w i t h Respec% t o t h e First Harmonic, f o r a Blade w i t h a Segment of High R i g i d i t y .

Mode of First Harmonic of Natural Vibrations of a Blade w i t h and without Additional Hinge. a and b - Modes of first harmonic i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d without hinge ( a ) and w i t h hinge ( b ) ; c - Mode of first harmonic of nonrotating blades w i t h hinge; d and e -Modes of bending moment w i t h r e s p e c t t o first harmonic i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d without hinge ( d ) and w i t h hinge ( e ) .

Fig.l.13

hinge i n t o t h e blade cannot s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t t h e mode of i t s deformation. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.l.13 which g i v e s t h e mode of t h e f i r s t harmonic of natural Vibrations of a blade w i t h and without a n a d d i t i o n a l hinge. It i s a l s o seen from Fig.l.13 t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of an auxiliary hinge has a n o t i c e a b l e effect on t h e mode of t h e bendim moment only i n a small segment c l o s e t o t h e hinge. Its i n f l u e n c e i s n e g l i g i b l e i n segments remote from t h e hinge.
Y

Fig.l.l.4 Modes of h e r Harmonic of Natural Vibrations of a Blade w i t h Hinge Set O f f from t h e Axis of Rotation and t h e Bending Moment Corresponding t o this Mode ( o n Vibration i n t h e Flapping Plane po/n = 1.35, on Vibration i n t h e Plane of Rotation po /n = 0.91).

It i s e s p e c i a l l y necessary t o note that, i n t h e case i n question i n which t h e blade has two hinges, i t s v i b r a t i o n modes & i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e field d i f f e r g r e a t l y from t h e o s c i l l a t i o n modes of a nonrotating blade. The nonrotating blade i s not deformed a t a l l i n first-harmonic v i b r a t i o n s . Therefore, i n t h e given case t h e a p p r o h a t e energy method of frequency c a l c u l a t i o n , i n t h e form i n which it i s pres e n t e d i n Section 3, i s not applicable.

Nor can we d i s r e g a r d t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i n studying t h e blade deformations i n a Dorscbidt-type r o t o r w i t h a hinge f a r removed from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n . The v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e laver harmonic of t h e blade of this r o t o r Without consideraand t h e corresponding bending mment are shown i n F i g . 1 . z . t i o n of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s t h e mode of t h e blade would coincide w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e and it would be impossible t o f i n d t h e magnitude of t h e bending moment p l o t t e d i n F i g . l . u , which i s very g r e a t f o r this r o t o r and a c t u a l l y determines t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i t s use. These examples show that, i n m a n y cases, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e field s u b s t a n t i a l l y differ f r o m t h e corresponding m o d e s of a nonrotating blade. T h i s must be t a k e n i n t o account when designing a blade. Therefore, i n t h e design o f f i c e , i f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are a l l c a r r i e d out on e l e c t r o n i c computers and t h e degree of complexity of t h e method i s of no import, t h e r e i s no sense i n r e s o r t i n g t o approximate methods. S e c t i o n 5. Torsional Vibrations of a Blade

1 . koblsms- Solved-in C a l c u l a t i n g Torsional Vibrations

It w a s noted above i n Sections 1 and 4 that t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e modes and frequencies of natural flexural blade v i b r a t i o n s not o n l y has a secondary value ( f o r stress analysis) but a l s o a n independent value as a method f o r s e l e c t i n g blade parameters t h a t prevent t h e occurrence of bending resonance. T h i s problem does not arise i n c a l c u l a t i n g free t o r s i o n a l Vibrations s i n c e v i b r a t i o n s

57

Ill

of noticeable amplitude caused by t o r s i o n a l resonance are never encountered i n I only during p r a c t i c e . A s a r u l e , appreciable t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s are set Q f l u t t e r o r during f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s under conditions c l o s e t o f l u t t e r . Theref o r e , t h e magnitude of t h e frequency of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s i s of no p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t i n i t s e l f ( i f we do not regard it as a parameter characteri z i n g t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of a blade), and t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of natural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies are o n l y of secondary s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g f l u t t e r o r f o r c a l c u l a t i n g bending stresses computed w i t h cons i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l blade deformations. The o t h e r problem does not arise when c a l c u l a t i n g free t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s .

Two main problems are encountered i n c a l c u l a t i n g f o r c e d t o r s i o n a l vibrat i o n s . The f i r s t i s t h e determination of e l a s t i c blade deformations whose cons i d e r a t i o n i s necessary f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending stresses; t h e second i s t h e determination of t h e magnitudes of t h e hinge moments necessary f o r calcul a t i n g t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system.
2. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Torsional Blade Vibrations

Let us r e p r e s e n t a blade i n t h e form of a c a n t i l e v e r s t r a i g h t bar with a t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y GT, v a r i a b l e over i t s length. The m a s s moment of i n e r t i a of , w i l l be assumed, j u s t as t h e t o r s i o n a l t h e bar s e c t i o n s relative t o i t s a x i s I r i g i d i t y , t o be a continuous f u n c t i o n v a r i a b l e over t h e l e n g t h of t h e bar, t h e c e n t e r s of gravity of a l l s e c t i o n s of t h e b a r t o l i e on i t s axis, and t h e mounti n g of t h e bar t o be t o r s i o n a l l y e l a s t i c .
It i s l o g i c a l t h a t reducing t h e problem of blade x i b r a t i o n s t o c a l c u l a t i o n of such a model presupposes t h e use of numerous simplifying assumptions. L e t us assume t h a t t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s r e c t i l i n e a r and coincides w i t h t h e a x i s of t h e f e a t h e r i n g (axial) hinge of t h e r o t o r hub. Let us equate t h e f l a p p i n g compensator N t o zero.
Allowance f o r displacement of t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y and determination of t h e e f f e c t of: t h e f l a p p i n g compensator on t h e natural frequencies w i l l be examined i n Section 6.

Use of t h e above assumptions permits solving t h e problem of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s complet'ely independently, without r e l a t i n g them w i t h t h e flexural blade v i b r a t i o n s .

k t us construct t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s . The torque i n t h e blade s e c t i o n can be determined from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation:
[Mt

l'==-m,

i s t h e l i n e a r t o r q u e of external and i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g on a blade where element

Under t h e e f f e c t of torque, each element of t h e blade i s t w i s t e d through a n angle of

where cp i s t h e e l a s t i c angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade s e c t i o n . The value of t h e torque, derived from eq.(5.2), i s s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o eq.(5.1). Then, t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

[GT, ?']'+!Dl

=O.

( 5 03)

vacuum.

kt us examine t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r blade r o t a t i n g i n a The l i n e a r t o r q u e i n this case Will be e q u a l t o

xu=

- /'?IT - w2 ( / y - 1-J rq,

( 5 -4)

where I, and I, a r e t h e mass moments of i n e r t i a of t h e blade s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o i t s p r i n c i p a l axes of i n e r t i a .

If t h e l e n g t h of t h e p r o f i l e along t h e x-axis i s appreciably g r e a t e r t h a n along t h e y-axis (and this i s u s u a l l y t h e case), t h e n we can set approximately
lv-lx

L5.B

z Im,

(5.5)

where I, i s t h e l i n e a r mass moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o an a x i s going through i t s flexural a x i s .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(5.4), w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of eq.(5.5), i n t o eq.(5.3), we o b t a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r blade rotating i n a centrifugal force field:

The blade m o d e l discussed here has t h e following boundary conditions :

at

r=O:

at

r=R:

( 5 *7)

where c,,,
= r i g i d i t y of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system reduced t o t h e axial hinge

of t h e hub ( t h e c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y determines t h e magnitude of r i g i d i t y of t h e e l a s t i c blade attachment at t h e r o o t ) ; yo = r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e axial ( f e a t h e r i n g ) hinge as a consequence of deformation of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system.

59

3 . Determination of t h e Natural Torsional Blade

Vibration Modes and Frequencies Here, we will use t h e method of s o l u t i o n presented i n Subsection 1 of Sect i o n 2 f o r determining t h e flexural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies. Let us pose

~(t)=cpsin vt.
S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(5.8) i n t o eq.( 5.6), we obtain

(5.8)

It inmediately f o u o w s from this equation that t h e natural t o r s i o n a l vibrat i o n modes of a r o t a t i n g and nonrotating blade a r e i d e n t i c a l and t h a t t h e frequencies a r e c o r r e l a t e d by a simple r e l a t i o n of t h e form

where
v = natural frequency i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d ; v,, = natural frequency of blade of a nonrotating r o t o r .

I n t e g r a t i n g eqa( 5.9), w i t h consideration of t h e boundary conditions (5.7) f o r t h e case u) = 0 w i l l yield

Here and below, we will omit t h e s u p e r s c r i p t of v, which denotes t h a t t h e natural frequency i s determined f o r u) = 0. Equation (5.11) i s solved by t h e method of successive approximations, j u s t

as had been done i n solving eq.(2.4.) i n Section 2.

L e t us p r e s c r i b e a n a r b i t r a r y v i b r a t i o n mode cp. normed i n some manner, f o r example
Ti?= 1,

T h i s mode should be

LEL
(5 =12)

where cpR i s t h e e l a s t i c angle of twist of t h e blade t i p . Then, performing t h e operations prescribed by e q . ( 5 . l l ) , function we determine t h e

W e can determine t h e natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n frequency from t h e

60

noming c o n d i t i o n f o r eq.(5.12)

where 8 , i s t h e value of t h e f u n c t i o n 9 at r = R.

After p r e s c r i b i n g a new value of t h e f u n c t i o n

'? =V2Q

(5.15)

and performing t h e operations (5.13) and (5.a) as many times as necessary f o r securing t h e required accuracy, we o b t a i n t h e final values of v and cp. As i n t h e determination of t h e modes and frequencies of natural flexural v i b r a t i o n s , this method of successive approximations l e a d s t o determination of t h e lower harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s . When determining t h e next harmonics, t h e condition of o r t h o g o n a l i t y

must be s a t i s f i e d .

Here t h e index j denotes t h e mode of t h e unknown harmonic of vibrations, w h i l e t h e index m g i v e s t h e modes of a l r e a d y determined lower harmonics. Putting
m-j-1

( 5 017)
we o b t a i n from t h e condition (5.16) t h e following expressions f o r t h e constant c o e f f i c i e n t s c, :
R

The natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of subsequent harmonics are determined i n each approximation from t h e formula

ni- 1

Upon completing t h e determination of a l l natural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies needed f o r f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s necessary t o c o r r e c t t h e frequenc i e s by means of eq.(5.lO) which t a k e s i n t o account t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l forces

61

Calculations of t h e natural t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of a blade i n a c t u a l h e l i c o p t e r s show that t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system i s of d e c i s i v e importance i n determining t h e magnitudes of lower-harmonic v i b r a t i o n frequencies. The t o r s i o n a l blade r i g i d i t y i s almost always much higher t h a n t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system. figure 1.15 shows t h e modes of t h e first harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t helic o p t e r s i n mass s e r v i c e . Based on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade and r o t o r c o n t r o l system i n first-harmonic v i b r a t i o n s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o estimate t h e e x t e n t of t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i n comparison w i t h t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system. The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s e r i g i d i t i e s i s estimated by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Q, ( s e e Fig.l.15). ThLs c o e f f i c i e n t determines t h e p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade t i p due t o deformations of only t h e blade.

Natural Torsional Blade Vibration Modes; f o r Various Fig.l.15 Correlations of Blade and Control System R i g i d i t i e s .
The described r i g i d i t i e s permits blade d e f o m t i o n s making it p o s s i b l e T h i s assmption is V0l.I). c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between blade and c o n t r o l i n c e r t a i n c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e assumption t h a t t h e t o r s i o n a l are small i n comparison w i t h t h e c o n t r o l deformations, thus t o use only t h e blade twist due t o deformation of t h e c o n t r o l . o f t e n used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f l u t t e r ( s e e Chapt . I V of

The r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e above method permit a n estimate of t h e t y p e of layout of t h e n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic f o r c e s . F g u r e 1.16 gives t h e resonance diagram of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a blade constructed f o r one of t h e e x i s t i n g h e l i c o p t e r s , w h i l e Fig.l.17 shows t h e modes of t h e f i r s t three harmonics.

It was noted i n Subsection 1 of this S e c t i o n t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e external f o r c e s producing b x d e twist are small s o that, even i n t h e presence of resonance, t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n amplitudes do not become dangerous f o r t h e s t r e n g t h of
62

Fig.l.16

Resonance Diagram of Torsional Blade Vibrations.

Fig.1.17

Modes of First Three Harmonics of Torsional Blade Vibrations.

63

t h e blade. I n v i e w of this, one u s u a l l y does not t r y t o avoid t o r s i o n a l resonance, and t h e resonance diagram presented i n Fig.l.l-6 i s given only f o r estimating t h e a b s o l u t e nragnitude of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n ,frequencies.

It follows from fig.1.16 that even t h e second harmonic of t o r s i o n a l vibrat i o n s a t t h e operating r p m no, proves t o be higher t h a n t h e 1 5 t h harmonic of t h e r o t o r rpm. The frequencies of subsequent overtones are even higher. Therefore, probably only t h e frequency of t h e first harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l b h d e v i b r a t i o n s can be of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t .
A l l of t h e above considerations p e r t a i n t o t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r blade t r e a t e d as a n i s o l a t e d blade, without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s /62 superimposed on t h e v i b r a t i o n s by t h e d e s i g n . o f blade attachment a t t h e hub. It was found that t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r blades a c r o s s t h e c o n t r o l system may s u b s t a n t i a l l y change t h e e n t i r e patt e r n of v i b r a t i o n s .

4.

Determination of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies of a Rotor as a Whole

Figure 1.B gives t h e diagram of t h e blade-setting c o n t r o l system used on most modern h e l i c o p t e r s . D e s i g d s e this system i s l a i d out s o t h a t loading of one o r another c o n t r o l loop depends on t h e combination of f o r c e s generated at t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l by t h e blades. The form of this c o w b i n a t i o n depends on t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e r o t o r , i.e., on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of v i b r a t i o n phases w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blades. For example, when a l l blades vibrate w i t h t h e same phase, t h e c o n t r o l loop i s loaded only by t h e t o t a l p i t c h . When opposite blades vibrate i n opposite phase, t h e l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l loops are loaded. Finally, i f t h e number of r o t o r blades i s more t h a n three, v i b r a t i o n modes become p o s s i b l e a t which a l l f o r c e s a r r i v i n g from t h e Fig.l.18 Diagram a f P i t c h Control. blades are locked on t h e swashplate 1 Blade t u r n i n g lever; 2 Flapof t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l . Drag hinge; ping hinge; 3 4 Blade; 5 Swashplate of c o n t r o l ; Variable f o r c e s during v i b r a t i o n s 6 Slide. cause deformations of t h e c o n t r o l loops loaded by t h e s e f o r c e s . On deformation of i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l loops, t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l i s set i n o s c i l l a t i o n ; t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s impose d e f i n i t e phases on t h e blade vibrat i o n s . For example, during v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e swashplate generated by deformation of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l loop, r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s are e x c i t e d having a mode i n which t h e phases of a l l blades are i d e n t i c a l .

64

I f t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l i s i n c l i n e d during vibration, oppos i t e blades are e x c i t e d i n opposite phase. Thus, t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l couples t h e Vibrations of i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r blades. A s a r e s u l t , blade v i b r a t i o n s can occur only w i t h well-defined v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e e n t i r e r o t o r as a whole, and t h e number of such modes w i l l coincide w i t h t h e number of r o t o r blades. Here, each Vibration mode corresponds t o i t s value of c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y reduced t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e blade, which depends on t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e controlloop loaded a t this mode. Accordingly, each mode of r o t o r v i b r a t i o n i s characterized by i t s own frequency value of t h e natural t o r s i o n a l blade vibrations.
Consequently, f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades z b t h e r e are zb d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies corresponding t o each harmonic of t o r s i o n a l /63 blade v i b r a t i o n . Each natural v i b r a t i o n frequency i s characterized by i t s own s p e c i f i c mode of d i s t r i b u t i o n of angles of twist over t h e blade length, but q u a l i t a t i v e l y a l l modes corresponding t o a s p e c i f i c harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s do not d i f f e r ; f o r example, t h e y have a n i d e n t i c a l number of v i b r a t i o n nodes. A s a t y p i c a l example we can c i t e t h e values of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e first harmonic f o r t h e four-blade r o t o r of t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r . The laver frequency values a t s t r e s s i n g of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and lateral c o n t r o l s , r e l a t i v e t o t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r , are

*l - 3.4 Q P

t o 3.5.

Upon loading t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l , this q u a n t i t y t a k e s t h e value

v,p
OP

4.6 w h i l e , upon locking a l l f o r c e s from t h e r o t o r on t h e swashplate,

=

we have

V1a.p

6.6,

no P A very important circumstance i s t h a t only t h e f i r s t harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s l i e s w i t h i n t h e limits of t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies corresponding t o harmonics of t h e r o t o r rpm, w i t h r e s p e c t t o which t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s have a n o t i c e a b l e magnitude. A l l subsequent harmonics o f v i b r a t i o n s l i e higher and t h e r e f o r e a r e of no p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t . S e c t i o n 6 . Combined F l e x u r a l and Torsional Blade Vibrations

1 . Couplinp .~. . of F l e x u r a l and Torsional Vibrations

Above, we discussed free flexural and t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s as two unrelated, independent problems. I n a r e a l blade, t o r s i o n a l and flexural vibrat i o n s are always r e l a t e d . The i n t e n s i t y of such coupling will be demonstrated below. W e W i l l examine blade v i b r a t i o n s i n vacuum,whenthe coupling between t o r s i o n a l and flexural v i b r a t i o n s i s produced e x c l u s i v e l y by displacement of t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e s e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade and as a consequence of t h e kinematic coupling over t h e f l a p p i n g campene w i l l use t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n constructed on t h e basis of t h e sator. W three-moment method described i n S e c t i o n 4, as applied t o c a l c u l a t i o n of flexural vibrations.

65

The p o s s i b i l i t y of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural flexural and t o r s i o n a l (binary) v i b r a t i o n frequencies i s u s e f u l t o t h e designer i n s o l v i n g numerous s p e c i f i c p r a c t i c a l problems.

For example, such a c a l c u l a t i o n becomes necessary i f it i s d e s i r e d t o p l a c e o u t r i g g e r balancers on t h e blade t o prevent resonance. Here we have i n mind t h e r e l a t i v e l y rare cases when t h e use of balancers i s proposed not t o eliminate f l u t t e r but t o change t h e natural frequencies.
The designer may wish t o t a k e i n t o account t h e coupling between flexural and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s a l s o when t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l blade frequencies f o r some Teason does not coincide w i t h experiment. Here i t can be shown i n many cases t h a t this d i f f e r e n c e i s due t o d i s r e g a r d of such coupling. We can hope t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n results presented below w i n f a c i l i t a t e s e t t l i n g t h e s e doubts.
We should note, however, t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l frequencies i n vacuum cannot g i v e t h e answer t o many questions i n p r a c t i c a l use having t o do w i t h t h e appearance of high variable stresses of some frequency i n t h e blade, which are evaluated as resonance s i n c e aerodynamic f o r c e s o f t e n introduce subs t a n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e of t h e phenomenon.

/64.

2. Method of C a l c u l a t i K H n a r y Vibrations
Calculation of natural binary v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies i s g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d i f we only consider blades of a d e f i n i t e conventional type, f o r whose c a l c u l a t i o n t h e following a s s q t i o n s can be used:
a

1. The flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e coinciding w i t h t h e ~ of s t h e f e a t h e r i n g ( a x i a l ) hinge.

graui t y

Fig J.19

Design Model of Blade.

66

The method of c a l c u l a t i o n does not fundamentally change when t h e s e axes do not coincide. It i s t h e n only necessary t o i n t r o d u c e , i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n formulas, a number of a d d i t i o n a l terms which take i n t o account t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e s e axes. For s i m p l i c i t y of computation, we w i l l assume t h a t t h e flexural axis goes through t h e axis of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .
2. The plane of minimum blade r i g i d i t y i s considered t o coincide with t h e f l a p p i n g plane.

3 . The blade performs t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s as a consequence of t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade i t s e l f , deformation of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l , and kinematic coupling over t h e f l a p p i n g compensator w i t h blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p ping plane.
These assumptions p e n n i t representing t h e blade as a weightless f r e e beam divided i n t o e segments, along whose edges l o a d s are placed of a mass mi a t Each load, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a s s m, concensome s t a g g e r x C a g (fig.1.19). 1 t r a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e corresponding blade element, has a c e r t a i n moment of i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o a n axis going through t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load and p a r a l l e l t o t h e e l a s t i c a x i s of t h e blade.

Let us represent t h e flexural and t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t i e s i n t h e form of stepped curves, such t h a t t h e y remain constant over t h e l e n g t h of each segment.
The presence of a f l a p p i n g compensator l e a d s t o a kinematic coupling between t h e flexural and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s , which can be expressed by t h e formula

/65

where
(PO

= angle of blade r o t a t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge;

=

twisting C C O n = rigidity H = flapping Bo = angle of

Mb

moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g Einge; of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l reduced t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge; compensator; blade r o t a t i o n relative t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.

Furthermore, t h e boundary conditions a t t h e r o o t of t h e hinged blade somew h a t change during i t s v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e t h r u s t plane. These conditions, i n t h e presence of a f l a p p i n g compensator, can be w r i t t e n as

where Mo i s t h e bending moment and M b i s t h e t w i s t i n g moment a t t h e blade r o o t .

I n constructing t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flapp i n g plane, we w i l l use t h e three-moment method i n t h e form as presented i n S e c t i o n 4. Application of this method t o t h e case examined here l e a d s t o t h e following equation&

67

Here ,

Qi-l.

= -2 miyi (wherei=O, 1 , 2 , . ..,z ) ;

i

..

where
f i = v e r t i c a l displacement of p o i n t s of t h e e l a s t i c blade a x i s ( s e e

fig 1 19 ; yi = v e r t i c a l displacement of t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e loads mi.

The expressions f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s a,, b i , c,, hi, and g l are given i n S e c t i o n 4; see e q ~ ~ ( 4 . 2 3 ) (4.25).

The displacements of t h e e l a s t i c a x i s f, and t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e blade elements y1 are r e l a t e d by

where

(pi

is t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade elements about i t s e l a s t i c a x i s .

To determine t h e binary v i b r a t i o n modes and f r e q u e n c i e s of a blade, eqs .( 6.3) must be supplemented by t h e equations of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s The t w i s t i n g moment, i f it i s considered constant i n magnitude over t h e l e n g t h of each blade segment, can be defined as

*om t h e magnitude of t h e t w i s t i n g moment, we can determine t h e t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade

/66

where GTt i - l,i i s t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of a blade segment having a l e n g t h equal t o tl-l,i w h i l e (PO i s determined by eq.(6.1). When using t h e three-moment method, t h e boundary conditions of t h e problem

are t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equation of t h e system. Thus, i n t h e case examined here, t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n (6.2) l e a d s t o a change of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e first two equations of t h e system (6.3): For a blade w i t h hinged attachment a t t h e r o o t t h e s e equations' can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following manner :

68

first equation of t h e system (6.3), from which t h e value Bo i s d e t e r mined :

Po+rgoMto -hoMi=-;
Qoi

( 6=8)

No1

second equation of t h e system (6.3) :

Thus, t h e system of equations that i n c l u d e s eqs.(6.3), (6.5), ( 6 . 6 ) , and (6.7) r e p r e s e n t s a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of b i n a r y blade Vibrations. The s o l u t i o n of this system permits determining t h e modes and frequencies of natural. binary blade Vibrations, which a l s o enters i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n problem.

(6.5), (6.6),

If we assume that t h e v a r i a b l e s e n t e r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (6.3), and (6.7) vary i n accordance w i t h a s i n e l a w of t h e type

t h e n t h e s e equations can be transformed i n t o a system of a l g e b r a i c equations r e l a t i v e t o unknowns r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e amplitude values of t h e previous variables. only i n t o c e r t a i n c o e f f i p2 , t h e n t h e s e equations can be rec i e n t s of t h e s e equations. If we set p = 1 w r i t t e n i n t h e form The parameters p and y =

- Will e n t e r as c o f a c t o r s
w2

(6 .lo)
(6.11)

vi =ui - XcagiBi,

where

i;l

The q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g t h e s e equations obey t h e following r e l a t i o n s :

The system of equations (6.10), (6.111, (6.12), and (6.13) can be conv i e n t l y solved by t h e method of successive approximations. In s o doing, i n each approximation we should r e f i n e t h e parameter y f o r t h e angular v e l o c i t y of rot a t i o n of t h e r o t o r tu p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . The successive approximations are c a r r i e d out i n t h e following sequence: Assign a c e r t a i n magnitude of t h e parameter y and a n a r b i t r a r y form of t h e z e r o t h approximation of t h e f u n c t i o n s yl and cpio
0

Normalize t h e f u n c t i o n s taken as t h e z e r o t h approximation, f o r example yr= 1. After t h i s , d e r i v e t h e f u n c t i o n f i o from eq.(6.5). Then, from eq.(6.11), determine t h e q u a n t i t y Et0 needed f o r solving t h e system of equations (6.10). A t t h e same time Eti-l,l i s determined.

After solving t h e system of equations (6.10) and determining ui from t h e first equation of this system, determine Bo:

Then, from eq.(6.12),

determine

and f r o m eq.(6.13)
2

t h e values of v i ,

which, furthermore, should s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n z m,v,

0

= 0.

Determine t h e n a t u r a l frequency from t h e c o n d i t i o n of normalization on t h e basis of t h e first r e l a t i o n i n t h e system (6.&), t h u s :

After this, determine t h e f u n c t i o n s yl and (pi from eq.(6.l4) and use them i n t h e next approximations which are performed i n t h e same sequence. A t t h e same time, r e f i n e t h e parameter y .

T h i s method of successive approximations leads t o a d e t e k n a t i o n of t h e /68 frequency and mode of t h e lower harmonic of natural v i b r a t i o n s . To determine t h e next harmonic, we use t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y which f o r binary vibrat i o n s has t h e following form:

Here, t h e index j denotes t h e mode of t h e sought harmonic and t h e index m t h e modes of a l r e a d y determined lower harmonics.
The use of this method of c a l c u l a t i o n gives r e s u l t s t h a t a r e completely s a t i s f a c t o r y for p r a c t i c e .

It should be mentioned that, i n cases i n which t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of two successive harmonics have s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e values, this method of calculat i o n does not give a converging s o l u t i o n . I n p r a c t i c e , however, this i s of no g r e a t import s i n c e it can happen only when t h e coupling between t o r s i o n a l and flexural v i b r a t i o n s i s very weak and t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n modes can be determined s e p a r a t e l y without consideration of this coupling.

3 . E f f e c t of Cowling between Bendiw and Torsion

a t Natural Vibration Frequency
Here, we w i l l d e f i n e t h e e x t e n t of t h e dif9erence of n a t u r a l binary blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies from corresponding p a r t i a l frequencies, i .e., frequencies obtained without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of coupling between bending and t o r s i o n . Calculations show t h a t t h e coupling between bending and t w i s t i n g has t h e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n regions i n which t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of bending and t o r s i o n approach c l o s e l y . Therefore, we should inv e s t i g a t e only t h e s e regions. Outside t h e s e zones, t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of t h e blade and t h e frequencies of t h e coupled b i n a r y v i b r a t i o n s p r a c t i c a l l y coincide. It i s known t h a t t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of natural v i b r a t i o n s of bending of a hinged b h d e , f o r a l l modern h e l i c o p t e r s , l i e i n very narrow well-defined zones whose p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e harmonics of e x t e r n a l e x c i t a t i o n cannot be changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y . I n Fig.l.20, t h e s e zones are superposed on a resonance diagram of t h e blade. This diagram i s constructed f o r t h e frequency range that i n c l u d e s only a s e r i e s of f i r s t harmonics of r o t o r rpm, s i n c e external f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade w i t h higher harmonics are i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n magnitude and cannot cause noticeable blade v i b r a t i o n s . Only t h e f i r s t three overtones of t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of t h e blade i n bending f a l l w i t h i n this region. I n p r a c t i c e o n l y t h e s e overtones are of i n t e r e s t i n blade design. The natural flexural v i b r a t i o n frequencies can leave t h e i n d i c a t e d zones o n l y f o r r o t o r s w i t h a n unusual method of blade attachment t o t h e hub, such as - f o r example i n rotors with r i g i d blade attachment or w i t h a gimbaled hub.

The p a r t i a l frequencies of natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s may vary

w i t h i n wider limits, mainly as a consequence of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r i g i d i t i e s of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system whose designs may vary widely. Nevertheless, w i t h respect t o t h e magnitudes of t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s a very important conclusion can be drawn, involving t h e following: Only t h e first harmonic of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s can f a l l w i t h i n t h e frequency range of i n t e r e s t here. The second harmonic of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s generally w i l l be i n a region not belaw t h e 1 5 t h harmonic of t h e r o t o r r p m (see f i g . l . l 6 ) , i.e., beyond t h e limits of t h e region of i n t e r e s t t o t h e designer. Usually, /69 v i b r a t i o n s of r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e amplitude do not arise with such frequencies. Therefore, only t h e first h a m n i c of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l . v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i s of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t from t h e aspect of p o s s i b l e occurrence of resonance.
9th harmonic,

0-

0 . 2

0.4

0 . 6

0 . 8

7.0

nln,

Fkgions on t h e Resonance Diagram of t h e Frequencies fig.1.20 of Natural Vibrations of t h e First, Second, and Third Overtone of Bending and t h e First Overtone of Torsion f o r Blades of Different Helicopters. Here, it should be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r blade may have s e v e r a l first overtones of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t frequencies, depending on t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e r o t o r a s a whole and on w h a t c o n t r o l loop i s loaded a t this mode. The d i f f e r e n c e i n n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e s e modes will be determined exclusively by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r i g i d i t i e s of t h e c o n t r o l loops being loaded.

72

I n f l i g h t , each harmonic of external f o r c e s i s able t o e x c i t e only one well-defined v i b r a t i o n mode. Therefore, i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e occurrence of resonance it i s necessary t o check whether t h e c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y adopted i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n corresponds t o this mode, w i t h which resonance i s p o s s i b l e . I n this Section, we W i l l ciiscuss only natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e syst e m . Therefore, we w i l l not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s this problem.
Figure 1 . 2 0 shows t h e r e g i o n which usual* comprises t h e frequencies of t h e first harmonic of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n t o r s i o n , f o r a l l modes of r o t o r Vibrations when both c y c l i c and c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l loops are loaded. For r o t o r s w i t h a blade number g r e a t e r t h a n three, a v i b r a t i o n mode i s p o s s i b l e i n which a l l f o r c e s a r r i v i n g from t h e blades lock on t h e swashplate F1 e x u r a l a x i r of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l . The c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y corresponding t o this mode g e n e r a l l y i s very high. I n Fig.l.20, t h e upper l i m i t of t h e r e g i o n of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s f o r this case i s s h m by a dotdash l i n e .

Let us examine t h e most common case i n which p a r t i a l frequencies of t h e first harmonic of bending and t h e first harmonic of t o r s i o n coincide i n magnitude i n t h e zone of operating rpm of t h e r o t o r . ht us d i s c u s s two versions of t h e blade center-of-gravity d i s t r i b u t i o n over i t s length.
I n both versions, we w i l l assume - i n conformity w i t h t h e above-adopted assumptions - t h a t t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s r e c t i l i n e a r and coincides w i t h t h e axis of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e hub. The d i s t a n c e t o t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e s e c t i o n s w i l l be reckoned from t h e flexural axis i n percentages of t h e b h d e chord. A l l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s W i l l be conducted a p p l i c a b l e t o a h e l i c o p t e r blade w i t h a pressed duralumin spar w i t h a chord constant over i t s length. Such a blade has roughly a constant l i n e a r weigM over t h e length. Its chord comp r i s e s about 1/20 of t h e r o t o r r a d i u s e
So that t h e results of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s W i l l be more graphic, we w i l l assume that, upon v a r i a t i o n s i n blade centering, t h e mass moments of i n e r t i a of i t s s e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o a n a x i s going through t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y do not change, i.e., that t h e p o s i t i o n

Fig.l.21 Stepped Centering of Blade w i t h a Change of Sign at t h e Node of t h e First Overtone of N a t u r a l F l e x u r a l Vibrations.

i s maintained.

73

I 1 l1 1 1 1 l1 1 1 1 1 1 l Il I II Il I

first, l e t us examine t h e case i n which t h e c e n t e r i n g s of t h e blade sect i o n s are constant over i t s length, i.e.,
-

x ~ -xcg. ~ - -const,

where b i s t h e blade chord.

T h i s v e r s i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c e n t e r i n g s i s considered quite widespread i n p r a c t i c e . Furthermore, it permits t r a c i n g - i n a very graphic form t h e e f f e c t of c e n t e r i n g and evaluating i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e as a f a c t o r of t h e coupling between flexural and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s .

Figure 1.22 shows t h e resonance diagram of a blade f o r this case. The s o l i d l i n e s represent t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of bending and t w i s t i n g of t h e blade, and t h e dashed l i n e s give t h e frequencies of binary v i b r a t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d f o r a displacement of t h e c e n t e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e flexural axis, equal t o 1 0 % of t h e blade chord. The c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed f o r t h e case of n = 0. Therefore, t h e s i g n of t h e shift of c e n t e r i n g i s of no s i g n i f i c a n c e .
p cyqmin
6 t h harmonic harmonic

harmonic

harmonic

harmonic

harnon i c

50

150

200 n r p m

Fig.1.22 Resonance Diagram of Blade a t Displacement of Centering Constant over t h e Length and Amounting t o 10% of t h e Chord.

Here and below, we will i n t e n t i o n a l l y examine a very wide range of variat i o n i n centerings, so as t o t r a c e i t s i n f l u e n c e i n a more concise form. I n p r a c t i c e , t h e d e s i g n c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e c o n d i t i o n s imposed by f l u t t e r permit

,.

changing of t h e c e n t e r i n g only w i t h i n very narrow limits. Usually, f o r r o t o r b l a d e s t h e c e n t e r i n g varies w i t h i n limits from 20% t o 25% of t h e blade chord (here, values reckoned from t h e leading edge of t h e blade are given), ?.e., t h e e n t i r e range of v a r i a t i o n i n centering amounts t o only about 5% of t h e blade chord. Thus, we can conclude from a study of Fig.1.22 t h a t a displacement of centering, constant over t h e blade length, has only a n e g l i g i b l e e f f e c t on t h e values of natural frequencies. I n t h e second case examined here, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of centering i s s e l e c t e d such that i t s i n f l u e n c e i s s t r o n g e s t during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency c l o s e t o t h e p a r t i a l bending frequency of t h e first harmonic. The centering i s assumed as constant over t h e blade length, but i t s s i g n changes a t t h e node of t h e first harmonic of t h e p a r t i a l bending mode.
7 t h harmonir

SO

100

150

200

n rpm

Frequencies of Natural Binary Blade Vibrations w i t h Fig.l.23 a Stepped Law of Change of Centering over t h e Blade Length, a t 10 and 20% Displacement w i t h Respect t o t h e Chord from t h e F l e x u r a l Axis.

A n o f f s e t c e n t e r i n g can be c r e a t e d f o r a blade when t h e a n t i - f l u t t e r balancer is introduced i n t o t h e d e s i g n not over t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h but only over a small segment at t h e blade t i p . Results of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of this version The e f f e c t of c e n t e r i n g i s of c e n t e r i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n are given i n Fig.1.23.

75

r a t h e r s t r o n g i n this case. Therefore, at such a d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e length, t h e coupling between bending and t o r s i o n m u s t be t a k e n i n t o account when calcl a t i n g t h e blade.

It i s a l s o necessary t o e d n e t h e e f f e c t of a concentrated load shifti n g over t h e chord. Let us t a k e t h e magnitude of t h e load as equal t o 8% of t h e blade weight. T h i s probably i s t h e maxi" value of a load that can a c t u a l l y be attached t o a blade. The most e f f e c t i v e s i t e of a t t a c h i n g such a load from t h e Viewpoint of producing s t r o n g coupling f a c t o r s f o r f l e x u r a l and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s i s t h e p o i n t of t h e blade where t h e displacements i n t h e t h r u s t plane a r e maximum. Therefore, we Will d i s c u s s t h e case i n which t h e load i s attached a t t h e blade t i p .
Figure 1 . & shows t h e results of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r this case. The e f f e c t of a concentrated load on t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency f o r l a r g e o f f s e t of t h e load can be considered s u b s t a n t i a l ; however, t h e use of such a means f o r eliminating resonance cannot be recommended t o t h e designer. Nevertheless, t h e attachment of a load can be regarded as a temporary means f o r t r e a t i n g blades subj e c t t o l a r g e variable s t r e s s e s due t o resonance.

50

100

750

200

nrpm

Effect of a 10 and 20% Displacement w i t h Respect t o Fig.l.24 t h e Chord of a 10-kg Tip-Concentrated Load on t h e Magnitude of t h e Natural Binary Blade Vibration F'requencies.

._.

The l a s t parameter which should be regarded as a coupling f a c t o r between bending and t o r s i o n i s t h e f l a p p i n g compensator. To e v a l u a t e i t s e f f e c t on t h e magnitude of t h e natural binary v i b r a t i o n 'frequencies, we made c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h a f l a p p i n g compensator H = 1.0. T h i s i s t h e maximum value of a f l a p p i n g compensator of t h e type ever used i n p r a c t i c e . All t h e d a t a presented above were obtained w i t h H = 0.

It follows from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s that t h e effect of t h e f l a p p i n g compensa-m t o r i s n e g l i g i b l e . However, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator can be j u s t i f i e d t o some extent, s i n c e i t . i n t r o d u c e s some refinement i n t o t h e form of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e bending moment at t h e blade r o o t .
Blade Vibrations Section 7. Forced . _

1 . Use of B.G.GalerkinTs Method f o r Calculating Blade Deformations. Determination of S t a t i c Deformations of a Blade

The problem of t h e dete-nation of blade deformations reduces t o a solut i o n of t h e above d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (1.9) whose d e r i v a t i o n i s given i n Section 1 :

where T i s a l i n e a r e x t e r n a l load on t h e blade, d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e r a d i u s and varying i n time.

In Sections 2, 3, and 4, we discussed t h e s o l u t i o n of a similar equation f o r T = 0 describing t h e free v i b r a t i o n s of a blade. Here, we W i l l examine forced v i b r a t i o n s of a blade when T i s some p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n varying w i t h t h e frequency v .
I n t h e p a r t i c u l a r case when v = 0, t h e problem reduces t o a determination of t h e s t a t i c blade deformations due t o a load To constant i n t h e . The simplest method of solving eq.(7.1)

i s t h a t given by B.G.Galerkin.

&

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of G a l e r k i n f s method t o t h e d e t e d n a t i o n of blade deformations, l e t us examine t h e s t a t i c problem, when t h e external load i s I n this case, 9 = 0 and eq.(7.1) can be w r i t t e n as time-invariant.

Let us r e p r e s e n t t h e blade deformations i n t h e form

where
yJ
=

natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h harmonic;

77

6 , = c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s which w i l l be c a l l e d c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation i n a l l f u r t h e r computat i o n s i n which t h e Galerkin method i s used will p l a y t h e r o l e of generalized coordinates of t h e system.

kt us s u b s t i t u t e e (7. ) i n t o eq.(7.2), m u l t i p l y a l l terms of t h e equat i o n i n t u r n by y'") , y (1s. y?21 , e t c . and i n t e g r a t e them w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade r a d i u s .

By v i r t u e of t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e f u n c t i o n s y ( J ), t h e performed operat i o n transforms t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (7.2) i n t o a s e r i e s of independent equations of t h e form

CjSj = A j

(7.4)

where

CI = E 1 [y"]; dr f
0

jN [g ' ] ; dr;
0

(7.5)

A, = Toy(i)dr.
0

W e will designate t h e q u a n t i t y C , as t h e generalized r i g i d i t y of t h e blade during deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h harmonic i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . It follows from a n examination of eqs.(7.5) t h a t t h e generali z e d blade r i g i d i t y C, i s equal t o double t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade during i t s e l a s t i c deformation i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d w i t h respect t o t h e normalized mode of t h e j - t h harmonic. L e t us c a l l t h e q u a n t i t y A, t h e generalized e x t e r n a l f o r c e deforming t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h harmonic. The magnitude of t h e generalized f o r c e A, i s equal t o double t h e work done by t h e e x t e r n a l E n e a r f o r c e s To during deformation of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e normalized mode of t h e j - t h harmonic of i t s natural vibrations.
*om eq.(7.4)

we can determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation 6 , :

a f t e r which eq.(7.3)

w i l l yield t h e mode of s t a t i c blade deformation.

The more n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes are used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e more acc u r a t e can t h e mode of deformations be determined. However, f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o limit ourselves t o t h e f i r s t f o u r harmofics o f . b l a d e vibrations.

If t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 , are known, t h e n it i s easy t o determine t h e bending moments and t h e bending stresses i n t h e blade. These are determined from t h e formulas

78

Here, M ' j ) and o t s ) are t h e modes of d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending muments and bending stresses i n normalized deformations of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h harmonic of i t s n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s .
The q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g eqs .( 7.7) are governed by t h e r e l a t i o n s :
G=-

w ;

where W i s t h e moment of r e s i s t a n c e of t h e blade s e c t i o n s .

2. Determination of Blade Deformations with Periodic b p l i c a t i o n of a n ESrternal Load

L e t us here d i s c u s s t h e case i n which t h e e x t e r n a l load v a r i e s i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w : T = T, sin vt.

(7.9)

To s o l v e this problem, we w i l l a g a i n use Galerkin's method. Representing t h e blade deformations i n t h e form of eq.(7.3), we f i r s t s u b s t i t u t e eqs.(7.3) and (7.9) i n t o eq.(7.l), m u l t i p l y a l l terms of t h e obtained equations i n t u r n by y'j) and i n t e g r a t e over t h e blade length. By v i r t u e of orthogonality of t h e f u n c t i o n y ' j ) , we o b t a i n a series of independent d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e form

mjij
where

+Cj8j =A , sin vt,

(7.10)

We will designate t h e q u a n t i t y m J as t h e equivalent mass of t h e blade during i t s v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j-th harmonic. If t h e v i b r a t i o n , t h e n m J will be t h e equivalent mass of modes y'j) are normed s o t h a t y i J ) = 1 t h e blade reduced t o i t s t i p . It a l s o follows from t h e first equation of t h e system (7.11) that t h e equivalent blade mass is equal t o double i t s k i n e t i c energy and t h a t t h e blade elements are displaced at a rate of y'j' *

79

IIIIIIIII I1 I

m 1 1 1 1 lIllIII Il1Il

To determine t h e s t e a d y motion, we pose

and ) canceling a l l terms of t h e S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o e ~ ~ ( 7 . U equation by t h e q u a n t i t y s i n v t , we o b t a i n

according t o which t h e value of t h e amplitude of blade deformation i s equal t o

It i s not d i f f i c u l t t o note that t h e r a t i o CJ/mJ i s e q u a l t o t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e j - t h harmonic of t h e blade. Actually, i f we set A, = = 0 i n eq.(7.12), t h e n t h e value of v i n this case w i l l dekermine t h e natural frequency of t h e blade and can be obtained from eq.(7.U):

I n conformity w i t h eq.(7.6) t h e r a t i o A,/C, determines t h e magnitude of deformation i f t h e load T, were t o be applied s t a t i c a l l y . Equation (7.13) is conveniently represented i n t h e form

yhere

a t a static a l l y applied external load T y ; below, this c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l be c a l l e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of q u a s i - s t a t i c blade deformation; h d y n = c o e f f i c i e n t of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude.
6 : ; )
= c o e f f i c i e n t determining t h e magnitude of deformation

For t h e case i n question, we have

It follows from eq.(7.16) that during resonance, when t h e frequency of forced v i b r a t i o n s v i s equal t o t h e frequency of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s p , , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n amplitude becomes i n f i n i t e . T h i s r e s u l t i s r e g u l a r f o r problems i n which forced v i b r a t i o n s without damping are examined.
I n r e a l i t y , a h e l i c o p t e r blade operating i n air undergoes appreciable aero-

dynamic damping during v i b r a t i o n . Aerodynamic damping limits t h e amplitude of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n resonance and must be t a k e n i n t o account i f a determination of blade v i b r a t i o n s , under conditions of resonance, e n t e r s i n t o t h e problem of t h e calculation. I n determining t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r blade, when v i b r a t i o n s arise under t h e e f f e c t of aerodynamic forces, i t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o make a s t r i c t s e p a r a t i o n between f o r c e s of a e r o d y d c damping and aerodynamic f o r c e s causing blade v i b r a t i o n s . Such a s e p a r a t i o n can be made only c o n d i t i o n a l l y . However, a number of s i m p l i f i e d c a l c u l a t i o n methods do use such a d i v i s i o n . Therefore, we w i l l d i s c u s s this approach i n some d e t a i l .

3 . g-q l i f i e d App=rEch t o Calculation of. Forced Blade Vibrations

Let us assume that t h e external aerodynamic loads a c t i n g on a n e l a s t i c blade i n f l i g h t can be divided i n t o two p a r t s : external loads a c t i n g on t h e blade and f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping. We w i l l s t i p u l a t e , i n f i r s t approxbat i o n , t h a t t h e external loads a c t i n g on a n e l a s t i c blade coincide w i t h loads acti n g on a n i d e a l f l e x u r a l l y r i g i d blade. Then, f o r performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i t remains only t o determine t h e f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping.
Usually t h e f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping are determined f o r a regime w i t h &a1 flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , whereqon it i s assumed t h a t , i n a l l o t h e r f l i g h t regimes w i t h oblique flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic dampi n g do not change. I n a regime w i t h axial flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , t h e f o r c e of aer0dynami.c dampi n g can be determined on t h e basis of t h e following: During v i b r a t i o n , t h e blade elements move w i t h a v e l o c i t y JF. A s a consequence, t h e angles of a t t a c k of a l l blade elements change by t h e quantity

Upon a change i n t h e angle of a t t a c k , t h e blade elements become s u b j e c t t o t h e a c t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping

Let us assume t h a t t h e aerodynamic load T can be represented as c o n s i s t i n g of two components :

where

T, = aerodynamic load a c t i n g on a r i g i d blade; T d a m p = a d d i t i o n a l load due t o aerodynamic damping produced during e l a s t i c

~

81

blade v i b r a t i o n s . Then, eq.(?.l) can be rewritten i n t h e following form:

[E/y] - [Nu] +my $-1 caebory=7&

**

(7 019 1

Let us examine blade v i b r a t i o n s due t o t h e s i n u s o i d a l component of t h e aerodynamic load, varying according t o t h e l a w

T . =T,sin v t ,
9

If we represent blade deformations i n t h e form of eq.(7.3) and apply B.G. G a l e r k i n f s method t o eq.(7.l9), t h e n we a r r i v e a t a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations r e l a t i v e t o t.he c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 , . k d i v i d u a l equat i o n s of this system w i l l be c o r r e l a t e d by terms i n t o which t h e following i n t e g r a l enters:

where y ( j ) and y(m) are t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics ( j # m).

In s i m p l i f i e d methods of c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e i n t e g r a l s D,, a r e u s u a l l y equated t o zero although, i n many cases, such a n assumption i s impossible t o j u s t i f y .
If we nevertheless make use of this assumption, t h e n a p p l i c a t i o n of Galerkins method y i e l d s a series of independent d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e form

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t

sJ determines

t h e magnitude of aerodynamic darrpsing:

L28

After d i v i d i n g a l l terms of eq.(7.20)

form

by mj, we o b t a i n a n equation of t h e

6, +2ni8i+p3j=p3$
where

sin vt,

(7.22)

:,

82

Usually, f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e magnitude of damping we use t h e relat i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t

nj=-.

nj

Pj

Its magnitude, as applied t o aerodynamic damping of a blade, i s calculated by m e a n s of t h e formula

The s o l u t i o n of eq.(7.22), performed i n t h e same manner as t h a t used above i n solving eq.(7.lO), leads t o t h e formula
-1
'dyn-

8"'
dySt

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e dynamic i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude i s

A dyn-

[* - ($)I' +

4n; ($)2

(7.24)

Thus, t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem examined here c o n s i s t s i n determining t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 : i' and t h e i r subsequent multiplicat i o n by t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n amplitude h d y n . Such a n approach i s s u b j e c t t o c e r t a i n i n a c c u r a c i e s because of t h e artif i c i a l s e p a r a t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s i n t o two components by eq.(7.18), t h e inadequately founded assumption that D,, = 0, and t h e approximate determination of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic damping f o r a regime w i t h axial flow p a s t t h e r o t o r . Therefore, i n Sections 8 and 9 we W i l l p r e s e n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n i n which t h e above assumptions are not used. Nevertheless, a s i m p l i f i e d approach of this type f a i r l y w e l l d e s c r i b e s t h e q u a l 5 t a t i v e aspect of phenomena observed during blade v i b r a t i o n s .

4. h l i t u d e Diagram of Blade Vibrations

-. . . .. .~

As i n d i c a t e d above i n S e c t i o n 3 , t h e resonance diagram of a blade i s widely used i n evaluating t h e c h a r a c t e r of blade v i b r a t i o n s . The resonance diagram permits estimating t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade d i f f e r f r o m t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequencies and determining t h e p o s s i b l e hazard of t h e occurrence of resonance v i b r a t i o n s . However, i n cases i n which t h e natu83

II 1 1 1 1 l1 1 1 l1 1 lI I I Il

r a l frequencies and t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequencies do not d i f f e r g r e a t l y , it i s of i n t e r e s t t o estimate t h e extent t o which blade v i b r a t i o n amplitudes can be reduced. Such a n estimate can be made by using t h e amplitude diagram of blade Vi-

*yn

b r a t i o n s . This diagram, Constructed f o r a blade w i t h ordinary mass and r i g i d i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i s given i n Fig.1.25. I n t h i s diagram, t h e a b s c i s s a gives t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequency r e f e r r e d t o t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e

5
4

I ? w
First

Second o v e r tone

v=-*

V
0

(7.25)

Fig.1.25 Amplitude Diagram of Blade Vibrations.

The o r d i n a t e g i v e s t h e c o e f f f c i e n t s of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude. The diagram i s constructed only f o r t h e first three harmonics of e l a s t i c blade Vibrations, using t h e damping coe f f i c i e n t s c a l c d a t e d from eq.(7.23).

5. Calculation of Vibrations a t b p _ l i c a t i o n Ph-asgof M e r n a l

Load Variable over t h e Blade Length

Jn Subsection 3 of this S e c t i o n we presented formulas f o r t h e case when t h e e x t e r n a l load i s represented as

T . =T,sinvt..
9

T h i s form of n o t a t i o n of t h e load i s p o s s i b l e only i f t h e phase of i t s app l i c a t i o n over t h e blade l e n g t h i s constant. A s a rule, this does not happen during v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r blade. The phase of t h e external load varies over t h e blade length, so that t h e l o a d s h o u l d be represented i n t h e form

where t h e components of t h e external load Tv and i n accordance w i t h d i f f e r e n t l a w s . After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(7.26) i n t o eq.(7.19), assuming that D,, = 0, we o b t a i n
lnjzj

Tv vary

over t h e blade l e n g t h

using Galerkins method, and

f &

-/-

Elij

COS

CjEj =~j

vt

-+ 4 sin v t ,

(7.27)

L e t us pose

Then,

where

are t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of c p a s i - s t a t i c blade d e f o r m t i o n .
Equations (7.29) permit determining t h e dynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation i f t h e quasi-static c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation obtained f o r t h e aerod y d c loads T, and T, are k n m .
I

6. Aerodynamic b a d on a Rinid Blade

In f l i g h t , a h e l i c o p t e r blade i s acted y o n by variable loads w i t h frequenc i e s t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n s . I n this case, as a l r e a d y mentioned, t h e g r e a t e s t variable stresses i n t h e blade are caused by t h e first six t o e i g h t harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load relative t o t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n s . Higher harmonics u s u a l l y are s o small as t o cause no n o t i c e a b l e stresses i n t h e blade, even i n resonance.
A c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e variable aerodynamic l o a d s on a blade encounters cert a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s . These have t o do p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y of determining t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y field, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of n o n l i n e a r i t y i n t h e dependence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e p r o f i l e , t h e Mach number (M), and coupling of t h e loads w i t h t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade. The c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s discussed i n t h e res p e c t i v e Sections. Here, we W i l l c o n s t r u c t formulas f o r determining variable

85

aerodynamic loads a c t i n g on a blade r i g i d i n flexure and t o r s i o n , under t h e f o l lowing assumptions.

a) We assume t h a t t h e i n l e t angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e @ (Fig.1.26) s m a l l s o t h a t we can set approximately:

is

where

= i n l e t angle; U, and U, = mutually perpendicular components of t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y Here, l y i n g i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e blade a x i s ( s e e Fig.1.26). t h e v e l o c i t y U, i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e rotor.

P l a n e of rotation

Assuming a l s o t h a t cos (P 1 , we will consider t h a t t h e unknown load T a c t i n g i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e does not d i f f e r from t h e load T,,, perpendicular t o t h e i n l e t t o t h e
blade p r o f i l e (Fig.1.26). b) W e assume t h a t t h e magnit u d e of r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow (U) p a s t t h e p r o f i l e d i f f e r s l i t t l e from t h e q u a n t i t y U,:

to

61 ade axis

plane

L7z

u,.

( 7 032)

Diagram of Flaw P a s t a Blade Fig.1.26 Rigid i n Flexure and Torsion.

c) W e assme t h a t , i n d e t e r mining t h e loads i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, t h e p r o f i l e drag can be neglected and t h a t we can set c, = = 0.

We s t i p u l a t e khat t h e p r o f i l e lift c o e f f i c i e n t c y depends l i n e a r l y on t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k a :

e, =ce.
U

a.

(7.33)

d) W e assume t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e flow v passing through t h e r o t o r i s constant over t h e e n t i r e area swept by t h e r o t o r :

v=const.

( 7 -34)

With t h e s e assumptions, only t h e constant p o r t i o n s of t h e first two harmonics of aerodynamic f o r c e s are of s u b s t a n t i a l magnitude, and t h e n only a t medium and high f l y i n g speeds of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The high harmonics are small and t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n under t h e above assumptions i s of no i n t e r e s t .

86

Using t h e s e assumptions, t h e l i n e a r aerodynamic load on t h e blade can be determined by t h e formula

We w i l l assume furthermore that t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k i s

where cpr i s t h e angle of blade p r o f i l e s e t t i n g i n a s e c t i o n a t d i s t a n c e r from t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n . Then, eq.(7.35) can be transformed i n t o t h e form

/82

For a n i d e a l f l e x u r a l l y r i g i d blade, suspended a t the hub by a f l a p p i n g hinge, t h e v e l o c i t i e s e n t e r i n g eq.(7.37) can be determined by means of t h e f o l lowing formulas:

(7.38)

Here,

Bo

= =

f l a p p i n g angle of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge; time d e r i v a t i v e of t h e angle Bo ;

bo

at

ho = r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow through t h e r o t o r ;

ho=ptana,,,,+v"o,
where
cyrot

= r o t o r angle of a t t a c k
=

To

a t t h e s h a f t axes; induced v e l o c i t y of t h e flow r e f e r r e d t o wR, which i s constant over t h e r o t o r d i s k .

The blade angle can be w r i t t e n as

where
0, = blade angle a t t h e relative r a d i u s F = 0.7 o r a t any o t h e r , a t Bo = 0; r a d i u s adopted f o r reckoning 8

87

11l 1 1l l l l l I

1 1 1 1 1 1 III l1Il111

Acp = geometric twist of t h e blade; I1 and I2 = angles of c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l of t h e blade prescribed by t h e swashplate

If we represent t h e f l a p p i n g motion of t h e blade i n t h e form of a s e r i e s

&=ao-

2 (ancos n$+ bn sin n$)

n

( 7 040)

and r e t a i n t h e r e only t h e first two harmonic components, s i n c e t h e higher harmonics a r e small at t h e adopted asswnptions, t h e n eq.(7.37) can be transformed into
L

(794-11

where

I n performing t h e s e transformations we used a s u b s t i t u t i o n t h a t permits changing over t o t h e s-called equivalent r o t o r .

/s3

An equivalent r o t o r i s a r o t o r whose s h a f t i s imagined a s turned r e l a t i v e t o a real r o t o r through an angle such that t h e same angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s a r e achieved without c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l . A l l formulas w r i t t e n out f o r an equivalent r o t o r can be used without change f o r a r e a l r o t o r without an a u t + n equivalent r o t o r u s u a l l y i s a l s o given t h e p r o p e r t i e s matic p i t c h c o n t r o l . A of a r o t o r without a flapping compensator. In this case, t h e formulas a r e equivalent only t o an accuracy t o w i t h i n t h e f i r s t harmonic of flapping.
Transformation of t h e formulas f o r aerodynamic loads, a s applied t o t h e equivalent r o t o r , was performed under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e following s u b s t i t u t i o n s :

(7.43)

88

__ ..

..

where

, a :

yreal = real blade angle w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e effect of a f l a p p i n g compensator a t t h e r a d i u s adopted f o r reading this angle; = f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s and relative v e l o c i t y of flow through by and A : t h e blades f o r a n equivalent r o t o r .
Here, we V r i l l not d i s c u s s higher harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load. Figure 1.27 shows t h e constant p o r t i o n and c o s i n u s o i d a l and sin&- /s4. o i d a l components of t h e first two harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load, f o r a t y p i c a l h e l i c o p t e r blade derived from eq.(7.42) f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of a h e l i c o p t e r a t IJ. = 0.28. I n Figs A 2 8 and 1.a t h e s e loads are summed; t h e diagram a l s o gives t h e t o t a l r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P a c t i n g on a blade i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l ' and I) = plane of t h e r o t o r at I) = 0 = 1 8 0 ' (Fig.1.28) and i n t h e l a t e r a l plane at JI = 90' and $ = 270' (see Fig.l.3).

Fig.1.27 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Harmonic Components of Aerodynamic Load over t h e Blade Radius, f o r p, = 0.28.

7. Determination of t h e Blade
F l a p p i x Coefficients

To determine aerodynamic l o a d s by means of eq.(7.42), it i s necessary t o know t h e f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s of a flexurally r i g i d blade. The f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s can be determined from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (7.1) i f we represent t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e equation i n t h e form
Yt=PoY(0),

(7.44)

where y(O) i s t h e mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e fundamental. For a r i g i d blade, this v i b r a t i o n mode coincides w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e

If t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r flapping hinge i s equal t o zero ( l h . h = 0), t h e n

/85

Fig.128

Relative Aerodynamic h a d Acting on a Blade i n t h e Longitudinal Plane of t h e Rotor.

which i s v a l i d both f o r r i g i d and e l a s t i c blades ( s e e Sect .4). S e t t i n g t h S b = 0, l e t us s u b s t i t u t e eq.(7.45) i n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equat i o n s (7.1) and apply G a l e r k i n t s method t o it. T h i s o p e r a t i o n leads t o a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of f l a p p i n g v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade

where I i s t h e moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge. Equation (7.46) can a l s o be derived by equating t o zero t h e moment of a l l f o r c e s relative t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge. S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(7.40) and (7.41) i n t o eq.(7.46) and e q u a t i x t h e coeff i c i e n t s of l i k e harmonic azimuthal functions, we o b t a i n a system of equations from which we can determine a l l f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s system i s w r i t t e n out as a table (see Table 1.6). Each equation of t h e derived system r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u m of t h e products of /s6 c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s , entered i n t h e squares of Table 1.6, w h i l e t h e unknown flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e blade simultaneously e n t e r i n g several equations are set a p a r t v e r t i c a l l y i n a s e p a r a t e r o w above t h e t a b l e . The known c o e f f i c i e n t s of each equation occupy one r o w i n Table 1.6. On t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e

table, a s p e c i a l column contains t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s @ making up t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e equations. The empty squares of t h e table correspond t o c o e f f i c i e n t s equal t o zero.

Fig.1.29

Relative Aerodynamic Load Acting on a Blade i n t h e L a t e r a l Plane of t h e Rotor.

Table 1 . 6

I '

91

The following n o t a t i o n s were used i n compiling t h e table:

A = f br3dr; bl - - -

1
(7.47)

C'+' = bry,dr.
b

f--

The mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a r i g i d blade y i s determined by t h e expression

On s o l v i n g this system of equations, it i s found t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a 2 Thus, t h e y and bz are appreciably smaller t h a n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a8-' a?' and bi'. T h i s assump- /87 can be neglected i n determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ao, bi, and a?. t i o n leads t o simple formulas f o r determining t h e f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e

a2=
b, =
where

18

+ 8A2y:
2

Yx

[p (4A Bb:+

a;) -p2(2ACao
l'X

Yz

18

+ 8A2yZ

',

YX

92

. ..

..... .

8. Simplified Calculation of E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations

Eased on t h e simplifying assumptions adopted i n this Section, we can cons t r u c t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s and bending stresses i n a blade for h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t regimes of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Such a c a l c u l a t i o n , of course, cannot give p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s when applied t o low f l y i n g speeds where a major r o l e i s played by variable stresses having t o do w i t h t h e nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d ; t h e same i s t r u e f o r high speeds where it i s h i p o s s i b l e t o disregard t h e n o n l i n e a r i t y of t h e dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k and phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h flow compressibility. I n conformity w i t h t h e above formulas, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s conveniently performed along t h e axes of a n equivalent r o t o r . The c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s i s c a r r i e d out i n t h e following sequence :

1. First, determine t h e parameters of t h e f l i g h t regime a t which t h e calc u l a t i o n of stresses i s t o be c a r r i e d out. These are t h e following parameters: a) r o t o r angle of a t t a c k c y e q i b) angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r w; c ) a l t i t u d e and f l y i n g speed represented i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s p and w.
2. Calculate t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of flow through t h e r o t o r from t h e formula

where C, i s t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r .

3. N e x t , c a l c u l a t e t h e blade angle a t t h e c o n t r o l s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o which t h e geometric twist of t h e blade i s prescribed.

Without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of f o r c e s r e l a t e d w i t h t h e second harmonic of f l a p ping, this angle can be determined by t h e formula

/88

Here,

93

= c o e f f i c i e n t of t h r u s t ;

0 =

s o l i d i t y r a t i o of t h e r o t o r .

4. By means of eqs.(7.50), determine t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e blade, and by means of eqs.(7.41) and (7.42) t h e external loads on t h e blade.
5. To determine t h e bending stresses, c a l c u l a t e t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of t h e blade.
6. If such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed, eqs.(7.30) W i l l y i e l d t h e quasis t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics of blade v i b r a t i o n from t h e constant c o q o n e n t of t h e f i r s t and second harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load.
S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(7.41) i n t o eq.(7.30), we o b t a i n t h e values of t h e quasis t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h harmonic blade vibration

(7.54)

Here, t h e s u b s c r i p t s of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of q u a s i - s t a t i c blade deformation correspond t o t h e order of t h e harmonic of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . 'The index j denotes c o e f f i c i e n t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e j-th overtone of blade v i b r a t i o n s ; y3 i s t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade i n deformations w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h overtone :

94

The following n o t a t i o n s are adopted f o r t h e i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g eqs.(7.54):/89

where y ( J ) i s t h e mode of blade v5brations w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h overtone = 1 for I ;= 1 . normed such t h a t $ j )

7 . Then, write t h e blade deformations i n t h e following form:

y =[Co - C1 COS Q -d, sin 9 -c2 cos 29 - d,sin 2b] ~
( 1 )

+
(7.57)

+[eo-el cos+- f l s i n ~ - e 2 c o s 2 ~ : , - f 2 s i n 2 ~p+ ~~

+[go-gl

COS

9 --hl

sint;-g2

cos 2;- h, sin 2+]y(3)c . . .

Here, i n determining t h e blade deformation, t h e mode of t h e fundamental which, i n t h e case of r, = 0, coincides with a s t r a i g h t l i n e , is replaced b first t h r e e harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade y ( ) ,y ( ) , and y( 3 7 the normed such t h a t y C 9 ) = R a t r = R. Then, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation e n t e r i n g eq.( 7.57) can be determined i n terms of t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation i n accordance w i t h eq.(7.29).
A s a t y p i c a l example, l e t us write out t h e formulas f o r determining t h e coe f f i c i e n t s of deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i r s t harmonic:

If t h e dynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation are known, it i s easy t o d e t e r mine any camponents of t h e s t r e s s e s s e t up i n t h e blade. T h i s w i l l be discussed i n more d e t a i l i n Subsection 17 of Section 8 and i n Subsection 8 of Section 9.
I n t h e s i m p l i f i e d method of c a l c u l a t i o n presented here, a l a r g e number of a d d i t i o n a l assumptions of a computational nature a p p l i c a b l e t o zlmost a l l s t a g e s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are used i n p l a c e of t h e i n i t i a l assumptions p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of a blade model adopted i n d e r i v i n g eq.(7.l) and i n calc u l a t i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of this equation, which reduces t o eq.( 7.35). All t h e s e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , although t h e y make t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n q u i t e suitable f o r manual computation, introduce numerous indeterminacies t h a t are poorly amenable t o a q u a n t i t a t i v e evaluation. Despite this shortcoming, t h e described siniplified method of c a l c u l a t i o n has one important advantage, namely i t s c l e a r p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n p r i n c i p l e , a l l c a l c u l a t i o n results obtained by o t h e r more hproved methods are evaluated and analyzed on t h e basis of dependences presented here i n a s i m p l i f i e d form. However, even w i t h t h e use of a l l t h e s e assumptions, pencil-and-paper comp u t i n g by this method t a k e s one month of work f o r one c a l c u l a t o r . The c u r r e n t f l a w of blade designing cannot be maintained when one c a l c u l a t i o n t a k e s t h a t long. Therefore, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade used f o r sel e c t i n g t h e blade d e s i g n parameters can be performed only on high-speed elect r o n i c computers. Naturally, t h e r e i s no need t h e n t o use assumptions t h a t fac i u t a t e t h e computational process. Consequently, i n Section 8 we will p r e s e n t a method of c a l c u l a t i o n based on t h e same i n i t i a l assumptions, provided we neglect a l l v a r i a b l e induced velocit i e s ; t h e method uses no assumptions of a computational nature.

96

S e c t i o n 8. Calculation of B ~ d i n g Stresses i n a Blade a t Low and Moderate Flying Speeds

1 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Dist-shiw
Moderate Speeds

F l i g h t Renimes a t

Im

Low and moderate speeds of a h e l i c o p t e r are regarded here as regimes suff i c i e n t l y remote from flow s e p a r a t i o n i n which, furthermore, phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h flow compressibility can be neglected. On this basis, i n c a l c u l a t i n g aerodynamic loads it i s assumed approximately t h a t

T h i s assumption g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s necessary f o r constructi n g d e s i g n formulas. On t h e o t h e r hand, low-speed modes can be regarded as regimes e s p e c i a l l y , @ d e t r i m e n t a l t o f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and o f t e n conducive t o t h e generation of " u m bending s t r e s s e s i n t h e blade. These considerations j u s t i f y t h e use of a method of c a l c u l a t i o n s u i t a b l e only f o r low and moderate f l y i n g speeds but not for high speeds nor f o r regimes i n which phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e nonlinear c h a r a c t e r of t h e dependence cy = f ( a ) and w i t h f l o w c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y become determining f a c t o r s .

It should be noted t h a t t h e a s s m p t i o n (8.1) does not always hold f o r lowspeed modes. I n cases i n which t h e r o t o r blade accounts f o r a n extremely l a r g e load, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n should be performed w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonlinear dependence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e p r o f i l e . The method of such a c a l c u l a t i o n will be discussed i n S e c t i o n 9.
The blade overloading can be estimated f r o m t h e value of t h e t h r u s t coeff i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r t. Calculations show t h a t t h e assumption (8.1) can be used f o r low-speed modes without i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s i n t o t h e r e s u l t s a t t < 0.18. I n regimes w i t h v e r t i c a l overloads such as, f o r exanple, t h e braking regime of a h e l i c o p t e r before landing, an infringement of this i n e q u a l i t y might occur i n r o t o r s which show such overloads i n steady f l i g h t . A l l this must be t a k e n int o account i n s e l e c t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method.
2. Me-thod of Calculating S t r e s s e s

T h i s Section p r e s e n t s t h e conventional method of c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s , based on Galerkin's method w i t h expansion of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t i n a Fourier series in harmonics. Because of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of using this method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g low-speed modes, t h e harmonic components of t h e induced field are introduced i n t o a l l calc u l a t i o n formulas, and t h e problem of blade deformation i s solved simultaneously

97

w i t h t h e problem of determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s . However, such a n approach i s not a IlmustII f o r t h e method proposed here. I n c a l c u l a t i n g stresses a t moderate f l y i n g speeds when t h e variable induced Velocit i e s do not cause excessive refinements i n t h e results, it can be disregarded. I n this case t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d .
If t h e assumption (8.1) i s used, t h e aerodynamic load w i l l be a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of t h e displacements of t h e blade element, and t h e problem of calcul a t i n g t h e bending deformations w i l l reduce t o s o l v i n g t h e l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l To s o l v e this equation we use t h e B.G.Galerkin method. The equation (1.9). blade deformations are represented as a series w i t h r e s p e c t t o eigenfunctions, w h i l e t h e time c o e f f i c i e r k s of this series are expanded i n a Fourier series. The use of Galerkin's method transforms t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t o a system of a l g e b r a i c equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e Fourier s e r i e s , and t h e determination of t h e blade bending deformations reduces t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e s e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s . Such a method of c a l c u l a t i o n will be presented here.

3. A s s m t i o n s i n Deternrining Induced V e l o c i t i e s
When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bending stresses a t low f l y i n g speeds when t h e i r value i s determined mainly by t h e degree of nonuniformity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y & f i e l d , t h e assumptions on whose basis this f i e l d i s determined become of g r e a t importance. I n t h e first volume (Chapt.11, Sect.5), i t w a s mentioned t h a t induced vel o c i t i e s can be represented as t h e s u m of t h e e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s . T h i s subdivision i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y but proves u s e f u l s i n c e it permits an e v a l u a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of i n d i v i d u a l induced v e l o c i t y components by analogy w i t h t h e e v a l u a t i o n conventional f o r t h e wing of a r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t ; this justifies t h e adoption of c e r t a i n assumptions important f o r f u r t h e r p r e s e n t a t i o n . The flow p a s t a h e l i c o p t e r blade w i t h a nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i s analogous t o t h e flow p a s t t h e wing of a r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t i n f l i g h t s i n turbul e n t a i r , when t h e wing constarkly encounters airflows of d i f f e r i n g v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n . During r o t a t i o n of a r o t o r , t h e blade a l s o encounters i n i t s p a t h a nonuniform v e l o c i t y field, except that this f i e l d i s not caused by atmospheric turbulence but by t h e induced a c t i o n of t h e e n t i r e v o r t e x system of t h e r o t o r . T h i s field, by analogy w i t h a Wing, i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e e x t r i n s i c induced vel o c i t y f i e l d , u n l i k e t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d induced i n t h e blade r e g i o n by t h e vort i c e s shed by t h e blade due t o a change i n c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e and blade radius. That t h e s e v o r t i c e s c r e a t e appreciable induced v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e blade i s due e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e f a c t that t h e y are a t a very s h o r t d i s t a n c e from 30' from t h e r o t o r azimuth, it. Upon removing t h e v o r t i c e s a d i s t a n c e of 20 t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e aerodynamic load on t h e blade W i l l decrease.

J u s t as i n c a l c u l a t i n g a w i n g , t h e Isteady-flow hypothesisll can be used i n determining t h e aerodynamic loads on a blade. According t o this m o t h e s i s it i s assumed t h a t , i n a nonsteady f l a w p a s t a p r o f i l e , t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e prof i l e behave as though t h e flow p a t t e r n produced at; a given instant of t i m e would

98

remain unchanged f o r a n a r b i t r a r y l e n g t h of t i m e . I n conformity w i t h this hyp o t h e s i s , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic loads on a wing allowance i s made only f o r t h e change i n angle of a t t a c k produced by t h e e x t r i n s i c v e l o c i t y f i e l d , w h i l e t h e e f f e c t of t h e i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s i s disregarded. We w i l l use a n analogous approach f o r t h e case of a blade. I n determining t h e aerodynamic loads, we w i l l t a k e i n t o account only t h e e x t r i n s i c induced vel o c i t y field.

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of this field, c e r t a i n additional. assumptions r e l a t i v e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e v o r t e x system i n t h e low-speed mode can be used.

Figure 1 . 3 0 gives a planview of a system of free v o r t i c e s shed by t h e blade t i p s of a five-blade r o t o r i n a f l i g h t regime w i t h a speed corresponding t o D i r e c t i o n of flight p = 0.05. A t this speed, t h e variable stresses i n t h e r o t o r blades reach a " u m . The p i c t u r e conveyed by this sketch i s incomplete, s i n c e only f r e e v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade t i p s are shown w h i l e t h e v o r t i c e s shed from a l l o t h e r blade r a d i i are omitted. The radial ( t r a n s v e r s e ) v o r t i c e s are a l s o l e f t o f f . However, even this p a t t e r n a l r e a d y gives a n i d e a on t h e c l o s e spacing of v o r t i c e s i n low-speed regimes. Due t o this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e v o r t e x system, t h e induced a c t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l v o r t i c e s W i l l View of a Vortex S y s t e m merge and appear as t h e t o t a l nonuniFig.l.30 formity of t h e e n t i r e v e l o c i t y f i e l d . Shed by t h e Blade Tip i n t h e p = = 0.05 Regime. No sharp induced v e l o c i t y peaks, chara c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e v o r t e x system, w i t h widely spaced v o r t i c e s occur. Theref o r e , a t low f l y i n g speeds and e s p e c i a l l y f o r r o t o r s with a l a r g e number of blades, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s can be determined from t h e t h e o r y covering t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a r o t o r w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades. With a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed, t h e free v o r t e x system starts extending & and shows wider spacing. The v o r t e x system a l s o changes i n t h e same sense on a decrease i n t h e number of r o t o r blades. T h i s reduces t h e accuracy of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a configuration w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades. On changing from a given r o t o r t o a c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades, t h e l o c a l effect due t o t h e v o r t i c e s immediately adjacent t o t h e blade i s reduced so g r e a t l y that, i n first approximation, it can be assumed that this d e s i g n does not allow for t h e i n f l u e n c e of adjacent v o r t i c e s s o t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d determined on i t s basis will p r a c t i c a l l y coincide w i t h t h e e x t r i n s i c i n duced v e l o c i t y f i e l d .

99

1 1 1 I1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I II I II 111 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I11111IIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIII 11111

The considerations presented above l e a d t o t h e conclusion that, f o r calcul a t i n g e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s a t low f l y i n g speeds, t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y based on a scheme w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades can be used.

A t low f l y i n g speeds, one u s u a l l y measures variable stresses of which a major p o r t i o n i s made up of high harmonics of t h e r o t o r rpm, g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d between t h e f o u r t h and s i x t h harmonic. Therefore, s t i l l another important requirement m u s t be imposed on t h e method of determining induced v e l o c i t i e s . Such a method should determine t h e induced v e l o c i t y field w i t h a n accuracy of at least t o t h e s i x t h harmonic, which is p o s s i b l e only i f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n values are determined w i t h a n accuracy t o t h e same harmonic. Consequently, a l l methods not s a t i s f y i n g this requirement are worthless and cannot be used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c vibrations
A s s t a t e d above, we will present a method of c a l c u l a t i n g stresses i n which a l l variables are expanded i n Fourier series i n harmonics. Therefore, it i s convenient t o use t h e method of determining t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , i n which t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s are determined a l s o i n t h e form of a n expansion i n harmonics. These s t i p u l a t i o n s are best m e t by t h e t h e o r y developed by V.E.Baskin Therefore, this theory will be [(Ref .3); see a l s o Sect.5, Chapt.11 of Vol.11. used here f o r our stress a n a l y s i s .

4.

Mat hematical Formulas f o r Induced Velocity Field Determination

Let us examine t h e system of formulas proposed by V.E.Baskin f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of P r o t o r .

W e will r e p r e s e n t t h e field of t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s as t h e sm of i t s harmonic components. I n s o doing, both t h e t o t a l flow v e l o c i t y and t h e harmonic con& ponents of this v e l o c i t y are r e l a t e d t o t h e t i p speed of t h e r o t o r blades wR:

Here,

A,

h = t o t a l v e l o c i t y of t h e flow passing through t h e r o t o r , r e l a t i v e

t o wR;
= constant induced v e l o c i t y component, a l s o relative t o wR;
=

h , and

x,

harmonic induced v e l o c i t y components; r e c t i o n w i t h t h e t a i l boom of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r ;

JI

= azimuthal blade angle reckoned from a n a x i s coinciding i n di-

=
where

V cos a d oR

V = f l y i n g speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; a F O t= r o t o r angle of a t t a c k a t t h e s h a f t axes.

1 0 0

The l i n e a r aerodynamic load a c t i n g on t h e blade i s represented i n t h e form

where angle of slope of t h e dependence c y = f ( a ) , which here i s taken t o be l i n e a r i n t h e form of eq.(8.1); p = a i r density; bo.? = value of blade chord a t t h e relative radius F = 0.7. c :
=

Henceforth, t h e value of P e n t e r i n g this expression Will be designated as "relative aerodynamic loadtl. We represent t h e value of P i n t h e form

P=P,+

2 (P, cos m++ Fm sin m;).

m

(8.4)

The harmonic v e l o c i t y components A,, are represented as t h e sum of t h e soc a l l e d p a r t i a l induced v e l o c i t i e s , each of which i s induced only by one harmonic of t h e aerodynamic load

I n t h e s e expressions, t h e sum t o t a l induced v e l o c i t y components have one s u b s c r i p t n, w h i l e t h e p a r t i a l components have two s u b s c r i p t s n and m.
The values of t h e p a r t i a l harmonic induced v e l o c i t y Components are determined by t h e following expressions :

If t h e power t o which -r i s r a i s e d i s negative ( n

=

( - ~ ) m - ~ i n eqs.(8.6).

m < 0), we must s e t

/95

The c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.6)

have t h e following. values:

1 0 1

a=-,

*b '0.7

ZR

where

a zb

= s o l i d i t y r a t i o of t h e r o t o r ; = number of blades of r o t o r .

The value of t h e d i s k flow r a t i o averaged over t h e blade r a d i u s A,,, termined from t h e formula

i s de-

k6,=ptana&2

/- --

A,rdr.

To determine t h e f u n c t i o n s J(Fm) and J(Fm) e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.6), i n g formulas are obtained from V.E.BaskinTs theory:

t h e follow-

where

J,(zr) and Jm(zF) = Bessel f u n c t i o n s of t h e first kind of order n and m,

r e s p e c t i v e l y;
z = i n t e g r a t i o n parameter.

Here, t o s p e c i f y t h e parameter over which i n t e g r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out, a new n o t a t i o n i s introduced f o r t h e r e l a t i v e blade r a d i u s 'F;. T h i s n o t a t i o n w i l l be used only i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l s (8.9).

5. Transformations of Mathematical Formulas i n P a r t i c u l a r Cases

Equations (8.6) are g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d i n p a r t i c u l a r cases. case of n = m = 0, we have Thus, i n t h e

(8.10) For f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e r e s u l t obtained f o r t h e case of n = m i s esp e c i a l l y important. It w i l l be found that t h e coinciding harmonics of t h e aero-

102

dynamic load and induced v e l o c i t y are uniquely r e l a t e d by t h e expressions:

A,
where

=an =;

=Pn An,,=an-=,

-::1

L %
(8.11)

(8.12)

T h i s formulation makes i t expedient t o s e p a r a t e t h e induced v e l o c i t y con+ ponents i n t o two types: p r i n c i p a l induced v e l o c i t y components due t o t h e same harmonic of t h e aerodynamic load as t h e harmonic of t h e induced velocity, and secondary components due t o a l l o t h e r harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load.

This s e p a r a t i o n permits w r i t i n g eqs.(8.5)

i n t h e form

where t h e p r i n c i p a l induced v e l o c i t y components a r e determined by eq.(8.11), u m of a l l secondary induced veJocity _components i s introduced i n t o whereas t h e s t h e equation by means of t h e new n o t a t i o n s 1; and

x :

Here, zh i s t h e number of harmonic induced v e l o c i t y components t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

A t n = 0, t h e f i r s t m e m b e r s of t h e s e e q r e s s i o n s should be equated t o zero, and a t n = zb t h e same should be done w i t h t h e second members. I n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e equations f o r stress analysis, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s Will be represented i n t h e form of eq.(8.13).

6. Numerical Determination of t h e Integrals

J(Fm)ard

J(Fm)

A t m # n, a c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l s ( 8 . 9 ) encounters c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s . To determine t h e values of t h e s e i n t e g r a l s , V.E.Baskin proposed a

103

method i n which t h e aerodynamic load components are approximated by trigono, at metric polynomials. For this, it i s necessary t o determine t h e values of P prescribed blade radii not coinciding w i t h t h o s e used i n t h e o v e r a l l calculat i o n . This i s not t o o convenient f o r t h e method proposed here. Therefore, we w i l l use another method more suitable f o r t h e given case, i n which c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l s J(Fm ) and J@,) i s c a r r i e d out appro-tely i n t h e same form i n which t h e i n t e g r a l s are computed when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e blade s t r e s s e s . To this end, t h e blade i s divided i n t o i n d i v i d u a l segments w i t h i n whose limits t h e aerodynamic load i s represented i n a form s u i t a b l e f o r i n t e g r a t i o n . Here, it i s l o g i c a l t o d i v i d e t h e blade i n t o t h e same segments i n a l l cases, both when calc u l a t i n g t h e s t r e s s e s ard when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l s (8.9). W e w i l l repres e n t t h e load P,(p) such t h a t , a t each segment of i n t e g r a t i o n , this load w i l l vary i n accordance with t h e l a w

Here,

current values of r e l a t i v e blade radius; a f t e r i n t e g r a t i o n and subWill no longer be contained s t i t u t i o n of t h e limits, t h e value of i n formulas without an index; ij;, = same value of r e l a t i v e r a d i u s but w i t h t h e s u b s c r i p t k, which means that t h e r a d i u s i n question coincides w i t h t h e r a d i u s at which t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P,(p,) i s c a l c u l a t e d .

p =

Fig.l.31

Shape of t h e R e l a t i v e Aerodynamic b a d Adopted f o r t h e Calculation of Induced V e l o c i t i e s .

Henceforth, as a l r e a d y s t a t e d , l e t us d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e r e l a t i v e r a d i i a t which t h e value of t h e aerodynamic load i s taken, from t h e r e l a t i v e radii Fi

Fk,

a t which t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s calculated.

T h i s prevents p o s s i b l e confusion.

ht us assume t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load varies i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w (8.15) over t h e l e n g t h of each segment bounded by t h e r e l a t i v e radii

I n Fig.l.31, t h e s o l i d stepped l i n e gives t h e shape of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynanric load over t h e blade length, represented f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s from eq.(8.15) i n t h e case m = 0. Such a form of 'repres e n t a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic load naturally may introduce c e r t a i n e r r o r s i n t o t h e values of t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s . However, c a l c u l a t i o n s performed t o estimate t h e magnitude of this e r r o r demonstrated t h a t t h e e r r o r i s small and i s & unable t o cause s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s . On s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e value of t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load expressed i n t h e form of eq.(8.15) i n t o t h e expression of t h e integrand of eq.(8.9), t h e n t h e i n t e r i o r i n t e g r a l on t h e right-hand s i d e of this equation can be represented as some sum of d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l s :

The d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g this expression can be c a l c u l a t e d analytic a l l y [see (Ref .11)1. S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n limits i n t o t h e obtained expressions, we can w r i t e :

where

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e r e s u l t a n t value of t h e i n t e r i o r i n t e g r a l i n t o eqs.(8.9), we o b t a i n

O r , i f we w r i t e this i n a simpler form,

105

3I Il1l111111l11l

where

The i n t e g r a l (8.20) i s a discontinuous i n t e g r a l known as t h e Weber-Schafh e i t l i n i n t e g r a l (Ref.11). Its a n a l y t i c expression, as a function of t h e relat i o n between Ti and *(Fk + is;r+l), has t h e following form:

Here,

I?

= gamma function with d i f f e r e n t arguments; F = m e r g e o m e t r i c function of t h e argument CY, f3, y,

Z.

These arguments, as indicated by eqs.(8.21) and (8.22), m a y have d i f f e r e n t values depending upon t h e r e l a t i o n between F, and + & & ! + Gtl ). For exanple, i n eq.(8.Z), we have

106

When performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on a d i g i t a l computer, t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are easy t o program. Therefore, t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n p r e s e n t s no d i f f i c u l t i e s .

7 A s m t i o n s Adopted - i n AerGd>-c

Force _Determinations

In determining t h e aerodynamic loads, t h e assumption (8.1) i s supplemented by t h e same assumptions used i n determining t h e r i g i d blade loadings (Sect.?, Subsect .6), w i t h t h e exception of t h e a s s q t i o n (7.34)
1 . let us assume that t h e i n f l o w angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e 8 i s small and
t h a t we t h u s can assume a p p r o x i m t e l y :

where
U,

Q = inflow angle; and U , = mutually perpendicular components of t h e relative flow v e l o c i t y i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e e l a s t i c blade a h (Fig.1.32); here, t h e v e l o c i t y U, i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e rotor.
P ro la tn ae t io of n

Y
w

* + &
A x i s hof a f t I. o t o r
1

5
Ilv

2. let us assume that t h e magnitude of t h e r e l a t i v e vel o c i t y of c i r c u l a t i o n flow U around t h e p r o f i l e d i f f e r s litt l e from t h e magnitude of U,. Therefore, we can assume that

u s u,.

Plane p erp endi cu 1 ar to elastic blade a x i s

"

'

C~~apping plane

' c

Fig.1.32 Diagram of Flow P a s t a Blade, Used i n Stress Analysis at t h e LaJ-Speed Mode.

3. Let us assume t h a t , i n determining t h e loads i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e (plane going through t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ) , t h e p r o f i l e drag can be neglected and it can be assumed t h a t c, = 0.

4.
=

S t i p u l a t i n g that cos Q =

1 , l e t us assume t h a t t h e

/100

l o a d i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e does not differ from t h e load perpendicular t o t h e i n f l o w t o t h e blade p r o f i l e (see fig.1.32).

8. Mathematical Formulas

When using t h e assumptions given i n Subsection 7, t h e v a l u e of t h e relative aerodynamic load P e n t e r i n g e ~ ~ ( 8 . 3can ) be determined from t h e formula:

I I I

1111111l111111l1 lI Il Il1

where

U ,

b ,
and

t,

= value of t h e blade chord at t h e r a d i u s i n question, r e l a t i v e t o t h e chord at a radius F = 0.7; = same r e l a t i v e f l o w v e l o c i t y components as i n eq.(8.23) but

r e l a t i v e t o t h e t i p speed of t h e r o t o r blades wR:

Here,
A = r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow through t h e r o t o r ; this v e l o c i t y i s determined from eq.(8.2); y = displacements of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis in a p l a n e perpendicular t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n from which t h e s e displacements are calc u l a ted ; B = y' = angle of s l o p e of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis.

Here t h e prime denotes d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o .%heblade r a d i u s and t h e dot, w i t h respect t o time. The blade s e t t i n g angle can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form
9 =8 ,

-+A? - 6, sin 9- 6, cos 9 -

x$,.

(8.26)

Here ,

a t a r e l a t i v e r a d i u s F = 0.7 o r a t some o t h e r r a d i u s adopted f o r c a l c u l a t i n g eo, when t h e angle of rotat i o n of t h e blade i n t h e flapping hinge Bo i s equal t o zero; Acp = geometric blade twist; I1 and e,= c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l angles p r e s c r i b e d by t h e automatic p i t c h control; w. = f l a p p i n g compensator; Bo = angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.
= blade s e t t i n g angle

eo

Let us represent blade deformations i n t h e form

/ 1 0 1

where
6 , = c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation corresponding t o t h e j - t h harmonic of i t s natural v i b r a t i o n s ; t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s are funct i o n s of time and t h e r e f o r e a r e a l s o c a l l e d time f a c t o r s ; y ( j ) = natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes i n vacuum normed such t h a t yR(j) = R.

Let us expand t h e time f a c t o r s 6, i n a Fourier s e r i e s i n harmonics* t h e blade deformations can be represented as

108

Then,

(8.28)

+[ g o - x
n

(gncosn.;,+/znsinn9) -g(3)+.

..

This form of n o t a t i o n of t h e s o l u t i o n i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e conventional form of n o t a t i o n f o r t h e f l a p p i n g motion of a blade (7 .bo).

After d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eq.(8.28) w i t h r e s p e c t t o r a d i u s and t i m e and subs t i t u t i n g y, t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s d e r i v a t i v e s and eqs.(8.2) and (8.26), i n t o into eq.(8.25), and t h e n s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e r e s u l t a n t formulas f o r Ex and we f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e expression from which a l l harmonic components eq.(8.&), of t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P can be determined.

v,,

These components can be represented i n t h e form

Here, f, and are c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s determining t h e value of this component of t h e aerodynamic load, which does not depend on t h e magnitude of t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s .
If now t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s h, and 7, are represented i n t h e form of t h e sum of t h e main and secondary components and i f t h e main components are expressed

Fn

i n terms of P, and w i t h r e s p e c t t o eqs.(8.ll), t h e n t h e values of w i l l appear both on t h e l e f t - and right-hand s i d e s of eqs.(8.29).

Fn

Fn and Fn
we ob-

After determining from t h e s e equations t h e values of t a i n t h e following e$ressions:

P ,

and P,,

/102

where
109

Below, t h e values of g , and 5, W i l l be denoted as equivalent chords of t h e blade since, i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e y p l a y t h e same r o l e as t h e a c t u a l chords and, i n eqs.(f3.30), appear a t t h e same p l a c e a t which t h e values of Zr a r e loGated i n e q s . ( 8 . a ) . Thus, t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic loads, w i t h consideration of variable induced v e l o c i t i e s , should be determined by s u b s t i t u t i n g only secondary induced v e l o c i t y components i n t o t h e formulas and r e p l a c i n g t h e real chords by t h e equivalent blade chords. The values of t h e equivalent blade chords may d i f f e r d%pending on t h e f l i g h t regime and on t h e o r d e r of t h e harmonic of aerodynamic load being determined. However, t h e y always prove t o be smaller t h a n t h e real chords. Consequently, a l l harmonic aerodynamic load components are smaller t h a n t h e values t h e y would have i f t h e main induced v e l o c i t y components were equal t o zero and are a l s o smaller as many times as t h e equivalent chords are smaller t h a n t h e r e a l chords. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of equivalent chords l e a d s t o a decrease of a l l aerodynamic load components, b o t h e x c i t i n g and damping t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s . Therefore, t h e r e W i l l a l s o be a decrease i n t h e values of t h e relative c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic d a q i n g which determines t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes i n resonance. T h i s causes a decrease i n t h e variable blade deformat i o n s f a r from resonance, whereas t h o s e i n resonance remain approxjmately t h e same as i n c a l c u l a t i o n s without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this e f f e c t . E r e s s i o n s of t h e type of eq.(8.30), w r i t t e n f o r a l l harmonic components of t h e aerodynamic load, are found t o be i n t e r r e l a t e d over t h e induced v e l o c i t y components. Hence, t h e s e c o n s t i t u t e a c e r t a i n complex system of equations relat i v e t o unknown loads, which can be solved only i f t h e values of f, and T , are known. These values, however, depend on t h e magnitude of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation. Therefore, t o solve this system of equations i t i s necessary t o construct equations f o r determining t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s W i l l be c a r r i e d out below.
If t h e values of Fn and f, e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.30) are described i n d e t a i l , t h e expressions f o r t h e harmonic a e r o d y d c load components can be represented i n t h e form of Table 1 . 7 .

The e q r e s s i o n f o r each harmonic component of t h e loads and.% occupies one row i n t h e table and r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products formed by t h e coeff i c i e n t s entered i n t h e squares of t h e table w i t h t h e unknown f a c t o r s simultaneously contained i n several expressions and entered v e r t i c a l l y i n a s p e c i a l row & at the t u p of t h e table. These f a c t o r s , as a l r e a d y mentioned above, are c a l l e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation. -The right-hand s i d e of t h e table contains

P,

a number of terms @, f , " ,

o f deformation.

q, and

f : ,

not r e l a t e d w i t h t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s

110

To determine t h e values of p, and F , it i s necessary t o multiply t h e s u m of t h e products of t h e terms of each row and t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation, which sum i s added t o terms independent of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation, by t h e values of s i d e of t h e table.

En and E,.

These values are entered on t h e left-hand

The number of terms e n t e r i n g t h e expressions f o r F , and F , depends on t h e number of harmonics and overtones of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s being taken i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . I n Table 1.7, t h e expressions are given f o r t h e case where only two overtones and f o u r harmonics of t h e variable f o r c e s are t a k e n int o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . I n programs used f o r c a l c u l a t i o n on d i g i t a l computers, f o u r overtones of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s and six t o e i g h t harmonics of v a r i a b l e f o r c e s can u s u a l l y be considered.

9. Convwsiofi t o an Equivalent Rotor

In order t o demonstrate t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of converting t o an equivalent r o t o r , t h e following e q u a l i t y w a s used i n compiling Table 1.7:

which i s v a l i d only when t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n and t h e f l a p ping o r h o r i z o n t a l hinge t,,.h i s equal t o zero.
If we now use t h e known formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of flapping and angles of a t t a c k of a n equivalent r o t o r

a;=a,-~xb,+6,;
bf =61

tX U , -

02;

t~ana,~. =tana,,fvb,

- el,

t h e n t h e expressions f o r Fn and can be somewhat s i m p l i f i e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g , T h i s will i n t h e f i r s t row of t h e table, t h e values of a? and b? f o r a, and b,.
0 cause t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f , t o become equal t o zero, and t h e values of t h e angles and e 2 w i l l not e n t e r i n t o t h e equation. I n o t h e r words, t h e well-known p r i n c i p l e t h a t blade loading does not depend on t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l a t t h a h = 0, i s completely observed i n t h e expressions of Table 1.7.

F ,

However, t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s obtained on converting t o a n equivalent r o t o r are s o i n s i g n i f i c a n t as not t o justify t h e assumption of t h a h = 0. Therefore, we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e blade v i b r a t i o n s only i n t h e axes of t h e s h a f t and will not use t h e concept of a n equivalent r o t o r .
10. Basic A s s m t i o n s Used i n Calculation of Bending S t r e s s e s

In t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending s t r e s s e s i n a blade, we W i l l use t h e assump1 1 1

/'

....

__
2

-1
'r

P- xo

1%
I....

i
I

(-2

tzP

2;

-3+

2p F
..
1
I

e . .

1 .

P?=X,

_ . _

c 3
.

d4.

-$pZx,

..

- - . ..

...

-----

Terms, Independent of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t o f Deformation

- $P

IJ

t i o n s adopted i n d e r i v i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (1.9) of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n e w i l l represenb t h e blade as a n e l a s t i c beam extended by t h e thrust plane. W centrifugal forces N . The parameters of this beam i t s l i n e a r mass m and t h e flexural r i g i d i t y E1 - will be considered as continuously d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e blade length.

Furthermore, we are adopting t h e following assumptions:

/104.

1 . We Will assume t h a t t h e p l a n e of minimum blade r i g i d i t y coincides w i t h t h e f l a p p i n g plane, so t h a t t h e blade w i l l bend i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane only under t h e e f f e c t of f o r c e s a c t i n g i n this plane.
2. In determining loads i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e we W i l l d i s r e g a r d t o r s i o n a l blade deformations (see Sect .7 of Chapt .IV i n Vol.1, on c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l deformation).

3. W e w i l l assume t h e conventional type of r o t o r w i t h hinged blades and d i s regard t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge, i.e., we W i l l pose l h , , , # 0 . We W i l l a l s o neglect t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s i n t h e blade hinges.
1 1 .D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Vibrations and i t s S o l u t i o n
When using t h e s e assumptions, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending stresses reduces t o s o l v i n g a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation whose d e r i v a t i o n has been given i n S e c t i o n 1 of this Chapter:

[E/y"l" - [ivy']'

+my

=T .

With t h e blade attachment i n question here, t h e boundary conditions can be w r i t t e n as

The value of t h e l i n e a r aerodynamic load e n t e r i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.(8.32) i s determined from eqs.(8.3), (8.4.), and Table 1.7. After s u b s t i t u t i n g , i n t o this equation, t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e form of equat i o n (8.28) and applying Galerkints method, we o b t a i n a system o f a l g e b r a i c equat i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknown deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s system of equations i s represented i n t h e form of Table 1 . 8 . Each equation of t h e obtained system r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products formed by c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s entered i n t h e squares of t h e table w i t h t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation simultaneously contained i n several equations and entered v e r t i c a l l y i n a s p e c i a l row a t t h e t o p of t h e table. The known coeff i c i e n t s of each equation occupy one row i n t h e table. The right-hand s i d e of ' t h e table, i n a s p e c i a l column, contains t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

Fn and Fn representing

P P N

TABLE 1 . 8

t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e equations. J u s t as i n Tables 1.7 and 1.9 t h e r e are empty squares i n Table 1.8. T h i s means t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equations f o r which t h e s e squares are i n tended are equal t o zero.

12. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on-the Left-Hand Side of %he Equations i n Table 1.8

To determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations, a s p e c i a l operator must be devised f o r t h e computational program. T h i s operator should read out t h e values f o r a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of any equation of t h e system. To render this operator as simple as p o s s i b l e , we w i l l d i v i d e t h e e n t i r e t a b l e of c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t o a number of zones r e l a t i v e t o t h e number of harmonics of natur a l v i b r a t i o n s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . These zones a r e t h e n used f o r combining, i n t o s e p a r a t e groups, a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t follow a s i m i l a r p a t h of formation when using Galerkints method and can be roughly c a l c u l a t e d by t h e same formulas.
The transformation of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (8.32) by means of Galerk i n ' s method i n t o a system of a l g e b r a i c equations of Table 1.8 comprises t h e f o l lowing operations:

1 . I n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (8.32), w e f i r s t s u b s t i t u t e t h e s o l u t i o n m i n t h e form of eq.(8.28) containing various n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes. If t h e modes e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e s o l u t i o n (8.28) a r e denoted by t h e s u b s c r i p t J, t h e n a l l terms of t h e equation obtained as r e s u l t of this o p e r a t i o n can be divided i n t o s e v e r a l groups, each of which i s characterized by a d e f i n i t e s u b s c r i p t J.

2. Next, a l l terms of t h e equations are m u l t i p l i e d i n t u r n by t h e same natur a l v i b r a t i o n modes y ( I ) A s a r e s u l t of this operation, a system of equations i s formed i n which each ecflation d i f f e r s from t h e o t h e r s by t h e harmonic of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode y(' ty which a l l terms of t h e equations had been multip l i e d . Therefore, t h e r e s u l t a n t equations were numbered i n accordance w i t h t h e values of t h e index I.

3. I n t e g r a t i o n over t h e blade l e n g t h of a l l f u n c t i o n s obtained as a r e s u l t of p r i o r operations i s t h e next s t e p i n G a l e r k i n t s method. A s a r e s u l t of this operation, a l l terms of t h e equations which previously had been f u n c t i o n s of t h e blade r a d i u s become constants.

4.. I n t h e next s t e p , each equation obtained i n this manner can be divided i n t o numerous simpler equations i f a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i k e values of cos n$ and s i n n$ are equated. A s a r e s u l t of this operation, each equation w i t h t h e numeral I W i l l be transformed i n t o an e n t i r e family of equations. The i n d i v i d u a l equations e n t e r i n g this family are coordinated by t h e index i i n Table 1.8. Furthermore, each p a i r of equations p e r t a i n i n g t o l i k e harmonics i s marked by t h e index n, e q u a l t o t h e order of t h e corresponding harmonic.
A n a n a l y s i s of t h e r e s u l t a n t system of a l g e b r a i c equations shows t h a t a l l l i k e c o e f f i c i e n t s of equations are arranged d i a g o n a l l y i n Table 1 . 8 . T h i s arrangement i s repeated i n a l l zones corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t indexes J and I.

It should be noted t h a t t h e r e are exceptions t o this r u l e , which becomes obvious from a study of Table 1 . 8 .
Using t h e above i n d i c e s i, n, J, and I, it i s p o s s i b l e t o construct general formulas f o r a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations . 8 . I n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s e formulas, we w i n use s p e c i a l functions of Table 1 f l ( a ) and f,(a) which assume t h e following values, depending upon t h e p a r i t y and magnitude of t h e i r argument :

f 1 ( 4 =0j
f 2

at at
at

u
U

even;

odd;

(4 =

j 01

a=O;

at

u-#O.

These formulas have t h e form

A L =p2x,c

(8.34)

where

p$

r o t a t i o n i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h harmonic of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s normed i n conformity w i t h eq.(8.27); y I = mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i - t h harmonic;

J,= angle of

m q :

= equivalent

mass of blade during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e I - t h harmonic:

I n t h e p a r t i c u l a r case when I = 0 and when we can set T(O) = F, t h e expression f o r y o w i l l coincide w i t h t h e conventional expression (7.49) f o r t h e mass chara c t e r i s t i c of a r i g i d blade [ eq.( 7.49) 1.
p J= frequency of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j-th harmonic; i n performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e value of t h e frequency i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e expression

w = angular ' v e l o c i t y ( o r r o t o r rpm, depending on t h e u n i t s i n which P J

i s determined); t h e r a t i o PJ/W should be dimensionless.

Other q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g eqs .( 8.34) have t h e following values :

/107

(8.37)
0

Here,

BCi) = equivalent blade chord determined by eqs.(8.31)

and t h u s having d i f f e r e n t values depending on t h e number of t h e equation:

TJ

and

= n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e blade whose harmonic

i s de-

termined by t h e value of t h e i n d i c e s J and I. The symbols of t h e s e modes are marked by a vinculum. T h i s means t h a t t h e y are normed such t h a t = 1 . A t t h e same time, t h e values of t h e first derivat i v e of t h e s e modes, following d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n over t h e blade r a d i u s B J , are not marked by a vinculum. T h i s means t h a t t h e s e d e r i v a t i v e s are t a k e n from t h e vib r a t i o n modes yJ normed such t h a t yi = R.

FR

Equations (8.34) permit determining t h e Vinculi of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s K, L, M, N, R, Q, S, T, U, L, and K f o r any zone of Table 1.8, i f t h e coordinates of

this zone J and I and t h e number of t h e equation i n t h e zone i are p r e s c r i b e d . Thus, assigning i n sequence t h e d i f f e r e n t values of J, I, and i and making use of t h e operator which i n c l u d e s t h e o p e r a t i o n p r e s c r i b e d by eqs.(8.34), we can determine a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations i n Table 1.8.

13. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e Right-Hand Side of t h e Equation of Table 1.8

To determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e right-hand s i d e Fn and g,, it i s necess a r y t o d e r i v e a s p e c i a l operator f o r t h e computational program, i n which t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined by t h e following formulas:

For harmonics above t h e t h i r d ( a t n 2 3), we have

/108

I n eqs.(8.38),

d + 5 : ;

q=&.

t h e new n o t a t i o n s are used f o r a series of i n t e g r a l s :

Here,

where

cpp

constant component of blade s e t t i n g angle, c a l c u l a t e d from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ; over t h e blade radius, this quat i t y changes only due t o i t s geometric twist Acp.

The values of

fi

are e n t e r e d i n t h e extreme right-hand column of Table

1 . 7 .

Thus, eqs.(8.38) permit determining a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e equations i f t h e value of I i s p r e s c r i b e d .

a.System of

Equati-ons a f t e r S u b s t i t u t i o n of Eqs.(8.34)

and (8.38)

If t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s determined from eqs.(8.34) and (8.38) are s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e equations of Table 1.8, t h e n this same system of equations can be represented i n t h e form of Table 1.9.

For s i m p l i c i t y , we l i m i t e d ourselves here t o t h e case i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed w i t h a n accuracy t o two overtones of v i b r a t i o n s and f o u r harmonics of r o t o r rpm. However, t h e above-derived mathematical formulas (8.34) and (8.38) are w r i t t e n i n a g e n e r a l form and permit c a l c u l a t i o n t o any d e s i r e d accuracy.

After evaluating t h e p r a c t i c a l requirements, i t becomes p o s s i b l e , i n s e t t i n g up t h e program, t o limit t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n of only f o u r overtones of natural v i b r a t i o n s alYl t o six or e i g h t harmonics of t h e r o t o r rpm.

117

TABLE 1 . 9

tg = tan

I I I

1 1 1 1 1 1 l1 l1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l Ill1

15. General C o m u t a t i o n a l Scheme

The system of a l g e b r a i c equations entered i n Table 1 . 8 , together with t h e system of equations presented i n Table 1.7, r e p r e s e n t s a complex system of equat i o n s p e r m i t t i n g a determination of a l l unknown q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g i n t o it. A determination of t h e s e unknowns and p r i m a r i l y of a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation c o n s t i t u t e s t h e ultimate purpose of t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n presented here. Above (Sect .7) i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending stresses based on G a l e r k i n t s method, we used various s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n d e r i v i n g t h e equations presented here and i n s o l v i n g them. The use of d i g i t a l computers g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s solvi n g this system of equations without a d d i t i o n a l assumptions; this g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e results. I n any case, t h e computational e r r o r s can be a s c r i b e d s o l e l y t o t h e i n i t i a l assumptions. Performance of a l l necessary mathematical operations w i l l introduce no e r r o r s and can be c a r r i e d o u t at any p r e s c r i b e d accuracy. H o w does one s o l v e this r a t h e r complex system of equations? No doubt, t h e sbiplest method here i s t h e method of successive approximations i n t h e form i n which it will be presented below. T h i s method was used i n programming and has been checked by numerous c a l c u l a t i o n s . The method converges r a p i d l y and a l r e a d y three or f o u r approximations s u f f i c e f o r obtaining; t h e necessary accuracy. I n applying t h e method of successive approximations, t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation are determined i n t h e sequence of ascending i n d i c e s chara c t e r i z i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e corresponding harmonic. Therefore, before passi n g t o a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e sequence of operations i n t h e method of successive approximations, a brief review of t h e determination of deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s i s required.

16. Determination of Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s

In determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation, t h e same p r i n c i p l e i s used i n a l l cases, involving t h e following. The deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined i n p a i r s from two equations of t h e system of Table 1 . 8 pertaining t o the c o s i n u s o i d a l and s i n u s o i d a l components of some harmonic. The equations are first transformed i n t h e f o l l k n g manner: Determine t h e s u m of t h e products of A$, -

and A5,, c o e f f i c i e n t s i n Table 1.8 as w e l l as t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s der i v e d before performing this operation, w i t h t h e exception of t h e products cont a i n i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o u t l i n e d by a broken l i n e i n Table 1 . 8 . These sums of t h e products are t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e equations. After this. t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s p e r t a i n i n g t o l i k e harmonics (of course, only i n t h e case of n > 1) and t o t h e deformation modes are determined from two algeb r a i c equations of t h e following form:

I'

The c o e f f i c i e n t s a, and b , here have a generalized c h a r a c t e r i n that such a n o t a t i o n of t h e equatiQns i s p o s s i b l e a l s o w i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c, and d,; e, and f,; g, and h , . The c o e f f i c i e n t s G, S, R, and 3 e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.M) are determined by eqs.(8.34) f o r t h e case of J = I. The value of 5. i s even f o r t h e f i r s t equation and odd f o r t h e second. Consequently, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , i n this p a r t i c u l a r /1Lo case, can be w r i t t e n i n accordance w i t h e q ~ ~ ( 8 . 3 4 i) n t h e form

I n this case, a t J

I, we have

Neglecting t h e second term i n t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system (8.41) and approximately s e t t i n g = B , = b,, eqs.(8.40) can be transformed i n t o t h e form used i n t h e s i m p l i f i e d methods of ca1cula;tion (see Sect .7)

E,

I n fact, when making t h e s e a s s q t i o n s , we m u l t i p l y a l l terms of eq.(8.40) P :

Let us now introduce new n o t a t i o n s .

The q u a n t i t y J . , ;

d e t e h n e d by t h e ex-

(8

Will be c a l l e d t h e relative c o e f f i c i e n t of aerodynamic damping

The q u a n t i t y v, vibrations. Then eq.(8.40)
= n w

Will

be c a l l e d t h e frequency of e x c i t a t i o n of forced

can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form used i n Section 7:

From t h e s e equations, t h e a q l i t u d e of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation corresponding t o t h e J-th harmonic of n a t u r a l Vibrations can be determined as

where

X d Y n = c o e f f i c i e n t of d y d c i n c r e a s e i n amplitude;
S',:)

= d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade with r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e J-th ,hr-

monic under s t a t i c a p p l i c a t i o n of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s :

Thus, t h e adopted form of determining t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s theor e t i c a l l y coincides w i t h t h e form used i n problems of mechanics when determining t h e Vibration q l i t u d e of a damped system, as described above i n Section 7.

It should be noted that, i n determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation, / 1 l 1 t h e equations of t h e system (see Table 1.8) are transformed i n t o t h e form of eq.(8.40) only a t n > 1 . In determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e first harmonic, c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l c o e f f i c i e n t s K, L, and U will e n t e r t h e left-hand s i d e of eqs.(8.hO) which, however, changes nothing i n t h e e s s e n t i a l aspect of t h e matter.
A determination of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a,, c,, e, and go which d e f i n e t h e cons t a n t component of t h e deformations proves t o d i f f e r somewhat. These c o e f f i c i e n t s can be determined f o r one equation w i t h t h e number i = 0. However, so as not t o d i s r u p t t h e g e n e r a l i t y of t h e approach, it i s p r e f e r a b l e t o determine them a l s o i n a program of two equations with t h e numbers i = 0 and i = 1whose coefI n s o doing, it i s f i c i e n t s are determined by t h e same formulas [eqs.(8.34)1.
Such a n approach y i e l d s a s l i g h t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of necessary t o put = 0. t h e computational program.

??

17. Computational Program

I n programming t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e following sequence of performing t h e necessary operations i s used:

1. The mtural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of a blade i n t h e t h r u s t p l a n e a r e determined from a s e p a r a t e program which i s a b s o l u t e l y necessary i n desigrdng blades and t h u s m u s t be formulated. The fol-laring q u a n t i t i e s should be
120

Here, defined f o r carrying out this c a l c u l a t i o n : y J , BJ, o J , and m"J9 is t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f bending stresses over t h e blade r a d i u s during i t s v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e normed modes of t h e J-th harmonic.
2. The parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f l i g h t regime of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are prescribed: p , p , w, a r o t , rqrasl, e,, I2=Here, a r o t and cpreal can be determined from c a l c u l a t i o n i f t h e required propulsive f o r c e and thrust of t h e r o t o r are prescribed. The c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l angles 8, and e 2 can be determined i f t h e r e q u i r e d moments M, and M, due t o t h e r o t o r blades and a c t i n g on t h e hub are determined from t h e conditions of h e l i c o p t e r balancing. These aperations are u s u a l l y included i n t o t h e programming.

I I

3. To arrive a t t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e system of equations entered here i n Tables 1.7 and 1.8, it i s necessary t o determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s yJ and N. T h i s system of equations i s solved by t h e method of successive approximations where, i n each approximation, a l l unknowns are determined i n t h e sequence given i n Table 1.10. First, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e first r o w are determined, t h e n t h o s e i n t h e second row, and so on.

J.

4. After determining a l l q u a n t i t i e s given i n Table 1.10, t h e parameters of t h e f l i g h t regime y r e a l ,a r O, t e,, e 2 can be refined and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s can be c a r r i e d out i n t h e next approz&"aion i n t h e same sequence.
5. The sequenc of operations, i n d i c a t e d i n Table 1 . 1 0 , i s repeated u n t i l t h e d i f f e r e n c e of l i k e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s i n two successive approximations i s l e s s t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d accuracy of c a l c u l a t i n g 8. The value of 6 can be t a k e n as equal t o 1 / 1 0 0 0 o r somewhat smaller.
6. The magnitude of t h e bending stresses i n t h e blade a t each azimuth can
be determined from t h e formula

where t h e values of 6 , are determined from t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s ao, a,, b,, coy c,, b,, etc., i n conformity w i t h eqs.(8.27) and (8.28). T h i s sequence of operations c o n s t i t u t e s t h e p r i n c i p l e of +he method of calc u l a t i o n presented here. Performance of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n p e ..dts obtaining: bending stresses and form of blade deformation at eacn r o t o r azimuth, w i t h simultaneous determination %f a l l harmonic components of t h e s e quantities; f i e l d of axial induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e p l a n e of t h e r o t o r and a l l harmonic components of this f i e l d ; angle of a t t a c k arid blade s e t t i n g angle i n f l i g h t regimes w i t h pres c r i b e d values of propulsive f o r c e and t h r u s t ; angles of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l swashplate, necessary f o r crea t i n g t h e mamerrts M, and M, r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r balancing.

1 8 . Gomarison of Calculation w i t h E b e r i m e n t at .bJlfi-ng

Speed

A t low f l y i n g speeds, t h e variable stresses measured i n t h e blade are usua u highly unstable.
During a s i n g l e f l i g h t regime flown by one p i l o t . t h e v i b r a t i o n a m l i t u d e m a y f l u c t u a t e i n magnitude by a f a c t o r of 2 3 . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t that t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r and t h e f l y i n g speed i n t h e s e regimes are extremely d i f f i c u l t t o keep cons t a n t . The f l i g h t mode changes continuously. However, t h e designer i s mainly i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m a x i " variable stress amplitudes, s i n c e t h e s e genera l l y carry t h e greatest r i s k with respect t o fatigue i n t h e structure.

Usually, t h e maximum variable blade stresses arise i n f l i g h t regimes w i t h t h e l a r g e s t angles of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r . These regimes i n c l u d e braking and s t e e p descent at high vert i c a l speed. To compare t h e results of c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment,, one proceeds i n t h e following manner: Check a l l f l i g h t regimes w i t h abrupt braking of t h e h e l i c o p t e r before landing, i n which t h e blade stresses were measured. From each f l i g h t , s e l e c t t h e maximum (over t h e blade r a d i u s ) WEt u d e of stresses set up during t h e e n t i r e landing mode. The f i e l d of values of t h e s e stresses i s hatched i n Fig.1.33. Then, c a l c u l a t e t h e

stresses f o r regimes w i t h d i f f e r e n t f l y i n g speeds and w i t h a n i d e n t i c a l r o t o r angle of att a c k . The f l y i n g speed i n t h e given regime w i l l be characteri z e d by p . The r e s u l t s of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s are given i n Fig.1.33. The s o l i d l i n e s

122

show t h e dependence of t h e c a l c u l a t e d ma?&" variable blade stresses on f l y i n g speed. Here, we examined regimes w i t h a n angle of a t t a c k CY = 0, CY = 30' which can be achieved i n a regime of abrupt braking, as w e l l as w i t h a n angle of att a c k a = 50' which i s p o s s i b l e during s t e e p descerrt a t high v e r t i c a l speed. The dashed l i n e shows t h e same dependence f o r a = 0 and a = -6', b u t without cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y field. I n performing t h e s e calculat i o n s , we i n v e s t i g a t e d f l i g h t regimes without overload when t he t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r was equal t o t h e weight

It follows from t h e s e calculations, that the greatest increase i n variable stresses a t low speeds i s observed i n f l i g h t regimes i n which t h e free vortex sheet shed by t h e blades becomes two-dimens i o n a l . When t h e s h e e t i s f a r t h e r removed from t h e r o t o r plane, t h e variable s t r e s s e s decrease g r e a t l y and approach, i n magnitude, t h e s t r e s s e s c a l c u l a t e d without cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e variable induced velocity field.
A comparison of regimes with i d e n t i c a l angles of a t t a c k shows a marked i n c r e a s e i n variable s t r e s s e s , i n a very narrow range of f l y i n g speeds.

F'ig.l.33 Results of Calculating V a r i able S t r e s s e s , w i t h Consideration of a Nonuniform Induced Velocity F i e l d and Comparison w i t h Ekperiment

The r e s u l t s of t h e calculat i o n r e f l e c t t o some degree t h e p a t t e r n of t h e phenomenon observed i n f l i g h t . Thus, as i n f l i g h t , t h e c a l c u l a t e d values of v a r i a b l e stresses i n c r e a s e a t low speeds and rise w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n r o t o r angle of a t t a c k . However, t h e r e i s a considerable discrepancy between c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment.

1 . A t i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes, t h e variable stress amplitudes obtained from c a l c u l a t i o n were found t o be lower t h a n t h o s e measured i n f l i g h t tests.
2. The variable stress amplitudes obtained i n c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment are q u a n t i t a t i v e l y similar when comparing regimes w i t h d i f f e r e n t angles of at-

tack, using, i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , r o t o r angles of a t t a c k somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e occurring i n f l i g h t .

3 . A comparison of f l i g h t regimes i n which t h e stress magnitudes obtained

I23

Il l 1 I l l

1 l1 1 1 1 l1 1 1 1 1 l1 l I Il1 I1 I I I Il1

i n c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment coincide shows a s u b s t a n t i a l difference i n t h e i r harmonic composition. The content of high harmonics i s g r e a t e r i n s t r e s s e s measured i n f l i g h t than i n calculation. Thus, harmonics frorr. t h e f o u r t h t o t h e s i x t h predominate i n s t r e s s e s measured i n an abrupt braking regime, which a r e A t t h e same time, stresses of t h e first, t h i r d , and f i f t h shown i n Fig.1.33. harmonic predominate i n v a r i a b l e stresses obtained by calculation. Here, they are l i s t e d i n t h e sequence of descending amp l i t u d e . A s an exmple, Fig.1.x shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s over t h e blade radius and t h e i r harmonic content i n a f l i g h t regime a t CY = 50' and p = 0.048.

It should be noted that, i n t h e calcu- / 1 l 5 l a t i o n , we investigated a blade with charact e r i s t i c s ensuring t h e absence of resonance a t t h e operating rpm. Its resonance diagram i s shown i n Fig.1.35. The operating rpm adopted i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s shown on t h e resonance diagram by a v e r t i c a l l i n e .
The presented d a t a show t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e method of calculation, with considerat i o n of moderate induced v e l o c i t i e s under t h e same a s s m p t i o n s as described i n Subsection 3, approximates t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment at low f l y i n g speeds. However, f u r t h e r refinements a r e necessary t o o b t a i n r e s u l t s u s e f u l f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes.
5
rm

19. Gomarison of Calculation with Emeriment at Moderate-5beed Mode

Here, by moderate f l y i n g speeds we mean a l l speeds a t which t h e nonlinearity i n t h e r e l a t i o n cy = f ( a ) and t h e phenomena associated with flow compressibility s t i l l have no CY = 50'). e f f e c t . I n many cases, therefore, Itmoderate f l y i n g speeds" comprise t h e cruising speed of a helicopter; this i s e s p e c i a l l y of i n t e r e s t from t h e viewpoint of f a t i g u e strength, since t h e helicopter operates most of t h e t h e at this speed. Figure 1.36 gives a comparison of t h e amplitudes of variable s t r e s s e s and t h e i r first and second harmonics r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r rpm, obtained i n calculaThe t i o n s with s t r e s s e s measured i n t h e blade at c r u i s i n g speed f o r p = 0.25. stresses obtained i n f l i g h t a r e shown by dots. The dashed l i n e shows s t r e s s e s = const, and t h e calculated with consideration of t h e assumption that A = A,,, s o l i d l i n e s with consideration that h = var.

Fig.l.34 D i s t r i b u t i o n of S t r e s s e s over t h e Blade Radius and t h e i r Harmonic Content a t Flight Regimes (p = 0.048 and

It follows from this diagram that t h e results from c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment at cruising speed d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y . The t o t a l q l i t u d e of calculated s t r e s s e s amounts t o no more than 80% of t h e values measured i n f l i g h t . This dis-

crepancy occurs mainly as a consequence of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values of t h e second harmonic of t h e stresses relative t o t h e r o t o r rpm. The coincidence i n t h e f i r s t harmonic of t h e stresses i s r a t h e r good. The higher harmonics of stresses i n this f l i g h t regime are quite small and have no s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e stress amplitude. The results presented i n Fig.1.36
p CyJnrin

are t y p i c a l f o r f l i g h t regimes w i t h p = = 0.25 and are duplicated on almost a l l h e l i c o p t e r s .

We a l s o see from Fig.1.36 t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n of variable induced v e l o c i t i e s , i n this regime, yields no n o t i c e a b l e refinement i n t h e values of t h e variable stresses However, when having t o do only w i t h / 1 1 6 f o r example, t h e one harmonic fourth it w i l l be found t h a t i t s value i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y when allowance i s made f o r t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d . Therefore, such refinement i s highly important i f this harmonic i s p r e s e n t and determines t h e magnitude of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e f u s e l a g e and causing it t o vibrate.

5 t h harmon i c

4 t h harmonic

3 r d harmonic

2nd harmonic

f s t h arM on i c

Above, we have s a i d nothi n g on t h e constant component 0 so 100 tSD hlQm of t h e bending stresses. Genera l l y t h e i r magnitude, obtained Fig.1.35 Resonance Diagram of Blade. on t h e basis of c a l c u l a t i o n , proves t o be s o a c c u r a t e that it u s u a l l y i s not even measured i n f l i g h t . Calculation yields more reliable r e s u l t s i n this case 20. P o s s i b i l i t i e s-of F u r t h z Refinement of C a l c u k t i o n Results

As follows f r o m t h e above, a c a l c u l a t i o n of variable blade stresses s t i l l yields no results t h a t could be completely s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e designer. I f , a t moderate f l y i n g speeds, t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n more o r less s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a g r e e w i t h experiment (although f u r t h e r refinement of t h e values of t h e second harmonic i s extremelv d e s i r a b l e ) , a r a t h e r remote coincidence i s observed at low f l y i n g speeds.
1

I n this connection, it i s highly importarrt t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which f u r t h e r refinement of t h e results i s sought. We can propose t h e following i n this r e s p e c t .

I n c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e stresses at low f l y i n g speeds, t h e m o s t important refinements comprise: c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s (abandonment of t h e Itsteady-flow hypothesisl1); use of t h e v o r t e x theory which t a k e s i n t o account deformations of t h e / 1 1 7 f r e e v o r t e x system (abandonment of t h e assumption that v o r t i c e s are shed from a r o t o r at a constant speed equal t o t h e average d i s k downwash h,,,).

4
2

Fourth harmonic

ai

0.2 0.3 0.4 0 . 50 . 6 0 . 7 0.8 0.9 F 0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 7

~ig.1.36

Comparison of t h e Values of Variable Stresses, Calculated under Consideration of a Variable Induced Velocity f i e l d , w i t h Stresses Measured i n F l i g h t .

I n c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e stresses a t moderate f l y i n g speeds, where t h e main discrepancy i s observed i n values of t h e second harmonic of t h e stresses, applic a t i o n of t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y f o r a f i n i t e number of blades and i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of both e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s would c o n s t i t u t e a highly u s e f u l refinement. I n cases of a blade of low r i g i d i t y i n t o r s i o n o r of e x c i t a t i o n by t h e ext e r n a l f o r c e s of a r o t o r v i b r a t i o n m o d e coinciding w i t h t h e f l u t t e r mode a t a frequency c l o s e t o t h e frequency of f l u t t e r , a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l blade deformations may yield n o t i c e a b l e refinements. The method of such a c a l c u l a t i o n was presented i n S e c t i o n 7, Chapter I V of Vol.1.

126

Often, i n c a l c u l a t i n g variable stresses a t c r u i s i n g speed (just as a t maximum speed), a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonlinear r e l a t i o n s c y = f ( a ) and of flow coma y lead t o s u b s t a r r t i a l refinement, a p o i n t t o be discussed f u r t h e r pressibility m i n t h e next Section. Section 9 Calculation of Blad.e Bending Stresses, w i t h Consideration of t h e Nonlinear Dependencg o f Aero&namic C o e f f i c i e n t s o n P r o f i l e A n g l e _of A t t a c k and Mach Number

&

1 . Flight Regimes
Consideration of t h e nonlinear dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k i s necessary i n f l i g h t regimes i n which t h e s e angles a t t a i n such s i g n i f i c a n t values t h a t it no longer i s p o s s i b l e t o use l i n e a r dependence [eq.(8.1)1. Such regimes p e r t a i n t o f l i g h t s a t speeds c l o s e t o maximum and t o low-speed modes i n which, as a consequence of high blade loading and exc e s s i v e nonuniformity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a t i n d i v i d u a l segments of t h e d i s k area, t h e angles of a t t a c k e n t e r t h e nonlinear domain of t h e dependence c y = f ( a ) . In a number of cases, consideration of t h e s e n o n l i n e a r i t i e s i s necessary a l s o i n o t h e r regimes, including t h e cruising-speed mode. I n general, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l o w compressibility i s necessary a t high flying speeds f o r h e l i c o p t e r s haring r o t o r s w i t h high blade t i p speeds. 2. Det-e-mnatipn of Aer-odynamic Loads

In Section 8, we had s t i p u l a t e d that t h e i n f l o w angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e @ i s a small quantity; t h e r e f o r e , t h e a p p r o f i a t e equation (8.23) w a s used i n determining this angle. Here, we s t i p u l a t e t h a t t h e angle @ can vary w i t h i n limits of 360'; t h e r e f o r e , i t s magnitude will be c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e formula

where t h e values of U, and U, are determined by t h e expressions

Equations (9.2) coincide w i t h t h e formulas used i n Section 8. T h i s means t h a t , in t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n , it w a s assumed that blade displacements are small s o that we can p u t
sin
f;

cos i: zs 1.

(9.3)

The value of t h e angle @ determined from eq.(9.1>, when carrying out t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on a d i g i t a l computer, i s usually read out only i n t h e range F90. T h i s must be taken i n t o account i n c a h d a t i n g t h e angle of a t t a c k by means of t h e formula a=(?+@. Therefore, we can use e ~ ~ ( 9 . 1 o)d y at U , > 0. from Fig.1.37, we have

(9.4)

I fU , <

0, then, as follows

The i n f l o w angle determined by eqs.(9.1)

-90 <

and

< 270'.

(9.5) v a r i e s i n t h e range

If we assume t h a t t h e / 1 1 9 blade s e t t i n g can be changed from 0 'p = -15 t o cp = +45", then t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s should be prescribed within limits of t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e angle of a t t a c k from -105' t o +315O.

The Mach number needed f o r determining t h e aerodynamic coe f f i c i e n t s i s calculated by means of t h e formula
M=-. U
a,

Here, as,, i s t h e v e l o c i t y of sound:

Fig .1.37

Diagram of Flow Past a P r o f i l e f o r Determining t h e Inflow Angle

@.

where k i s t h e a d i a b a t i c exponent and p i s t h e .atmospheric

pressure. The aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s required f0.r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are determined on t h e basis of wind-tunnel tests w i t h t h e p r o f i l e exposed t o a c i r c u l a r air stream. I n computer calculations, t h e program campiled by engineer M.N.Tishchenko f o r determining t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s i s highly useful. I n this program, t h e e f f e c t of t h e Mach number M on t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s i s taken i n t o account only i n t h e range of p p o f i l e angles of a t t a c k fromcr = -2" t o cr = +15". 128

I n t h e remaining range of angle-of-attack v a r i a t i o n , t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s are considered as independent of M. The dependence of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t cy on t h e angle of a t t a c k CY f o r t h e p r o f i l e NACA-230, which was adopted i n one of t h e versions of this program, i s shown i n Fig.l.3? as a t y p i c a l example.
r

r-,--,-.-

Fig.1.38

Dependence c y = f ( a , M) Adopted i n t h e Program.

I f t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t c, and t h e drag c o e f f i c i e n t c, a r e known. then t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e flapping piane T and i n the plane o f - r o t a t i o n Q can be determined from t h e formulas
T =- (c&$
2
1

f cl.U,) Q ~;U

Q =-2
3 . Method

(c1.U,

- cJJ,) Q ~ U .

(9 -8)

o f Blade Calcu.btion as a System whose Motion i s Cowled by Prescribed Vibration Modes

A s above i n Section 8, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s reduces t o solving t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation

[E/y"]"-[[Ny']'+mj;=T,

(9.9)

where, with t h e adopted assumptions, t h e aerodynamic f o r c e T i s a nonlinear funct i o n of t h e displacements of t h e blade elements y. I n this case, it is convenient i n solving eq.(9.9) t o use a method where t h e blade motion i n time i s found by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of ordinary different i a l equations obtained from eq.(9.9) by Galerkincs method. I n this approach t o * over t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . Theret h e problem, t h e s e equations are coupled o fore, i f at some arbitrary time t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s can be c a l c u l a t e d ,

t h e n t h e blade deformations w i t h r e s p e c t t o each v i b r a t i o n mode are determined independently, provided t h e s e modes are orthogonal.

Let u s r e p r e s e n t t h e blade v i b r a t i o n mode as t h e s u m of a c e r t a i n number of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n harmonics of t h e blade:

where

j = 0, 1 , 2, j , ( j, being t h e number of t h e higher overtone of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s taken i n t o account i n t h e s o l u t i o n ) ; y ( J ) = mode of t h e j - t h overtone of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s normed such t h a t $1 = R at F = R; 6 , = c o e f f i c i e n t s determining t h e magnitude of blade deformation w i t h respect t o t h e j-th overtone.

...,

As above, we w i l l designate t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, as t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation. The values of 6 a r e f u n c t i o n s of time.

/121

The c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation 6 , , i n t h e p r e s e n t method of calculat i o n , a r e taken as generalized coordinates of t h e system. Determination of t h e l a w of t h e i r time-variance c o n s t i t u t e s t h e content of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . After twice d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eq.(9.10) w i t h r e s p e c t t o time, we obtain

O n s u b s t i t u t i n g e q ~ ~ ( 9 . 1 0and ) (9.11) i n t o eq.(9.9) and successively m u l t i j,) and t h e n inplying a l l terms of eq.(9.9) by y(') (where j = 0, 1 , 2, t e g r a t i n g over t h e blade r a d i u s , eq.(9.9), by v i r t u e of t h e orthogonality of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes, W i l l decompose i n t o j, + 1 independent equations of t h e form

...,

$- CjBj =A,.
Here,
Cj = E / [(y')"I2dr f
0

(9.12)

J
R R

7
0

N [(y')']z dr ;

mi= m (pj)' dr;

0

A,=j T y (j)dr.
0

A s mentioned above i n Subsections 1and 2 of S e c t i o n 7, t h e q u a n t i t i e s ent e r i n g eq.(9.12) have a well-defined p h y s i c a l meaning. The q u a n t i t y C,, known as t h e generalized blade r i g i d i t y i n deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h overtone, r e p r e s e n t s a l s o double t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e b l a d e i n bending i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e same harmonic. The quantity m j i s t h e equivalent blade mass reduced t o i t s t i p . It i s equal a l s o t o double t h e k i n e t i c energy of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h overtone w i t h a frequency p = 1 . The i n t e g r a l A, on t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.(9.12) r e p r e s e n t s t h e generalized f o r c e and i s equal t o double t h e work of aerodynamic f o r c e s i n displacements caused by blade deformat i o n s a t t h e j - t h overtone.

It i s known that t h e frequency of t h e j - t h overtone of natural blade vibrat i o n s can be determined from t h e formula

Therefore, it i s convenient t o transform eqs.(9.12), These can t h e n be w r i t t e n as values of m , .

r e l a t i n g a l l terms t o

or

where 6 : { ) i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of q u a s i - s t a t i c blade deformations vlrith r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h overtone of aerodynamic f o r c e s T ( s e e Sect .7, Subsect .7).

A s follows from eqs .( 9.8) and (9.2), t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic /122 f o r c e v a r i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade azimuth and depends on t h e blade deformat i o n s or, more p r e c i s e l y , on t h e values of $ and B determining t h e magnitude of Therefore, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y U,. and p Dust be predetermined by means of f o r c e s , t h e values of

where B j i s t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c blade a x i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , corresponding t o t h e normed n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e i - t h overtone.

If t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 $ and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s 6 , pert a i n i n g t o some azimuthal blade p o s i t i o n or t o some time t are known, t h e calcul a t i o n can be performed i n t h e following sequence.

First, determine t h e values of and B from eqs.(9.16). After this, d e r i v e , as w e l l as t h e v e l o c i t y U t h e components of t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y U, and U from e q ~ ~ ( 9 . 2 ) :

O f course, t o determine t h e v e l o c i t y U, it i s a l s o necessary t o know t h e r e l a t i v e d i s k flow r a t i o X which, i n t h e g e n e r a l case, i s a v a r i a b l e changing w i t h respect t o blade r a d i u s and azimuth. Determination of t h e quantity X w i l l be taken up i n Subsection 5 of this Section.

I f the velocities U , and U , a r e known, t h e n t h e i n f l o w angle Q can be determined from eqs.(9.1) and (9.5), and t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k (Y from The Mach number i s d e t e r f i n e d by eq.(9.6). These d a t a s u f f i c e f o r eq.(9.4). determining t h e a e r o d m c c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r c i r c u l a r blowing of t h e p r o f i l e and hence f o r obtaining t h e a e r o d y m d c f o r c e s T.
Thus, at t h e azimuth in question t h e blade deformation, r a t e of deformation, and t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s T a c t i n g on t h e blade a r e known. Consequently, gn t h e basis of eq.(9.&) it becomes p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e a l s o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6 that determine t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e blade elements :

Next, by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of eqs.(9.&) w i t h r e s p e c t t o time we can determine t h e new yalues of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation 6, and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s 6 , at t h e next blade azimuth after a c e r t a i n time A t , determined by t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The change from t h e t+e t a t which t h e coeffi-,. c i e n t s of deformation 6 5 and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s 6 $ and second d e r i v a t i v e s 6, a r e known t o t h e next t h e t + A t can be accomplished by various conventional methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of equations.

As a t y p i c a l exanple, w e a r e giving t h e formulas f o r such a change, derived from t h e Euler method:

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of various methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n w i l l be discussed i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l below. I n p a r t i c u l a r , it W i l l be shown t h a t t h e Euler method represented by eqs.(9.19) i s not s u i t a b l e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s .

/123

Numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of eqs .( 9 w i t h r e s p e c t t o time permits determini n g t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s at a new blade azimuth. After determining t h e new valugs of aerodynamic f o r c e s a t this azimuth we can a l s o d e r i v e t h e new c o e f f i c i e n t s 6,. This process can be continued u n t i l

.a)

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation are determined a t a l l blade azimuths i n one rotat i o n of t h e rotor.

If t h e i n i t i a l values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, and b, are a r b i t r a r i l y prescribed, a n i n t e g r a t i p n of t h e equations over one r o t o r r e v o l u t i o n w i l l cause t h e values of 6, and 6,, obtained by i n t e g r a t i o n at t h e same azimuth, t o differ from t h e values t a k e n arbitrarily a t t h e i n i t i a l time. However, if t h e blade motion i s stable, t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n can be continued. Then, after seve r a l r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e r o t o r t h e motion W i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d and Will be repeated i n each subsequent revolution. T h i s s t e a d y motion i s t h e sought s o l u t i o n of e q 4 9 . 9 ) .

Thus, t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n presented here i s t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e Cauchy problem, w i t h i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e equations of motion of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t -to t i m e a t given i n i t i a l conditions.

4. M m @ & a l

F0rmu-b-s - f o r a Blade Model y i t h Discrete Parameters

I n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , a r o t o r blade i s u s u a l l y conceived as a weightless beam w i t h attached concentrated loads s b u l a t i n g i t s mass. The aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade a l s o can be conveniently represented as a series of concentrated f o r c e s . L e t us assume that aerodynamic f o r c e s are applied a t t h e attachment p o i n t s of concentrated loads as though a s e p a r a t e f l a p with a c e r t a i n area Si w e r e attached t o each load (see Sect.1, Subsect.9). Then, t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s can be determined by f o r m d a s analogous t o eq.(9.8):

where t h e s u b s c r i p t i denotes a l l q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e blade s e c t i o n of The s i z e of t h e area of t h e concentrated f l a p S, i s number i (see Fig.l.51). determined by eq.( 1.2). For a r o t o r blade which i s n o t represented as a beam w i t h d i s t r i b u t e d parameters but as a model w i t h a f i n i t e number of e l a s t i c a l l y coupled concentrated masses, equations analogous t o eq.(9.%) can be derived. However, t h e quantit i e s mj and A, entering t h e equations are not defined as i n t e g r a l s b u t as sums of t h e form

where

mi.= values of t h e concentrated mass of t h e system;

1 l 1l11 l1 lIlI I Il Il1Ill

y i J ) = values determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e j - t h overt o n e ; here, t h e mode of natural v i b r a t i o n s should be represented by a series of d i s c r e t e values of t h e o r d i n a t e s yi determining / l a t h e displacements of t h e i - t h mass of t h e blade; Ti = d i s c r e t e values of aerodynamic f o r c e s determined by eq.(9.20).
The c a l c u l a t i o n of a blade model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters d i f f e r s i n no res p e c t from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a model w i t h parameters continuously d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e blade length. However, i n d i g i t a l computer c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s much more convenient t o i n v e s t i g a t e a model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters.

5. Consideration of a Variable Induced Velocity Field

Application of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method presented above does not preclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of considering a v a r i a b l e . induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d represented by t h e For this, i n determinations of aeror e l a t i v e disk flow r a t i o A i n eq.(9.2). dynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade a t t h e t i m e t i n question, t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a 1 equation of t h e v o r t e x r o t o r theory must be solved [ s e e eq.(5.29) i n Sect .5, Chapt .I1 of Vol.11 Reduction of t h e problem of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade t o t h e C a u c b problem, a t determination of blade motion beginning w i t h some i n i t i a l time, leads t o appreciable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n solving t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e vortex theory. When t h e r o t o r advances one s t e p w i t h r e s p e c t t o azimuth, v o r t i c e s t h a t have t o do only w i t h v a r i a t i o n s i n c i r c u l a t i o n over t h e l e n g t h of this p a r t i c u lar s t e p w i l l be shed by t h e blade. All v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade a t p r i o r i n s t a n t s of t i m e are merely displaced i n space but show no change i n t h e i r c i r c u l a t i o n . Therefore, i n s o l v i n g t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equation p e r t a i n i n g t o some d e f i n i t e time, i t i s only necessary t o f i n d t h e r e l a t i o n between c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e bound v o r t i c e s and t h e v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade during i t s shift a f t e r t h e last i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The magnitudes of c i r c u l a t i o n of a l l remaining f r e e v o r t i c e s are a l r e a d y known i n this case and are determined by t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y of t h e process of motion. To s i m p l i f y t h e problem, we can t a k e at t h e i n i t i a l time some schematic model of a vortex system consisting, f o r example, o n l y of r o t o r v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade t i p w i t h constant c i r c u l a t i o n over t h e length. It i s assumed that, at t h e start of c a l c u l a t i o n , no free v o r t i c e s can exist s i n c e t h e average induced v e l o c i t y through t h e r o t o r i s equal t o zero. The method discussed here y i e l d s t h e maxi accuracy p o s s i b l e i n t h e calc u l a t i o n of induced v e l o c i t i e s f o r a r o t o r scheme w i t h a f i n i t e number of blades. However, use of this scheme i n o t h e r methods of c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s Will lead t o s e r i o u s complications. Numerous d i f f i c u l t i e s are encountered i n using c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r induced v e l o c i t i e s based on a r o t o r scheme w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades, as applied t o t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n discussed i n this Section. Thus, t h e method of successive approximations g e n e r a l l y appears simplest. However, i f we use a

134

method i n which t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s are c a l c u l a t e d a f t e r completing t h e calc u l a t i o n of blade motion over each r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r (when t h e values of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s T are known a t a l l blade azimuths and radii s o that t h e values of t h e c i r c u l a t i o n at t h e same p o i n t can be determined) and i f we i n t r o duce t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s during t h e next r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r , it w i l l be found that such a s o l u t i o n process does /125 not converge Consequently, d i f f e r e n t methods bypassing t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s m u s t be used; as a rule, this l e a d s t o appreciable complications which u l t i m a t e l y may prove t o be unwarranted.

6. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical I n t e m a t i o n of D i f f e r e n t i a l
Equations of E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations For a s u c c e s s f u l c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s , it i s of importance t o s e l e c t t h e most advantageous method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n , i.e., a method of high accuracy and r e q u i r i n g a m i n i " number of operations f o r solving t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of motion. Most of t h e machine t i m e i n c a l c u l a t i o n i s used f o r this operation. Its major p o r t i o n i s spent on determining t h e ext e r n a l f o r c e s . Therefore, t h e computer time i s determined mainly by t h e number of times t h e equation of motion must be handled. T h i s number i s determined by t h e chosen method and i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The smaller t h e s t e p , t h e longer t h e calculation.
A n a n a l y s i s shows that, when seeking a p e r i o d i c s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s , t h e required i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p varies w i t h i n very wide limits depending on t h e type of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method used. Poor r e s u l t s are obtained by many conventional numerical i n t e g r a t i o n methods, such as t h e abovementioned Euler method [see eqs .(9.19) 1* The well-known method of s o l u t i o n by Taylor s e r i e s was found t o be j u s t as u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e problem i n question. T h i s method l e a d s t o t h e following formulas f o r t h e change-over from t h e time t t o t h e time t + A t :

..
The value of 6 t + A t = f ( & + A t , &,+At) t i o n . Here, A t i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p .

i s determined from a d i f f e r e n t i a l equa-

The widely known Runge-Kutta and Adam numerical i n t e g r a t i o n methods are more suitable f o r t h e given case but s t i l l quite inconvenient. The best method of checking t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of a given numerical integrat i o n method t o t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of blade v i b r a t i o n s i s a numerical s o l u t i o n of t h e equation

.i+-266

+ir =sin

Yt,

( 9 *24)

d e s c r i b i n g v i b r a t i o n s of some mechanical model r e p r e s e n t i n g a mass attached t o

135

I I I l1 l1 l1l l Il1III I1I I I1 I I

a s p r i n g w i t h a damper ( s e e Fig.1.39).
The r o t o r blade can be conceived as a set of a c e r t a i n number of such models, of d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l frequencies and d i f f e r e n t damping c o e f f i c i e n t s corresponding t o t h e frequencies and damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of d i f f e r e n t harmonics of blade v i b r a t i o n .

A t r e l a t i v e l y small s t e p s A t , t h e use of Taylor series f o r a n i n t e g r a t i o n of eq.(9.2&) l e a d s t o a s o l u t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g a v i b r a t o r y p r o c e s s whose amplitude t e n d s t o some d e f i n i t e value d i f f e r i n g from t h e exact a n a l y t i c value by a q u a n t i t y of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n e r r o r . With a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p , If t h e s o l u t i o n does not t h e s o l u t i o n diverges at c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e values of A t . diverge, t h e g r e a t e s t e r r o r arises i n resonance, i.e., a t v = 1 . Therefore, /126 we will now estimate t h e e r r o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o this most severe case.

Fig.1.39

E f f e c t of R e l a t i v e I n t e g r a t i o n Steps on Accuracy of Solution.

figure 1.39 shows t h e change i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude values obtained as a result of t h e numerical s o l u t i o n - o f eq.(9.&) by means of Taylor series. The exact a n a l y t i c values of 60 and 6 0 were t a k e n as t h e i n i t i a l values. Cases w i t h r e l a t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s equal t o S = 0.1 and 2E = 0.2 and d i f f e r e n t i r k t e g r a t i o n s t e p s were i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The maximum values of 6 obtained during t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d w i t h t h e o r d i n a l number N w e r e t a k e n as t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude AN a t this period and ref e r r e d t o t h e a n a l y t i c value of amplitude
1 A=-=.

2n

It follows from Fig.1.39 t h a t , during t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e solut i o n diverges f r o m t h e exact a n a l y t i c curve. A steady v i b r a t o r y process has an amplitude aLways g r e a t e r t h a n t h e exact value. The l a r g e r t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p AT, t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e r r o r . Here, we W i l l c a l l t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p t h e quantity

AT=-,
where

At

(9.26)

A t = i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p w i t h respect t o t i m e ; T = v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d of t h e model. The magnitude of f e c t s t h e accuracy of obtain a satisfactory order of 1/200 of t h e t h e r e l a t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t 5 a l s o noticeably aft h e s o l u t i o n . It follows from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t , t o accuracy, t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n period or even smaller.

/127

I n a numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of equations d e s c r i b i n g e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s , it i s important not only t o secure t h e required accuracy but a l s o t o use a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i n which t h e r e would be no divergent s o l u t i o n . The determination of t h e limit s t e p of i n t e g r a t i o n , a t which t h e s o l u t i o n
W i l l s t i l l be stable, can be accomplished i n t h e following manner:

Equations (9.23) and ( 9 . a ) can be regarded as some system of d i f f e r e n c e equations. To determine t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o l u t i o n , w e will d i s c u s s a homogeneous system of d i f f e r e n c e equations [without t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.( 9 .&)]. Equations (9.23) are w r i t t e n i n a somewhat more g e n e r a l form, introducing some constant c o e f f i c i e n t n:

At n = 0, t h e s e formulas coincide w i t h t h e Euler equations (9.19) w h i l e , t h e y coincide w i t h t h e Taylor equations (9.23). when n =

2,

From e q e ( 9 .&) f o r t h e case of s i n v t = 0, we d e r i v e t h e value of 6, ; subs t i t u t i n g this i n t o eq.(9.27), we o b t a i n t h e follovxLng system of d i f f e r e n c e equations :

..

The s o l u t i o n of this system W i l l be sought i n t h e form of

i n t o t h e system of homogeneous d i f f e r e n c e equations S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(9 From this equation, (9.28), we o b t a i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation r e l a t i v e t o CY. we f i n d CY:

.a)

To keep t h e values of 6, from approaching i n f i n i t y as n -,

t h e condition

lal<1

i s necessary.
A t r e l a t i v e l y small A t and E, t h e value of i s a complex quantity.
CY

- as follows from eq.(9.30) -

After determining t h e modulus s o i u t i o n:

CY, we

o b t a i n t h e c o n d i t i o n of a nondivergent

or

Hence,
At<---. 22
1-7.

/Lzs
(9.33)

I f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i s r e l a t e d t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n period of t h e system T equal t o 217 i n t h e examined s i m p l i f i e d model, we o b t a i n t h e 'condition of a nor+ divergent s o l u t i o n

I

AT<--. n
x(l
--A)

( 9 034.1

Then, f o r t h e Euler method a t w. = 0, we f i n d t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e

at ZS-,
n

rz
( 9 035)

and, f o r t h e Taylor method a t x =

9,
AT<--.
2;
x

(9.36)

Thus, i n order t o avoid a divergent s o l u t i o n , a step smaller by a f a c t o r of 2 i s needed i n t h e f i l e r method t h a n i n t h e Taylor method. Both methods give a divergent s o l u t i o n no matter how small t h e i n t e g r a t i o n step, provided t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t n i s e q u a l t o zero. With an i n c r e a s e i n fi and A t , t h e value of CY becomes a r e a l number. I n this case, t h e value of CY can never be g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y but may be a negative quantity g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y i n a b s o l u t e Value. The condition t h a t a < 1 i s observed i f

(9.37)
Hence, i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e Euler method a t n
at
=

0 will occur
=

AT > -F

i - J G T

i f and only i f

5>

1 , whereas f o r t h e Taylor method ( n

&)

this happens a t AT

* -

1 _. 2rr n

However, t h e s e conditions are u s u a l l y covered by t h e

more rigorous condition (9.36).

If t h e s e r e s u l t s are t r a n s f e r r e d t o a system representing a r o t o r blade, t h e n t h e magnitude of t h e r e l a t i v e s t e p must be s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of t h e period of t h e highest harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s p o s s i b l e i n t h e system, s i n c e this w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e s m a l l e s t value of t h e required s t e p a t which numerical i n t e gration i s possible.

Figure 1.40 shows t h e t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e natural vibrat i o n period of a blade Tq and i n t h e r e l a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t of aerodynamic dampi n g Ti w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of t h e harmonic of t h e vibratior, j . The value of t h e v i b r a t i o n period i s c a l c u l a t e d i n degrees w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade radion t h e number of t h e harmonic; us. The same diagram shows t h e dependence of +& p j i s t h e frequency of t h e j-th overtone of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d i n o s c i l l a t i o n s p e r minute. I n t h e range of lower harmonics, t h e q u a n t i t y pj changes g r e a t l y w i t h any v a r i a t i o n i n r o t o r r p m frm n = 0 t o t h e operating rpm n = nop

If we l i m i t ourselves i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of only t h e f i r s t f o u r harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e fundamental, which

l l l l I I I I I I1 I1 I

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 IlI I I I I I I I I

u s u a l l y i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r obtaining t h e accuracy r e q u i r e d i n p r a c t i c e , t h e n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p must be s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of t h e p e r i o d and c o e f f i c i e n t of relative damping of t h e highest harmonic of natural v i b r a t i o n , t h e t h i r d f o r & this system.

If we assume t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n o e r i o d w i t h r e m e c t t o t h e t h i r d harmonic cannot be s h o r t e r t h a n 45' w i t h res p e c t t o t h e r o t o r azimuth and t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t of 1 % aerodynamic damping w i l l not be lower t h a n n = 0.07, t h e n - t o obt a i n a nondivergent s o l u t i o n - t h e 201. i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i n conformity with eq.(9.36) should be less t h a n 2 ' and i n conformity w i t h eq.(9.35) less t h a n ' 1 w i t h r e s p e c t t o azi150 muth. The s t e p would have t o be shortened much f u r t h e r t o o b t a i n s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy (fig.1.39).
100

50

0123456

10

20

30

Fig.l.40 Dependence of Vibration Period T$ of t h e Relative Coefficient of Aerodynamic Damping Ti on t h e Number of t h e Natural V i b r a t i o n Overtone j .

T h i s example shows t h a t a n app l i c a t i o n of t h e above i n t e g r a t i o n methods t o blade c a l c u l a t i o n s gives u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . For this p a r t i c u l a r exanple, t h e Runge-Kutta and Adams methods permit using a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p of t h e order of 3', but t h e y are not t o o suitable s i n c e t h e y require s t o r a g e of a n excessive number of v a r i a b l e s , calc u l a t e d f o r t h e preceding i n s t a n t s of t i m e , i n t h e computer-memory. Good r e s u l t s are obtained by a p r e v i o u s l y mentioned i n t e g r a t i o n

method (Chapt . I T ,Sect .7 i n Vol.1) w i t h expansion of t h e s o l u t i o n i n a Taylor series and w i t h r e c a l c u l a t i o n of each i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . T h i s method i s completely suitable i n a p p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e problem i n question and i s being used at p r e s e n t i n numerous computer programs.

The change-over f r o m t h e time t t o t h e t i m e t + A t i s accomplished by this numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method, i n t h e following sequence:

First rough c a l c u l a t i o n :

/130

Here, *.I 6 t + A t = f(6t+At I 9 &:+At) 5s determined from a.. d i f f e r e n t i a l equation. Then, 6,, i s obtained from t h e formula

s t -at

'jb
~

&At

_ I
t+At

Here, gi: A t = f ( 6 ; : At , at ) i s determined frm a different i a l equation. The Values Of 6 t n+ A t , 6 '11 t+At, and 'di1+At are considered f i n a l for the t i m e t + A t . The change of v a r i a b l e 6 and i t s f i r s t and second derivat i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o time, determined i n conformity w i t h eqs.(9.38), i s shown i n Fig.l.41. Figure 1.42 gives t h e steady s o l u t i o n of eq.( 9 o b t a i n e d as a result of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n by this method. The s o l u t i o n i s given f o r d i f f e r e n t values of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The heavy l i n e shows t h e exact analytic solution.

i:t

Fig.l.41 Dependence of t h e Variable 6 and i t s First and Second Derivatives w i t h Respect t o Time.

.a)

Fig.l.42 Eq.(9.26)

Results of Numerical S o l u t i o n of

as a Function of t h e Relative
I n t e g r a t i o n Step.

A t a relative s t e p of 1/72 and less, a numerical i n t e g r a t i o n y i e l d s a s o l u t i o n almost exa c t l y coinciding w i t h t h e analyt i c s o l u t i o n . A t a l a r g e r relat i v e s t e p , a s u b s t a n t i a l difference occurs between t h e exact and numerical s o l u t i o n , which i s apparent from F'ig.l.42.

A t a relative s t e p of

1 AT>--sl

(9.391

t h e s o l u t i o n diverges To preclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of divergent s o l u t i o n s i n t h e system, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should not be g r e a t e r t h a n about 1/3 of t h e p e r i o d of t h e highest v i b r a t i o n harmonic of t h e system, which has t h e smallest p e r i o d . An important advantage of this method lies i n t h e f a c t that t h e l i m i t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i s p r a c t i c a l l y independent of t h e magnitude of t h e relative d a q i n g c o e f f i c i e n t .

A comparison of t h e limit s t e p s A $ l i p , f o r t h e examined i n t e g r a t i o n methods as a f u n c t i o n of t h e number of t h e higher harmonic j , of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e system i s shown i n Fig.l.43 f o r a blade w i t h t h e parameters shown i n t h e diagram of Fig.l.40.
If we r e s t r i c t ourselves t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of only t h e first f o u r harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n , t h e n i n conformity w i t h eq.(9.39) it s u f f i c e s t o have a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p of about 1 5 w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade azimuth, i.e., by a f a c t o r of about 7 g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e same method without r e c a l c u l a t i o n , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a nondivergent s o l u t i o n .

The r e s u l t s of solving eq.(9.24) permi.t a n approdmate determination of t h e e r r o r i n t h e a n p l i t u d e values corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics of blade Vib r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p used. By error, we mean here t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e exact a n a l y t i c value of t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and t h e value obtained as a r e s u l t of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s always p o s i t i v e i n i n t e g r a t i o n s by means of a Taylor series w i t h r e c u r s i v e calcula/132 t i o n . T h i s means t h a t t h e numerical s o l u t i o n always l e a d s t o underestimating t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude. The c a l c u l a t i o n e r r o r s , i n percentage of t h e exact values of t h e amplitude f o r d i f f e r e n t blade v i b r a t i o n harmonics with ordinary parameters as a f u n c t i o n of t h e s t e p used i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n by Taylor series w i t h r e c a l c u l a t i o n are given . 1 1 . i n Table 1 TABLE 1 . 1 1

I
Number of Overtone

C a l c u l a t i o n Errors i n Percent a a e o f Exact Value of Ar l i t u d e for I n t e g r a t i o n St ep i n Degrees

10
Fundamental

20

<o.

1 ?O

1st
2nd 3rd

<O.l?;, <O.l?O
<o.l?; <O.l?O

<0.1~; <0.1?;

0 . 3 9 6
0.496

5 th
10 th 20 th
30 th

1 36 403 ; 90z

2 96 30?6

<0.106 0.4% 5% 15% 20% 90%

0.39; 6% 25% 30% 70%

5% 12% 45 96 7596

25 % 50 ?&
80 %

. .

..

70 Number of o v e r t o n e

..

Fig.l.43 Comparison of U t Steps f o r Two Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Methods. ---- U t s t e p i n i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h expansion of t h e s o l u t i o n i n a Taylor series ; l i m i t s t e p i n i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h rec a l c u l a t i o n by eqs .( 9.38).

The presented d a t a show t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e required int e g r a t i o n s t e p and hence t h e calc u l a t i o n time are determined mainly by t h e parameters of t h e system representing t h e r o t o r blade. The more degrees of freedom t h e system has and t h e more natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics it /133 possesses, t h e smaller W i l l be t h e v i b r a t i o n period of t h e highest harmonic and t h e smaller should be t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . Therefore, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n time i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y shortened i f t h e number of degrees of freedom of t h e system i s reduced. All t h e s e considerations are e s p e c i a l l y imp o r t a n t when using d i r e c t calcul a t i o n methods which do not emp l o y l i m i t a t i o n s imposed upon t h e modes of blade v i b r a t i o n . These methods W i l l be examined i n Sect i o n 10 of this Chapter.

7. Numerical I n t e p r a t i o n Method
Proposed by L.N.Grodko and 0.P .Bakhov

I n t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of e l a s t i c vibrat i o n s of a blade by t h e method proposed by L.N.Grodko and O.P.Bakhov, t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t u i n eqs.(9.27) i s t a k e n as e q u a l t o unity.
The s t a b i l i t y condition (9.31) i s s i m p l i f i e d and t a k e s t h e form

Consequently, a t u = 1 t h e r e cannot be a divergent s o l u t i o n w i t h a complex value of cy. From t h e s t i p u l a t i o n that cy i s a complex number, t h e c o n d i t i o n (9.40) i s v a l i d only f o r values A t 5 2 - S . From t h e c o n d i t i o n (9.37) it follows that t h e s o l u t i o n cannot be divergent as long as

Hence, a t

N. =

1 , it follows that

lk3

II

1 1 1 l1 1 1 1 1 1 l1 1 1 l1 1 l I I l1l 1l1l11l1l Il 1 III

A s i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n by a Taylor series w i t h double r e c a l c u l a t i o n , this method does not give a divergent s o l u t i o n at 5 = 0 and has approximately t h e same value of t h e l i m i t s t e p .

Its accuracy w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s o l u t i o n of problems of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s i s no worse t h a n that f o r t h e preceding method. The volume of computational operations i s c u t almost i n half. Therefore, this method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n can be recommended f o r p r a c t i c a l use.
8. Sequence of Operations i n Recalculation and- PrnactiEca.Bvalua&ion of Different I n t e g r a t i o n Steps
A s a whole, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s i s c a r r i e d out i n t h e following sequence:

1 . Assign a r b i t r a r y i n i t i a l values of 6, and

i3 a t

t h e azimuth

JI

0.

2. From eq.(9.20), determine t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s Ti , f o r whose determination t h e f o n o w i n g parameters should first be calculated: $i, Pi, U X I , U y i , 41, ai, Mi, cyi, and CXI

The values of m j and p : determine t h e values of 6, e n t e r i n g this equation are c a l c u l a t e d beforehand a f t e r determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e blade and remain constant during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

3. From eq.(9.18),

..

4. The change-over t o t h e next azimuth i s accomplished i n conformity w i t h t h e s e l e c t e d numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method, f o r e x q l e , by means of eqs *( 9.38).

/EL,

The values of 6 t + A t , S t + A t , ami f o r t h e t+e t + A t are considered final. For changing t o t h e nexb azimuth, t h e entire cycle i s repeated.

11

'E

a:+,

T h i s i n t e g r a t i o n method can be recommended as f a i r l y exact and has been quite f u l l y checked i n p r a c t i c e i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s .
The numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out over several r o t a t i o n s of t h e r o t o r , u n t i l a l l values of 6, i n two successive r e v o l u t i o n s d i f f e r by less t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . Calculations show t h a t any pres c r i b e d accuracy can be achieved i n this manner. I n p r a c t i c e , however, it i s assumed t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s completed as soon as t h e accuracy of determining t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s becomes e q u a l t o R/lOOO ( R being t h e r o t o r r a d i u s ) . If necessary, a g r e a t e r accuracy can be prescribed. The magnitudes of bending stresses a t each azimuth can be determined by t h e formula

where O J i s t h e normed value of bending s t r e s s e s , i.e., stresses during blade bending with r e s p e c t t o t h e normed n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e j-th overtone. The period of t h e process of t r a n s i t i o n t o steady motion l a r g e l y depends on t h e assigned i n i t i a l values of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s . A t properly posed i n i t i a l values of 6, and 6 , , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s completed a f t e r checking two r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e r o t o r . A t poorly determined i n i t i a l values of 6 , , t h e calcu0 revolutions. l a t i o n may drag out t o 8 - 1 The p o s s i b i l i t y of r e f i n i n g t h e f l i g h t r e g i m e parameters Bo, a r o t ,p, and A,,, a f t e r checking each r e v o l u t i o n should a l s o be included i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n program. The i n d i c a t e d parameters are r e f i n e d such that t h e r o t o r produces t h e magnitude of t h r u s t and propulsive f o r c e prescribed i n t h e i n i t i a l data. Thus, it i s l o g i c a l that t h e c a l c u l a t i o n time i s determined a l s o by t h e correctness of p r e s c r i b i n g t h e parameters of t h e f l i g h t r e g b e . To r e f i n e t h e f l i g h t regime parameters and a l s o t o s o l v e o t h e r problems, /135 various i n t e g r a l r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as t h r u s t T r o t , l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e H, t c r q u e M,, e t c . should be determined during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . On t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l requirements, blade v i b r a t i o n s can be represented s u f f i c i e n t l y completely by f o u r natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics. I n this case, even considering Table 1.ll which shows that t h e l a r g e s t e r r o r s arise i n resonance, s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy can be obtained a t a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p A$ = 2.5'. However, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes i n t h e absence of well-defined resonance o r i n t h e presence of damping f o r c e s i n t h e system s u f f i c i e n t t o produce a damping c o e f f i c i e n t g r e a t e r t h a n 5 = 0.1, t h e accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n used i n compiling Table 1 . 1 1i s not e n t i r e l y l o s t , even a t a s t e p A$ = 5 ' or, a t t i m e s , even a t a s t e p AJI = . ' D I his f a c t i s of g r e a t importance i n saving time when using d i g i t a l computers of moderate speed. Thus, w i t h t h e Wtrela" comput e r , only 6 min are required t o determine t h e motion of t h e blade over one rem-

vc5

l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r , a t a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p of 1 0 ' . On decreasing t h e step, t h e machine t i m e i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y , r i s i n g 'so much a t a s t e p of 2 . 5 ' t h a t performance of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on this computer becomes d i f f i c u l t . These considerat i o n s l o s e t h e i r meaning when t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed on t h e high-speed M-x) computer.

Comparison of Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s Obtained Fig .I..!+,!+ by Solving t h e Equations w i t h Galerkin's Method and w i t h Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n f o r cy = ca y CY and p = 0.3. A s a n example, Fig.l..!+,!+ shows t h e values of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t calculated f o r a h e l i c o p t e r i n a f l i g h t regime w i t h a speed corresponding t o p = For t h e h e l i c o p t e r under study, this regime i s f a r from f l o w s e p a r a t i o n ; = 0.3. t h e r e f o r e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed i n a l i n e a r setup w i t h t h e assumptions described i n Subsection 3 of Section 8 . With t h e s e assumptions, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n To a l l i n t e n t s and w a s c a r r i e d out a t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p s of 2.5', 5', and 1 0 ' . purposes, t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s , shown i n Fig.l.44 by a s o l i d l i n e , coincide f u l l y . On t h e basis of t h e s e data, it can be concluded t h a t , i n f l i g h t regimes s u f f i c i e n t l y remote from flow s e p a r a t i o n when t h e l i n e a r approach t o t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem i s used and low v i b r a t i o n harmonics p r e v a i l i n t h e solut i o n , a t appreciable f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping a c t i n g on t h e blade, t h e cal-

c u l a t i o n can be performed w i t h a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p A$ loss of accuracy.

1 0 ' without s u b s t a n t i a l

The p i c t u r e changes f o r regimes i n which onsek of flow s e p a r a t i o n o c c w s . Such flow s e p a r a t i o n leads t o an i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o higher harmonics and t o a sharp decrease i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic damping. A s a consequence, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p must be shortened. Figure 1.45 g i v e s t h e computat i o n a l d a t a f o r t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s ' and A$ = 1 0 ' using t h e s t e p s A$ = 5 f o r t h e same r o t o r as above but i n a regime a t p = 0.4 w i t h i n c i p i e n t flow s e p a r a t i o n . The c a l c u l a t i o n w a s carr i e d out w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonl i n e a r dependence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k CY and on t h e Mach number M. Flow s e p a r a t i o n leads t o a pronounced i n c r e a s e i n t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e modes of higher harmonics which, as i s known, even without s e p a r a t i o n have lower aerodynamic dampi n g c o e f f i c i e n t s . Therefore, a dec r e a s e i n aerodynamic damping a t f l o w s e p a r a t i o n p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t s t h e vibrat i o n amplitudes w i t h respect t o t h e s e modes. Due t o this, c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h 0 ' introduces substant h e s t e p A$ = 1 t i a l e r r o r s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e . , deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, and 6 I n Fig.l.45 this i s i l l u s t r a t e d on hand of a comparison of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , a t A$ = 5'. Therefore, t o reduce t h e error i n c a l c u l a t i n g deformations i n regimes w i t h i n c i p i e n t flow s e p a r a t i o n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p must be reduced t o values of t h e order of A$ = (2.5-5)'.

? ' 70
./
/

Fig.l.45 Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s a t I n c i p i e n t Flaw Separation, for

Lh =

0.4.
9 . Comparison of Results
by Numerical I n t e n r a t i o n Methods w i t h C a l c u l a t i o n of Harmonics

A method of stress c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o harmonics was presented above i n a l i n e a r arrangement, using t h e assumptions se t f o r t h i n Subsection 3 of Section 8. 'Such a method W i l l be s u c c e s s f u l for f l i g h t regimes s u f f i c i e n t l y remote from flow s a r a t i o n . It has a number of advantages, t h e f i r s t being t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t ca c u l a t i o n t i m e .

I n Fig.1.44. t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e harmonic method

vc7

presented i n S e c t i o n El a r e shown by a broken l i n e , f o r comparison i n t h e same f l i g h t regimes a t IJ. = 0.3 w i t h a l i n e a r dependence cy = c : a. A study of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods shows s a t i s f a c t o r y agreement of t h e r e s u l t s . The s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e can be a t t r i b u t e d t o some d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i n i t i a l parameters of t h e f l i g h t regime.
-a0
30'

1 0 . Some Calculation Results

We w i l l here p r e s e n t i n d i v i d u a l r e s u l t s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e o r e t i c a l inv e s t i g a t i o n s o f f e r e d by t h e method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n with con- /137 s i d e r a t i o n of a nonlinear dependence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k cy and t h e Mach number M, i n comparison w i t h l i n e a r methods of c a l c u l a t i o n .

zoo
10

0.1

0.2

0.3

Fig.1.46 M a x i m u m Amplitude of Variable S t r e s s e s over t h e Blade, as a Function of Flying Speed.

One of t h e major advantages of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of making stress analyses under conditions c l o s e t o flow s e p a r a t i o n regimes. Calculation shows t h a t , on approach t o flow separation, t h e aerodynamic damping of blade v i b r a t i o n s decreases s t e e p l y and t h e amplitude of v i b r a t i o n s having harmonics i n resonance o r close t o resonance w i t h t h e natural blade Vib r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s . A study of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s p l o t t e d i n Fig.1.45 i n d i c a t e s t h a t v i b r a t i o n s a t t h e f i r s t overtone occur mainly w i t h t h e second harmonic, those a t t h e second overtone w i t h t h e f o u r t h , and t h o s e a t t h e t h i r d overtone w i t h t h e s i x t h harmonic t o t h e r o t o r rpm, i.e., only w i t h frequencies c l o s e t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade i n question. An e s p e c i a l l y p.ronounced i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude t a k e s p l a c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o modes of t h e r e l a t i v e l y higher v i b r a t i o n overtones, as demonstrated i n Fig.l.45 on t h e example of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, and 6 . , The onset of flow s e p a r a t i o n i s characterized by a marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e . 4 6 shows t h e values of maxiamplitude of t h e v a r i a b l e blade stresses. Figure 1 mum amplitude of variable stresses over t h e blade r a d i u s as a f u n c t i o n of fly- /139 i n g speed, c a l c u l a t e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e l i n e a r and nonlinear dependence A marked i n c r e a s e i n stresses i s a highly u s e f u l c r i t e r i o n f o r c y = f(a, M). determining t h e onset of s e p a r a t i o n i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r . The harmonic content of t h e variable stresses set up during flow separat i o n and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e blade r a d i u s are shown i n Figs.l.47 and 1.&8.

Fig.1.47

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Variable S t r e s s Amplitudes and t h e Two first Harmonic Stress Components over t h e Blade Radius a t LL = 0.4.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Amplitude of t h e Third, Fourth, f i f t h , and S i x t h Harmonic Components of S t r e s s e s ,I = 0.4. over t h e Blade Radius a t L

Fig.l.48

It should be noted that a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i s a l s o observed i n t h e r e s u l t s of l i n e a r and nonlinear c a l c u l a t i o n s i n regimes s u f f i c i e n t l y remote from flow separation.
Figure 1 . 4 9 g i v e s t h e d e f o r m t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e same h e l i c o p t e r a t p = 0.3, w i t h a l i n e a r and nonlinear dependence c y = f(a, M ) ; Fig.l.50 shows t h e corresponding harmonic colqponents of stresses and t h e i r amplitude o A constructed over t h e blade r a d i u s . As i n d i c a t e d by this diagram, t h e r e s u l t s d i f f e r substantial&. Thus, a h e a d y t h e few d a t a presented here show t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of variable b h d e stresses w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonlinear dependence c y = f(a, M). yields a l a r g e number of i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that have a s u b s t a n t i a l i n f l u e n c e on t h e r o t o r s t r e n g t h .

''1 -3rd h
n

d---t--

-- tLin'eir c a l c u l o t i
-

F i g . l . 4 9

Comparison of Deformation Coefficients Calculated with Consideration of t h e Linear and Nonlinear Dependence c y = f(a, M ) f o r t h e Regime p = 0.3 Far from Flow Separation.

Fig.l.50 Distribution of Variable S t r e s s Amplitudes and t h e Four First Harmonic Components over t h e Blade Radius f o r I J ~ = 0,3.

S e c t i o n 10. Calculation of F l e x u r a l Vibrations d t h Direct Determination of t h e Paths of Motion of P o i n t s t h e Blade

/14.2

1 . P r i n c i p l e -0-f t h e Method of Calculation

In Sections 7, 8, and 9 we presented methods of c a l c u l a t i n g f l e x u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s where t h e deformation mode was determined by Galerkincs method. For this purpose, t h e blade deformations w e r e expanded i n a series i n prescribed known functions. A s such functions, we proposed using t h e natural flexural vib r a t i o n modes of a blade i n vacuum. In this r e s p e c t , it was s t a t e d that, f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes, it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o l i m i t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o t h e first f o u r harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n s .
Here, we w i l l d i s c u s s methods t h a t eliminate this assumption and permit a determination of blade deformations by a d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a t h s of mot i o n of a c e r t a i n number of o i n t s of t h e blade, without expansion of t h e Vibrat i o n mode i n known functionsg.
To determine t h e motion of i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s of t h e blade. it i s convenient t o use a blade model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters. I n this case, t h e mass of t h e blade i s simulated by s e v e r a l concentrated loads d i s t r i b u t e d over i t s length. For such a mechanical model, we can d e r i v e a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equat i o n s of t h e form

(10.1)
where i = 0, 1 , 2, ..., z ; .. yi = second d e r i v a t i v e

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r displacements yi of t h e i - t h concentrated load w i t h mass mi; t h e values of yi are reckoned from t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ; C i = e l a s t i c f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e i - t h m a s s mi by adjacent segments of t h e mechanical blade model; T, = e x t e r n a l aerodynamic f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e i - t h p o i n t of t h e blade where one of t h e concentrated loads i s s i t u a t e d .

The system of equations (10.1) d e s c r i b e s t h e motion of a l l masses of t h e mechanical blade model. Thus, it conprises equations w i t h variables yi equal i n number t o t h e masses of t h e mechanical model i n question.

However, not a l l variables y e n t e r i n g t h e system (10.1) are independent, s i n c e t h e motion should s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n of equilibrium of t h e e n t i r e system:

= .. 2 (migl-Tl)=O.
0

(10.2)

Such a method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a h e l i c o p t e r blade w a s first used by R.M.Zano~

zina

It i s p r e f e r a b l e t o consider that t h e displacements of a l l masses, except f o r t h e r o o t mass mo,are independent variables. Then, t h e motion of t h e r o o t mass, i f we assume To = 0, can be determined i n conformity w i t h eq.(lO.l) as

where
2

C,=Z
1

(T, - m i y r ) .

T h i s c o r d i t i o n of equilibrium of f o r c e s i s automatically s a t i s f i e d when using t h e formulas presented below.

/lk3

Thus, t h e system i n question can be described by independent v a r i a b l e s yi whose number i s lower by one t h a n t h e number of concentrated masses of t h e mechanicalmodel. Consequently, t h e number of degrees of freedom of this system i s ecpal t o t h e number of segments of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n scheme and i s lower by one t h a n t h e number of concentrated masses.

4 .-

-I

Fig.l.51

Blade Model Examined i n t h e Calculation.

The s o l u t i o n of t h e system of equat,ion (10.1) can be obtained by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o time. For this, it i s necessary a t each instant of t i m e t o determine t h e f o r c e s C , and Ti The f o r c e s Ti can be determined from eq~~(9.20)whose d e r i v a t i o n i s given i n S e c t i o n 9. A determination of t h e elast i c f o r c e s C, has many p e c u l i a r i t i e s , which we will d i s c u s s here a t some length.
. a

._.. ... . .-.

2. Determination of E l a s t i c F 0 ~ c . e ~ App.lied t o a Point of -t h e Bkdeb>y -~ Adjace~ntSegments

L e t us make a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e mechanical blade model used i n model. W e will represent t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . First, l e t us examine a be-type t h e blade as a weightless free beam governed by c e r t a i n boundary conditions a t t h e ends and divided i n t o a segments, along whose edges concentrated loads are placed (F'ig.l.51). The l e n g t h s of t h e segments can be d i f f e r e n t .

A s before, we r e p r e s e n t t h e flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade as a stepped curve so t h a t it remains constant over each segment. We w i l l assume t h e cent r i f u g a l f o r c e as applied only t o t h e loads. Therefore, i t s magnitude w i l l remain constant over each segment. We will a l s o assume t h a t t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s are applied only a t t h e p o i n t s of attachment of t h e loads as i f a s e p a r a t e f l a p w i t h a n a r e a SI were attached t o each load.
To produce t h e conditions of blade attachment a t t h e root, we Will assume that t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s sensed by a s p e c i a l attachment of r o o t mass m,, able t o move f r e e l y i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n . When Yo YJ Y% s01Ving t h i s problem i t i s not necessary t o c r e a t e freedom of Fig.l.52 v e r t i c a l motion of t h e r o o t Polygon of Forces Acting on mass. However, i n o t h e r probAdjacent Blade Elements. l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with a determination of synchronous vibrat i o n modes of t h e blade and fuselage, this c o n d i t i o n is necessary. If t h e & f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s are disregarded arid t h e blade i s considered as attached a t t h e hub on a r i g i d base, t h e conditions of r o o t attachnent i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are e s t a b l i s h e d by p r e s c r i b i n g t h e necessary - u s u a l l y r a t h e r l a r g e - m a s s m,.

It i s l o g i c a l that such a n i d e a l i z e d scheme dl1 y i e l d a more a c c u r a t e des c r i p t i o n of t h e r e a l p a t t e r n of blade v i b r a t i o n t h e l a r g e r t h e number of segments i n t o which t h e blade i s divided. The blade can be represented w i t h suff i c i e n t accuracy by a scheme i n t h e form of a beam c o n s i s t i n g of 25 30 segments and of t h e same number of concentrated loads.

To determine t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e Cl, we W i l l c o n s t r u c t t h e equations of blade deformations. Figure 1.52 shows t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on two adjacerrt segments of a deformed blade. let us write out t h e equations of deformation of t h e s e segments. Since t h e i n e r t i a and aerodynamic f o r c e s f o r t h e mechanical model i n quest i o n are applied o n l y along t h e edges of t h e segments, t h e deformations of each

segment can be d e t e d n e d by t h e equation

[E/y"]"- [Ny']' =o.

The magnitude of t h e f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y E1 and t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e N remain constant over each segment. Therefore, they can be removed from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n sign. Then, eq.(10.4) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form
M " - p2M = :0,

where M = EIy" i s t h e bending moment i n t h e blade s e c t i o n and 1.1' The s o l u t i o n of eq.(10.5) can be w r i t t e n as

-. E1
N

(10.5)

M,=Asinhpx + Bsinhpx,

( 10.6)

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A and B can be obtained from t h e boundary conditions. Thus, f o r t h e segment 1 2, we have M = M a t x = 0 and M, = M, a t x = I,, Substituting t h e s e conditions i n t o eq.f1O.6jy we o b t a i n

.&

Here, a1 = pltlB and p1 =

JT.
and of t h e f a c t t h a t M, = EI,,y", eq.(10.6)

E112 With consideration of eq.(10.7) can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

After twice i n t e g r a t i n g eq.(10.8) and bearing i n m i n d t h a t a t x = 0 y f y = yl, and a t x = t,yf = B,; y = y2, we o b t a i n
61( ~ a - - ~ ) = d , M , - i - e , M , + ~ ,

B1;

(10.9)

or

Here ,

The equation of deformation f o r t h e segment 0-1 can be w r i t t e n by analogy w i t h eq.( 10.10) :

bo (y1 -go) = - e,M,

-dOM0

PI.

( 1 0 . 1 1 )
we o b t a i n

Changing a l l s i g n s i n eq.(lO.ll)

and adding w i t h eq.(lO.9),

d0Mo-t c,M, +d,M,=

A,,

( 1 0012)

where

After performing t h e same operations f o r o t h e r adjacent segments, we obt a i n a system of z equations of t h e following form:

W e have w r i t t e n this system of equations here i n t h e form of a t a b l e .

A n y of t h e equations of t h e system r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products of coeffi-

/vc6

c i e n t s , occupying one row i n t h e r e c t a n g u l a r Table 1.12, while t h e unknown funct i o n s Mi simultaneously e n t e r i n g s e v e r a l equations and shown i n t h e v e r t i c a l column are given i n a s e p a r a t e row on t o p of Table 1.12. The unknown f u n c t i o n B o e n t e r i n g only t h e first equation i s w r i t t e n i n this row. The right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations A, are placed i n a s p e c i a l column. The system of equations i n Table 1.12 i s solved by t h e method of eliminat i o n of unknowns. T h i s method w a s a l r e a d y described i n Subsection 5 of Section Thus, t h e system of equations w r i t t e n out above permits determining t h e values of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade at t h e r o o t B o and a l l values of t h e bending moments M, i f t h e deformation mode of t h e blade i s known as a set of values of y,.

4.

1 55

To determine t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e Ci, it i s necessary t o perform a number of successive operations, t h e first of which involves s o l v i n g t h e system represented i n Table 1.12. It i s expedient t o i n c l u d e i n this sequence of operations a determination of t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis p i which are needed l a t e r f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s :

F'rm t h e known values of M i and from t h e c o n d i t i o n of equilibrium of t h e elements, we can c a l c u l a t e t h e shearing f o r c e Qi,l+l which i s constant over each segment of t h e blade. Actually, equating t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e segnent i, i+l t o zero, we o b t a i n t h e .equation

from which we can determine t h e value Qi,i+l.

Knowing t h e value of t h e shearing f o r c e s over t h e blade length, we can determine a l s o t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e C, applied t o t h e mass mi by t h e adjacent segments :

These computations permit determining a l l values of elast i c f o r c e s C, exerted on t h e given k s s m, by t h e adjacent segments, i f t h e deformation mode yi i s known.

I n S e c t i o n 9 , we described t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a p p l i c a t i o n of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i o n *of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s . It was shown that t h e success of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s l a r g e l y determined by t h e magnitude of t h e l i m i t s t e p , which i s d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e smallest v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d of t h e mechanical model examined as a blade analog. The l i m i t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should not be t o o small, s i n c e c a l c u l a t i o n i n this case w i l l be extremely time-consuming.

F'ig.1.53 Bending Moments w i t h Respect t o t h e First Overtone of Natural Vibrations, Calculated w i t h a Different Number of
Masses.

3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical 10.1) I n t e g r a t i o n of Eqs (-

A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the.model under study i s that it may have as m a n y natu-

156

r a l v i b r a t i o n harmonics as t h e r e are segments i n t o which t h e blade i s divided over i t s l e n g t h i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . As a l r e a d y mentioned above, t o reduce errors when changing from a blade t o i t s mechanical model analog, t h e blade must be represented by a t least 25 - 30 segments w i t h t h e same number of concentrated masses. Therefore, i n determining t h e Limit i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i n this case it i s necessary t o proceed from t h e p e r i o d of t h e highest (30th) overtone of n a t u r a l vibrations. . 4 0 shows t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency and Figure 1 p e r i o d of a n ordinary h e l i c o p t e r blade as a f u n c t i o n of t h e number of t h e overtone. It follows from this diagram t h a t t h e p e r i o d of t h e 30th overtone of natur a l v i b r a t i o n s i s about ' 1 w i t h respect t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. It was s t a t e d above t h a t , i n using t h e most suitable method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n t o o b t a i n a nondivergent s o l u t i o n , t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be less t h a n one t h i r d of t h e period of t h e highest overtone. Consequently, f o r t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n examined here, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be at least 0.3' w i t h respect t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. T h i s s t a b i l i z e s t h e s o l u t i o n and permits neglecting t h e appreci: able, e r r o r i n determining t h e amplitudes corresponding t o high v i b r a t i o n overtones, s i n c e t h e i r magnitudes are u s u a l l y small and s t r e s s e s i n t h e blade are determined mainly by s e v e r a l first harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n s . The v i b r a t i o n amplitude w i t h respect t o t h e s e harmonics can be determined w i t h s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy.
It becomes understandable from t h e above considerations t h a t , i n using t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method w i t h a d i r e c t determination of t h e p a t h of motion of p o i n t s of a blade, it i s advantageous t o use a mode1 w i t h a m i n i m u m number of concent r a t e d loads. It i s d e s i r a b l e t o use only models w i t h a number of loads not more t h a n 12 15. It should be noted that, w i t h such a small number of segments, t h e above beam model introduces e r r o r s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s of this model. To i l l u s t r a t e this, Fig.1.53 shows t h e mode of t h e bending moment corresponding t o t h e f i r s t overtone of n a t u r a l blade vibrat i o n s , c a l c u l a t e d f o r z = 28 ( s o l i d l i n e ) and z = 12 (dashed l i n e ) . It follows from Fig.1.53 t h a t , f o r a small number of segments, t h e bending moment i n t h e b h d e model begins t o show p e c u l i a r i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r highly f l e x i b l e beams s t r e s s e d by t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e s i n a f i e l d of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i n t h a t bending moment concentrations appear at t h e s i t e where t h e masses are located. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a s mentioned a l r e a d y i n Section 4, Subsection 9. The occurrence of such concentrations s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduces t h e c a l c u l a t i o n accuracy. Theref o r e , t h e use of beam models w i t h a number of segments less t h a n 25 ( z = 25) i s not recommended. For a small number of masses, such e r r o r s do not arise when /lk8 using a multihinge a r t i c u l a t e d model, although v i b r a t i o n modes of higher harmow i c s will be severely d i s t o r t e d . I n Fig.1.53, t h e bending moment c a l c u l a t e d f o r a multihinge model w i t h a number of segments z = 12 i s shown by a dot-dash l i n e .

Proceeding from t h e s e considerations, l e t us examine i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e method presented here as r e l a t e d t o a multihinge model. Furthermore, it w i l l be shown i n Subsection 6 of this Section that a multihinge model permits applying t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s by numerical integration-methods, a t a n inverse o r d e r of determining t.he variables, which i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible i n t h e beam model.

4.

Equations of Motion f o r a M u l t i h i w e A r t i c u l a t e d Blade Model

kt us r e p r e s e n t t h e blade as a c h a i n c o n s i s t i n g of p e r f e c t l y r i g i d weightless links interconnected by hinges. The weight of t h e blade i s concentrated i n t h e hinges of this c h a h i n t h e form of i n d i v i d u a l loads w i t h a mass mi. The flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s a l s o concentrated i n t h e hinges, based on t h e concept t h a t a s p r i n g of r i g i d i t y c i preventing f r a c t u r e of t h e blade i n this hinge is, s o t o speak, b u i l t i n t o each hinge (Fig.1.54).
3

Fig A.54

Diagram of Multihinge A r t i c u l a t e d Blade Model.

The system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of v i b r a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o this blade model will be derived here, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e equation d e s c r i b i n g t h e equilibrium of t h e load w i t h t h e o r d i n a l number i = 2. Then, by analogy, we will c o n s t r u c t a l l remaining equations of t h e system. The equation of equilibrium of t h e load w i t h m a s s m, can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form
m2Y2 ==4

&

c,-tT,.

( 1 0 . 1 6 )

The e l a s t i c f o r c e C z exerted on t h e mass m2 by t h e adjacent segments of t h e model i s determined by t h e formula

where QI2 and t h e load.

&e3

are t h e shearing f o r c e s on segments of t h e model adjacent t o

To determine t h e magnitude of t h e shearing f o r c e s Q12 and Q3, we will derive equations that equate t o zero t h e s u m of t h e moments of a l l f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t of t h e load w i t h a mass m2 ( p o i n t A) for b o t h segments of t h e model adjacent t o this load. These equations have t h e following form:

(10.18)
Determining Q12 and mula (ID.l'7), we o b t a i n from this and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o f o r C2=Q23

Q23

- Q12=

The bending moment e n t e r i n g this equation can be expressed by blade element displacement, using t h e formulas

( 1 0 . 2 0 )

S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(10.20) following equation:

for M1, M2, and M , i n t o eq.(lO.19),

we o b t a i n t h e

where

(10.22)

159

1 lI11I I I I I I1 I I I I I I I I 11111111111l1

If re a l s o r i t e out a l l remaining values of C, and s u b s t i t u t e them i n t o /150 eq.(10.16), t h e n t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v i b r a t i o n s can be represented i n t h e form shown i n Table 1 . 1 3 .

Each equation of t h e obtained system, occupying one row i n Table 1 . 1 3 , represents the s u m of t h e products of t h e known c o e f f i c i e n t s d,, e l , and f, and t h e variables yi which simultaneously e n t e r s e v e r a l equations. The variables y i are set off v e r t i c a l l y i n a s p e c i a l row i n t h e upper p o r t i o n of Table 1.13. The right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations, representing t h e s u m of i n e r t i a and aerodynamic f o r c e s , are given i n a s e p a r a t e column t o t h e r i g h t of Table 1.13. T h i s system of equations d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e s blade deformations w i t h t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade, without intermediate coupling a c r o s s bending moments, as had been t h e case i n analogous equations p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e beam model des c r i b e d above i n Subsection 3 of this Section and i n equations used p r e v i o u s l y i n Section 4 f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e free v i b r a t i o n s of a blade.

Table 1.13

............ ......... I I ... I .. ... .

G-2

T h i s form of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n determining t h e ' e l a s t i c blade deformations, b u t it a l s o has c e r t a i n shortcomings. One of these, as a l r e a d y mentioned, i s that t h e e l a s t i c blade a A s i s not represented as smooth b u t as a broken l i n e . The mode of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e bendi n g moment over t h e blade l e n g t h i s a l s o represented as a broken l i n e . A second shortcoming i s t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n s e l e c t i n g t h e hinge r i g i d i t i e s ci

L e t us p r e s e n t one o f . t h e methods of determining t h e s e r i g i d i t i e s . For this purpose, we i n v e s t i g a t e d two adjacent blade segments. The value of t h e

160

Ill

11111

1 1 1

1111

Ill

hinge r i g i d i t y c i i s determined from t h e s t i p u l a t i o n that t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e ends of adjacent segments Bo and B, of t h e equivalent beam model coincide with t h e angles Bo, and B,, for t h e hinge scheme Fig. 1.55):

I f , i n comparing t h e s e angles, we neglect t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and assume t h a t t h e bending moment over t h e s e two segments i s constant (M, = /151 = M, = M, = const), t h e n t h e condit i o n (10.23) w i l l y i e l d t h e followi n g formula f o r determining t h e hinge rigidity:
1 _CI

'01

I
I - .

I12

E101

E112

(10.24.)

I n p r a c t i c e , t h e s e assumptions can be obeyed only approximately. T h i s l e a d s t o c e r t a i n e r r o r s i n using such a c a l c u l a t i o n method.

5 . Sequence of @ e r a t i o n s i n Calcul a t i n g E l a s t i c Vibrations by t h e Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Method

A s a whole, blade c a l c u l a t i o n s by t h e proposed method are c a r r i e d out i n t h e following sequence: A t t h e i n i t i a l t i m e , which is u s u a l l y ) = 0, an r e l a t e d w i t h t h e azimuth I For Determination of Nnge arbitrary blade deformation mode y, Fig.1.55 and t h e d i s % r i b u t i o nof t h e rate of Rigidity. displacement of t h e masses 9, are prescribed. I f a l l values of yi are known, t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e s C , can be determined by t h e formulas presented i n Subs e c t i o n s 2 and 4 of this Section. The angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis p i should be c a l c u l a t e d at t h e same time. For t h e beam model, t h e s e are derived from eq.(lO.l3). For t h e a r t i c u l a t e d model, t h e y can be determined as t h e half-sum of t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of two l i n k s of t h e model adjacent t o t h e p o i n t i n question:

p1--

Pi-1.r

+ Pf.i+l
2

If t h e values of B and y, are known, t h e n t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s Ti can be These d a t a s u f f i c e t o determine t h e values y, by obtained from e q . ( 9 . 2 0 j . means of e q s . ( U . l ) .

N e x t , a change-over i s made t o t h e next azimuth of t h e blade by means of f o r m u h s analogous t o eq.( 9.43) :

/152

..
YQY

Yt+Y:+bt

.
*

The values of ytf,At, ;:$At, a d y r + A t f o r t h e time t + A t are considered The index i, referring t o t h e number of t h e concentrated load, Js omitfinal. t e d i n eqs.(10.25) s o as t o prevent excessive complication of t h e expressions.

A l l operations are t h e n repeated, t o change t o t h e new azimuth. T h i s i s continued f o r s e v e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e r o t o r u n t i l t h e motion of t h e blade becomes stable. The c a l c u l a t i o n terminates w i t h t h e r e v o l u t i o n a t which t h e solut i o n converges t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s o l u t i o n , w i t h t h e p r e s c r i b e d accuracy. The accuracy of t h e s o l u t i o n i s determined by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e o r d i n a t e s of t h e mass displacement when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e motion i n two successive r o t o r revolutions.
Analysis of t h e r e s u l t s can be c a r r i e d out i n any manner, depending on t h e purpose of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . To s o l v e problems of blade s t r e n g t h a n a l y s i s , t h e 0 ' of r o t o r azimuth, are u s u a l l y read i n t o t h e exbending moments MI, every 1 ternal memory. After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e values of M i and t h e drag moments of t h e blade s e c t i o n s , t h e values of t h e stresses and t h e i r amplitude are determined (10.26) and t h e stresses are expanded i n harmonics. Calculation of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s by t h e above method comprises a constant r e p e t i t i o n of t h e same operations, which amounts t o a determination of t h e Therefore, t h e computer t i m e f o r c e s C i and T i and t o t h e s o l u t i o n of eq.(lO.l). p r i m a r i l y depends on t h e numter of such r e p e t i t i o n s . T h i s number i s determined by only two f a c t o r s . The f i r s t i s t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e p e r i o d of changing t o a stable process, which depends only on t h e correspondence of t h e i n i t i a l condit i o n s of steady motion and on t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r o t o r and i s independent of t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n . The second, a l r e a d y mentioned above, i s t h e required i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p .

162

6. Method of C a l c u l a t i o n w i t h Inverse Order of Determining

Variables i n Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n

I n S e c t i o n 9 and i n this Section, we discussed d i r e c t methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l ecpations f o r t h e case i n which, on changing t o a /153 new t h e , we determined t h e variable y and i t s first d e r i v a t i v e $ , and t h e n t h e second d e r i v a t i v e y f r o m t h e d i f f e r e t i a l equation. Here, we w i l l examine a method of c a l c u l a t i o n proposed by V.E.Baskin i n which t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s are determined i n t h e opposite order.
I n sequence, we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e three t i m e s : t h e time t, a t which t h e blade deformation must be determined, and t h e two times tn,l = t, A t and t,, = t, - 2at preceding this.

yirmn;
..
b)
t

Assuming that t h e second derivat i v e 9 remains constant over each int e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l , a s shown i n Fig.1.56c, t h e value of Tn-l can be expressed by Fnm2and $ n , l :
''

Yn-1-

-!/n-I

-~n-2

Yn-I

At

( 10 27

t n-2

2 n-r

t n

C )

Change of Variable y and Fig.1.56 i t s Time Derivatives, i n Numerical Integration.

If we now assume t h a t t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e $ a l s o remains constant over t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l , a s shown i n Fig.1.56b by a broken l i n e , t h e n t h e values of f n - l and $ , , can be determined from t h e formulas

(10.28)

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(10.28)

ink0 eq.(10.27)

yields t h e expression f o r

yn-l :

I f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i s s u f f i c i e n t l y small, t h e n we can p u t approxim-

ately

..

..

YfI = Yn-I

and write e q . ( l O . a )

i n t h e form

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values of f, i n t o t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations represented by Table 1 . 1 3 , a system of a l g e b r a i c equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknowns y, i s obtained. A s above, this system i s w r i t t e n i n t h e form of Table

1.a.

I n t h e v a r i a b l e s y i n Table le&, t h e index denoting t h e i n s t a n t of time i s given as s u p e r s c r i p t , w h i l e t h e index r e f e r r i n g t o t h e number of t h e concen& as before - i s given as s u b s c r i p t . t r a t e d load of t h e model

I n compiling Table 1 . 1 4 - 5%was a l s o assumed t h a t t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s calculated f o r t h e t i m e t,,, can be set approximately equal t o t h e s e f o r c e s f o r t h e time t,.
Table 1. 14

...

, ...
I

I !

... ... ... ... __

EL-2

...

...

4-

The assumption (10.30) permits expressing t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n yn at t h e time t, i n terms of t h e deformations ynW2, y,-i, and y,. After determi& t h e i n e r t i a " f o r c e s as t h e products formed by t h e masses mi w i t h t h e 'corresponding accelerat i o n s and after adding t h e s e t o t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s , we can o b t a i n t h e t o t a l external f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade. Then t h e deformations y, are determined as i n a conventional s t a t i c problem. T h i s i s based on solving t h e system of equat i o n s i n Table l.&; The only s p e a i a l feature of t h e s e equations i s t h e f a c t that t h e components of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s expressed i n terms of t h e s t i l l uncalculated values of y,, are transposed t o t h e left-hand s i d e and are determined simultaneously w i t h solving t h e system of equations Thus, t h e determination of t h e various parameters of blade motion by this

method i s c a r r i e d out i n a n unconventional order. A s it were, f i r s t t h e accele r a t i o n s and t h e n t h e deformations are determined. For this reason, we c a l l e d this method of s o l u t i o n Itinverse method of numerical integration11. Another frequently used d e s i g n a t i o n i s l l i q l i c i t method11. The c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h t h e i n v e r s e method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n does not r e s u l t i n a divergent s o l u t i o n , even a t r a t h e r l a r g e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p s . Theref o r e , t h e s i z e of t h e required i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be determined only on t h e basis Y of t h e magnitude of e r r o r s r e s u l t i n g from t h e use of this method. The magnitude of IO t h e e r r o r can be estimated by applying t h e i n v e r s e method of i n t e g r a t i o n t o t h e s o h 5 t t i o n of eq.(9.&). The r e s u l t s of this tal0 c u l a t i o n are p l o t t e d i n Fig.1.57.
-5

- 10
Fig.1.57 Results of Numerical S o l u t i o n of Eq.(9.26) by t h e 11Inverse Method of Integrationll, as a Function of t h e R e l a t i v e I n t e g r a t i o n Step.

It follows from t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t , t o achieve a s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy of t h e deformation values corresponding t o frequenc i e s e q u a l t o t h e r o t o r rpm, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n step should be l e s s t h a n 1 with respect t o
t h e r o t o r azimuth

I n c a l c u l a t i n g by t h e method w i t h ir+ /155 verse order of determining t h e v a r i a b l e s , . 1 4 -i s t h e system of equations i n Table 1 solved i n sequence a t each azimuth, using predetermined values of y;- and d-. A t t h e i n i t i a l t i m e , t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s can be t a k e n a r b i t r a r i l y .
The above method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s more laborious t h a n methods t h a t use expansion of t h e s o l u t i o n i n accordance w i t h p r e s c r i b e d v i b r a t i o n modes, and t h u s i s very time-consuming i n c a l c u l a t i o n s on d i g i t a l computers. However, t h e method o f f e r s valuable advantages i n estimating t h e i n f l u e n c e of various concentrated e f f e c t s on a blade, f o r example, i n estimating t h e e f f e c t s produced by blade dampers and i n a l l cases when t h e s o l u t i o n cannot be represented w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by a limited number of p r e s c r i b e d modes.

(A T -&)=

7. CmDarative Evaluation of Various Methods of C a l c u l a t i r q

F l e x u r a l Blade Vibrations

I n this Chapter, we have presented a l a r g e number of methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g f l e x u r a l b l a d e v i b r a t i o n s ; naturally, this raises t h e question as t o w h a t method t o s e l e c t f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n and w h a t C r i t e r i a t o use as basis f o r this s e l e c t i o n . The answer i s quite simple: For p r a c t i c a l purposes, t h e o p t i m u m method w i l l always be t h e one that most fully and a c c u r a t e l y t a k e s i n t o account a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r behavior, i n c l u d i n g t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d and t h e nonlinear c h a r a c t e r of t h e dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k and t h e Mach number. However, it i s impossible here t o d i s r e g a r d t h e e x i s t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s that t h e more c q l e t e and more a c c u r a t e t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e more time w i l l be required f o r c a l c u l a t i o n on d i g i t a l

165

TABLE 1 . 1 5

Method o f C a l c u l a t i o n w i t h Expansion of i n E i g e n f u n c t i o n s and D et er mi n at i o n o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s o f Expansion o f Time F o u r i e r S e r i e s i n Harmonics

E i g e n f u n c t i o n s and w i t h by t h e Method o f Numerical I n teLtra t i o n o f Transformkd Equations

Method o f C a l c u l a t i o n wit41 D i r e c t Det ermi nat i on of t h e T r a j e c t o r i e s o f Motion of I n d i v i d u a l P o i n t s o f t h e Bladc

D i f f er en ti al
equations

I
[ElyllJ''

- [ N ~ ' ] 't

my'= T

Form o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f solution Method o f transform: t i o n of e q u a t i o n s Uethod o f de te rm in in g C a e f f i c i e n t s o f ex p an s i o n o f t i m e f a c t o r s , a r e t i m e factors d eter m in ed from a system o f a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s D i r e c t method o f n u mer i cal integration

Equations a r e n o t transformed I n v e r s e method of numeri cal integration

Vrtq = So00 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c

Atreq

= 2.5;.F0

Vreq = 20000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c

nonuniform in d u ced v e l o c i t y f i e l d expanded i n harmonic components

Vreq = 50000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c

v e l o c i t i e s d et er mi n ed f o r a r o t o r w i t h f i n i t e number o f blades ( f o r a number of p o i n t s o v e r the r a d i u s zr 512) Vpeq = 100000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c Vreq = 500000 o p e r a t i o n s j s e c "he methods a r e c o n v e n i e n t for t a k i n g i n t o account t h e n o n l i n e a r e l a t i o n c y = f(a,M) and c x . = f(a,M). ' r e g = 500000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c Vreq = 200000 o p e r a t i o d s e c

For t a k i n g i n t o acco u n t t h e r e l a t i o n cy = f ( = , M ) and c x = f ( a,M) , t h i s method i s u n s u i t a b l e i n practice

at

z p =f2
V r e q > 100000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c

--

V r e q = 250000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c

computers. Therefore, i n s e l e c t i n g t h e optimum c a l c u l a t i o n method, t h e main c r i t e r i o n i s t h e machine c a p a b i l i t y which p l a c e s a limit on t h e use of t h e most r e f i n e d c a l c u l a t i o n methods. To s e l e c t t h e most suitable c a l c u l a t i o n method, we compiled Table 1.15 which a l s o gives t h e required speed of computation f o r various methods of c a l c u l a t i o n . The table a l s o shows t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i f f e r e n t methods.

Here, we w i l l p r e s e n t approximate values of t h e required speed of operation , , , f o r c a r r y i n g out a c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h i n 5 10 min. The required p e r second V speed i s given f o r a l l c a l c u l a t i o n methods i n f o u r v a r i a n t s of t h e assumptions used. The required c a p a c i t y of t h e computer memory i s not estimated i n Table 1.15 s i n c e , i n modern computers, this u s u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s no handicap f o r t h e programmer.

It follows from a p e r u s a l of t h e d a t a i n Table 1.15 t h a t , f o r a low-speed /157 computer (speed of t h e o r d e r of 5000 operations/sec), only one method known as t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n i n harmonics can be used t o any g r e a t e r extent. I n this method, t h e s o l u t i o n i s expanded i n eigenfunctions. The time f a c t o r s i n t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are represented as a Fourier s e r i e s i n harmonics. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of this series are determined from a system of a l g e b r a i c equations derived from a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation by means of G a l e r k i n t s method. T h i s method i s des c r i b e d i n Section $.
On low-speed computers, this method can be used only under t h e assumption of a uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n A = const. For t a k i n g i n t o account t h e nonlinear dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e p r o f i l e angle of att a c k and on t h e Mach number, t h e method i s p r a c t i c a l l y useless. These r e l a t i o n s can be considered i n this method only by making extensive assumptions. However, even w i t h such a n approach, t h e computation necessary f o r constructing t h e mathematical formulas i s so h b o r i o u s t h a t , f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, i t i s simply unfeasible. On moderate-speed computers (speed of 20,000 50,000 operations/sec), t h e most convenient method i s t o expand t h e s o l u t i o n i n eigenfunctions and t o determine t h e time f a c t o r s of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n . T h i s method i s presented i n Section 9, and i s N t e convenient f o r t a k i n g i n t o account t h e nonlinear c o r r e l a t i o n between aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s , p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k , and Mach number. I n cases i n which t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d must be considered, this method c a n be used only on high-speed computers. If, i n determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s , t h e number of c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t s over t h e r a d i u s and azimuth of t h e r o t o r i s limited, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n can be performed a l s o on moderate-speed computers. The method of c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h d i r e c t determination of t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s of motion of i n d i v i d u a l blade p o i n t s (see Sect.10) can be used only on computers w i t h a speed g r e a t e r t h a n V > 100,000 operations/sec. A consideration of t h e v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d s and of t h e nonlinear c o r r e l a t i o n s between aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s , p r o f i l e a n g l e of a t t a c k , and Mach number f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s t h e speed needed f o r this method. Only t h e i n v e r s e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method

167

i s considered i n t h e last column of Table 1.15. I n using t h e d i r e c t method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e required computer speed f o r t h e method w i t h d i r e c t det e r m i n a t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s of motion of i n d i v i d u a l blade p o i n t s may i n c r e a s e even more s t e e p l y .
The required computer speeds given in Table 1.15 a r e obtained f o r t h e case i n which t h e computations r e q u i r e 5 10 min. Within this t i m e , it i s p o s s i b l e t o make s e v e r a l checkouts required i n designing a blade w i t h v a r i a t i o n i n r o t o r parameters and f l i g h t regime.

If we l i m i t ourselves t o a c a l c u l a t i o n a t only one v a r i a n t of t h e parameters, a longer computer time i s admissible. I n t h i s case, t h e required computer speed shown i n Table 1 . 1 5 can be reduced accordingly.

Using t h e above considerations, it i s p o s s i b l e - f o r each i n d i v i d u a l case t o s e l e c t t h e optimum method based on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of using various a s s q t i o n s and a v a i l a b l e time i n c a l c u l a t i o n s on a computer. Section 1 1 . Fatigue S t r e n a t h and Blade Xfe

/158

1 . Testing a S t r u c t u r e t o Determine i t s Service

.&ice

The s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e i s u s u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e basis of r e s u l t s of dynamic a n a l y s i s . Depending upon how e s s e n t i a l t h e s t r u c t u r e i s f o r f l i g h t s a f e t y , tests of Frequently, only i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s one o r s e v e r a l design v a r i a n t s are performed. of a s t r u c t u r e whose s t r e n g t h i s d e c i s i v e f o r t h e e n t i r e u n i t as a whole, are tested. I n determining t h e blade l i f e , it i s conventional t o t e s t i n d i v i d u a l s p a r segments w i t h airframe components that set up stress concentrations i n t h e spar. Specimens of a t least t h r e e d i f f e r e n t spar segments a r e t e s t e d . A s a r u l e , t h e s e segments i n c l u d e t h e r o o t b u t t and two segments along t h e l e n g t h of t h e spar. Sometimes i t becomes necessary t o t e s t a d d i t i o n a l specimens t o check i n d i v i d u a l design features of t h e spar ( f o r example, a t p o i n t s of t r a n s i t i o n of t h e spar cross section). Specimens of blades are almost always t e s t e d on resonance stands, w i t h exc i t a t i o n by mechanical v i b r a t o r s . The l e n g t h of t h e t e s t specimen i s chosen such t h a t i t s natural frequency i n bending i s w i t h i n t h e operating range of t h e v i b r a t o r . Usually t h e t e s t s are conducted a t a frequency of 1500.to 2500 c y c l e s p e r minute. I n t h i s case, t h e l e n g t h of t h e specimens i s of t h e order of 3-4 m. I n a d d i t i o n t o a l t e r n a t i n g bending stresses, t h e specimen must be extended by l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e s c r e a t i n g a constant s t a t i c load c l o s e t o t h a t which t h e blade experiences i n f l i g h t due t o t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . Figure 1.58 shows a stand f o r t e s t i n g of h e l i c o p t e r blade specimens .with a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e order of 100 t o n s ( f o r c e ) .

I n general, complete blades r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s h o r t specimens are t e s t e d , because of t h e excessive compleAty of t e s t stands required f o r . t h i s pur-

168

pose and t h e long t e s t i n g t i m e , s i n c e t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency i n this case cannot be higher t h a n 300 400 cpm.

2. D i e e r s i o n of- t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Ehdurance in Fatigue Tests

A n appreciable s c a t t e r i n g of t h e t e s t res; u l t s i s observed i n f a t i g u e tests on a c e r t a i n number of specimens manufactured under T d e n t i c a l conditions. Failure of specimens t e s t e d a t t h e same s t r e s s level occurs a t a /lrs d i f f e r e n t number of cycles N. The r a t i o of t h e g r e a t e s t number of c y c l e s t o t h e least number 4.0. o f t e n reaches 20

The d i s p e r s i o n of t h e chara c t e r i s t i c s of f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s explained by t h e inhomogeneity of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l and by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e cond i t i o n s of manufacturing and processing t h e specimens. F a i l u r e of specimens always begins from small f l a w s w i t h i n t h e material and on t h e surface' of t h e specimen. I n t h e overwhelming maFig.1.58 Blade Test Stand. j o r i t y of cases, f a i l u r e begins from a d e f e c t s i t u a t e d on t h e s u r f a c e . I n this case, t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e specimen are determined by t h e type and magnitude of t h e s e d e f e c t s

The s c a t t e r i n g of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e d a t a i n tests of various specimens i s u s u a l l y characterized by a d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n of t h e number of cycles N t o failure of t h e specimen. An analysis of t h e t e s t d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of logarithms of t h e number of cycles log N t o f a i l u r e r a t h e r c l o s e l y obeys t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w a t almost a l l average values of t h e probabili t y of failure, beginning approximately from a p r o b a b i l i t y of 0.01 - 0.02. Figure 1.59 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e P and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y cp, corresponding t o t h e real c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance of t h e s t r u c t u r e (solid curves) and t h o s e d e t e d n e d by t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w (broken curves) :
( IqN - mloaN ) 2

p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e ; p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e at a number of c y c l e s of stress less t h a n N; value of t h e logarithm of t h e number of cycles t o failure of the structure; mea-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e l o g a r i t h s of t h e number of cycles t o failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e ; m a t h e m t i c a l expectation of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms of t h e number of cycles. I n t h e range of l o w p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n usua l l y d e v i a t e s from t h e normal l a w (Fig.1.59). T h i s has t o do w i t h a n k o r t a n t feature of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance. I n f a c t , f a t i g u e f a i l u r e clan t a k e p l a c e only after a c e r t a i n number of c y c l e s of stress NO and can never occur earlier. T h i s feature of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance l e a d s t o t h e concept of a zone of i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o N i n which t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e i s equal t o zero (P = 0 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s permits an i n p o r t a n t conclusion as t o t h e poss i b i l i t y of determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e , based on endurance conditions w i t h a proba b i l i t y of failure equal t o zero, even i n t h e presence of s u f f i c i e n t Curves f o r t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of Fig.l.59 l y high a l t e r n a t i n g stresses. Endurance i n Tests and Corresponding t o Normal Law. Unfortunately, a determination of t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d No, w i t h any s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy, i s v i r t u a l l y impossible. Therefore, i n determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance i s u s u a l l y t a k e n as norma1,and t h e requirement P = 0 i s replaced by t h e requirement of a very low p r o b a b i l i t y of failure. The d e v i a t i o n of t h e values of t h e logarithms of t h e number of cycles from t h e normal l a w should be observed a l s o i n t h e r e g i o n of high p r o b a b i l i t i e s of failure. A t a r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses this happens s i n c e t h e r e i s almost always some specimen that does not f a i l even at a very l a r g e number of cycles of s t r e s s .

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3 . Basic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . of t h e Fatigue Strew&h of S t r u c t u r e

The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of a s t r u c t u r e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d u s u a l l y by t h e number of cycles N it i s able t o withstand p r i o r t o f a i l u r e a t a given upper l i m i t of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses 0 . The higher t h e upper l i m i t of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses 0 , t h e smaller t h e number of c y c l e s of stress t h e s t r u c t u r e dl1resist.

170

The curve c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e number of c y c l e s N t o failure as a f u n c t i o n of t h e upper l i m i t of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses o i s c a l l e d t h e Ffrihler curve. The v6hler curve can be approximately described by t h e equation

amN==const a t o=o,sconst

>a,andN <N,;
N>N,.

af

Here,

o w = maximum amplitude of stress below which t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l with-

s t a n d a n i n d e f i n i t e l y l a r g e number Of c y c l e s of s t r e s s N without , f r a c t u r e ; this peak amplitude i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t o r endurance l i m i t ; N, = minimum number of c y c l e s of stress corresponding t o t h e f a t i g u e limit ; m = some exponent whose value i s determined from t e s t , r e s u l t s . The bf6hler curve can be p l o t t e d f o r d i f f e r e n t values of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure. For this, a batch of t e s t p i e c e s i s divided i n t o s e v e r a l groups and t e s t e d a t d i f f e r e n t ranges of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.

After c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n functions of endurance f o r various l e v e l s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses (Fig.1.60) and connecting p o i n t s of t h e same proba b i l i t y of f a i l u r e , we can o b t a i n t h e Wtc;hler curves corresponding t o a d i f f e r e n t p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e . Usually, i n s o doing t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance i s smaller, t h e higher t h e l e v e l of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s , and t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d No i s more d i s t i n c t l y expressed a t lower s t r e s s e s . A t low stresses, t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d i s reached a t r e l a t i v e l y high probabilit i e s P, whereas a t high s t r e s s e s it shifts toward such small p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t it u s u a l l y goes unnoted. / 1 6 1
The t e s t d a t a almost always confirm t h e presence of a f a t i g u e l i m i t o w . A t a given stress B a c e r t a i n number of specimens Usually w n i not f a i l even a t a very l a r g e number of cycles of stress. The e x i s t e n c e of a f a t i g u e l i m i t i s c o w firmed a l s o i n p r a c t i c a l experience of operating various machines and mechanisms. We know of many d i f f e r e n t components t h a t c o n s t a n t l y operate under appreciable a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s and do not f a i l a t a number of c y c l e s of lo8 and more. There a r e i n d i v i d u a l exceptions t o this g e n e r a l r u l e . It has been noted t h a t , f o r c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r a l elements made of aluminum a l l o y s , t h e f a t i g u e curve cont i n u e s t o drop even a t a n endurance of t h e order of lo8 1 0 cycles. However, this drop i s s o n e g l i g i b l e t h a t even i n this case t h e hf6hler curve can be apI n any case, as applied t o proxi.mc?;tely represented i n t h e form of eq.(U.3). t h e b a s i c p a r t s of a h e l i c o p t e r , consideration of t h i s drop y i e l d s no s u b s t a n t i a l refinements.

A d e f i n i t e d i s p e r s i o n i s a l s o observed i n t h e values of t h e endurance l i m i t s . The presence of a s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e amplitude of stresses i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s t h r e s h o l d w i l l henceforth be n a single c a l l e d t h e minimum f a t i g u e limit o w m i n . A t stresses below o w m inot specimen w i l l fail, even a t a very l a r g e number of c y c l e s of stress. I n con-

P%
33.9
39 90

SO
20
10 1.0

~ i g . l . 6 0 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Endurance at Different Levels of Alternating S t r e s s e s .

Fig.l.61 lf6hler Curves Correspondi n g t o Different P r o b a b i l i t y of Failure

fig.1.62 lf&iLer Curves Corresponding t o D i f f e r e n t P r o b a b i l i t y of F a i l u r e on a Logarithmic Scale.

f o m i t y w i t h t h e above f e a t u r e s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f a t i g u e , t h e V6hler curves should have t h e slope depicted i n Fig.l.61.

If t h e curves corresponding t o a d i f f e r e n t r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e are replaced by a n approximate a n a l y t i c r e l a t i o n (ll.37, t h e n t h e hf6hAer curves on a logarithmic s c a l e will have t h e slope shown i n ~ i g . 1 . 6 2 . The zone of insensit i v i t y corresponding t o zero p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s hatched i n this graph.
172

A t such a p l o t t i n g of t h e W'c;hler curves, t h e number of cycles N, corresponding t o t h e endurance l i m i t and t h e exponent m d i f f e r f o r curves corresponding t o differ ent p r o b a b i l i t i e s of failure.

It should be noted t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e W'6hler curves as shown i n E g s . l . 6 1 and 1.62 i s p o s s i b l e only i n tests w i t h small l a b o r a t o r y specimens, s i n c e a very l a r g e number of t e s t p i e c e s i s required.
Construction of such curves i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible when estimating t h e s t r e n g t h of a s t r u c t u r e , s i n c e only a very small number of specimens can be used 5 (where n i s t h e i n such estimates. Often this number does not exceed n = 3 number of t e s t e d specimens). I n this case, t h e tests yield only n values of t h e nunber of c y c l e s t o f r a c t u r e a t a p r e s c r i b e d magnitude of loads f o r a s t r e n g t h estimte. With such a limited number of data, some i d e a on t h e f a t i g u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a given s t r u c t u r e can be gained only on t h e basis of c e r t a i n asswlrptions w i t h reI spect t o t h e W'dhler curves.

i l l

The range of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses at which t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l withstand a precompress i o n s c r i b e d number of cycles N t o f a i l u r e depends a l s o on t h e magnitude of t h e conHay's Diagram f o r Specis t a n t component of t h e stresses of t h e Fig.1.63 mens of Tubular Blade Spars. cycle o m ( s t a t i c l o a d ) . The g r e a t e r t h e /163 s t a t i c load, t h e smaller t h e range of s t r e s s e s a t which t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l withstand a given number of cycles. T h i s dependence i s u s u a l l y characterized by H a y ' s diagram. A s a n example F'ig.1.63 shows t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of such a diagram.

-80

-40

40 80 G,Kg/tnm* Tension

4 L . l

For t u b u l a r s t e e l s p a r s a t o m = 20 30 kg/mm2 a n i n c r e a s e i n s t a t i c load o , l e a d s t o a decrease i n t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t by a n amount AD, M by a n amount A For duralumin s p a r s a t om = 6 8 kg/m2, t h e value i s A o , M 0.3A0, M O.4Aom

It should be mentioned t h a t , i n t h e r e g i o n of constant compressive stresses, t h e f a t i g u e Limits i n c r e a s e s u b s t a n t i a l l y . T h i s f a c t i s u t i l i z e d when conferring s t r e n g t h t o components by cold-working (see Subsects.lb and 17).

4. Stresses- S e t

UD i n t h e Blade S t r u c t u r e i n F l i g h t

In Section 1of this Chapter (Subsect.3) it was mentioned t h a t , under t h e e f f e c t of aerodynamic f o r c e s , t h e blades of a h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t are s u b j e c t t o appreciable a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of regimes designated as low-and high-speed modes.
Figure 1.64 s h m t h e type of v a r i a t i o n i n amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses w i t h respect t o flying speed, for two blade s t r u c t u r e s : one w i t h a s t e e l and one w i t h a duralumin spar. A s i n d i c a t e d i n this diagram, m a x i " a l t e r n a t i n g stresses can arise b o t h at low speeds (braking regime) and a t maxi" f l y i n g

173

speed. As demonstrated before, t h e blades perform flexural v i b r a t i o n s such t h a t , a t each p o i n t of t h e spar, t h e stresses vary i n accordance w i t h a p e r i o d i c l a w d u p l i c a t i n g each r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r . A s a t y p i c a l example, Fig.1.65 shows t h e recording of stresses obtained i n blade s e c t i o n s a t relative r a d i i F = 0.73 and F = 0.8 i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t relat i v e l y high speed. The same diagram g i v e s t h e harmonic content of t h e stresses set u p 0. i n t h e s e blade s e c t i o n s .
30

20

10

0.1

0 . 2

0.3

Fig.1.64. Character of Varia t i o n i n Amplitudes of Altern a t i n g S t r e s s e s as a Function of Flying Speed i n Blades of LaJ (Tubular S t e e l ) and Moderate (Duralumin Spar) Rigidi t y i n t h e Flapping Plane.

Usually, i n a h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t p = 0.4 t h e first harmonic component of t h e stresses reaches d u m values. The second harmonic i s lower i n amplitude and g e n e r a l l y amounts t o 30 - 70% of t h e first harmonic. The first and second harmonics, 90%, determine t h e g e n e r a l l y t o t a l i n g 70 magnitude of t h e t o t a l a l t e r n a t i n g blade /l64 stresses i n t h e s e regimes, s i n c e t h e higher harmonics u s u a l l y are small. Their magnitude almost always decreases w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n o r d e r of t h e harmonic. Such a type of v a r i a t i o n i n magnitude of harmonics can be a t t r i b u t e d t o a decrease i n magnitude of t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic f o r c e s on change-over t o higher harmonics.
= 0.2

For a l l blades t h e r e are exceptions t o this rule, having t o do with t h e occurrence of o r p r o x h i t y t o resonance.

I n low-speed modes, t h e harmonic content of t h e e f f e c t i v e stresses i s d i f f e r e n t . Here t h e higher harmonics predominate, and harmonics c l o s e i n frequenc i e s t o t h e frequency of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e second and t h i r d overt o n e s are mainly d i s t i n g u i s h e d . An e s p e c i a l l y pronounced i n c r e a s e i n a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n t h e s e f l i g h t regimes (see Fig.l.64) t a k e s p l a c e f o r blades of low r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e (see Sect.3, Subsect.3). For such blades, stresses Low-speed modes w i t h t h e f o u r t h and s i x t h harmonics are predominant (Fig.1.66). may cause damage t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of such blades (see Table 1.21).

For a blade of moderate r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, t h e i n c r e a s e i n alt e r n a t i n g stresses a t low speeds i s appreciably weaker (see Fig.1.64.) and preFor such blades ( j u s t dominance of higher harmonics i s not s o marked (Fig.1.67). as f o r blades of high r i g i d i t y ) high-speed f l i g h t modes may lead t o b a s i c damage potential.
Along with a l t e r n a t i n g stresses due t o flexural v i b r a t i o n s , t h e blade s p a r i s extended and bent by constant ( i n magnitude) c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and by t h e constant component of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . Therefore, t h e s p a r material works under a l t e r n a t i n g stresses w i t h a l a r g e s t a t i c load. The s t a t i c load marke d l y lowers t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s p a r .

5. Hypothesis of I&near.Su"&ion

of D w a e Potential ar&Average Equivalent A q l i t u d e of Alternating Stresses

I n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes, a l t e r n a t i n g stresses of widely d i f f e r i n g magnitude are set up i n a s t r u c t u r e . I n this case, t h e d u r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l f l i g h t regimes may d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y . Thus, a f l i g h t a t c r u i s i n g speed i s u s u a l l y t h e regime of longest d u r a t i o n . I n h e l i c o p t e r s used for cargo t r a n s p o r t ,
,To t a l s t r e s s e s
CS

R e c o r d i n g of s t r e s s e s :

12.4

H a r n o n i c con t e n t

of h a r m o n i c

of harmonic

Fig.1.65 Recording of S t r e s s e s i n Two Sections of a Helicopter Blade i n Horizontal F l i g h t Regime (p = = 0.3) and t h e i r Harmonic Content.

Fig . 1 . 6 6 Oscillogram of Alternating S t r e s s e s i n a Blade w i t h a Tubular S t e e l spar of Low R i g i d i t y i n t h e Flapping Plane during Braking, and t h e i r Harmonic Content.

this regime occtrpies 60

- 70% of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e . The maximum f l y i n g speed /166 of cargo h e l i c o p t e r s used i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy i s r a r e l y reached. Such helic o p t e r s a l s o spend very l i t t l e t i m e i n low-speed modes which g e n e r a l l y a r e only t r a n s i e n t regimes during takeoff and approach t o landing.

However, h e l i c o p t e r s can be used f o r widely d i f f e r i n g t y p e s of work, where t h e d u r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l f l i g h t regimes varies. A s an e x q l e , Table 1.21 g i v e s

175

t h e values of t h e r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of diff e r e n t regimes c y i common f o r one of t h e m i l i t a r y transport helicopters. The s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e should be determined w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e time base of a h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t regimes of d i f f e r i n g a l t e r n a t i n g stress l e v e l which c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s t r u c t u r e a d i f f e r e n t p o r t i o n of f a t i g u e damage p o t e n t i a l . To t a k e this i n t o account it i s convenient t o use t h e hypothesis of l i n e a r sunanation of damage pot e n t i a l s . T h i s hypothesis presupposes t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of summing i n d i v i d u a l components of damage p o t e n t i a l contributed by d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s l e v e l s and s t i p u l a t e s t h a t f a i l u r e of a s t r u c t u r e t a k e s p l a c e as soon as where

6 7 8

Number of harmonic

Fig.1.67 Harmonic Content of A l t e r n a t i n g Stresses i n a Blade of Moderate R i g i d i t y w i t h a Pressed Duralumin Spar i n Braking Reghe.

AN,=

ANi .

Ni

Here,
N, = number of cycles t o failure f o r a s t e a d i l y s u s t a i n e d stress l e v e l w i t h amplitude a,; AN, = number of cycles of stress w i t h amplitude o, experienced by t h e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e i - t h f l i g h t regime. The r a t i o A i , =

AN,

i s usually c a l l e d t h e damage p o t e n t i a l of a s t r u c t u r e

Ni

i n a regime w i t h a n amplitude of stresses oi, w h i l e ANxis designated as t o t a l damageability

It has been proved by o t h e r authors that, a t a c e r t a i n a l t e r n a t i o n of stress regimes, failure of a s t r u c t u r e may t a k e p l a c e as soon as

However, t h e cases discussed i n t h o s e papers, f o r t h e most p a r t , do not cover stress conditions of t h e h e l i c o p t e r parts. Therefore, we can almost always use eq.(ll.l+.) i n t h e calculations.

A s a consequence of t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance, t h e damage p o t e n t i a l of i n d i v i d u a l s p e c h e n s of a given s t r u c t u r e may d i f f e r even for one and t h e same stress l e v e l . S t r u c t u r e s w i t h t h e lowest values of endurance are s u b j e c t t o maxi damageability. Therefore, one can talk of damage p o t e n t i a l as corresponding t o a c e r t a i n p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e .
If, i n eq.(ll.l+), t h e values of N, corresponding t o a n assigned p r o b a b i l i t y of failure P a s d are given, t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e will a l s o be e q u a l t o

176

P a s d a t ANx = 1 . T h i s makes it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e formula f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e safe n m b e r of c y c l e s of stress N, w i t h t h e assigned p r o b a b i l i t y of failure P a s d determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of s t r u c t u r e s based on endurance conditions:

Here,
cyI

- AN,
NE.

= r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of t h e regime w i t h =

stress

0,;

Ne.

N,

number of c y c l e s of stress during t h e l i f e of t h e s t r u c - /167 ture when determining t h e r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l f l i g h t regimes c y i ( g e n e r a l l y speaking, we can t a k e any a r b i t r a r y i n t e r v a l of t h e service t i m e of a h e l i c a p t e r w i t h a number of c y c l e s N t h a t need not a t a l l be equal t o t h e number of cycles of stress during t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e N8. 1 ); number of cycles of s t r e s s of amplitude CY, a t which t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s equal t o t h a t assigned ( P a r d ) .

If t h e a c t i n g s t r e s s e s are lower t h a n t h e m i n i " f a t i g u e l i m i t , t h e n damageability i s not introduced i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n this case, t h e number of cycles N, i n eq.(11.5) can be set equal t o i n f i n i t y .

L e t us introduce t h e concept of r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of regimes damage p o t e n t i a l t o t h e s t r u c t u r e :

which add a

where Nd i s t h e number of cycles of stress during t h e Life of t h e s t r u c t u r e which c o n t r i b u t e s t o damageability. Thus, during t h e s e r v i c e l i f e R, t h e s t r u c t u r e i s damaged only during a time equal t o ER.

It o f t e n proves convenient, f o r g r e a t e r c l a r i t y of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , t o introduce t h e concept of average equivalent amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.

The average equivalent amplitude of stresses i s a n amplitude constant i n t i m e and a c t i n g during a p a r t of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e e q u a l t o ER, which c o n t r i b u t e s damageability t o t h e s t r u c t u r e equal t o t h e damageability introduced by amplit u d e s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses d i f f e r i n g i n magnitude i n a l l f l i g h t regimes encountered during t h e s e r d c e of a h e l i c o p t e r . I n introducing this concept, it i s assumed t h a t a t stresses g r e a t e r t h a n t h e f a t i g u e limit, t h e endurance of t h e s t r u c t u r e can be determined as

N,=N,

r:)".
ll.4),
we o b t a i n

(11.6)

Then, s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( ll.6) i n t o eq.(

where surmnation i s performed only for those regimes that raise t h e damage P O t e n t i a l t o the structure.

If we introduce one equivalent stress l e v e l w i t h a n ampztude oeq and w i t h a number of cycles determined from t h e s t i p u l a t i o n that s t r e s s e s aeq a c t cont i n u o u s l y during a p a r t of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e ER, i.e., that Neq = eNS.t, t h e n we can write

C onse quent l y ,

The c a l c u l a t i o n of equivalent stresses f o r a blade of a h e l i c o p t e r a t t h e maximally s t r e s s e d s e c t i o n at a r e l a t i v e r a d i u s 'F = 0.74. i s given as an example i n Subsection 12; see a l s o Table 1.21. The s p a r of this blade i s a s t e e l tube squashed i n t o a n e l l i p s e over i t s e n t i r e length, beginning from r a d i u s F = 0.3. The finimum f a t i g u e limit of t h e t u b u l a r blade a t this s t a t i o n , based on r e s u l t s = 13 kg/mm". of dynamic t e s t s , can be t a k e n as equal t o o w n i n S t r e s s analysis of a blade with a t u b u l a r s t e e l spar i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d out i n two planes: i n t h e p l a n e of m i n i " (o,.)and i n t h e p l a n e of maximum r i g i d i t y (a,). In this case, it my happen that, at some p o i n t of t h e perimeter of t h e s p a r s e c t i o n , t h e amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses reaches a magnitude ax =
=

& ,=

greater, t h a n t h e amplitude oy

However, u s u a l l y owing t o t h e phase d i f f e r e n c e of t h e stresses a c t i n g i n t h e s e two planes, such a magnitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i s almost never reached. Therefore, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a blade we can use t h e approxjmate formula:

a x and oy i s a v a i l a b l e .

The c o e f f i c i e n t 5 can be c a l c u l a t e d i f a simultaneous recording of stresses If t h e r e are no d a t a f o r determining 5 , t h e n s u f f i c i e n t l y

reliable results can be obtained by assuming 5 = 0.5.

6. D i m e r s i o n of &he-Amplitudes of Al.ter-wtinn S t r e s s e s
i

i nanAssigned. F l i g h t Regime

In measuring a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n f l i g h t it has been found t h a t , at an assigned f l i g h t regime, t h e magnitudes of stresses differ during t h e f l i g h t regime and i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t s . T h i s makes it necessary t o introduce t h e average equivalent amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n a l l f l i g h t regimes.
To determine this amplitude, we c a n use s p e c i a l oscj-llogram decoders which permit determining t h e number of amplitudes of stresses n, located i n t h e range
d'k=okR-

where o, and o k - 1 t h e calculation.

are t h e amplitude levels of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s s e l e c t e d f o r

Then, t h e average equivalent amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s i n t h e regime i n question can be determined by a formula analogous t o eq.(11.9):

( 1 1 . 1 0 )

Here,

n ,
=

r e l a t i v e number of c y c l e s w i t h amplitude ok

where nk
ei
= =

number of Cycles with amplitude 0, w h i l e nx i s t h e t o t a l number of cycles recorded by t h e decoder; r e l a t i v e number of cycles w i t h s t r e s s e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e m i n i " f a t i g u e limit i n t h e i - t h f l i g h t regime.

Summation w i t h r e s p e c t t o k i s c a r r i e d out only f o r t h o s e time i n t e r v a l s i n i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e mini, t h e i - t h regime i n which t h e amplitude of stresses 0 mum f a t i g u e l i m i t o w n i n . When determining t h e average equivalent amplitude during t h e e n t i r e s e r v i c e l i f e of a h e l i c o p t e r by means of eq.(ll.9), t h e amplitude i n each f l i g h t regime should be c a l c u l a t e d from eq.(ll.lO), w h i l e t h e relative d u r a t i o n of t h e regimes r a i s i n g t h e damage p o t e n t i a l of t h e s t r u c t u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e formula
i

To s i m p l i f y t h e decoding, it i s g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e t o r e p l a c e determination

/169

of t h e equivalent amplitude by t h e maximum amplitude i n each regime; this raises

t h e r e l i a b i l i t y margin but leads t o some decrease i n s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c ture

7. Method of Calculating Service L i f e w i t h t h e u s e

of Reliability C o e f f i c i e n t s The problem of determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e reduces t o f i n d i n g some safe number of cycles of stress i n s e r v i c e N, a t wl-ich t h e proba b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e i s very small and equal t o t h e assigned value. Lf it were p o s s i b l e t o t e s t a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of specimens, i t would be easy t o f i n d N, after determining t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e (Fig.1.68). Numerous methods of c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e [see, f o r example (Ref.43)I a r e based on this approach. However, i t i s u s u a l l y necessary t o determine t h e s e r v i c e l i f e - of a s t r u c t u r e on t h e basis of dynamic tests of a f e w specimens n of t h e s t r u c t u r e , where it i s impossible t o determine t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e w i t h t h e required accuracy. Therefore, t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e , based on t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c e r t a i n margins of r e l i a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of cycles l l N and amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s V0,has become popular i n p r a c t i c a l engineering.

Determination of Safe Number of Cycles, fig.1.68 Based on t h e Service L i f e D i s t r i b u t i o n Curve.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e s e r v i c e l i f e by this method, it i s necessary t o make a stress a n a l y s i s of a s t r u c t u r e i n various f l i g h t regimes, t o deter;mine t h e equivalent s t r e s s e s , and t o conduct dynamic t e s t s of one o r s e v e r a l specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e a t s t r e s s e s of
%d

=%%9

(1l.m

The margin of r e l i a b i l i t y i s introduced here t o t a k e i n t o account t h e p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n values of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s . s e s i n i d e n t i c a l units of d i f ferent helicopters.

180

After t e s t i n g t h e specimens and obtaining t h e minimum value of cycles t o failure Nmin,we determine t h e safe n m b e r of cycles of stress i n s e r v i c e , by means of t h e formula

The margin of r e l i a b i l i t y qN i s introduced t o take i n t o account t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Then, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e i n hours can be determined from t h e formula

/170

where f i s t h e frequency of s t r e s s i n g t h e blade i n s e r v i c e ( c y c l e s p e r minute).

In some cases, t h e endukance of a s t r u c t u r e migM depend on t h e frequency of stress a p p l i c a t i o n . Therefore, if dynamic tests are c a r r i e d o u t a t a frequency g r e a t e r t h a n t h e frequency of s t r e s s i n g i n f l i g h t , it W i l l be necessary t o irrtroduce a n a d d i t i o n a l margin f o r t h e frequency of s t r e s s i n g T h i s margin i s introduced mainly f o r components made of duralumin and f o r tests c a r r i e d out a t a frequency which i s by a f a c t o r of 5 10 higher t h a n t h e frequency of stress2.0. i n g i n f l i g h t . I n this case, t h e value i s t a k e n as equal t o T i = 1.5 When allowing f o r t h e s e f a c t o r s , t h e formula f o r determining t h e service l i f e can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

vi.

If we assume t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s obeys t h e normal l a w and t h a t t h e parameters of this l a w are known, then, as a l r e a d y mentioned, t h e magnitudes of t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y margins w i t h r e s p e c t t o could be detert h e number of cycles 7lN and a q l i t u d e of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses mined by c a l c u l a t i o n , a f t e r assigning a c e r t a i n , s u f f i c i e n t l y small p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n s e r v i c e . However, such c a l c u l a t i o n s cannot l a y claim t o high accuracy. Therefore, we can use t h e method of assigning t h e magnit u d e s of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e basis of h e l i c o p t e r operating experience,

On t h e basis of such experience, t h e safety f a c t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e amp l i t u d e of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses To can be t a k e n as equal t o 1.2, whereas t h e f a c t o r w i t h respect t o t h e number of c y c l e s of stress yN varies as a f u n c t i o n of t h e number of t e s t e d specimens and t h e degree of e s s e n t i a l i t y of t h e u n i t f o r f l i g h t safety
A l l units and components of a h e l i c o p t e r can be divided i n t o f o u r groups based on degree of essentiality f o r f l i g h t safety:

Grom I

- units whose failure l e a d s ' t o immediate and complete d i s r u p t i o n of

o p e r a b i l i t y and s a f e t y , w i t h a d i f f i c u l t l y d e t e c t a b l e i n c i p i e n t f a t i g u e crack. T h i s group i n c l u d e s blades whose s p a r i s covered and does not permit p o s t f l i g h t i n s p e c t i o n , a v a r i e t y of components of t h e hub and c o n t r o l s of t h e main and auxi l i a r y r o t o r s not a c c e s s i b l e t o inspection, t h e r o t o r s h a f t , e t c .

Grour, I 1 u n i t s whose failure could l e a d t o imediate and complete disrupt i o n of o p e r a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e and f l i g h t safety, b u t where e a r l y detect i o n of i n c i p i e n t f a t i g u e cracks i s p o s s i b l e . T h i s group i n c l u d e s blades w i t h a r e l i a b l y operating system s i g n a l i n g t h e appearance of cracks, as w e l l as a l l o t h e r u n i t s c l a s s i f i e d i n Group I provided t h a t i n c i p i e n t f a t i g u e cracks can be detected i n preflight inspection.
T A B U 1-16 SAFETY FACTORS WITH RESPEGT TO NUMBER OF C Y C W -

Grow I11 u n i t s whose f a i l u r e l e a d s t o p a r t i a l l o s s of o p e r a b i l i t y and elldangers f l i g h t s a f e t y , b u t permits forced landing without damage t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r . T h i s group i n c l u d e s numerous f u s e l a g e p a r t s and even t h e reduction g e a r framework i f it i s redundant.
Grow IV u n i t s whose f a i l u r e / 1 7 1 causes p a r t i a l loss of o p e r a b i l i t y , allass continuance of f l i g h t , does not lead t o r a p i d failure of o t h e r units, and permits d e t e c t i n g rupture i n ground inspect i o n . T h i s group includes numerous elements of t h e fuselage, s t a b i l i z e r of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , and of o t h e r r e l a t e d s t r u c tural elements.
The more e s s e n t i a l t h e u n i t , t h e g r e a t e r should be t h e magnitude of t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of c y c l e s . The following values of t h e s e f a c t o r s are proposed here (Table 1.16).

Specimens n

Group
~~

IV __-

12

6.0
4.0

8 6 4

6 4

2,.5 2.0

3.0 2.5

3 2

1.5
1.o

& I p r a c t i c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o rea l i z e s a f e t y f a c t o r s f o r t h e number of c y c l e s requrired i n Groups I and I 1 of h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s only at a very low frequency of s t r e s s a l t e r n a t i o n i n f l i g h t . I n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e w i t h such l a r g e s a f e t y f a c t o r s f o r a l l b a s i c h e l i c o p t e r units, tests up t o a very l a r g e number of cycles, much g r e a t e r t h a n lo7 cycles,wouB be r e q u i r e d ; this would t a k e a g r e a t d e a l of time. Therefore, a n a c c e l e r a t e d method of dynamic tests w i t h a s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of c y c l e s of T N = 1 o r of even less t h a n Unity i s gaining i n p o p u l a r i t y . I n this case, t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y i s secured by introducing ordy t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r s t r e s s e s . To convert t h e facwe g e n e r a l l y use e q . ( l l . S ) w i t h t h e exponent m = 6. t o r TN t o t h e f a c t o r for With this approach, t h e required f a c t o r of s a f e t y f o r t h e amplitude of alternati n g stresses differs, depending on t h e number of t e s t e d specimens and i s g r e a t e r f o r duralumin, m a k i n g it necessary t o introduce a n a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r f o r t h e d i f ference of t h e frequency i n tests and i n f l i g h t .

The f a c t o r s TN given f o r Group I o f t h e units are double t h e u s u a l values, s i n c e t h e y i n c l u d e a l s o t h e f a c t o r s Tc o f t e n introduced t o allow f o r inaccuracy of t h e hyp o t h e s i s of l i n e a r s u m a t i o n of damageability

>L "

182

1 2 3 6

1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5

2.0
1.9 1.8 1.7

I ? , t h e safe number of cycles i s determined w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e minimum number of c y c l e s of stress of t h e specimen t o failure N, =

"in

8. Method of A.F.Selikhov f o r Calcu&tirv: t h e Required S a f e t y of Cycles +ilN Factor w i t h Respect t o t.h e Number _ _ _ ~ ~ -

/L72

A s mentioned above i n Subsection 2, t h e endurance of a s t r u c t u r e has a sens i t i v i t y threshold w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of cycles No s o t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n of low p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e de-. 'f y (lOg>JmL") d a t e s from t h e normal l a w . /n=lOO Theoretically, one could s e l e c t a s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of c y c l e s such t h a t t h e proba b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c ture would be equal t o zero. However, as shown elsewhere (Ref.&), f o r a s u f f i c i e n t l y acc u r a t e determination of t h e sens i t i v i t y threshold a l a r g e number of specimens i s required s o t h a t i t u s u a l l y i s impossible t o determine i t s magnitude f o r a s t r u c t u r e . Therefore, one gener6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 . 0 7.2 IogN a l l y assumes t h a t t h e logarithms of t h e number of cycles t o f a i l ure l o g N are d i s t r i b u t e d acFig.1.69 D i s t r i b u t i o n of M i n i " Endurance cording t o t h e normal l a w and Values f o r a Different Number of Specimens. t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e i s not based on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of fa ilure i s P = 0 but on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t this probIf t h e r e a c t u a l l y i s a b i l i t y i s s u f f i c i e n t l y small, say e q u a l t o P = 1/10,000. B threshold of . s e n s i t i v i t y p r e s e n t , t h e n t h e s t i p u l a t i o n of such a small prob~

a b i l i t y of failure, c a l c u l a t e d i n accordance w i t h t h e normal l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n , tends t o be more rigorous t h a n t h e requirement P = 0 which could be imposed i f t h e value of No were c a l c u l a b l e . Therefore, a determination of safety f a c t o r s on t h e basis of a somewhat g r e a t e r p r o b a b i l i t y of failure, s a y P = l/lOOO and / 1 0 0 , i s e n t i r e l y permissible. even P = 1 To determine t h e required safety f a c t o r s f o r t h e number of cycles we can use t h e method proposed by A.F.Selikhov. T h i s method involves t h e following:

Assuming that t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms of t h e numbers of c y c l e s t o failure of a s t r u c t u r e obeys t h e normal l a w

t h e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e minimum endurance values o f a c e r t a i n batch of specimens of this s t r u c t u r e can be d e t e r d n e d from t h e formula

where n = nmber of t e s t e d specimens;

Q(x) = Laplace f u n c t i o n

mlogN
SIOKN

- log
fl

'

> *

The c h a r a c t e r of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of ym1 ( l o g N) f o r values S , = 0 .l5 The values of t h e mathematical and n = 5, 1 0 , and l 0 0 i s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig.1.69. expectations and t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n s of this d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of S l o g N and n can be found from t h e curves presented i n Figs.l.70 and 1 . 7 1 . The mathematical expectation of t h e minimum endurance value can be determined by t h e formula
mlqNmln "hyN-

AmZogN.

The value of AmloKN i s determined as a f u n c t i o n of t h e mean-square deviat i o n S l o K N and of t h e number of t e s t e d specimens, from t h e curve i n Fig.l.70. The mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e m i n i m u m endurance value S lo t o S l o K N i s given i n F'ig.l.71.
mi II

referred

* Thus, i f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance of t h e /173 s t r u c t u r e are known, eq.(ll.15) can be used f o r determining t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e minimum endurance values when t e s t i n g a smallqumber of specimens n. Knowi n g this d i s t r i b u t i o n , w e can determine t h e p r o b a b i u . t y of failure of a s t r u c ture at a number of c y c l e s of stress of

1 8 4 ,

(11.16)
where

'qN = r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of cycles; N m i n = m i n i m u m value of t h e number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n tests.

Taking t h e logarithm of eq.(11.16),
we o b t a i n

hgNs =E --logqhl,
where
E If dynamic tests of f u l l - s c a l e models a r e c a r r i e d out a t loads equivalent t o t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e s t r u c t u r e i n question i n f l i g h t , it can be taken as c e r t a i n t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance i n dynamic t e s t s and under s e r v i c e conditions i s i d e n t i c a l . A d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s can arise only from e r r o r s i n t h e dynamic tests and from t h e s c a l e e f f e c t i n cases i n which t h e volume of t h e l o a d e d ' m a t e r i a l i n t h e s t r u c t u r e i s g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e specimen. A n example would be t h e case i n which a specimen c u t out of a blade i s loaded i n t h e t e s t only on i t s midsection. If dynamic t e s t s are c a r r i e d out a t loads d i f fering from t h o s e a c t i n g i n f l i g h t , t h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance i n s e r v i c e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e obtained i n t e s t s and can be determined only a p p r o h a t e l y by a conversion based on s p e c i f i c assumpt i o n s w i t h respect t o t h e hGhler curve. If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance under s e r v i c e conditions c p e e r v has been determined, t h e n t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of one a r b i t r a r i l y t a k e n specimen of a s t r u c t u r e i n s e r v i c e at t h e given outcome of dynamic t e s t s s a /174can be determined from t h e expression

( 1 1 . u )

The t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of this specimen of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n s e r v i c e w i l l be equal t o t h e sum of t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s m u l t i p l i e d by t h e a b s o l u t e p o s s i b i l i t y of each outcome cpmi (<,)dS, :

After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e value of this i n t e g r a l , we can construct t h e dependence of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e P on t h e adopted magnitude of t h e f a c t o r of safety w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of c y c l e s 'QN.
If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance i n service and i n tests i s i d e n t i c a l

t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P depends only on two f a c t o r s : t h e number of t e s t e d specimens n and t h e r a t i o of t h e l o g a r i t h of t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y l o g TN t o t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e numbers of c y c l e s t o failure of ( F i g J.72) t h e specimens SI,
A%gN -

1 n i

50

w
R

w
Fig.l.70 Change i n Magnitude of Mathematical Expectation of M i n i mum Endurance Values as a Function of t h e Number of Tested Specimens.
Fig J.71 Mean-Square Deviations of M i n i " Endurance Values as a Function of t h e Number of Tested Specimens.

Thus, t o determine t h e required s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of cycles, we can conduct d y d c tests on n specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e , determine t h e meansquare d e v i a t i o n S l o g and Nmin and, after a s s i g n i n g a c e r t a i n p r o b a b i l i t y of After this, t h e safe number failure P a a d , dercve TN f r o m t h e curves i n Fig.1.72. of cycles t o failure can be determined from eq.(11.12).

This approach i s p o s s i b l e when only f e w specimens are t e s t e d . The value of S l o g can be taken from t h e r e s d t s of o t h e r tests of similar structures".
If we assume beforehand t h a t S l o g N= 0.2 ( t h i s value i s c l o s e t o t h e m i n i mum mean-square d e v i a t i o n s observed f o r most h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s ) and a s s i g n t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e i n d i c a t e d i n Table 1.18, t h e n values of t h e s a f e t y fac+* A similar approach as r e l a t e d t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a i r p l a n e s t r u c t u r e s w a s proposed by V.L.Raykher.

186

t o r s c l o s e t o those given i n Table 1 . 1 6 can be obtained. Usually, t h e values of Slog are higher. Therefore, t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r s obtained by this method are l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e given i n t h e table (Table 1 . 1 6 ) . The main problem i n using t h e method presented here l i e s i n defining t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c t u r e t o be assigned i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of s e r v i c e l i f e . Frequently, t h e probabilities recommended by d i f f e r e n t sources d i f f e r by three o r f o u r o r d e r s of magnitude [see, f o r example (Ref.43)I. The values f o r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y pro/176 posed here ( i n Table 1.18) were s e l e c t e d w i t h t h e a i m of having them correspond, w i t h more o r l e s s r e l i a b i l i t y , t o numbers of cycles smaller t h a n t h e sensit i v i t y t h r e s h o l d N o . Therefore, t h e s e p r o b a b i l i t i e s should be regarded as c e r t a i n c ondi t iona 1 values p e rt a i n ing t o t h e normal l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n . The a c t u a l values a r e much lower o r even e q u a l t o zero.

Sb, H

Fig.1.72 Diagram f o r S e l e c t i n g t h e Magnitude of t h e Safety Factor V N w i t h Respect t o t h e Number of Q c l e s of S t r e s s .

9 . Determination of S l o g a t Given F i d u c i a l P r o b a b i l i t y

__

-~

A s follows from t h e preceding Subsection, t h e l o g a r i t h of t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y w i t h respect t o t h e number of c y c l e s log vN needed f o r ensuring t h e given p r o b a b i l i t y of failure i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of <he logarithms ' o f t h e numbers of cycles t o f a i l u r e of t h e TABLE 1 . 1 8 s t r u c t u r e S l o gN . The g r e a t e r Slo N J t h e g r e a t e r should be t h e f a c t o r TN. Therefore, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of determinGroup o f U n i t s i n g t h e s e r v i c e Life of a s t r u c t u r e deP r o b a b i l i t y of Failure of Efferent ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t i ~ l i ~ ~ pending on t h e a d m i s s i b i l i t y of numerof St ruct ure for S a f e t y ous adopted assumptions i s l a r g e l y rel a t e d w i t h t h e accuracy of determining
Group

1 qooo

slog

Group I1 Group I11 Group

1 -

IV

1000 1 100 1 10

Usually, 3 5 specimens of a f u l l s c a l e s t r u c t u r e are t e s t e d t o e s t a b l i s h i t s s e r v i c e l i f e . I n many cases it is considered s u f f i c i e n t t o t e s t only one specimen. There i s no doubt t h a t , w i t h such a small number of t e s t e d s t r u c t u r e s , t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y f o r a s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e determination of
187

II I I I

1 I1111111111l 1 l1 l 1l1 l 1I I I1 Il I I I l

Therefore, it i s assumed i n t h e method proposed by A.F.Selikhov ( s e e Slog Subsect.8) t h a t S l o g cannot be determined i n a l l cases. With a small number of t e s t e d specimens, we can t a k e SlogN based on t h e t e s t r e s u l t s of analogous specimens of another s t r u c t u r e t e s t e d e a r l i e r . Such an approach g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e process of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e and proves extremely u s e f u l i n practice

at least t e n specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e .

A determination of Slor with s u f f i c i e n t r e l i a b i l i t y i s p o s s i b l e by t e s t i n g For an estimation of this r e l i a b i l i t y , one o f t e n uses t h e concept of f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of S l o g N.

The f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y f3 i s usually s e l e c t e d such t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e t o consider confident t h a t t h e value SlogN l i e s i n t h e i n t e r v a l :

where

S l o g = estimation of Slog obtained f o r a l i m i t e d number of t e s t re-

sults; q = c o e f f i c i e n t g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y i n magnitude.
It follows from t h e aforesaid t h a t t h e unknown value of S l o g N may l i e w i t k Consequently, this can be equal i n t_he confidence limits, with a p r o b a b i l i t y f3. t o qSlogN. I n this case, t h e logarithm of t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of cycles log TN i n conformity with t h e method presented i n Subsection 8 increases i n proportion t o t h e quantity q, which i s t h e reason f o r t h e f a c t that t h e calculated value of t h e s e r v i c e L i f e decreases.
The value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t q depends on t h e number of t e s t e d specimens and on t h e adopted value of t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y f3. Table 1.19 gives t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t q and t h e values of t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y f3 corresponding t o them, which we have taken from t h e book of E.S.Wenze1 IlTheory of P r o b a b i l i t y n .

A s follows from Table 1.19$ i f f o r example a t o t a l of 2 5 specimens i s t e s t e d and t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y i s not l e s s t h a n YO%, t h e n t h e experimentally must be increased by a f a c t o r of 1 . 1 5 when c a l c u l a t i n g obtained value of t h e s e r v i c e Life.

slog

I n assigning t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y , it must be borne i n m i n d t h a t t h e /177 r e l i a b i l i t y of determining S l o r N should not exceed t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of determining a l l other parameters e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e . T h i s p e r t a i n s p r i m a r i l y t o parameters determining t h e l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance i n t h e region o f small p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a X u r e , such as t h e threshold q of sens i t i v i t y No, and t o t h e character of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w i t s e l f which only app r o x i m t e l y can be taken as logarithmically normal.
Therefore, t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y p, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of determining SlogN, can be lowered s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o values a t which t h e coeffi-

188

c i e n t q will be not much greater than Unity. Based on t h e s e considerations, i n determining t h e f a c t o r s TN we o f t e n assume q = 1and use t h e value of S l o g as not being t h e value corresponding t o t h e upper l i m i t s of t h e confidence i n t e r v a l a t s u f f i c i e n t l y high B .

1 0 . Dispersion i n t h e Stress Levels f o r Various S t r u c t u r a l

-

Amplitude

Reliability Margin w i t h Remect t o t h e o f. x_ ltern .a t i n g Stresses Q ',

The amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses s e t up i n f l i g h t i n i n d i v i d u a l specim e n s of h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s of i d e n t i c a l s t r u c t u r e d i f f e r considerably. Actual measurements have shown that, i n i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes, t h e amplit u d e s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses d i f f e r both f o r t h e blades of one and t h e same r o t o r and f o r blades of d i f f e r e n t r o t o r s . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e dispers i o n of t h e parameters of series-produced blades because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r s i z e and shape and hence i n t h e i r weight. Usually, t h e r e a r e d e v i a t i o n s from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l contour of t h e TABLE 1 . 1 9 p r o f i l e and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e geometric twist of t h e blade. FurtherValues of Fiducia l P r o b a b i l i t y B more, when i n s t a l l i n g t h e blades on in % for Different q t h e h e l i c o p t e r and a d j u s t i n g t h e coning 1.06-1 1.1 I 1.15 1.20 11.25 I 1.3 of t h e r o t o r , c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s arise i n t h e blade s e t t i n g angle. A l l this n=5 14.6 24.1 35.5 46.1 55.6 63.7 u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o some d i f f e r e n c e i n 20.8 34 49 62 72.2 79.7 n=10 t h e operating conditions of i n d i v i d u a l 32.7 51.8 70.6 83.2 90.5 94.4 n=25 blades and, as a consequence, t o a dis45.2 68.2 86 94 97.4 98.8 n=50 p e r s i o n of t h e amplitudes of alternati n g s t r e s s e s set up i n i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes. There i s a l s o a d i f f e r e n c e i n f l i g h t regime parameters a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e manner of p i l o t i n g by i n d i v i d u a l p i l o t s . h o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e , which i s not smaller b u t might even be g r e a t e r , i s observed i n t h e stress amplitudes of a l l o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s . The d i s p e r s i o n i n stress amplitude i s e s p e c i a l l y great i n cmponents where a l t e r n a t i n g loads from i n d i v i d u a l blades should be e q u a l t o zero when added ( i f t h e blades are i d e a l l y i d e n t i c a l ) , f o r a l l harmonics w i t h t h e exception of harmonics t h a t are and m u l t i p l e s of t h e number of blades. If t h e blade parameters are d i f f e r e n t this i s p r a c t i c a l l y always t h e case t h e n t h e small a l t e r n a t i n g loads w i t h harmonic frequencies t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e number of blades i n t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s will be supplemenbed by relatively high loads w i t h o t h e r harmonics, having magnitudes p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e magnitude of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n blade parameters. The s c a t t e r i n g of t h e values of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n such units may be very g r e a t . Usually, such units i n c l u d e t h e following: automatic p i t c h control, the r o t o r c o n t r o l components, and f u s e l a g e p a r t s ; i n t h e latter, it i s mai* r e d u c t i o n gear frame t h a t i s e s p e c i a l l g stressed by a l t e r n a t i n g loads.

To allow f o r a l l above f a c t o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e , we w i l l /178 introduce t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e amplitude of alternating stresses %. T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t should ensure o p e r a t i o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y of any s t r u c t u r a l specimen i n a group of h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e exi s t i n g s c a t t e r i n g i n t h e a l t e r n a t i n g stress values.
Usually, some h e l i c o p t e r i s a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d for measuring t h e alternating stresses i n a s t r u c t u r e . The a l t e r n a t i n g stresses ome a s obtained i n tests w i t h this h e l i c o p t e r are t h e n used f o r conducting dynamic tests. T h i s means that t h e tests are made w i t h stresses o t e s t - Tu o m e a e . Therefore, t h e method presented above ( s e e Subsect.8) of determining t h e r e l i a b i l i t y margin and a safe l i f e yields r e s u l t s t h a t can be applied only t o a specimen of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n which stresses equal t o o t e s t are a c t i n g . For a l l o t h e r specimens of this s t r u c t u r e t h e s e r v i c e l i f e w i l l be longer i f t h e a c t i v e stresses o a c t < o t e s t and s h o r t e r i f o a C t > I S t e s t o

vN

Let us determine t h e value of t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t Tu from t h e cond i t i o n that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t i n question Pc, w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g d i s p e r s i o n in t h e amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses, i s equal t o t h e assigned p r o b a b i l i t y P a s d . Usually, this value is t a k e n t o be t h e same as t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e Po of t h e u n i t i n which t h e a l t e r n a t i n g stresses o t e s t adopted i n dynamic t e s t s are a c t i v e .
Thus, i f t h e value of V N i s chosen from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e specimen w i t h stresses o t e s t i s e q u a l t o Po = P a s d , t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of o t h e r specimens of this s t r u c t u r e can be determined by means of t h e formula

Here, P, i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t i n which stresses equal t o IS are s e t up. I n this case, t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n c p s e r v determined on t h e basis of dynamic tests f o r some s e l e c t e d equivalent stress l e v e l which enters eq.(11.20) should be r e c a l c u l a t e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e f a c t that, i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e , d i f f e r e n t equivalent stresses are set up.
If we assume t h a t t h e endurance changes i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w cmN=const,

(11.21)

t h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n y s e r v ( 5 ) can be set equal t o

190

where
(Slog ) o = mean-square d e v i a t i o n of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e number of c y c l e l o g a r i t h m a t stresses o a c t d i f f e r i n g from those used i n t h e dynamic tests; (mlo ) a = mathematical expectation of this d i s t r i b u t i o n ; o t e s t = stresses i n t h e t e s t ; o a C t = stresses a c t i n g i n some h e l i c o p t e r specimen.

kt u s assume t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a c t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g stress amplitudes i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of a s t r u c t u r e can be t a k e n as l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y / 1 1 9 normal. Then t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t i n question w i l l be e q u a l t o

where y l O g D a c t i s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of t h e a c t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g stress amplit u d e s (Fig.1.73). Here, it must be borne i n mind t h a t t h e value of o t e s t adopted f o r dynamic t e s t s i s s e l e c t e d a r b i t r a r i l y , based on t h e r e s u l t s of measuring stresses i n one randomly chosen h e l i c o p t e r or i n s e v e r a l h e l i c o p t e r s . Therefore, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of f a i l u r e P, f o r units w i t h d i f f e r e n t a c t i n g s t r e s s e s w i l l shift along t h e a x i s log o ( s e e Fig.1.73) depending on t h e adopted value of u t e s t s o t h a t , a t oact = o t e s t, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e P, would be e q u a l t o P a a d i n view of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e value of r\, w a s s e l e c t e d from this condition. Hence, it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e value of Pmea8 will depend on t h e q u a n t i t y o t e e t

Consequently, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P m e a s i s a c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y f o r a s p e c i f i c , randomly s e l e c t e d value of ot e The t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of a u n i t , a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d from a group of h e l i c o p t e r s Pc, can be obtained as t h e sum of c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s P m e a 6 m u l t i p l i e d by t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence, i n this unit, of stresses which had been t a k e n as t h e basis f o r t h e dynamic t e s t s Y l O g om, d l o g o:

If t h e stresses are measured i n one and t h e same helicopter, t h e n we can consider t h a t

I I I 1 l1 1 1 1 1 l1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 IlI1 lIl1 lIl

If t h e measurement i s made on several specimens of a s t r u c t u r e /180 arid i f , i n t h e dynamic tests, t h e following stresses are assigned :

Fig.1.73 Character of t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f y l o g and P, f o r Different o t e s -

Toomeas

where om a v i s t h e average amplit u d e of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses measured on several specimens of a structure, then the distribution paramet er' y10 & J ' , e 8 8 should be determined as t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n parameters of t h e average values of alt e r n a t i n g stresses

It follows from eq.(U.25) that t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of failure Pc depends upon t h e q u a n t i t y 7,. Therefore, a f t e r assigning Pc = Pas*,we can determine t h e necessary value of To. It i s evident t h a t i n this case t h e required value l depends a on t h e l a w of a l t e r n a t i n g stress d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t speciof ? To determine t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m e n s of i d e n t i c a l h e l i c o p t e r units y l 0 g o a c t

of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w we can use d a t a from d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s analyses which are o f t e n performed on t h e sqne h e l i c o p t e r units i n t e s t s made f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes.

It i s l o g i c a l that t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e average equivalent a l t e r n a t i n g stresses may d i f f e r f o r d i f f e r e n t u n i t s .

The mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses f o r d i f f e r e n t r o t o r blades u s u a l l y l i e s i n t h e range of
s/oyn =O.02

-0.035.

If, as i s o f t e n done, we assume a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g stress amplitudes, t h e n t h e s e values of S,, & Will correspond t o the values

(n.26)
where
Sa = mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l t e r n a t i n g stress

amplitudes f o r . d i f f e r e n t blades;

m u = mathematical expectation of this d i s t r i b u t i o n , i.e.,

i n t h e s e blades.

average stress

1 92

For small yo, we can assume S l o g

= y u l o g e.

For units whose load depends on t h e quality of adjustment of t h e r o t o r , such as automatic p i t c h control, r e d u c t i o n g e a r frame, and o t h e r s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ~ i s~ somewhat l a r g e r .

It follows from t h e composition of eq.(ll.25) failure Pc depends mainly on two parameters: a=--mSrqd
h g N

that t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of

b=-, fb0V.s
SbJ.

where m i s t h e exponent of t h e hf6hler curve. The t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of failure Pc depends a l s o on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e Po of t h e s t r u c t u r a l specimen w i t h stresses etas t , used i n t h e calculation. Figure 1 . 7 4 . shows t h e calcul a t i o n s of t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y P c f o r d i f f e r e n t values of a b, and Po according t o eq.(l1.25j i n t h e case where t h e s t r e s s e s w e r e / 1 8 1 measured o n l y i n one specimen of t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t r u c t u r e . The calc u l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out a l s o f o r d i f f e r e n t values of t h e number of t e s t e d specimens, but it was found t h a t t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e does not depend apprec i a b l y on this number. I n Fig .1.74 t h e broken curves represent nape = 5 and t h e s o l i d curves, n s p e c = 20.
If it i s required t h a t P c =
= Po = P a e d , t h e n we can Obtain f i n a l graphs from which it i s easy t o determine t h e necessary margin T o if t h e values of Slogs, S I o g N , and Paed are known. These graphs are given i n Fig.1.75. As i n Fig.1.74, t h e broken curves pert a i n t o t h e case n r p e c = 5 and t h e s o l i d curves, t o t h e case
nspec

b- Iog?G
s1096

Fig.1.74 Results of Calculating t h e P r o b a b i l i t y of F a i l u r e n i t h C o n s i d e r a t i o n of Dispersion i n t h e Values of S t r e s s e s Acting i n D i f f e r e n t Specimens o f .a Structure.

= 20-

As an example, l e t us f i n d t h e required margin To f o r a helicopter blade i f it i s known that y a = 0.0e ( S 1 , , ~ = 0.035), and S l o gN = 0.4.
F i r s t , w e determine t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a:
mSzo9, 6~0.035 a=-----=0.525.
'li?gN

0 . 4

Then, assigning t h e value Pc = 1/u)OO, Fig .1.75 :

6=1.28

we o b t a i n from t h e curves i n

( at n,,=5);

from where
logqa= 1.28 * 0.035 =0.0448,

and q,=1.11.

If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w 'pa i s unknown, we usually t a k e To = 1.2. T h i s value of &, as already mentioned i n Subsection 7, i s o f t e n used i n p r a c t i c a l calculations.
a=
S I O g N

&

0.8

7
/
O=

0.6

1 ~ 0 0
0.4

I -

0.2

0.5

1.0

1.5

Fig.1.75

Diagram f o r Selecting t h e R e l i a b i l i t y Margin

Tu.

1 1 . Method of Determining t h e R e l i a b i l i t y Margin Tu Proposed by A.F.Selikhov

I n our presentation, c e r t a i n methods and arguments d i f f e r somewhat from those suggested by A.F.Selikhov, but t h e basic p r i n c i p l e of t h e approach t o

194

s o l v i n g t h e problem i s borrowed from t h a t author.

Here, i n determining To t h e method described i n Subsection 8 was used except that t h e d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e amplitudes of stresses a c t i n g i n f l i g h t i s taken i n t o account i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n .
upon a change i n stress amplitude If, as before, it i s assumed that t h e endurance under s e r v i c e conditions changes i n conformity w i t h t h e law (lle21), i.e., t h a t

t h e n we can d e t e h n e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s e r v i c e w i t h consideration of t h e d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e amplitudes of a c t i n g stresses.

I

The mathematical expectation of this d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be e q u a l t o

where m l o g oa c t i s t h e mathematical expectation of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress amplitudes i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d s t r u c t u r e ( t h e average value of t h e amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e structure).
If t h e tests are c a r r i e d out a t stresses of
ofest=

/183

%msay,

then, a f t e r p u t t i n g

The mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e numbers of cycles t o f a i l u r e under s e r v i c e conditions can be determined from t h e formula

specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e ) , t h e n t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance i n t e s t s w i l l depend on t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e a c t i n g stresses i n d i f f e r e n t h e l i c o p t e r specimens. The amplitude e s t a b l i s h e d i n tests i s a random quant i t y depending on t h e r e s u l t s of stress a n a l y s i s . A s before ( s e e Subsect .e), we are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms of t h e mini" number of c y c l e s t o failure.

To

If t h e d y n a d c t e s t s are c a r r i e d out a t a n amplitude of stresses o t e s t oav (where oaV i s t h e average amplitude measured i n f l i g h t on d i f f e r e n t

195

where

N2 = m i n i " number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of a s t r u c t u r e , w i t h considerat i o n of t h e f a c t that t h e amplitude of t h e tests can be e s t a b l i s h e d as d i f f e r e n t , depending upon t h e r e s u l t s of measuring t h e average stress amplitude 5av; Nmln = m i r T i " number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of a s t r u c t u r e at a c e r t a i n f i x e d value of t h e stress q l i t u d e i n t h e tests ote

Then,

then

log~t~#t=logq, +log maav

W e put

log maav
Then,
m2 = m l o g N , in
9

miop,,

arid t h e value of t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e logarithms

of t h e numbers of cycles i n tests w i l l be

where (SI ,,)av i s t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e values of t h e average logarithm of t h e s t r e s s amplitude measured i n d i f f e r e n t specimens.

This value depends on t h e number of measurements n m e a B :

With consideration of eq.( 11.33), t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t e s t s can be determined by means of t h e formula

Using t h e same reasoning as above ( s e e Subsect.?), we a r r i v e a t t h e f a c t that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i n this case can be determined by a n expression similar t o eq.(ll.19):

If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms of t h e mhimum number of cycles t o failure i n t e s t s can be represented approximately by t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w , t h e n e q . ( l l . 3 6 ) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

If we introduce new v a r i a b l e s

t h e n eq.(ll.37)

i s transformed i n t o

where t h e upper limit f ( F z ) i s determined by t h e expression

S u b s t i t u t i n g here t h e values of m l and m2, we' o b t a i n

It follows from this expression that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure Pc can be determined f o r each %, i f we know t h e values of

197

W e can propose t h e following method of determining t h e required margin la:

F i r s t , construct t h e dependence of S2/S1 on assigned values of P c ( s e e Fig.1.76). eqs.(ll.a) and (ll.35), use Fig.1.76 log %
+

log

VN

Am1.g~

for

S1
Then, after determining S I and S2 from f o r determining t h e assigned value Pas*

/185

from where, knowing IN, Amlog (see Fig.l.70), a l s o ?la.

and SI, it i s easy t o determine

The method proposed here i s r a t h e r simple, although it involves somewhat more complicated computations f o r determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e i n comparison w i t h t h e method proposed i n Subsection 10, where t h e margins were calcul a t e d on t h e basis of values t a k e n S Z S I d i r e c t l y from t h e graph.
0.8

0 . 6

0.4

0 , 2

I t f o n o w s from t h e above formulas that, under t h e assumptions adopted here, t h e margins of relia b i l i t y TN and Tu can be combined i n t o a s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n 7\ = TN7; or one r e l i a b i l i t y margin can be subs t i t u t e d f o r t h e other. T h i s i s convenient i n c a r r y i n g out calculat i o n s and conducting dynamic tests, a f a c t a l r e a d y mentioned i n Subs e c t i o n 7, but it o f f e r s no advant a g e i n s e l e c t i n g t h e margins T N and Tu s i n c e t h e i r values are determined from d i f f e r e n t conditions.
Graph f o r Determining log
S1
TN
+

Fig.1.76 log

TU -k

b l og

as a

12. Ekamle of Calculation of Service W f e

A s an exitmple, l e t us c a l c u l a t e t h e s e r v i c e l i f e f o r a blade of a he,avy h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a t u b u l a r

Function of S1/S2, for Different Assigned P r o b a b i l i t i e s of F a i l u r e

s t e e l spar.
I n determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a blade, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s first per.formed f o r s e c t i o n s located a t d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e r a d i i , after which t h e s e r v i c e l i f e obtained f o r .the weakest s e c t i o n is e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e e n t i r e blade.

Let t h e weakest s e c t i o n

be that

at a r e l a t i v e radius F

0.74.

We now assume that t h e r e s u l t s of t h e dynamic tests of f i v e specimens of t h e spar at an a l t e r n a t i n g stress amplitude *15 kg/mm2 are as follows (see Table 1.20) :

From tests, we draw t h e conclusion t h a t t h e endurance Limit ow o f t h e /186 specimens Nos.2, 3, 4, and 5 i s higher t h a n cr,, = 15 kg/nnn2. Consequently, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P t h a t t h e endur&ce limit-ow i s lower t h a n 15 kg/mn2 can be t a k e n as TABIE 1.20 equal t o 0.2.
~~

No. of ,Specimen

Number of Cycles of Stress

Test Results
~~-

On s e t t i n g S l o g u wequal t o 0.07 (see Subsect.l3), it Will be found t h a t t h e endurance Limit o,,% = 13 kg/mm2 corresponds t o a 5% probabili t y . T h i s limit Will be cons i d e r e d minimum.

No. 1

9.8~106

Specimen f a i l e d

No. 2
No.3
No. 4

No. 5

20*106 20*106 203 106 2ou106

Specimens d i d n o t fail

The margin f o r t h e number of c y c l e s can be t a k e n e i t h e r on t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l experience by assigning t h e s e r v i c e l i f e i n accordance . 1 6 or on t h e basis of t h e method of A.F.Selikhov ( s e e Subsect.8)* w i t h Table 1 . 1 6 f o r Group I1 (blade equipped w i t h a spar-damage warning deBased on Table 1 v i c e ) and n = 5, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y margin rJN can be t a k e n as equal t o about 2.7.

In t h e second case, S l q l Nmust be known. It i s obvious t h a t merely from t h e r e s u l t s of tests it i s impossible t o d e t e r n i n e t h e value of SloIN. However, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a s s i g n a c e r t a i n value t o S l o g N based on r e s u l t s of tests with similar specimens.

/ 1 0 0 0 (Group I1 L e t us p u t S l o g N = 0.4. Then, assigning t h e value Paed = 1 Thus, of u n i t s ) we o b t a i n l o g IN = 2.3 S l o g N , i.e., T N = 8.3, from Fig.1.72. t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y margin for t h e number of cycles rJN according t o SelikhovTs method i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t obtainable from s e r v i c e l i f e determinations. I n many cases, this d i f f e r e n c e i s p a r t i a l l y compensated by i n t r o ducing t h e concept of f a t i g u e l i m i t i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n and by r e f i n i n g t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y margins la.
A s mentioned above, i n d e f i n i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e with t h e use of t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l experience, t h e value of Tu can always be t a k e n as equal t o 1.2. However, this c o e f f i c i e n t can be ref i n e d i n conformity w i t h t h e method proposed i n Subsections 10 and 1 1 . For this purpose, more complete d a t a are necessary on t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e alternating stress amplitude for d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e . Let u s assume that t h e stresses are measured i n only one specimen. However, on t h e basis of experience i n measuring similar u n i t s of o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r s i t can Then, by means of t h e methods be assumed t h a t y a = 0.08 and t h u s S l o g u = 0.035.

199

presented i n SUbsectiOri 10 and 11 we o b t a i n 7\0 = 1 . 1 1 . Nevertheless, we w i l l take = 1.2.

va

The m i n i " value of N m l n of f i v e t e s t e d specimens ( n = 5) a t a n a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s amplitude of CJ = F15 kg/m2 i s Nmin = 9.8 x lo6 cycles. The number of cycles corresponding t o t h e minimum f a t i g u e l i m i t i s determined from t h e formula

while t h e values of N, a r e obtained from t h e formula

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e , we w i l l assume t h a t , i n a l l regimes where t h e a c t i n g s t r e s s e s a r e below t h e minimum value of t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t , no i n c r e a s e i n damage p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e t a k e s p l a c e . W e w i l l not c a l c u l a t e t h e equivalent s t r e s s e s i n i n d i v i d u a l f l i g h t regimes, In measured s t r e s s - E t u d e s . b u t w i l l assume them as equal t o t h e maxi" this case, t h e value of c i will be e i t h e r zero 'or u n i t y .

. 2 1 . The c a l c u l a t i o n of equivalent s t r e s s e s i s given i n Table 1

If we assume t h a t t h e endurance obeys t h e l a w (11.21) a t a l l a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s l e v e l s and that t h e r e i s no f a t i g u e l i m i t ( i n this case E , = 1i n a l l regimes), t h e n a l l f l i g h t regimes a r e equivalent i n damageability t o t h e regime w i t h a s t r e s s amplitude of creq = 11.5 kg/mm2 a c t i n g during t h e e n t i r e s e r v i c e /188 l i f e of t h e blade. I n this case,

"=N

(A)"= 1.2x11.5 16.2~ loG;

If it i s assumed t h a t t h e m i n i " endurance limit i s crWmln

t h e n one regime [see eq.(ll.9)1 with a n amplitude oeq = equivalent t o a l l f l i g h t regimes. The d u r a t i o n of this regime, as follows from Table 1 . 2 1 , Will be about 23% of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e O f t h e blade ( 6 = 0 . 2 3 ) . Then t h e l i f e t i m e i t s e l f can be determined i n t h e following manner:

13 kg/mm2, 13.6 kg/m2 will be

=

200

N, =N*=0,707~106;
qN

The same r e s u l t s can be obtained from t h e t o t a l damageability without making use of t h e concept of equivalent stresses [see eq.(l.l.5)]:

N , =+-=3.09~ 1
i

7 Ni %

lo6;

TABWE 1.21
E X A I V L P U OF CAIXULATION OF B.T.d.DE SEEVICE LIFE WITH RESPECT TO A SECTION OF RELATTVE RADIUS I ; = 0.74
aw

mln=13 kg/m+;

k 0 . 5 ; n=5; Slog~=O.4;rio=1,2
N , mIn=23%106
=0.5 __
a%
~

Flight Regime
_ .

ai

Hovering L o w speeds

0.1

6 .O

8.8 10.5 13.2 12.5 12.4 5.6 9.0 10.5 7.2

9.7 ,1.6 ,5.02 15.05 14.0 6.9 10.5

11.64 13.92 18.02 18.06 16.8 8.28 12.60

V=20 km/hr V=30 km/hr V=60 km/hr

Takeoff C1 imb C r u i s i n g speed Maximum speed

1
1

1 1 0 0

0.03 7.2 0.02 L0.5 0.05 12.4 0.02 9.5 0.06 6.0 0.55 8.0 0.10 0.05 8.0 7.5

1.84*106 0.39xlOG 0.39~106 0.59~106

a ,
00

0.016~10-6 O.O51x10-~ 0.128~10-6 0.034*10-6 0 0

1
0

11.09 13.31 8.8

2.4~106 0.042*10-6
on

GI i d i n g
Braking 1st stage-a,,,,x 2nd stage-0.7 anlax 3rd st a g e- ho v erin

10.56

1 1
0
0=

0.00: l5,2 18.4 21.11 25.33 0.05~106 0.04~10-6 10-6 0.00 10.64 12.88 14.79 17.75 0.43~106 0.016~ 00 0 8.8 9.72 11.66 0.01 6,O
229
C 0.327~10-6

201

These r e s u l t s show that on i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e concept of f a t i g u e l i m i t o r endurance limit, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a blade W i l l be g r e a t e y when derived from calculation. However, it must be borne i n m i d that t h e margins w i t h respect t o t h e number of c y c l e s presented i n Table 1.16 were introduced i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s without assumption of t h e e x i s t e n c e of a f a t i g u e limit. Therefore, t h e y should not be used i n c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h a f a t i g u e limit.

13. Possible Ways of Determining t h e Minimum Endurance

Limit of a S t r u c t u r e
The above example i n d i c a t e s t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher values f o r t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e can be obtained when making use of t h e concept of minimum endurance limit. Therefore, a determination of t h e s e values i s mandatory i n many c a s e s I

A s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e determination of t h e values of o w n i n from t h e res u l t s of tests i s v i r t u a l l y infeasible. O r d ? a highly approximate determination of this value i s p o s s i b l e . Even then, a n a p p r e c i a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of t e s t specimens i s required. Nevertheless, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of s e r v i c e l i f e , even approximate endurance limits w i l l c l o s e l y approach t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s t o /189 r e a l i t y and o f f e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of developing more competent t e c h n i c a l solut i o n s . Therefore, it. i s always advisable t o r e s o r t t o a determination of endurance limits, using both approximate and simp* formal methods of c a l c u h t i o n .
IJ 7 0

n,

-=fail

99
9s
90

80
50

20
10

5
1

0.1

1101

3 0 : s

5
I .

6
__
I

0 . 6

0.7

0.8

0.9

kg =Io

Fig.1.77

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Endurance Limits.

Primarily, a n attempt must be made t o d e f i n e and determine t h e parameters of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance limits. Toward this end, f a t i g u e tests m u s t be performed w i t h specimens a t s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i n g stress l e v e l s , located . i n t h e region of endurance limit d i s t r i b u t i o n . The tests should be c a r r i e d out

I I

o n t h e base of a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of cycles. I n s e l e c t i n g t h e t e s t base, it i s g e n e r a l l y assumed that, f o r s t e e l Specimens, this base can be s e t somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n lo7 cycles, f o r example 2 x lo7 cycles, whereas f o r duralumin specimens t h e base must be somewhat higher t h a n 2 X lo7 cycles (frequently, a base of 5 x lo7 c y c l e s i s used). The p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e endurance l i m i t i s higher t h a n t h e assigned alt e r n a t i n g stress l e v e l i s defined as t h e r a t i o of t h e number of specimens t e s t e d a t t h e given base a t no failure nno-iail t o t h e t o t a l number of specimens t e s t e d a t this and at a lower l e v e l of stresses n:

The r e s u l t a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance limits can coincide w i t h t h e normal l a w only i n a small s e c t i o n corresponding t o t h e average values of p r o b a b i l i t y A t small p r o b a b i l i t i e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e endurance limits (Fig.1.77). d e v i a t e s from t h e normal l a w and has a c e r t a i n s e n s i t i v i t y threshold o w n i n .A t l a r g e p r o b a b i l i t i e s , beginning w i t h some stress ofa i , a l l specimens f a i l without having been s u b j e c t t o t h e assigned base of t h e t e s t . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance limits a t average p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s best represented by t h e lognormal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w . T h i s can be used a l s o f o r determining t h e minimum endurance limit Available r e s u l t s of t e s t s on blade specimens show t h a t , for this l a w , we can t a k e values of S l o g e q u a l t o about
S/opw ~ 0 . 0 5 0.07,

/190

where S l o g logarithms.
CJ

i s t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of f a t i g u e l i m i t

It i s impossible t o propose a s u f f i c i e n t l y reliable method f o r d e t e d n i n g Thus, we can suggest only a p u r e l y formal method which, however, yields ' m in s u f f i c i e n t l y good r e s u l t s i n p r a c t i c e . It can be assumed t h a t t h e minimum endurance limit coincides w i t h t h e value of o w corresponding t o 5% p r o b a b i l i t y of a l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y n o m a 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance limits.

If such a n approach i s used, t h e values of o w n i n can be r e f i n e d by a method

i n which f a t i g u e t e s t s are c a r r i e d out a t two a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s levels, c l o s e i n amplitude. The t e s t specimens, a t least 15 - 20 of them, are divided i n t o two groups. The first group i s t e s t e d a t maximum a l t e r n a t i n g stress which s q p o s e d l y does not exceed t h e minimum endurance l i m i t ; f o r this reason, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o prevent any of t h e specimens from failing at a number of c y c l e s corresponding t o t h e s e l e c t e d t e s t base. The results of t e s t i n g this group serve t o confirm that t h e minimum endurance limit may a c t u a l l y correspond t o t h e i r t e s t level.

203

The second group of specimens i s t e s t e d a t somewhat higher a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s , s o t h a t a c e r t a i n percentage will f a i l without having operated t h e r a t e d number of cycles. After determining t h e p r o b a b i l i t y that t h e endurance limit i s below t h e amplitude of t h e second test level and after assigning some value of S l o g u , , we c a h d a t e t h e value of ow corresponding t o t h e 5% probabilit y . If t h e t e s t d a t a of t h e first group do not c o n t r a d i c t this r e s u l t , t h e n t h e r e s u l t a n t value of 0w570 can be taken as t h e m i n i " endurance l i m i t . Occasionally, it i s assumed f o r g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y t h a t t h e minimurh endurance limit corresponds t o smaller p r o b a b i l i t y values, say, a p r o b a b i l i t y of 1/100. However, i t s e e m that s t i l l lower values of this p r o b a b i l i t y a r e not advisable.

I t should be noted that i n many cases a n a r b i t r a r y concept, which could be c a l l e d t h e reduced endurance l i m i t , i s used f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f a t i g u e strength.
The reduced endurance limit i s determined by converting t h e t e s t r e s u l t s , by means of e q . ( l l . 3 ) , t o a n a r b i t r a r y base which o f t e n i s taken as N b a s o = lo7 cycles f o r s t e e l and Nbase = 2 x lo7 cycles f o r duralumin:

where
o t e s t = a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s amplitude i n t h e t e s t ; N , = number of cycles t o f a i l u r e corresponding t o a p r o b a b i l i t y of

f a i l u r e equal t o P ; m = exponent of t h e hfhhler curve, u s u a l l y taken as m

6.

If we t a k e N, corresponding t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e as equal t o 5%, / 1 9 1 t h e n t h e value of o w r e d f u r n i s h e s an approximate i d e a as t o t h e magnitude of t h e

minimum endurance limit. The m i n i " value of t h e number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of a given s t r u c t u r e N m i n o f t e n i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r N, as t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . We must emphasize that t h e reduced eridurance l i m i t , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e manner i n which it i s determined, does not correspond t o t h e concept of endurance limit i n t h e sense i n which it i s used above, i n this Section.

It i s a l s o of importance t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e reduced endurance limits has a mean-square d e v i a t i o n e c p a l t o

which i s almost always g r e a t e r t h a n t h e value of S l o g u , .

I ! + .

AdvantaRes and Disadvantages of Various Approaches i n Determiniw t h e Necessary ReJEability Margins. and E s t i g a t i o n of t h e i r Accuracy

The simplest approach, as a l r e a d y shown above (see Subsect.7), i s t o calculate t h e s e r v i c e l i f e under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s TN and To taken on t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l experience i n defining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e . These c o e f f i c i e n t s have been checked on a l a r g e number of h e l i c o p t e r s and many hundreds of units have s u c c e s s f u l l y l i v e d out t h e s e r v i c e l i f e t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d . However, it must be borne i n m i n d that t h e use of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s TN and & has been confirmed by p r a c t i c e only i n combination w i t h some method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e which, i n p a r t i c u l a r , d i f f e r s by t h e following assumptions: 1 . No endurance l i m i t exists, and t h e l46hler curve i s described by Accordingly, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 8 and c i are t a k e n eq.(ll.Zl). as equal t o u n i t y . 2. I n each f l i g h t regime, t h e s t r e s s amplitude i s considered equal t o i t s maximum measured value i n this regime. However, such a n approach t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e has substan-

t i a l shortcomings :
1 . I n determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e , one d i s r e g a r d s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance which may be d i s s i m i l a r f o r u n i t s of d i f f e r e n t design which,furthermore, are d i s s i m i l a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mat e r i a l s used and t h e manufacturing process. The magnitude of d i s p e r s i o n of stresses a c t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of a given s t r u c t u r e i s a l s o disregarded.
2. Rejection of t h e concepts of endurance l i m i t and exclusive use i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e maxi" stress amplitudes i n each f l i g h t regime lead t o islc o r r e c t i d e a s as t o t h e s h a r e of damage p o t e n t i a l contributed by d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes.
Therefore, an attempt should be made t o use improved methods,incorporating t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e t h e o r y of p r o b a b i l i t y . One of t h e p o s s i b l e v a r i a n t s of this approach i s given i n Subsections 8, 10, and 1 1 .

It i s necessary t o p o i n t o u t that this method, i n t h e form i n which i t i s presented here, gives completely s a t i s f a c t o r y values of s e r v i c e l i f e r a t h e r c l o s e t o t h o s e obtained by t h e preceding method. O f course, t h e r e i s some reis substantiald i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e values of t h e safety f a c t o r s . The margin IN Furthermore, t h e concept of m i n i - /192 ~ J T l a r g e r whereas t h e margin Tu i s smaller. mum endurance limit should be used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . Otherwise, t h e s e r v i c e l i v e s W i l l be underestimated.

In apply5ng this method, such l a r g e p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e ( e q u a l t o 1 / u 3 0 0 o r even more) o f t e n raise doubt. Actually, this m e a n s t h a t one u n i t out m of 1000 should f a i l during i t s r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e . Therefore, we must a g a i n e phasize t h a t t h e i n d i c a t e d p r o b a b i l i t i e s are p u r e l y c o n d i t i o n a l values, corresponding t o t h e noma1 d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance. I n r e a l i t y , i n the'region of small values of p r o b a b i l i t y of failure, this l a w d e v i a t e s from t h e normal and a sensitivity t h r e s h o l d i s observed i n t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Its values =e i n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y r e g i o n of about 1/lDO o r f l u c t u a t e about this value. Con-

secpently, assignment of a c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of 1/u)OO i s a c t u a l l y equiv a l e n t t o t h e requirement of a very small o r even zero p r o b a b i l i t y . Therefore, we cannot agree w i t h t h o s e authors who are not a f r a i d t o s t i p u l a t e a p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e order of 1 C r 6 o r even l(r7 under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e normal l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance. There i s no s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d reason for such demands.

Generally, anyone familiar w i t h t h e above method w i l l o b j e c t t o doing away w i t h refinements of experimentally obtained values of t h e m e a s s q u a r e deviat i o n s S l o gN, based on t h e r a t h e r high values of f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y accepted i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y theory. If such a refiEement i s made, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n would have t o i n c o r p o r a t e a two-fold value of S l o g ( s e e Subsect.9), which would l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e required margin TN and t h u s t o a decrease i n s e r v i c e l i f e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above considerations (see Subsect .9), another inaccuracy i n t h e proposed method of c a l c u l a t i o n should be pointed out. Usually, t h e equivalent stresses a c t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes are replaced by t h e i r maximum values, l e a d i n g t o a n underestimation of s e r v i c e l i f e . These two inacc u r a c i e s mutually c a n c e l out, and an e l i m i n a t i o n of one should d e f i n i t e l y be accompanied by e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e o t h e r . I n such a case, t h e values of t h e s e r v i c e l i v e s obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n do not change s u b s t a n t i a l l y . There i s no doubt that i n time, as new experimental d a t a are c o l l e c t e d , more extensive refinements Will have t o be introduced i n t o t h e method of calcul a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e . P r a c t i c a l experience i n operating h e l i c o p t e r s and t h e e v e r g r e a t e r number of r e s u l t s of dynamic t e s t s W i l l a l s o f u r n i s h a n i n c e n t i v e i n this d i r e c t i o n .

15. Blade S t r e n d h Requirements i n Desi,qn S e l e c t i o n

A h e l i c o p t e r blade operates under conditions s e v e r e l y t a x i n g i t s s t r e n g t h . During i t s e n t i r e s e r v i c e l i f e , t h e blade i s s u b j e c t t o excessive s t a t i c and v a r i a b l e loads. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade operating conditions imposes extremely s t r i n g e n t requirements on 5ts s t r u c t u r e and p r i m a r i l y on t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of i t s main element, t h e spar. Consequently, t h e blade s p a r should be made only of materials w i t h high f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Blade designs w i t h t u b u l a r steel spars and pressed duralumin spars are t h e most common type a t p r e s e n t .

/193

Ekcellent r e s u l t s can be expected when manufacturing s p a r s of various synt h e t i c materials. Blade designs with a glass-laminate s p a r are a l r e a d y known. However, p r a c t i c a l experience operating such blades i s s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t . For this reason, we w i l l not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s t h e s t r e n g t h a s p e c t s of such types. The most important requirement for blades w i t h steel and duralumin s p a r s i s t h a t of mazimum e l i m i n a t i o n of any stress raisers which lower t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . The use of b o l t s and r i v e t s i s impermissible i n blades. The frame of t h e blade i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e spar e x c l u s i v e l y by glued j o i n t s . F i t t i n g s w i t h l a r g e stress raisers can be t o l e r a t e d only i n segments w i t h
206

s m a l l a l t e r n a t i n g stresses, f o r example, i n t h e blade r o o t c l o s e t o t h e hub hinges. I n this case, d e s p i t e t h e small a l t e r n a t i n g stresses, t h e s e c t i o n of t h e s p a r near t h e r o o t j o i n t must be increased by a f a c t o r of 3 - 4. Only a very appreciable r e d u c t i o n i n a l t e r n a t i n g stresses w i l l permit t h e use of f i t t i n g s w i t h stress raisers.
Fatigue s t r e n g t h i s a l s o d i s t i n c t l y lowered by small technological d e f e c t s which a l s o a c t as stress raisers. Consequently, i n t h e manufacture of blade spars t h e process used m u s t be aimed a t complete e l i m i n a t i o n of a l l apparent def e c t s of t h e spar.

To e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of some f l a w s remaining undetected, t h e spars must be subjected t o rigorous i n s p e c t i o n under a p p l i c a t i o n of a l l modern methods of nondestructive materials t e s t i n g . Below, t h e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of a blade w i t h s t e e l and duralumin s p a r s
W i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

16. _ S t-r e n g t h of..a Blade w i t h Tubular Steel ,%ar

Cold-rolled tubing of high-alloy steels 30KhGSA o r 4OKhIWA quenched and 130 kg/mm2 i s carmnonly used f o r t h e blade tempered t o a s t r e n g t h of ob = U O spar.

After hot- and cold-rolling, shaping, and quenching, t h e o u t e r and inner s u r f a c e s of t h e t u b e are polished. Recently, cold-working of t h e s p a r s has become a mandatory o p e r a t i o n after p o l i s h i n g .
A t h u s manufactured s p a r without cold-working may have a minimum endurance limit of t h e order of oWm = 12 - 13 kg/mm2 a t a n average component of t h e However, t h e s t r e n g t h i s reduced g r e a t l y i f , i n cycle om = 20 - 25 kg/rm2. manufacturing t h e s p a r , various t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e f e c t s and miscalculations are permitted. The following can be mentioned as t h e most dangerous types:

I n t e r n a l cracks and lam. During hot-rolling, p l a s t i c deformation may be accompanied by p a r t i a l tearing of t h e mater5al. T h i s u s u a l l y occurs a t a reduction i n temperature of t h e workpiece during rolling and a l s o as r e s u l t of contamination of t h e s t e e l by nonmetallic and gas i n c l u s i o n s , t h e formation of f i l m s , high porosity, segregation, and o t h e r m e t a l l u r g i c a l d e f e c t s . The cracks r u n i n t o t h e workpiece a t a n a c u t e angle, SO that it i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e t h e outcropping of t h e crack on t h e surface. On f u r t h e r cold-rolling, t h e degree of deformation i n c r e a s e s and t h e crack f o l d s over i n t o t h e w a l l of t h e tube a t a n ever smaller angle t o i t s s u r f a c e . /194. Usually a series of such i n t e r n a l cracks i s observed. They are small, being about 0.1 1.0 mm deep and 3 1 0 m wide.

Laps appear upon cold-rolling on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e . They are u s u a l l y due Subsequent p l a s t i c cold-workt o extensive s u r f a c e roughness a f t e r hot-rolling. i n g leads t o a n uneven flow of t h e material during which d e f e c t s known as l a p s

and seams may form. Laps are a l s o able t o form by flow of metal i n t o t h e gap between t h e r o l l grooves and formation of a f i n which folds over upon subsequent deformation. face. Both d e f e c t s c a n be d e t e c t e d by magnaflux i n s p e c t i o n of t h e polished surFigure 1.78 shows c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t e r n a l cracks a t t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e of a spar. The micrograph was obtained duri n g magnetic i n s p e c t i o n . The endurance limit of a t u b e w i t h seams and l a p s drops t o o w n i n = 5 - 7 kg/mm2.

Rolled-in s c a l e .on inner s-wf&c=e. After hot-rolling, a l a y e r of s c a l e i s l e f t on t h e t u b e surface, which has a g r e a t e r hardness t h a n t h e metal. Ann e a l i n g i s done a f t e r each s t e p i n coldr o l l i n g . Although annealing proceeds i n a n i n e r t atmosphere, t h i n films of s c a l e are formed on t h e surface, due t o t h e oxygen content of t h e metal. If t h e s c a l e i s not completely removed, it W i l l Fig.l.78 Cracks on Inner Surface of Steel Spar. be crushed during t h e rolling process and forced i n t o t h e metal, forming soc a l l e d r o l l e d - i n s c a l e . On t h e exposed o u t e r surface of t h e tube, t h e r o l l e d - i n s c a l e i s r e a d i l y eliminated by machilling. On t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e of t h e tube whose machining i s more complex and possible only by belt-grinding or hydraulic polishing, t h e r o l l e d - i n s c a l e cannot be completely removed. Therefore, small but acute-angled p i t s of a s i z e not exceeding 0.1- 0.05 m and d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t during inspection, may be l e f t even a f t e r grinding. The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s u r f a c e drops i n this case t o = 10 12 kg/mm2. O W m 1n

Rolled-in s c a l e c a n be eliminated by t u r n i n g and grinding t h e s u r f a c e of t h e workpiece a f t e r hot-rolling u n t i l a l l s c a l e i s removed and by sandblasting a f t e r annealing before each operation of cold-rolling

For a complete e l i m i n a t i o n of cooling cracks, l a p s , r o l l e d - i n s c a l e , and o t h e r s u r f a c e d e f e c t s , l o n g i t u d i n a l grinding of t h e o u t e r and i n n e r s u r f a c e s of t h e tube, a f t e r f i n a l cold-rolling and before shaping, i s highly e f f e c t i v e .

After quenching and e c mtube-Strakhteniqg tempering, t h e s p a r t u b e s are bent s l i g h t l y . Therefore, before assembling t h e blade, t h e tubes may need s t r a i g h t e n i n g . T h i s sets L P I r e s i d u a l stresses i n t h e t u b e material. Usually, limiters are used during t h e s t r a i g h t e n i n g operation, x) kg/mm2. t o keep t h e r e s i d u a l t e n s i l e stresses i n t h e t u b e from exceeding 10 These stresses i n c r e a s e t h e average component of t h e cycle and lead t o a decrease of x) 25% i n t h e endurance l i m i t . S t i l l g r e a t e r reductions i n s t r e n g t h may 1195 occur i f t h e s t r a i g h t e n i n g i s improperly done. To do away w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y of s t r a i g h t e n i n g , t h e quenched t u b e s should be tempered i n s p e c i a l devices t h a t eliminate t h e strains produced on quenching.

In estimating t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of s p a s , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d

208

t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f r e t t i n g corrosion. F r e t t i n g corrosion i s a n almost cert a i n a t t e n d a n t phenomenon of c y c l i c blade stresses and l e a d s t o a s u b s t a n t i a l reduction i n fatique s t r e n g t h . T h i s u s u a l l y occurs a t p o i n t s where t h e r e i s mating between p a r t s and t h e spar, i f relative microslip i s p r e s e n t between t h e o s c u l a t i n g s u r f a c e s . P o i n t s of clamp i n s t a l l a t i o n f o r attachment of t h e blade frame are t h e u s u a l s e a t s of f r e t t i n g corrosion i n s t e e l spars.

Figure 1.79 g i v e s a micrograph of a ruptured spar. The r o o t of t h e f a t i g u e crack coincides w i t h t h e seat of f r e t t i n g corrosion.
A marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e dynamic s t r e n g t h of s t e e l s p a r s can be obtained by mechanical workhardening of t h e i r surface, known a l s o as coldworking.

A t present, cold-working of spars has become a n almost indispensable o p e r a t i o n i n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n of blades. Three methods of mechanical strengthening have become common i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering: t h e dynamic method of M.I.Kuzfmin, t h e v i b r a t o r y impact method of S.V.Ochagov, and t h e shot-peening method. The choice of t h e method gene r a l l y depends on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t r u c Fig. 1.79 I n c i p i e n t t u r a l component t o be strengthened and on t h e proFatigue F a i l u r e from F r e t t i n g Corrosion. duction f a c i l i t i e s . When using t h e dynamic method f o r strengthening t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of a spar, i t s i n n e r s u r f a c e i s work-hardened by shot-peening. I n developing complicated devices f o r t h e v i b r a t o r y impact method, main emphasis i s u s u a l l y on simultaneous treatment of both i n n e r and o u t e r s u r f a c e s of t h e s p a r by this m e t hod.

A n i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s obtained by o l d e r methods of cold-worki n g . The b e s t method, giving t h e most s t a b l e r e s u l t s i n treating t h e o u t e r surdynamic method. f a c e of s t e e l spars, i s M.I.Kuz"infs
The i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h due t o cold-working i s a t t r i b u t e d mainly t o two causes: The o u t e r s u r f a c e of a given p a r t which i s most s e n s i t i v e t o inc i p i e n t f a t i g u e f a i l u r e i s rendered smoother ( F i g .1.80) and r e s i d u a l compressive i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s which, i n conformity w i t h Hayfs diastresses are set gram (see Fig.1.63, l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r of t h e p a r t . Figure 1.81 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r n a l stresses i n t h e material of a s t e e l spar, obtained by dynamic cold-working and g r i t - b l a s t i n g . Grit-blasting sets up almost t h e same r e s i d u a l stresses as t h e shot-peening method of coldworking. The increment i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h due t o cold-working i s e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e /196 i n t h e presence of f r e t t i n g corrosion. Apparently, compressive stresses inpede t h e spread of c o r r o s i o n i n t o t h e material. Figure 1.82 shows t h e r e s u l t s of

209

t e s t i n g s t e e l s p a r s w i t h cold-worked and noncold-worked surfaces operating under conditions of onset of fretting corrosion.

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Fig.l.80 Surface Profilogram of Spar Pressed from Aluminum Alloys a f t e r Machining ( a ) and a f t e r Cold-Working ( b )

Fig.l.81 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Internal S t r e s s e s from Cold-Working with Respect t o Wall Thickness of Tubular Steel Spar. Cold-working by t h e method of M.I.Kuz"in; ----T r i p l e g r i t - b l a s t i n g

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sf D i s t r i b u t i o n of Reduced Endurance L i ~ t o Fig.1.82 Tubular S t e e l Spars under t h e F f f e c t of F r e t t i n g Corrosion. a Surface polished and sandblasted; b - Surface polished and Surface cold-worked by sandblasted three times with g r i t ; c M. I .Kuz "in's m e t hod.

210

The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of s t e e l s p a r s can be increased by cold-working by a f a c t o r of 1 . 5 2 and, i n t h e presence of f r e t t i n g corrosion, by a f a c t o r of 2.5 3.

Cold-working w i l l raise t h e f a t i g u e U t of a s t e e l spar t o values of t h e i n = 28 30 kg/m2 a t om = 20 25 kg/mn. Thus, cold-working has o r d e r oWm proved a most e f f e c t i v e means of i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and s e r v i c e l i f e of blades.

17. S t r e n g t h of a Blade w i t h Duralumin %ar

/197

The most important problem i n designing blades of this type i s t o secure a s u f f i c i e n t l y high f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e spar. Generally, attachment of t h e frame t o t h e spar i s accomplished by g l u e and t h u s creates no s u b s t a n t i a l stress raisers i n t h e s p a r . S t r e s s concentrations i n spars are due mainly t o small d e f e c t s t o l e r a t e d i n i t s fabrication. The s u r f a c e f i n i s h of a s p a r p l a y s t h e main r o l e i n reducing i t s f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . A milled and sandb l a s t e d spar made of AVT-1 a l l o y without machining of t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e may have a n endurance limit of t h e order =n3.8 4.2 kg/m a t a n of o W m i average component of t h e cycle om = = 6 kg/m.

Fig.1.83 Microsection of Spar W a l l through Blowhole Formed i n Pressing.

The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of a given s p a r may be reduced due t o d e f e c t s produced i n i t s p r e s s i n g and machining

Frequently, t h e i n s i d e channel of t h e s p a r i s not machined a f t e r p r e s s i n g . Therefore, p r e s s i n g d e f e c t s may remain on t h e i n n e r surface: adherent m e t a l slugs, l o n g i t u d i n a l scratches, blowholes (Fig.1.83), and, f i n a l l y , coarsec r y s t a l l i n e rings. These d e f e c t s may reduce t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h t o values of T h i s suggests t o follow t h e p r e s s i n g = 2.5 - 3.0 kg/mm2 (om = 6 kg/mm2). OWm i n by machining of t h e s u r f a c e of blade spars with r e l a t i v e l y high s t r e s s e s .

A s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s produced a l s o by nonmetallic and gas i n c l u s i o n s . To e l i m i n a t e such i n c l u s i o n s , a s p e c i a l melting p r a c t i c e should be used ( s e t t l i n g of t h e m e t a l , teeming from c e r t a i n l e v e l s , f i l t e r i n g The b e s t metal i s obtained by melting i n e l e c t r i c through mesh f i l t e r s , etc.). i n d u c t i o n furnaces, w i t h holding of t h e molten metal i n e l e c t r i c a l l y heated mixers

To e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of overlooking nonmetallic and gas i n c l u s i o n s , 211

each spar should be subjected t o c a r e f u l u l t r a s o n i c inspection.

No less important i s t h e elimination of p o s s i b l e corrosion p i t t i n g of pressed spars during f a b r i c a t i o n (as w e l l as under s e r v i c e conditions). Practic a l . experience has shown t h a t surface and i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e corrosion of a depth t o 0.1 0 . 1 5 m w i l l g r e a t l y lower t h e endurance limit. Therefore, metals of high corrosion r e s i s t a n c e should be used f o r blade spars, and s p e c i a l measures must be taken i n f a b r i c a t i o n t o p r o t e c t t h e spars from corrosion b electrop l a t i n g after intermediate treatment s t e p s ( f o r example, anodizingy.

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.L84 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Reduced Endurance Emits ?to a Base of lo7 Cycles) of Pressed spars Made of AVT-1 Alloy w i t h Polished ( C i r c l e s ) and ColdWorked (Crosses) Surfaces ( a ) and D i s t r i b u t i o n of Compressive Stresses i n t h e Thickness of t h e Spar Wall from Cold-Working by S.V.Ochagov*s Vibratory Iinpact Method ( b )
I 5

A marked increase i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of spars made of aluminum a l l o y s can be achieved by cold-working of t h e spars. Figure 1.84 gives t h e results of f a t i g u e t e s t s of cold-worked s p a r s compared w i t h spars without cold-working. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r n a l stresses set up by cold-working i s a l s o shown. The endurance l i m i t of cold-worked spars can be r a i s e d t o values of o w m i n = 5.5 t o

6 .O kg/nnn2 (om = 6.0 kg/m2)

It should be noted that t h e s t r e n g t h of cold-worked duralumin s p a r s i s reduced g r e a t l y i f t h e spar frame, during t h e gluing process, i s heated t o a temp e r a t u r e of about 2OO0C a& higher. T h i s makes it mandatory t o c o n t r o l t h e temp e r a t u r e i n t h e gluing operation.
1 8 . Effect of Service Conditions on Fatigue stren&h-of-.%grs
The above method f o r determining t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and s e r v i c e l i f e can be used only if t h e s t r u c t u r e , during a c t u a l service, does not suffer mechanical o r corrosion damage. O t h e m s e , t h e approach t o determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e must be modified and reduced t o a study of t h e e f f e c t of such damage. Frcnnthis

212

viewpoint, t h e s t r u c t u r e s of a l l blades should be divided i n t o two types: blades w i t h p r o t e c t e d and blades w i t h exposed s p a r s . I n a blade d e s i g n w i t h t u b u l a r steel, t h e spar i s u s u a l l y completely prot e c t e d by t h e frame and cannot be mechanically damaged i n s e r v i c e . The g r e a t e s t r i s k i n such a design i s corrosion; t h e r e f o r e , t h e service l i f e of such blades i s determined by t h e q u a l i t y of t h e a n t i c o r r o s i o n coatings of t h e spar. I n blade designs i n which t h e spar forms t h e contour of t h e leading edge of t h e p r o f i l e , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must 'be p a i d t o i t s p r o t e c t i o n from mechanical damage. If such p r o t e c t i o n i s inadequate, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e i s shortened and /199 becomes dependent on t h e degree of damage of t h e spar. Usually, a permissible degree of damage i s s t i p u l a t e d here and checked during p r e f l i g h t blade inspection.

To estimate t h e e f f e c t of damage of a spar i n s e r v i c e , dynamic t e s t s are r u n on specimens c u t out of blades operated f o r a c e r t a i n number of hours under various s e r v i c e conditions, followed by e s t a b l i s h i n g a r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e based on t h e conditions of endurance of specimens undamaged i n s e r v i c e . When t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h decreases excessively, measures are t a k e n t o improve t h e prot e c t i o n of t h e spar.

CHAPTER I1

HELICOPTER VIBRATIONS
Section 1 . Forces Causing Helicopter Vibrations

1 . & c i t a t i o n Frequencies
Since, i n forward f l i g h t of a h e l i c o p t e r , t h e r o t o r blades which are subj e c t t o t h e e f f e c t of time-variant aerodynamic f o r c e s vibrate both i n t h e plane of r o t o r t h r u s t and i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade i n t h e hub hinges are a l s o v a r i a b l e i n time. Correspondingly, v a r i a b l e f o r c e s e q u a l i n magnitude t o t h e s e r e a c t i o n f o r c e s a c t on t h e r o t o r hub. The variable f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub and produced by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades can be given i n t h e form of t h r e e f o r c e s X(t), Y ( t ) , Z ( t ) and three moments r e l a t i v e t o t h e coordinate axes M , ( t ) , My(t), M,(t) (Fig.2.1). If t h e h e l i c o p t e r has a n a n t i t o r q u e r o t o r , t h e blades of this r o t o r W i l l cause time-variant f o r c e s of t h e same o r i g i n t o a c t on t h e helicopter; t h e s e can a l s o conveniently be given i n t h e form of three variable f o r c e s and three moments

Fig.2.1 Forces and Moments from t h e Rotor, Acting on a Helicopter

The v a r i a b l e f o r c e s from t h e v i b r a t i n g r o t o r blades, a c t i n g on t h e helicopter, are t h e main source of fuselage v i b r a t i o n . Fuselage v i b r a t i o n s may a l s o be caused d i r e c t l y by aerodynamic f o r c e s acti n g on t h e f u s e l a g e due t o t h e f l u c t u a t i n g airflow repulsed by t h e r o t o r s . Thus, t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow pushed back by t h e r o t o r i n t h e f u s e l a g e region i s c r e a s e s whenever any of t h e r o t o r blades p a s s e s above t h e fuselage. However, numerous c a l c u l a t i o n s and measurements of p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a t t h e f u s e l a g e demonstrate t h a t t h e s e v a r i a b l e aerodynamic f o r c e s are appreciably weaker t h a n t h e variable f o r c e s produced by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades and a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub. For e x a q l e , for t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r t h e variable f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e f u s e l a g e due t o f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e flow repulsed by t h e r o t o r i n t h e most unfavorable f l i g h t regime ( d e c e l e r a t i o n before landing) i s of t h e order of *lo 15 kgf, whereas t h e variable f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes are of t h e order of 4 2 0 0 600) kgf. Therefore, i n analyzing h e l i c o p t e r vi- /201 b r a t i o n s we are p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n variable f o r c e s imposed on t h e r o t o r hub.

These f o r c e s , g e n e r a l l y speaking, can be defined as dynamic r e a c t i o n s a t forced blade v i b r a t i o n s i n f l i g h t , f o r which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods a r e presented i n Chapter I. Here, it must be emphasized that t h e variable f o r c e s i n

2ue

such a c a l c u l a t i o n are determined w i t h considerable inaccuracy. The reason f o r this l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g blade v i b r a t i o n s , only t h e lower harmonics of t h e loads are s a t i s f a c t o r i l y determined and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n e r r o r s inc r e a s e w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e order of t h e harmor6cs. Furthermore, as w i l l be shown below, i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s it i s t h e high harmonics of excit a t i o n t h a t are of d e c i s i v e importance. T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t that a l l methods of v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s presented i n this Chapter are of a mainly q u a l i t a t i v e nature.

An exact c a l c u l a t i o n o f v i b r a t i o n s by means of methods presented i n this Chapter i s p o s s i b l e only i n c e r t a i n s p e c i a l cases. The most important of t h e s e i s t h e designing of a new h e l i c o p t e r fuselage o r even of a h e l i c o p t e r of a d i f f e r e n t configuration ( f o r example tandem o r side-by-side i n p l a c e of single-rotor) equipped w i t h p r e v i o u s l y used r o t o r s , f o r which t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s w e r e determined experimentally ( f o r example, by measuring stresses i n t h e r o t o r s h a f t o r i n t h e r e d u c t i o n gear mount).
It should be noted t h a t t h e q u a l i t a t i v e methods of estimating v i b r a t i o n s permits a number of u s e f u l conclusions i n designing h e l i c o p t e r s and i n improvi n g them during f l i g h t tests. For example, it i s p o s s i b l e t o judge t h e e f f e c t on v i b r a t i o n s of t h e shape of t h e blade resonance diagram and t h e fusel a g e resonance diagram and t h u s d e f i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n toward which t h e design parameters should be changed so as t o reduce v i b r a t i o n s , and sometimes even t o estimate t h e degree of r e d u c t i o n i n vibrahion.

Fig.2.2 Rotor Rotating i n a n Oncoming Airflow.

To draw c e r t a i n g e n e r a l conclusions as t o t h e nature of time-variance of t h e f o r c e s X(t), T ( t ) , and Z ( t ) and of t h e moments M,(t), M,(t), and M,(t), l e t us t u r n t o Fig.2.2 which shows a 5-bhde r o t o r uniformly r o t a t i n g with a n angular v e l o c i t y w i n a r e l a t i v e airflow of constant v e l o c i t y V. A t a c e r t a i n t i m e t, l e t t h e r o t o r blades occupy t h e p o s i t i o n shown i n t h e s k e t c h and l e t at this t i m e t h e f o r c e X have a c e r t a i n value X ( t ) . After a time i n t e r v a l ecpal t o 1/5 of t h e time of one complete r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r , t h e r o t o r w i l l t u r n by 1/5 of this complete r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s causes blade N o . 1 t o occupy t h e p o s i t i o n of blade No.2, blade No.2 that of blade N0.3, and s o on. It i s obvious t h a t , i n t h e new p o s i t i o n and i f a l l r o t o r blades are a b s o l u t e l y i d e n t i c a l , t h e e n t i r e p a t t e r n of f l o w and hence a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade W i l l be e x a c t l y t h e same as a t t h e i n i t i a l time t. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e value of t h e f o r c e X W i l l be t h e same. It i s evident t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n i s repeated w i t h t h e next t u r n of t h e r o t o r by l / 5 of a complete revol.ution. Consequently, t h e f u n c t i o n X(t) i s a p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n of t i m e of a p e r i o d equal t o 1/5 t h e time of one complete r o t o r revolution. Figure 2.3 shows one of t h e p o s s i b l e s l o p e s of t h e curve of t h e dependence X = X ( t ) . Thus, t h e f o r c e X w i l l vary i n time w i t h a n angular frequency 50, whereas t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r blade w i l l change w i t h a frequency w (once p e r r o t o r r e v o l u t i o n ) .

E k e any p e r i o d i c function, t h e f u n c t i o n X ( t ) can be expanded i n a Fourier series. T h i s W i l l cause t h e lower harmonic i n t h e expansion t o be t h e har/202 monic 5w, s o t h a t t h e expansion w i l l have t h e form

X(t)=X0+Xa, cos5~~t+Xb,sin5wt+Xa,cos10wt+Xb,sin loot+ +Xa,cos 15wt$Xb,sin 15wt+. .,

i.e.,
=

low, 3p

t h e fundamental frequency p = 5w, while t h e m u l t i p l e frequencies are 2p = l5w, 4p = a w , e t c .

, e x a c t l y t h e same conclusions can be drawn w i t h respect t o t h e f u n c t ? ~ ~ o ~ ~ , M,(t), and M,(t). Z (~ t ) ,~ M,(t),

I n general, f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades moments a c t i n g or? t h e h e l i c o p t e r p e r i o d i c a l l y change of t h e so-called fundamental harmonic of t h e r o t o r p t h e s e f o r c e s and moments i n a Fourier series has t h e equal t o z, a l l f o r c e s and

i n t i m e , w i t h t h e frequency
= zw.

The expansion of

form

X (t)=Xa+Xal COS p t f x b , sin pt+Xa, cos 2pt f Xb. sin a p t 4 X,, cos 3pt f Xb, sin 3pt -/- ...; M x ( t ) = M ~ , 4 M : ,c o s p t + M ~ l s i n p t + M ~ I c o s 2 p t +

4- M i , sin 2pt f
where

M;, cos 3pt

+Mi, sin 3pt +..:,

I
(1.2)

p =zw.

?!, o

r\nnp,n u
,X-X(t)

by t h e r o t o r and a c t i n g d i r e c t l y on t h e fuselage

If, i n addition, t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s equipped w i t h a n a n t i t o r q u e r o t o r having z ,

o f i n d i v i d u a l blade quality. We note t h a t a l l above arguments are f u l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of variable f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and produced by t h e r o t o r blades. Despite t h e f a c t t h a t t h e moment of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade relative t o t h e axial hinge (hinge moment) v a r i e s i n time w i t h a fundamental frequency w, t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e swashp l a t e vary i n time w i t h a fundamental frequency zw. Therefore, t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e and c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l loops vary w i t h a /203 fundamental f r e q e n c y p = zw and a l s o c o n t a i n t h e harmonics 3p, 4p, etc. I n addition, lower e x c i t a t i o n harmonics can appear only a t deviations i n i n d i v i d u a l blade p r o p e r t i e s .

a,

2. DeDendence 0.f t h e F r e q u e n c g t r u m - of Excitiqg Forces on t h e Harmgnic Content of Blade Vibrations Above, on t h e basis of very g e n e r a l considerations, we have demonstrated t h a t v a r i a b l e f o r c e s and moments X, Y, Z, M,, My, and M, produced by t h e vibrat i n g blades and a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub vary i n time w i t h the-frequency of t h e fundamental harmonic zw of t h e r o t o r and a l s o c o n t a i n i t s m u l t i p l e harmonics 2zw, 3 8 ~ 1e , t c . , whereas t h e r o t o r blades and hence t h e f o r c e s generated by each blade and a c t i n g on t h e hub perform v i b r a t i o n s w i t h t h e fundamental frequency w and c o n t a i n m u l t i p l e harmonics 2 1 1 4 3w, 4w, e t c . which comprises a l s o t h e harmonics zw, 2zw, e t c . T h i s suggests t h a t cert a i n harmonic components of t h e varia b l e f o r c e s s e t up by each blade and ~ I W pressed on t h e hub are neutralized a t t h e hub while o t h e r s a r e s m e d . W e will prove t h a t this i s a c t u a l l y so. Fig.2.4 Polygon of Forces Generated L e t us r e f e r t o Fig.2.4. which g i v e s a by t h e Blade and Impressed on t h e b t o r Hub. schematic s k e t c h of a hub w i t h hinged blades. The f o r c e impressed on t h e hub from t h e k-th blade can be resolved i n t o k p a r a l l e l t o t h e ax2s of three components: Nk d i r e c t e d along t h e blade radius, P t h e r o t o r s h a f t , and Qk perpendicular t o both. Each of t h e s e components i s a p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n of time w i t h a fundamental frequency w . It i s obvious t h a t , i n a s t e a d y - f l i g h t regime, t h e functions N k ( t ) , P k ( t ) , and Q ( t ) are i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l blades but s h i f t e d i n phase f o r each blade relative t o t h e adjacent one by some q u a n t i t y corresponding t o t h e time of r o t o r t u r n through a n angle 2n/z. T h i s j u s t i f i e s w r i t i n g t h e expansion of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i n Fourier series i n t h e form

where

or, more concisely,

Let us now formulate t h e following problem: Knowing t h e values of t h e coe f f i c i e n t s of expansion i n Fourier s e r i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n s P k ( t ) , &,(t), and N k ( t ) , o r , i n o t h e r words, knowing t h e harmonic Components of t h e f o r c e s P,, Q , , N,, we f i n d t h e variable f o r c e s X, Y, Z and t h e moments M,, My, M, (more e x a c t l y % h e i r harmonic components) from which we can p l o t t h e dependence of t h e vibration-inducing f o r c e s on various harmonic components of t h e f o r c e s produced by a n i n d i v i d u a l blade and a c t i n g on t h e hub. Summing t h e f o r c e s generated by each blade and a c t i n g on t h e hub, we o b t a i n t h e following formulas :

where

Jl,

= azimuthal angle of t h e k-th blade:

218

h = d i s t a n c e between d hinges

s of r o t a t i o n and matched f l a p p i n g and drag

If t h e hub has unmatched hinges, t h e n we must t a k e h = t v e h i n eq.(1.9) h = t h . h i n eq.(l.lO).

and

Let us e x d n e i n d e t a i l eq.(1.7) f o r determining t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e Y. S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o it ,eq.( 1.3) for t h e f o r c e P , , it becomes necessary t o calcul a t e t h e sums i n t h e f o r m

where n a r e i n t e g e r s ( n = 1 , 2, 3 , ...).
We will show t h a t t h e trigonometric sums of such a form have t h e following noteworthy property: For any n not a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades z , both /205 sums a r e equal t o zero for any t; when n i s a multiple of z, ?.e., i f n = s z (s = 1 , 2, 3, ...), t h e n

(1.12)

f o r any value of t, b u t

Furthermore,
6

COS 6 (Ut
k-I

+cpa) =

COS 7 (Ut+

yk)=

k-1

but

W e can prove t h e v a l i d i t y of eqs.(1.12) by d i f f e r e n t methods. For this, l e t us use t h e convenient method proposed by R.A.Mikheyev based on t h e applicat i o n of t h e well-known Euler formula expressing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between trigonom e t r i c functions and exponential f u n c t i o n s w i t h a n imaginary argument. We Will prove t h e v a l i d i t y of only t h e first equation i n t h e system (1.12). W e have:

Theref ore,

cosn?, = 2
k- 1
2

[efn'k+e-fn'k

I=
-k
2%

k-1

2% in - k
k-I

-in

2
k -1

Let us s e p a r a t e l y check t h e sum

fn

e
k -1

5k
"

--

(efn $)+(efn

G)z+(ein

% ) 3 +

...

+(ein

5)"
in 2 2

T h i s i s a geometric progression w i t h t h e denominator e

/zo6

Using t h e well-known formula f o r t h e s u m of a geometric progression, we obtain

12% ! L

e
k- 1

' (1 - e i z x n )
12.5

I-e

'

Since n i s a n i n t e g e r , t h e numerator of this expression i s always equal t o zero, s o t h a t ei2nn = 1 ( n = 1 , 2, 3 , .)

.. .

The denominator of this expression can vanish only i f

(+)

i s an i n t e g e r ,

i.e.,

u m i s equal t o if n i s a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades z . Thus, this s zero f o r any n w i t h t h e exception of t h o s e n t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e number z.

I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e value of t h e sum becomes indeterminate

220

(+).

his in-

deterrninacy can be evaluated by t h e well-known LfHospital r u l e . kt n vary continuously, approaching some value s z ( s i s any i n t e g e r ; s = 1 , 2, 3, ). D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e numerator and denominator w i t h r e s p e c t t o n and passing t o t h e limit n sz, we have

...

-t

W e can a l s o show e x a c t l y t h a t
0,
if
n

is not a multiple of

'7.;

A s a r e s u l t , we a r r i v e a t t h e conclusion t h a t i f n i s not a m u l t i p l e of z, then

2

cos n+&=0.
k-1

cos n+& =R-1

e--lnaf) =z cos n w t =

z cos (szwt).

I n E k e manner, we can prove t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e second equation of t h e system (1.12). The i n d i c a t e d p r o p e r t y of trigonometric sums i s conveniently w r i t t e n i n t h e form
cos nqk =
R-l
2

0,

i f n i s no t a m u l t i p l e of z;

zcosnwt,
sin
=

if

n=sz; s=I, 2, 3.

..;

0, i f

n i s n o t a m u l t i p l e of z;

h-1

zsinnof,

if

n=sz; s=l, 2, 3 . . .

I
into

Let us now r e t u r n t o t h e expression f o r t h e f o r c e Y from eq.(l.7), which we s u b s t i t u t e t h e value of t h e f o r c e P, from eq.(l.4) :

/207

2 2 1

On t h e basis of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r o p e r t y of trigonometric sums [eq.(l.l3)1

it can be s t a t e d t h a t , upon summation of d i f f e r e n t harmonics i n this expression, a l l harmonics t h a t are not a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades z w i l l disappear.
The harmonics t h a t are a m u l t i p l e of z are summed i n conformity w i t h eqs.(l.l3), s o t h a t we f i n a l l y o b t a i n

Thus, a l l harmonic components of t h e f o r c e P k (t)- t h a t are not a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e r o t o r hub and do not cause vibrat i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r fuselage. A s a result, t h e variable f o r c e Y changes i n time w i t h t h e fundamental harmonic p = zw of t h e r o t o r , and a l s o contains m u l t i p l e harmonics a* mm 3p, e t c . T h i s completely confirms t h e b a s i c conclusion of t h e preceding Subsection, and y i e l d s a d d i t i o n a l information e x a c t l y def i n i n g t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e P k t h a t are dangerous from t h e aspect of vibrations.

a,

Fig.2.5 Amplitude of V i b r a t i o n s i n Cockpit of SingleRotor Helicopter as a Funct i o n of Flying Speed.

Let us examine a n example f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n purposes. W e assume t h a t , f o r some r o t o r , t h e r e i s resonance of t h e second overtone of blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane w i t h t h e f i f t h harmonic of t h e r o t o r ( 5 w ) . I n this case t h e harmonic component corresponding t o t h e f i f t h harmonic (Pas and Pb5) w i l l be l a r g e i n t h e expansion of t h e f o r c e Pk f o r such a r o t o r .

If t h e r o t o r has f i v e blades, t h e above t y p e of resonance w i l l lead t o app r e c i a b l e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

If t h e r o t o r has f o u r blades, this resonance w i l l i n no way manifest i t s e l f i n v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helicopter, s i n c e t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e P k corresponding t o this resonance W i l l be n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub. A s w i l l be shown l a t e r , t h e variable moments M, and M, a t t h e hub can be appreciable; however, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s are determined mainly by t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s X, Y, Z. Occasionally, it i s erroneously assumed t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a given h e l i c o p t e r are smaller, t h e l a r g e r t h e number of r o t o r blades. However, it i s evident i n this example t h a t i n r e a l i t y t h e matter i s not s o simple and t h a t i n this case a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number of blades a c t u a l l y will lead t o a r e d u c t i o n i n v i b r a t i o n .

Let u s examine another example: Figure 2.5 shows t h e r e s u l t s of experimental v i b r a t i o n measurements i n t h e cockpit of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r which w a s t e s t e d w i t h two r o t o r s : three- and four-blade types. The r o t o r s had comp l e t e l y i d e n t i c a l blades and d i f f e r e d only i n t h e hubs. The curves d e p i c t t h e dependence of t h e q l i t u d e a y of v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e cockpit on t h e f l y i n g speed V f o r both r o t o r s .
A s shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e s e r o t o r s , t h e r o t o r blade had a resonance 222

/208

of t h e second overtone of v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic of t h e r o t o r at t h e operating rpm. A s a r e s u l t , t h e Vibrations of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a four-blade r o t o r , over t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of t h e speed range, w e r e appreciably higher (at V = 4.0 50 km/hr, by a f a c t o r of more t h a n 3 ) than t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h t h e three-blade r o t o r . However, at a high f l y i n g speed t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a four-blade r o t o r w e r e smaller t h a n those of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a three-blade r o t o r . This i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t , at low flying speed, a l a r g e harmonic component of aerodynamic f o r c e s exi-sts, corresponding t o t h e f o u r t h harmonic and caused by t h e l a r g e nonu n i f o r n i t y of t h e induced v e l o c i t y field of t h e r o t o r at a l o w f l y i n g speed. With a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed t h e r e occurs a n e q u a l i z a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y field of t h e flow p a s s i n g through t h e r o t o r (see Chapt.1, Sect.8); correspondingly, t h e e x c i t a t i o n of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h respect t o t h e f o u r t h harmonic decreases rapidly, whereas t h e t h i r d harmonic does not decrease as r a p i d l y w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n speed o r may not decrease a t a l l . The r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e magnitude of t h e f o u r t h harmonic i n t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a t low f l y i n g speed app a r e n t l y i s a phenomenon common t o a l l r o t o r s .

Let us now r e t u r n t o a determination of o t h e r f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Ecpation (1.9) f o r t h e moment M y i s completely analogous t o

eqe(1=7).
Repeating t h e reasoning used i n d e r i v i n g eq.(l.&) t a i n t h e following expression: f o r t h e f o r c e Y, we ob-

The v a r i a b l e moment M y i s dangerous not only from t h e aspect of h e l i c o p t e r 1 t h a t this moment causes only v i b r a t i o n s ( i t will be shown i n Sect .3, Subsect . l a t e r a l f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s ) . T h i s moment i s one of t h e sources of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e transmission system of a h e l i c o p t e r . A s we s e e from eq.(1.15), t h e variable p o r t i o n of this moment i s determined e x c l u s i v e l y by t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e q t ) which a r e m u l t i p l e s t o t h e number of blades.

L e t us now t u r n t o t h e first e c p a t i o n of t h e system (1.8). S u b s t i t u t i n g C e q ~ ~ ( 1 . 5and ) (1.6)1, we o b t a i n and % ( t ) i n t o it t h e expressions f o r Qk(t)

223

'

1111111111

I I 1I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1111

111

I 1

I1

111I I

I I,. I I,

To c a l c u l a t e t h e remaining addends

l e t us examine t h e expression

XQn =
k-1

[Q,,; cos nqk+ Qe, sin n +k] sin Oh,

which r e p r e s e n t s t h e component of t h e f o r c e X caused by t h e n-th harmonic of . the force Q

2

Here, we encounter sums of t h e form

C cosn?ksin+k
k-I

and

C sinn+ksirl+k .
k-1

These

sums are a l s o e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d by means of eq.(1.13).

cos n+& sin qk=k-1 z

Actually,

2
k-1
z
k- 1

On t h e basis of eqs.(l.l3) we can assert t h a t t h e s e sums w i l l be nonzero only i f one of t h e numbers ( n + 1) o r ( n 1) i s a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of , 2, 3 , ...) and t h u s n = s z - 1. Then, blades. Let ( n + 1) = s z ( s = 1

k- 1

COS n$&sin +i= -sin (szwf); 2

z 2

sin n$k sin l;)k = -- cos (szwt).

k -1

Furthermore, i f ( n

- 1) = s z ;
k-1

n = sz + 1 , then
cos n$&sin $& =

-sin (szwt); 2
P

As a r e s u l t , we o b t a i n t h e following expression for t h e component of t h e f o r c e X which i s obtained from a l l harmonic components of t h e f o r c e Q: 224

(1.16)

N(t),

For t h e p o r t i o n of t h e f o r c e X caused by harmonic components of t h e f o r c e we o b t a i n i n like manner t h e expression of t h e form

The f o r c e X can be determined b y . t h e formula

X=XQ$XN.
If t'he expression f o r t h e f o r c e X(t) i s w r i t t e n i n t h e form of e q . ( l . l ) , t h e follow-ing formulas f o r i t s harmonic components are obtained:

/210

The components corresponding t o harmonics t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e fundamental harmonic Xa2, X b 2 , e t c . are obtained from t h e s e same formulas, i f we rep l a c e t h e index z by t h e i n d i c e s 22, 32, e t c . Thus, t h e variable p a r t of t h e f o r c e X(t) i s determined by t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e s Q ( t ) and N(t) which a r e combinatory w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e ; z + 1) o r t o i t s m u l t i p l e harmonics fundamental harmonic of t h e r o t o r ( z - 1 (22 - 1 ; 22 + l ) , etc. For exanple, f o r a r o t o r w i t h three blades ( z = 3), t h e fundamental harmonic of t h e f o r c e X (frequency 3 w t ) w i l l be determined by t h e second and f o u r t h harmonics of t h e f o r c e s and N ( t ) , t h e second harmonic of t h e f o r c e (frequency 6 w t ) w i l l be determined by t h e f i f t h and seventh harmonics of f o r c e s and N(t), and s o on.

at)

at)

Completely analogous formulas we obtained f o r harmonic components of t h e force z ( t )

225

J u s t as i n eqs.(l.M), t o o b t a i n t h e m u l t i p l e harmonics za2, Zb2, z ~ z ,, t h e index z i n t h e s e formulas must be s u b s t i t u t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e i n d i c e s 22, 32, e t c . I n l i k e manner, t h e expressions f o r t h e harmonic components of t h e moments

M, and M, a r e obtained from e q s . ( l . U ) :

(1.20)

M" u,- - [ -2P

rh

rh

(Z+l)

-p ,

+1)1;

(1.21)

Mi,=- 2 [ -P ~ ( z + l ) - P " Z - l ) l .

Let us a l s o mention t h e f o l l a J i n g f a c t which occasionally might f a c i l i t a t e a q u a l i t a t i v e v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s . If t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e i n t h e r o t o r plane ( X o r Z ) o r t h e moment (Mx, M,) are determined by some harmonic component of t h e f o r c e generated by t h e blade, t h e n we o b t a i n a vector of constant length uniformly r o t a t i n g i n t h e plane of t h e rotor w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y zw ( o r szw). The d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n i s opposite t o t h a t of t h e r o t o r i f this vector i s obt a i n e d from t h e harmonic component z + 1 ( o r sz + l), and e q u i d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r i f this vector i s obtained from t h e harmonic coPnponent z - 1 ( o r sz 1 ) .

For i n s t a n c e , l e t t h e r o t o r have f i v e blades ( z = 5) and l e t us look a t /211 t h e vector of t h e moment a t t h e hub, w i t h components M, and M, obtained from t h e harmonic component ( z - 1 ) :
P=P,,cos
Then C e q ~ ~ ( l . 2 0and ) (1.2l)Iy M,=rh [Pb, cos 2 2

4wt$Pb,sin4wt.

5od -Pu4sin 5wt];

zh Mz=[ - Pb, s in 5 w t

- P,, cos 5 w t ] .

A s i n d i c a t e d by t h e s e formulas, t h e vector

X=M,+M,
r e p r e s e n t s a vector of constant l e n g t h

226

uniformly r o t a t i n g i n t h e p l a n e of t h e r o t o r w i t h a n angular v e l o c i t y 5m i n a d i r e c t i o n coinciding w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t o r r o t a t i o n . Thus, t h e above analysis shows that a r o t o r i s a s o r t of f i l t e r which, out of a l l harmonic components of t h e f o r c e s on v i b r a t i n g blades, t r a n s m i t s t o t h e f u s e l a g e o n l y c e r t a i n ones corresponding t o t h e fundamental harmonic of t h e 1) m and ( z + l)w, harmonics t h a t are r o t o r zw, t o i t s composite harmonics ( z m u l t i p l e s of t h e fundamental harmonic Zzw, ~ Z W , etc., and t o composite harmonics (22 1)m, (22 + 1)w, (32 - l ) w , (3z + l ) w , e t c .

A s a rule, t h e lower harmonics ow, ( z + l)w, and ( z l ) w represent t h e g r e a t e s t danger both from t h e aspect of t h e v i b r a t i o n level and from t h e aspect of dynamic s t r e n g t h of t h e f u s e l a g e members.
Of t h e harmonics which are a consequence of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flapping p l a n e ( f o r c e P , , see Fig.2.4), t h e harmonic z w (a& m u l t i p l e s of it) lead t o t h e appearance of a v e r t i c a l variable f o r c e on t h e r o t o r , whereas t h e har, 22 + 1 , e t c . ) l e a d t o t h e appearmonics ( z - 1) and ( z + 1) (and a l s o 22 - 1 ance of v a r i a b l e moments a t t h e hub r e l a t i v e t o t h e axes O x and 02.
O f the of r o t a t i o n i t ) lead t o whereas t h e lead t o t h e of r o t a t i o n

harmonics_ which-are a consequeqce of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane ( f o r c e s Q and N,, see Fig.2.4.), t h e harmonic z w (and m u l t i p l e s of t h e appearance of a variable t w i s t i n g moment on t h e r o t o r s h a f t , 1 ) w and ( z + l)w, and a l s o (22 1 , 22 + 1, e t c . ) , harmonics ( z appearance of variable f o r c e s ( l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l ) i n t h e plane of t h e r o t o r .

We note i n conclusion that, upon summation of t h e f o r c e s generated by t h e blades and a c t i n g on t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l , we Obtain e x a c t l y t h e same formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e harmonic components of t h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e Y and t h e moments M, a& M, applied t o t h e swashplate. I n this case, eqs.(l.&), (1.20), and (1.21) can be used d i r e c t l y , understanding by t h e f o r c e

t h e f o r c e a c t i n g i n t h e trimmer of t h e k-th blade (hinge moment divided by t h e corresponding arm), and understanding by t h e q u a n t i t y h t h e r a d i u s of t h e swashp l a t e of t h e p i t c h control. Thus, knowing t h e harmonic content of t h e hinge moment, i t i s not d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e variable f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e and c y c l i c p i t c h cor+ t r o l loops. S e c t i o n 2.

% a 1

Vibrations of t h e Fuselane as a n E l a s t i c Beam

La2

If t h e variable f o r c e s imparted t o t h e fuselage by t h e r o t o r s are known, t h e n c a l c u l a t i o n of T i b r a t i o n s at d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of t h e f u s e l a g e can be carr i e d out by conventional methods of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of a n elast i c beam of variable c r o s s s e c t i o n . O f course, t h e f u s e l a g e of a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r

227

can be regarded as a t h i n flexurally e l a s t i c beam.

I n reality, t h e t r a n s v e r s e dimensions of a f u s e l a g e cannot be considered small i n comparison w i t h t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l dimensions. Furthermore, t h e f u s e l a g e of a h e l i c o p t e r of s i n g l e - r o t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n may have 11discontinuitiesl* i n t h e
r e g i o n of t h e t a i l boom, pronounced reduction i n r i g i d i t y over t h e length, and o t h e r p e c u l i a r i t i e s . These s p e c i a l features and t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n vibrat i o n a n a l y s i s are discussed i n S e c t i o n 3 . Here, we Will d e s c r i b e methods of v i b r a t i o n analysis of a n e l a s t i c beam, s i n c e t h e s e form t h e basis f o r f u r t h e r discussion. In this Section, we w i l l a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e v i b r a t i o n s of a system c o n s i s t i n g of two e l a s t i c beams forming a llcrossl*. A f u s e l a g e w i t h a wing i s reduced t o such a system.

1 . Calculation o f Forced Vibrations of a n E l a s t i c Beam by t h e Method of b a n s i o n i n Natural Modes

Let a time-variant load q , d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e beam l e n g t h and varying i n accordance w i t h t h e harmonic l a w

4 (x, t)= q (x)cos p t

( 2 . 1 )

be applied t o a f l e x u r a l l y e l a s t i c i d e a l beam (fig.2.6) without damping, which i s i n a free s t a t e under t h e e f f e c t of a balanced system of t h e - i n v a r i a n t f o r c e s ( t h e f o r c e of r o t o r t h r u s t balances t h e f o r c e of gravity).

yi
I

The equation of lateral flexural vibrat i o n s of such a beam has t h e form

(E/y")"

+ my = q ( x , t).

I=-----"
--L

fig.2.6 Diagram of a Free E l a s t i c Beam under Applicat i o n of a D i s t r i b u t e d Load.

This equation i n p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s was derived i n Subsection 10, S e c t i o n 1 , Chapter I f o r a n e l a s t i c beam i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . I n t h e i r absence (N 5 0), t h e expression t a k e s t h e form of eq.(2.2).

The problem i s t o f i n d t h e motion of t h e beam, i.e., t o f i n d t h e f u n c t i o n y = y ( x , t ) which satisfies eq.(2.2) and t h e boundary conditions which, i n t h e case of a beam w i t h free ends, have t h e form

The functions y(x, t ) s a t i s f y i n g t h e homogeneous equation (without t h e right-hand s i d e )

(Efy")"+my=i~

(2*4)

228

.-I11

I I

and t h e boundary conditions (2.3) correspond t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam. The s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.4) i s sought i n t h e form
y (x, t )=.&)

cos pt.

(2.5)

T h i s expression, after s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t o eq.(2.4), leads t o an ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equation w i t h t h e parameter p f o r determining t h e f u n c t i o n y ( x ) :

/213

(EITP - pzmy=o,

(2.6)

The last equation has s o l u t i o n s d i f f e r e n t from zero only a t c e r t a i n values of t h e parameter p: p = po; p = p l ; p = p 2 ; p = p3, e t c . To each value of p = , 2, 3, .) t h e r e corresponds a c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n y k (x), which = Pk (k = 0, 1 s a t i s f i e s eq.(2.6) a t p = P k , so that

..

F i r s t j u n d a n e n t a l node ,p=o

-.enter F i r s t e l a s t i c node

of g r a v i t y

The O r d e r s O f P k (k = 0, 1 , 2, 3, . . e ) are c a l l e d t h e natural frequencies of t h e beam, w h i l e t h e f u n c t i o n s T , ( x ) a r e designated as t h e corresponding natural v i b r a t i o n modes. The motion of t h e beam according t o t h e

law
Second e l a s t i c node P P t

y (A,
t

4 = a Z (4cos PRt,

(2.8)

where ak i s a constant, i s c a l l e d t h e natur a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e beam w i t h respect t o t h e k-th overtone. The equation

72.4)

e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of t h e homogeneous has t h e form

Fig. 2.7 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Natural V i b r a t i o n Modes of a Fuselage as a Free Beam. ( p : , pz, e t c . are t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e first, second, e t c . e l a s t i c overtones; i n g e n e r a l we can assume: po = = 0 ; p1 = 0, pz = p?;; p3 = p3+ 2 e t c .)

where a , and

(pk

are arbitrary constants.

The methods of f i n d i n g t h e natural frequencies Pk and t h e corresponding modes yk(x) f o r a beam w i t h a given l a w of v a r i a t i o n i n r i g i d i t y E I ( x ) and a l i n e a r mass m(x) are presented i n S e c t i o n 2 of Chapter I.

Thus, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of a beam r e p r e s e n t motion produced as a result of t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t o v e r tones.

229

Figure 2.7 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modes of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a free beam. The two modes correspond t o v i b r a t i o n s of a beam as a s o l i d body and-have natural frequencies equal t o zero. The first of t h e s e modes corresponds t o f o r ward motions of t h e beam, and t h e second t o angular displacement of t h e beam relative t o i t s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y .

A l l formulas derived i n this S e c t i o n are e q u a l l y suitable f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a n e l a s t i c beam w i t h any clamping conditions a t i t s ends. However, when t h e s e formulas are used f o r v i b r a t i o n s of a free beam and p a r t i c u l a r l y of a fuselage, it must be remembered that t h e number of t h e frequencies pk and of t h e modes yk(x) of natural v i b r a t i o n s must i n c l u d e t h e two lower modes which correspond t o fundamental frequencies. Thus, i n a l l formulas it i s necessary t o set po = 0 and p1 = 0 and t o t a k e i n t o ' a c c o u n t that t h e corresponding normed modes have t h e form

where x, i s t h e coordinate of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e beam.

If t h e above modes are not taken i n t o account i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s , t h e v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s W i l l not include v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f u s e l a g e as a s o l i d body, which W i l l lead t o appreciable e r r o r s i n t h e v i b r a t i o n magidtude.

kt us study here t h e problem of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam subjected t o Ln this case, eq.(2.2) t a k e s t h e form a Ifpurely11 harmonic load [see eq.(2.1)].
(E/y")"$-my= q (x)cos pt.
(2.10)

Let us first seek t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of this equation corresponding t o s t e a d y forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam w i t h a frequency p i n t h e form
y =y ( x )cos pt.

(2.11)

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.( 2.10), we a r r i v e a t a n ordinary d i f ( x ) which, of course, i s known f e r e n t i a l equation f o r determining t h e f u n c t i o n ? as t h e mode of forced v i b r a t i o n s :

( Eiy")" - pZmC/=q (x) .

(2.12)

Let us t h e n seek t h e s o l u t i o n of this equation i n t h e form of a n expansion i n natural modes:

If, i n this sum, we t a k e a lirnited number of terms, then, i n determining t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c k , we can o b t a i n only t h e approximate s o l u t i o n s of eq.(2.12). However, it i s p o s s i b l e t o prove t h a t i n t h e method of determix-

230

i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ck given below, t h e approximate s o l u t i o n w i t h a r a t h e r l a r g e number of terms i n t h e series (2.13) can d i f f e r from t h e exact s o l u t i o n as much as d e s i r e d . To f i n d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ck, we s u b s t i t u t e e ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 3 in ) t o eq.(2.12) and, after multiplying both s i d e s of eq.(2.12) by Yn(x), we i n t e g r a t e them from 0 to 1 T h i s w i l l y i e l d t h e equation

The i n t e g r a l s i n t h e first term on t h e left-hand s i d e of this equation can be s i n p l i f i e d by using i n t e g r a t i o n by p a r t s :

but

since t h e functions Furthermore,

y k (x) s a t i s f i e s

t h e boundary conditions (2.3).

By v i r t u e of t h e conditions (2.3), we have

s o that, as a r e s u l t , we o b t a i n

Since a l l f u n c t i o n s & ( x ) ( k = 1 , 2, 3, ...) s a t i s f y eq.(2.7),

we can write

Multiplying t h e f i r s t e q u a t i o n by 7 , and t h e second by Fk, we t h e n subt r a c t one from t h e o t h e r and i n t e g r a t e t h e obtained expression from 0 t o 1. This yields

However, t h e left-hand s i d e of this equation i s e q u a l t o zero by v i r t u e of Therefore, i f only pk # p,, then t h e c o n d i t i o n (2.15).

T h i s i s t h e so-called c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes (see a l s o Chapt . I , Sect .2, Subsect .3).

Furthermore, multiplying both s i d e s of eq.( 2.7) by 0 t o 1, w e o b t a i n

y,, and i n t e g r a t i n g from

Hence, we can conclude that if n

k, t h e n

If n = k, we o b t a i n a n expression f o r t h e frequency p, of t h e n-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s i n terms of i t s mode (x):

F ,

T h i s i s t h e well-known Rayleigh formula.

On t h e basis of conditions ( 2 . z ) and (2.17) we can assert that, i n eq.(2.&), a l l terms f o r which k # n vanish. Taking this i n t o account and maki n g use of eq.(2.l5), we rewrite eq.(2.&) i n t h e form /216
I I

c,
0

EZii2dx- c,p2
0

mzdx=

s
I
0

q&dx.

Dividing both s i d e s of t h e last equation by

0

G , 2 d x , solving it
we f i n d

relative

t o c,,

and using Fkyleighrs formula [eq.(2.18)1,

232

cn=

0.-.
J
0

(2.19)

We t h e n introduce t h e notations:
An

=J qgndx;
0

(2.20)

(2.21) The q u a n t i t y A , r e p r e s e n t s t h e work of t h e e x c i t i n g load q(x) a t t h e mode of t h e n - t h overtone of v i b r a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e q u a n t i t y k , denotes t h e l a r g e s t (during t h e p e r i o d ) value of t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e given overtone of vibrat i o n s r e f e r r e d t o t h e q u a n t i t y p, Thus,

Taking i n t o account e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 3and ) (2.ll), of equation ( 2 . 1 0 ) :

we o b t a i n t h e following s o l u t i o n

From this expression, we can draw c e r t a i n important conclusions.

First, it i s obvious that i f t h e frequency of v a r i a t i o n of t h e e x c i t i n g load p approaches one of t h e frequencies Pk of natural v i b r a t i o n s , then t h e vib r a t i o n amplitude a t any p o i n t of t h e beam i n c r e a s e s without bounds. T h i s i s t h e phenomenon of resonance of a n e x c i t i n g load w i t h t h e k-th overtone of natur a l blade v i b r a t i o n s . Since we do not consider here t h e e f f e c t of damping f o r c e s ( t h i s W i l l be done later on), t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude i n resonance i s unlimited.

Furthermore, i f t h e q u a n t i t y p i s c l o s e t o t h e frequency p n of t h e n - t h overtone of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e term w i t h t h e number n i n t h e sum (2.23) becomes app r e c i a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e o t h e r terms. Therefore, we can assume approximately t h a t , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of resonance (p = p , ) , we have
y (x, t)=

___ - y , (x) cos p t =cn;,

1 A, P ; - P ~ Kn

(x) cos p t ,

meaning t h a t , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of resonance w i t h some overtone of natural vibrat i o n s t h e mode of forced v i b r a t i o n s differs l i t t l e from t h e mode of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e given overtone.

233

Finally, when t h e value of p changes from a n amount .somewhat smaller t h a n /217 p a t o a n amount somewhat l a r g e r t h a n pa, t h e quantity i n t h e b r a c k e t s of formula (2.23) changes sign. Therefore, i f we construct a graph f o r t h e dependence of t h e amplitude yo o f some point- of t h e beam on t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequency p [ f o r a cork s t a n t q(x)l, this graph w i l l have t h e shape Yo s h o w n i n Fig.2.8. The curve of t h e graph has i n f i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a t t h e p o i n t s P = P19 P = P29 P = P39 e t c * 2. Ihmamic R i n i d i t y of a Beam. Resomnce and Antiresonance

I n t h e preceding Subsection, we discussed t h e case of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam subjected t o an e x c i t i n g f o r c e dist r i b u t e d over i t s length, which v a r i e s i n time by t h e harmonic l a w (2.1); t h e derived formulas remain i n f o r c e f o r any l a w of v a r i a t i o n i n load over t h e beam length Fig.2.8 Dependence of Vibration i.e., f o r any form of t h e f u n c t i o n q(xj. Amplitude of any Fuselage Point Therefore, it i s not d i f f i c u l t t o derive, on t h e E x c i t a t i o n Frequency. from t h e s e expressions, formulas f o r determining t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam caused by a concentrated e x c i t i n g f o r c e

F=Fo

COS p t ,

(2.24.)

applied a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t x = xo (Fig.2.9).

In f a c t , l e t t h e load q(x) be applied t o a beam over only a small segment of length A x i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e p o i n t x = xo. I n this case, eqs.(2.22),
(2.20), and (2.21) remain v a l i d , but i n eq.( 2.20) t h e corresponding i n t e g r a l must not be taken over t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e beam 1 but only over a segment Ax, i.e.,

A t a small value of Ax, this i n t e g r a l can be approximately replaced by t h e quantity

where

F, = qdx.
Ax

(2.26)

Equation (2.25) becomes exact a t a n i n f i n i t e l y small Ax, i.e., concentrated e x c i t i n g f o r c e

i n t h e case of a

Thus, we a r r i v e at t h e following conclusions: If t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a /218 beam are caused by a concentrated f o r c e [eq.(2.24)] applied a t t h e p o i n t x = q, t h e n t h e motion of t h e beam i s described as before by eq.(2.23) i n which t h e q u a n t i t y A, i s determined by t h e formula (2.27)

i.e., t h e q u a n t i t y A, r e p r e s e n t s t h e work done by t h e e x c i t i n g load of t h e k-th overtone of vibrations!!.

Itat

t h e mode

't

4 f'fo cos pt
0

Fig.2.9 For Analyzing Forced Vibrations of a Free Beam due t o a Concentrated Force.

Fig.2.10 Diagram of t h e Action of a Longitudinal Force Produced by t h e Rotor and Exerted on a n E l a s t i c Fuselage.

We note that this method of d e f i n i n g t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s holds a l s o i f t h e v i b r a t i o n s are caused by a concentrated bending moment varying by a harmonic l a w

a p p l i e d a t t h e p o i n t x = x0. by t h e formula

I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t y A, should be determined

A R =MOZ N o )

(2.29)

where Fl(xo) i s t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c l i n e a t t h e p o i n t x = corresponding t o t h e mode of t h e k-th overtone.

xo

Lf t h e beam v i b r a t i o n s are caused by a l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e

x=xo COS p t ,

(2.30)

a p p l i e d t o some arm h (Fig.2.10), a l l of t h e derived formulas remain v a l i d since, i n this case, t h e f o r c e X , can be t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e p o i n t A t o t h e corresponding p o i n t B of t h e beam, during which process t h e couple w i t h a moment equal t o M , = &h has been added.

235

The l o n g i t u d i n a l variable f o r c e applied a t t h e p o i n t B i s able t o cause only l o n g i t u d i n a l (axial) v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam, whereas lateral v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam due t o t h e harmonic moment M, are determined i n t h e manner i n d i c a t e d above I n examining l a t e r a l forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam produced by a concentrated f o r c e F = F, cos p t , it i s convenient t o i n t r o d u c e t h e concept of dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e beam a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e x = x,.

Let t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y D(p) of t h e beam at t h e p o i n t x = x , be represented as t h e r a t i o of t h e highest value (amplitude) of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e F, t o t h e amplitude yo = y(xo) of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e , such t h a t
FO D ( p ) =YO

W e have i n mind t h a t , on a v a r i a t i o n i n f o r c e i n accordance w i t h t h e harmonic l a w F = F, cos p t , t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of this f o r c e W i l l execute steady forced v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e law y = cos p t .

To

Thus,' t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of a beam i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p and i s considered p o s i t i v e i f t h e f o r c e and displacement vary i n time Itin phase" and negative i f t h e f o r c e and displacement vary i n llantiphasell. The v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e x = x, can be determined from eq.(2.23):

/219

If we p l o t t h e graph of t h e v a r i a t i o n of To w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e frequency p at a constant value of F,, a curve analogous t o that shown i n Fig.2.8 will be obtained. Therefore, i f we c o n s t r u c t t h e graph of t h e dependence of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y D(p) at t h e given p o i n t of t h e beam as a f u n c t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency, this graph w i l l have t h e form shown i n Fig.2.11.

The d y n a c r i g i d i t y D(p) vanishes a t t h e resonances p = p l , p = pz, etc. and becomes i n f i n i t e a t a l l values of t h e frequency p (p = p12, p = pS3, p = - p3&, e t c . ) at which t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e vanishes. These values of t h e frequency p are known as antiresonance frequencies and are equal t o t h e frequencies of t h e corresponding overtones of natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam w i t h ahinged support a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n . of f o r c e F Actually, l e t us imagine that at t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e F t h e beam has a hinged support ( t h e beam i s not c r o s s c u t at this p o i n t ) s o t h a t this p o i n t of t h e beam remains s t a t i o n a r y during v i b r a t i o n . Such a beam has i t s own n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes. I n t h e presence of natural beam Vibra-

236

Fig.2.11 Graph of Dynamic Bgidity

such forced v i b r a t i o n s , t h e t i o n a r y so t h a t t h e dynamic i s i n f i n i t e . T h i s i s known

t i o n s of a c e r t a i n overtone, a dynamic rea c t i o n Will arise a t the. support x = xo which varies i n t i m e according t o a harmonic l a w w i t h t h e frequency of this overtone. The amplitude (highest value) of this r e a c t i o n f o r c e w i l l depend on t h e amplitude ( o f some p o i n t , f o r example, t h e end) of natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam, which may have any magnitude (depending upon t h e i n i t i a l conditions). Therefore, we can always s e l e c t a beam v i b r a t i o n amp l i t u d e such that t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e amplitude has a p r e s c r i b e d value Foe I f we now imagine t h e support as removed but s t i l l continue t o apply, t o t h e beam a t this p o i n t , t h e f o r c e F varying by a harmonic l a w w i t h t h e same frequency, t h e n t h e f r e e beam Will continue t o v i b r a t e w i t h r e m e c t t o t h e same mode w i t h t h e same amplitide. However, t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s can be regarded as forced v i b r a t i o n s of a free beam under t h e e f f e c t of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e F. With p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e i s star i g i d i t y of t h e beam. corresponding t o this regime as antiresonance.

I n t h e graph of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y ( f i g . 2 . U ) , t h e p o i n t s of resonance D(p) = 0 and antiresonance D(p) = 03 a l t e r n a t e . It can be demonstrated t h a t t h i s i s always so f o r an e l a s t i c beam. Thus, a t a c e r t a i n e x c i t a t i o n frequency, t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e becomes a r r e s t e d , and t h e node of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n will be formed a t this p o i n t . T h i s phenomenon i s c a l l e d antiresonance. The frequency of each antiresonance i s always located between two adjacent natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a f r e e beam. The phenomenon of antiresonance i n "pure for"! can occur only i n i d e a l /220 o s c i l l a t o r y systems without damping. I n t h e presence of damping, t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e i n antiresonance does not vanish. T h i s amplitude w i l l be lower, t h e smaller t h e damping [see, f o r example, t h e paper by Den-Gartog (Ref .19) on a dynamic v i b r a t i o n damper)

3 . b x > l i c a t i o n of the- Method of Q"ic

Analysis of Side-by-Side Helicopters

RiccidiQ to-the Vibration

The concept of dynamic r i g i d i t y i s r a t h e r convenient i n c a l c u l a t i n g o s c i l l a t o r y systems that can be divided i n t o two o r more components, making it easy t o define t h e i r vibrations individually.

ht u s examine a v i b r a t o r y system c o n s i s t i n g of two crossed e l a s t i c beams 1 and 2, shown i n Fig.2.12. A f u s e l a g e With a n e l a s t i c Wing, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r

237

h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side

configuration, r e p r e s e n t s such a system.

It i s necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of this system caused by a variable f o r c e F, varying according t o a harmonic l a w and applied at t h e coupling p o i n t A of t h e beams 1 and 2 ( t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n Will be i n d i c a t e d below f o r t h e case i n which t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s are a p p l i e d a t any p o i n t ) . Using t h e method presented i n Subsections 1and 2, it i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e , f o r each of t h e
beams, t h e f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s produced by c e r t a i n f o r c e s F, and F , applied t o each of t h e s e beam$ a t t h e p o i n t A. I n s o doing, we can f i n d t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of each of t h e beams a t t h e p o i n t A. Let t h e s e dynamic r i g i d i t i e s be D,(p) and D,(p)

Fig.2.12 Diagram of Vibratory System of Two Crossed Beams.

It i s easy t o show that t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y D(p) of t h e e n t i r e system W i l l be equal t o t h e s u m of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t i e s of both beams:

D (PI=Dl (PI + 0 2 (PI

(2.33)

, cos p t a c t i n g on t h e system as a whole will be Actually, t h e f o r c e F = F equal t o t h e sum of t h e f o r c e s F, = F , , cos p t and F , = F , , cos p t a c t i n g on each of t h e beams. However,

where

5,

i s t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t A, i d e n t i c a l f o r both beams.

Conse quent l y,

Thus, t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e system i s easily found by means of eq.(2.33) i f t h e dynamic r i g i d i t i e s of t h e beams 1 and 2 are known. The graph of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y D(p) can be obtained by simple a d d i t i o n of t h e o r d i n a t e s The values of t h e frequency p a t which D(p) = 0 of t h e graphs .D,(p) and & ( p ) . will give t h e values of t h e natural frequencies of t h e system of two beams. T h i s y i e l d s a convenient method f o r determining t h e natural frequencies of t h e syst e m . Since t h e s e frequencies a r e t h e r o o t s of t h e equation

t h e y can be found from t h e c o n d i t i o n

L a

The last equation i s easy t o s o l v e g r a p h i c a l l y by superposition of t h e Theabscissasp,, p2, e t c . graphs of D,(p) and -D,(p), as i s shown i n Fig.2.13. of t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e graphs D,(p) and -D2(p) give t h e values of t h e natural frequencies of t h e system. WPl With this method of c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e syst e m are simultaneously determined. The natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e system, corresponding t o some frequency Pk (k = 1 , 2, ...),Will c o n s i s t of t h e 6 forced v i b r a t i o n modes of each of t h e beams a t this frequency, due t o t h e f o r c e s F,, and FO2. Since, a t n a t u r a l frequencies, Fo=Foi +Fo,=O,

i t follows t h a t
Fig. 2.13 For Determining t h e Natural Frequencies of t h e System by t h e Method of Dynamic Rigidities.
Fol= -F02,

i.e., t h e f o r c e F,, applied t o t h e beam 1 i s equal i n magnitude and opp o s i t e i n s i g n t o t h e f o r c e FO2 applied

The n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of this system can be normed by s e l e c t i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e . For example, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t a s c a l e such t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e beam 1 has a n amplitude equal t o u n i t y a t i t s t i p (x = 1 ) . In this case, t h e corresponding s c a l e of t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e beam 2 should be s e l e c t e d from t h e condition of a v i b r a t i o n amplitude i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e beam 1 a t t h e coupling p o i n t . Having t h e normed natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e system a v a i l a b l e , forced v i b r a t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d from harmonic f o r c e s applied a t any by t h e method of expansion i n normal modes i n t h e same manner as i n t h e a n i s o l a t e d beam. Here, t h e v i b r a t i o n s of both beams are sought i n t h e its point, case of form

where yk(x) i s t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of a given beam corresponding t o t h e normed mode of t h e k-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system (simultaneous v i b r a t i o n s of both beams). The c o e f f i c i e n t s ck are determined i n t h e conventional manner from eq.( 2.22):

where pk i s t h e frecpency of simultaneous v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone of t h e system. 239

The c o e f f i c i e n t s A, and K, are determined by means of t h e following formu-

las :
Ak=FOik(~o).

( R = l , 2, 3,. ..)

(2.37)

T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t r e p r e s e n t s t h e work done by t h e e x c i t i n g load a t t h e mode of t h e k-th overtone of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system. The quantity &(x,) r e p r e s e n t s t h e amplitude of t h e normed v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e k-th overtone of t h e system a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e , . r e g a r d l e s s t o which beam t h e e x c i t a t i o n i s applied [here, yk((x,) i s t a k e n w i t h a Ilplusll s i g n i f t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e and t h e d e f l e c t i o n coincide, and w i t h a l"inus11 s i g n i f t h e di/222 r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e and d e f l e c t i o n do not coincide]:

K k = s my2kdx
for 1st beam

m&x.
for 2nd beam

(2.38)

If v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system are e x c i t e d by s e v e r a l harmonic f o r c e s applied t o d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n s t e a d of by a s i n g l e force, t h e n t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s a r e found by adding t h e v i b r a t i o n s caused by each of t h e f o r c e s s e p a r a t e l y .

Here, we should b r i e f l y ment i o n one of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of exc i t a t i o n by r o t o r s of h e l i c o p t e r s of m u l t i r o t o r configuration. Depending on t h e kirieGatic connection of t h e r o t o r s (over t h e transmiss i o n system), it may happen t h a t v a r i a b l e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s produced by d i f f e r e n t rotors vary i n t i m e i n phase o r i n antiphase. For example, i f t h e r o t o r s of a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r are s o coupled t h a t t h e blades of both r o t o r s simultaneousoccupy analogous p o s i t i o n s ( f o r example, extreme forward p o s i t i o n as shown i n t h e diagram A of Fig.2.&), t h e f o r c e s e x e r t e d on Fig.2.a For Analysis of Vibrations both r o t o r s simultaneously a t t a i n of Side-by-Side Helicopter. maxi"axim and minimum values - t h e y w i l l vary i n phase. If t h e r o t o r s are coupled as shown i n t h e diagram B, then- t h e e x c i t i n g loads from both r o t o r s vary i n antiphase. I n case A, t h e e x c i t i n g loads from both r o t o r s w i l l cause only symmetric modes of simultaneous v i b r a t i o n s of t h e fuselage-wing system Since, i n t h e whereas, i n case B, only skew-symmetric modes occur (Fig.2.15). c a s e of skew-symmetric v i b r a t i o n s , t h e r e are no v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e fusel a g e p o i n t s f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configuration, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o

Sk ew- s y m m e t r i c
modes

s y mm e t r i c
modes

connect t h e r o t o r s as shown i n t h e diagram 13 ( F i g . 2 . a ) . Analogous considerat i o n can be made w i t h r e s p e c t t o tandem helicopters.

I

I
I .

i
Fig.2.15 Natural V i b r a t i o n Modes of a Wing-Fuselage System i n a Side-by-Side Helicopter.

O f course, i n s o l v i n g t h e problem of t h e most suitable mutual arrangement of /223 r o t o r s i t i s a l s o necessary t o consider t h e s p e c i f i c values of natural frequenc i e s of various overtones of t h e fuselage and t o examine, along w i t h f u s e l a g e Vib r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry, latera 1 v i b r a t i o n s ; this w i l l . be discussed f u r t h e r i n Section 3.

4 . . Method. .of.Auxiliary

Mass

To determine t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s by t h e method proposed i n Subsection 2, r e s u l t s from a natural v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s of t h e f u s e l a g e are required. I n this case, t h e amplitude of forced v i b r a t i o n of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of force, needed f o r determining t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s , i s deterrrined by means of eq.( 2.32) as a n expansion i n natural modes. However, whenever it i s p o s s i b l e t o program t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of natural frequencies on a d i g i t a l computer s o t h a t this calcul a t i o n W i l l t a k e l i t t l e t i m e , we can recommend t h e so-called method of a u x i l i a r y m a s s f o r determining t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e f u s e l a g e a t a given p o i n t . I n this method, t h e natural f u s e l a g e frequency i s c a l c u l a t e d under attachment of a n a u x i l i a r y mass Dm t o t h e p o i n t a t which t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s i s t o be determined. The c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed f o r d i f f e r e n t values of Am, and i t s r e s u l t s are used f o r p l o t t i n g t h e graph Am(p) of t h e dependence of Dm on t h e natural frequencies of d i f f e r e n t overtones.
C G ko

Fig.2.LS Typical Dependence of A w d l i a r y Mass of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage (or DynamicStiffness) a t t h e Point of Rotor Attachm e n t on t h e & c i t a t i o n Frequency.

Figure 2 . 1 5 g i v e s a n example of such a graph f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r . I n this diagram, t h e weight of t h e extra mass AG = gAm i s l a i d o f f on t h e o r d i nate.

It i s easy t o show that this graph, t o some degree, can completely r e p l a c e t h e graph D(p) i n Fig.2.11. I n f a c t , f o r natural Vibrations of a beam w i t h a n auxiliary mass Am a t a frequency p, t h e beam Will be loaded by t h e correspondi n g a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e of i n e r t i a whose amplitude i s

F , =Amp2y0,

(2.39)

where yo i s t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t t h e p o i n t of attachment of t h e auxiliary mass. The f o r c e of i n e r t i a Fo a t t h e i n s t a n t equiklbrium p o s i t i o n i s d i r e c t e d toward t h e s p r i n g attached t o a beam w i t h a s t i f f n e s s p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d e f l e c t i o n yo and d i r e c t e d responds t o negative values of Am. of maxi" d e f l e c t i o n from t h e

same s i d e as t h e d e f l e c t i o n yo. A I c1 = I A m p 2 ] , producing a f o r c e proopposite t o this d e f l e c t i o n , cor-

/224.

O f course, e x a c t l y t h e same v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam can be obtained without a n a u x i l i a r y mass, but t h e s e are forced v i b r a t i o n s produced by t h e a c t i o n of a harmonic f o r c e of t h e same amplitude Fo and varying with t h e same frequency p.

The dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e beam i s determined by means of t h e formula

FO . D ( p ) =YO

Comparing this expression w i t h eq.(2.39),

we f i n d

On t h e basis of this formula, it i s easy t o c o n s t r u c t t h e graph of t h e dependence D(p), s i n c e we have t h e dependence Am(p) a t our d i s p o s a l . However, this need not be done and t h e graph Am(p) o r AG(p) can be used d i r e c t l y . For example, t o determine t h e natural fuselage frequencies of a side-by-side conf i g u r a t i o n , we can l o c a t e t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e graphs AG,(p) and -AG,(p) i n s t e a d of t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n on t h e graph D,(p) and -D,(p) ( s e e ~ig.2.13).

5. E f f e c t of D a m p i n g Forces. V i b r a t i o - q a t Resonance
The t h e o r y presented above and t h e r e s u l t a n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n are based on t h e assumption t h a t t h e beam i s p e r f e c t l y e l a s t i c and that damping f o r c e s are absent. AS f o r any o t h e r O s c i U a t o r y system, a v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s of a beam f a r from resonance need not t a k e t h e damping f o r c e s i n t o account; this does not lead t o l a r g e e r r o r s . However, a v i b r a t i o n analysis of a beam c l o s e t o resonance or a c t u a l l y i n

242

resonance requires allowance f o r t h e damping forces, s i n c e t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude at resonance is d e t e e n e d e x c l u s i v e l y by t h e presence of damping and since, i f absence of damping i s assumed, t h e amplitude at resonance becomes unbounded. Damping f o r c e s during v i b r a t i o n s of an e l a s t i c beam are generated mainly as a consequence of f r i c t i o n between s t r u c t u r a l elements of t h e beam during i t s deformations and a l s o as a consequence of so-called i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n i n t h e beam material which, f o r a composite beam, i s e n e r a l l y n e g l i g i b l e i n comparison w i t h t h e f r i c t i o n between s t r u c t u r a l elements The equation of flexural v i b r a t i o n s of a beam i n t h e presence of damping can be derived by assuming that t h e bending moment M i n t h e beam s e c t i o n i s prop o r t i o n a l t o i t s curvature

a 2Y ( i n accordance
a x2

w i t h Hookets law) and t o t h e

time rate of change of curvature, s o t h a t we can write

where 7\ i s some c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e danping p r o p e r t i e s of t h e beam a t a given c r o s s section, which i s assumed t o be a given f u n c t i o n of t h e x-coord i n a t e. Using t h e known r e l a t i o n s h i p :

/225

where @-(x, t ) i s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e l a t e r a l load applied t o t h e beam, and t a k i n g i n t o account t h a t this load, during v i b r a t i o n , i s composed of t h e external e x c i t i n g load q(x, t ) and t h e l o a d due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s , so t h a t
9" (x,t)=q

(x, t )- m z 02.Y
at2

'

t h e n eq.( 2.41) w i l l y i e l d t h e f o l - l k n g p a d i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation describing l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a beam w i t h damping:

factor

This equation d i f f e r s from eq.(2.2) only by t h e presence of a term w i t h a 7 ; i f 7 = 0, i t w i l l coincide w i t h eq.( 2.2).

If q(x, t ) = 0, we o b t a i n a n e c p a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e natural Yibration of a beam i n t h e presence of damping:

243

The exact s o l u t i o n of this equation i s r a t h e r complex. However, a t relat i v e l y weak damping, a simple approximate s o l u t i o n can be used. Such a n approxh a t e s o l u t i o n of this equation, corresponding t o n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a beam with r e s p e c t t o t h e k-th overtone, can be found by asswning

y =Y,

(XI e h k t

(2.44)

where yk(x) i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e k-th overtone of t h e beam i n t h e absence of damping.

this s o l u t i o n i n t o eq.(2.43), canceling t h e f a c t o r & k t , mulSubstituti t i p l y i n g by yk(x , i n t e g r a t i n g t h e equation w i t h i n t h e i n t e r v a l 0 t o 1, and t a k i n g e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 7and ) (2.18) i n t o account, we o b t a i n t h e following equation f o r determining h k :

i2,+2nkhk+

pi=o,

(2.45)

where

The r o o t s of this equation W i l l be

where

Pk * =l / p ;
Accordingly, we can write eq.(2.44)

-n ;

i n t h e form

i.e., t h e q u a n t i t y n , r e p r e s e n t s t h e d q i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone w h i l e p r r e p r e s e n t s t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e k-th overtone i n t h e presence of damping.

W e can show t h a t such a n approximate s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.43) w i l l d i f f e r /226 less from t h e exact s o l u t i o n t h e smaller - i n comparison w i t h u n i t y - t h e dimens i o n l e s s c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e k-th overtone determinable by t h e formula

- nk nk=-.
Pk

T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t i s one of t h e most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e given overtone and can be determined experimentally, e i t h e r by a n a l y s i s of t h e oscillogram of damped v i b r a t i o n s of t h e given overtone or by applying t h e

r e s u l t s of measuring t h e f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e beam under t h e e f f e c t of a v i b r a t o r ( t o be discussed below).

For a conventional f u s e l a g e ( r i v e t e d fuselage w i t h duralumin s k i n ) t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s ?ik of d i f f e r e n t overtones are l o c a t e d w i t h i n limits of 0.02 t o 0.05. These are r a t h e r small values of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t , i n whose presence t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e k-th overtone can be considered equal t o t h e frequency c a l c u l a t e d without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of damping, s i n c e p z =
= Pk

,Jm.

his c o r r e c t i o n i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i n d i c a t e d values of

iik.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam w i t h damping, described by eq.(2.42), it i s p r e f e r a b l e i n . v i e w of t h e weak damping t o use a n approximate method based on t h e f a c t that damping i s completely disregarded f a r from resonance whereas, c l o s e t o resonance, a n approximake s o l u t i o n i s obtained on t h e assumption that t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode near resonance of t h e k-th overtone, j u s t as i n t h e case of absence of damping, i s c l o s e t o t h e natural vibrat i o n mode of t h e given overtone.

I n t h e presence of damping, t h e equation of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam under t h e e f f e c t of a harmonic load

i s conveniently w r i t t e n i n t h e cofqlex form

Since t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e right-hand s i d e of this equation coincides w i t h eq.(2.51), t h e a c t u a l motion of t h e beam i s described, i n v i e w of t h e l i n e a r i t y of t h e s o l u t i o n , by t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e complex s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.52). Close t o resonance w i t h t h e k-th overtone of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s , t h e s o l u t i o n of this equation i n conformity w i t h t h e above considerations i s best sought i n t h e f o r m
y ( x , t )=ck& ( x ) eipt,

(2.53)

where yk(x), as usual, i s t h e mode of t h e k-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e absence of damping.

bt us s u b s t i t u t e t K s expression i n t o eq.( 2.52). We t h e n multiply both s i d e s of eq.( 2.52) by T k (x) and i n t e g r a t e from o t o t Transforming t h e obt a i n e d i n t e g r a l s and t a k i n g eqs.(2.17) and (2.18) as well as eq.(2.46) i n t o account, we o b t a i n t h e following equation f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ck:

where A, and Kk are as u s u a l determined from eqs.(2.X))

and (2.21).

Hence,

The modulus of t h e complex q u a n t i t y ck determines t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude:/227

w h i l e t h e argument c k

load determines t h e phase of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e x c i t i ~n t h e presence of resonance, t h e value of ck [see eq.(2.581 be[eq.(2.51)1. comes p u r e l y imaginary:

This means that, at resonance, t h e phase angle between t h e e x c i t i n g load and t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam i s equal t o n/2. I n t h i s case, as i s r e a d i l y v e r i f i e d by d i r e c t s u - b s t i t u t i o n i n t o t h e equation, t h e v i b r a t i o n s Will t a k e p l a c e i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w
y ( x , t ) =;&yk
where
(x)sin p t ,

(2.57)

Thus, t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t resonance i s completely determined by t h e value iik of t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e k-th overtone. T h i s can be used f o r a n experimental determination of &. If v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam are exci.ted by means of a v i b r a t o r , i.e., by a given concentrated f o r c e F = F , cos p t applied a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t x = xo, and i f t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude yo at resonance (p = Pk) i s measured at t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e , i t becomes Here A, w i l l be determined by eq.(2.27) and t h e easy t o f i n d t h e q u a n t i t y ?ik. q u a n t i t y yo, by t h e formula
Y O = k y k
(xO)
*

Therefore, t a k i n g account of eq.(2.58),

we f i n d

or (2.59)

246

where t h e q u a n t i t y mk, which we can c a l l t h e mass of t h e k-th overtone reduced t o t h e p o i n t x = xo, i s determined by t h e formula
1 -

mk= my: dx.

0

(2.60)

Here,
(2.61) The value of t h e reduced mass mk i s determined with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t i t can a l s o be determined experimentally by measuring t h e natur a l v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e beam a t resonance w i t h t h e k-th overtone. When d e s i r i n g t o make a pre-estimate of t h e - E t u d e a t resonance f o r a /2;?8 f u s e l a g e s t i l l on t h e drawing board and not y e t given over t o manufacture, it i s p o s s i b l e t o use eq.(2.58), using f o r E , t h e values known from some o t h e r fusek g e of similar design, s i n c e t h e values of i i k f o r similar designs d i f f e r l i t t l e . S e c t i o n 3. Vibration Analysis w i t h Consideration of Fuselage Characteristics

1 .F uselage - Charactgr-stics

lateral and Vert.i.cal Vibrations

In t h e preceding Section, methods were proposed f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a fuselage as a n e l a s t i c beam ( O r as a system of two crossed beams f o r a side-by-side configuration) f o r which t h e dimensions of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s w e r e small i n comp a r i s o n w i t h t h e length. I n many cases, such a method of c a l c u l a t i o n gives completely s a t i s f a c t o r y res u l t s . However, i n some cases when t h e f u s e l a g e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r has c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d i f f e r g r e a t l y from those of t h e model of a n e l a s t i c beam, more complicated c a l c u l a t i o n s y s t e m are involved. Fig. 2.17 For Reducing t h e V i b r a t i o n The fuselage designs of various Problem of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage t o t h e types of h e l i c o p t e r s ( s i n g l e - r o t o r , V i b r a t i o n Problem of a n E l a s t i c Beam. side-by-side configurations, tandem configuration) vary widely. Therefore, i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e any g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e method of calculat i o n which would permit a s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s of f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s generated by c e r t a i n f o r c e s .
Each new f u s e l a g e design may n e c e s s i t a t e s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s . T h i s problem might become r a t h e r complicated. However, i n a l l cases t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n should be based on g e n e r a l p r i c i p l e s of t h e theory of v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c systems. The design engineer who

.. . .

,I

has t h e f u n c t i o n of making v i b r a t i o n analyses of new configurations f o r helicopter p r o t o t y p e s should be s o versed i n t h e s e g e n e r a l methods as t o be a b l e t o modify each computational system t o f i t each new problem. Therefore, t h e mat e r i a l i n this Chapter is presented i n a manner t o demonstrate t h e essence of t h e most important methods used i n v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s . For example, t h e method of expansion i n natural modes, t h e method of dynanic r i g i d i t y , t h e concept of resonance and antiresonance are not only a p p l i c a b l e t o a n e l a s t i c beam o r t o a system of two crossed beams b u t a l s o t o any o t h e r more complicated v i b r a t o r y syst e m . These methods were presented i n t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a beam since, on t h e one hand, it i s easiest t o demonstrate them f o r this example and, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e method of c a l c u l a t i n g v i b r a t i o n s of a beam i s o f t e n a p p l i c a b l e t o f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n analyses without modification. To i l l u s t r a t e c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a real fuselage, l e t us t u r n t o Fig.2.17 which schematically shows t h e f u s e l a g e of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r . T h i s f u s e l a g e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f a c t that i t s f l e x u r a l a x i s i s a broken l i n e , t h a t t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e f u s e l a g e compartments do not l i e on t h e flexural axis, and that each fuselage compartment i s a body a l l of whose measurements are of t h e same order s o that, i n c a l c u l a t i n g v i b r a t i o n s , not only t h e /229 mass of t h e compartment but a l s o i t s moments of i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o a l l three axes must be taken i n t o conside r a t i o n . Calculations show that, i n determining t h e lower harmonic of flexural v i b r a t i o n s of such a f u s e l a g e both i n t h e p l a n e xOy ( v e r t i c a l vibrat i o n s ) and i n t h e p l a n e xOz ( l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s ) , we can o b t a i n completely s a t i s f a c t o r y results i f we conceive t h e f u s e l a g e as a t h i n e l a s t i c beam w i t h a r e c t i l i n e a r axis. Fig.2.18 Design Model f o r Vibration Analysis of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage. If, i n t h e v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s , we l i m i t ourselves t o a study of vibrat i o n s of t h e f u s e l a g e as a s o l i d body and t a k e i n t o account only t h e lower e l a s t i c mode ( t h e first three modes i n Fig.2.7), t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s of a f u s e l a g e as a t h i n beam w i t h a rect i l i n e a r a x i s gives s a t i s f a c t o r y results. However, i f t h e second e l a s t i c mode has a frequency c l o s e t o t h e frecpency of t h e fundamental harmonic of t h e r o t o r zw (and this i s o f t e n the case), this t y p e of c a l c u l a t i o n may l e a d t o cert a i n e r r o r s . I n v i b r a t i o n analyses of t h e cockpit ( a t t h e f u s e l a g e nose) t h e e r r o r may be i n s i g n i f i c a n t w h i l e t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes i n t h e region of t h e tail boom may d i f f e r g r e a t l y f r o m t h e real values. To i n c r e a s e t h e accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e v i b r a t i o n s must be determined w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l a r g e number of e l a s t i c overtones (second and t h i r d ) . However, a s u f f i c i e n t l y accur a t e determination of t h e second e l a s t i c mode now involves a complication of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n model An appreciable refinement of t h e c a l c u l a t e d results can be obtained by using The f u s e l a g e here i s replaced by a n e l a s t i c t h e design model shown i n Fig.2.18. beam w i t h a r e c t i l i n e a r axis, t o which i n d i v i d u a l loads 1 , 2, 3, e t c . are attached. The c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of each load i s a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e 4 from

248

t h e beam axis. For each load, we a s s i g n i t s mass m, and moments of i n e r t i a I, and I, w i t h r e s p e c t t o axes p a r a l l e l t o t h e axes Ox and Oz and passing through t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load. For each segment of t h e e l a s t i c beam between t h e loads k and k + 1 , we p r e s c r i b e t h e flexural r i g i d i t i e s EI, and EIE i n both p l a n e s xOz and xOy and t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y GI,.

Natural Vibration Modes of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage Fig.2.19 of a Single-Rotor Helicopter i n t h e Plane of Symmetry.

For this design model, t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s ( i n t h e plane X O Z ) represent simultaneous f l e x u r a l and t o r s i o n a l ( b i n a r y ) v i b r a t i o n s . The frequencies and modes of t h e n a t u r a l binary v i b r a t i o n s of such a system can be c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method proposed i n S e c t i o n 6 of Chapter I ( s e e Fig.l.19) as applied t o a r o t o r blade. I n this case, it must be assumed that t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e N = 0, t h a t t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l l i n e s c,,, = 0, as w e l l as that EXy(0) = 0 and
(EI)
T h i s corresponds t o t h e f a c t that t h e l e f t end of t h e be& i s not

clamped. The quarrtity x , . ~i n t h e blade c a l c u l a t i o n must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e values of s t a g g e r s h k .

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e forced l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of this system, t h e method of expansion i n natural modes ( b i n a r y ) can be used. I n this case, a l l formulas of S e c t i o n 2 of this Chapter are a p p l i c a b l e i n which t h e q u a n t i t y A, means t h e work done by t h e e x c i t i n g load a t t h e normed mode of a given harmonic and t h e quant i t y K, r e p r e s e n t s t h e k i n e t i c energy of a given harmonic r e f e r r e d t o t h e square of i t s frequency pg. Figure 2.19 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modes of n a t u r a l , /230 l a t e r a l binary v i b r a t i o n s of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .
The c a l c u l a t i o n method and model given i n Fig.2.18 can be used f o r a n analy-

sis of v e r t i c a l binary v i b r a t i o n s of t h e wing of a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r w i t h I f t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e pods have a wing-tip engine pods (Fig.2.x)). l a r g e o f f s e t h, t h e v i b r a t i o n analysis of such a wing cannot t a k e only i s o l a t e d flexural v i b r a t i o n s i n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n but m u s t allow a l s o
f o r simultaneous binary v i b r a t i o n s .
A c a l c u l a t i o n of synchronous v i b r a t i o n s of

249

t h e fuselage-wing system i n this case requires t h e method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s . The design model best simulating a n a c t u a l h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e obviously i s Here, t h e flexural a x i s of t h e beam i s given as a cert a i n discontinuous l i n e . The angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e k-th segment of this o f f s e t l i n e i s denoted as t h e angle cdkm Such a d e s i g n model s a t i s f a c t o r i l y ref l e c t s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of any f u s e l a g e having a p l a n e of symnetry xOy. For a fuselage w i t h such a p l a n e of symnetry, a s e p a r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n can be made of t h e v e r t i c a l flexural v i b r a t i o n s ( o r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry) and t h e lateral binary v i b r a t i o n s .

that shown i n Fig.2.21.

Fig.2.20 Diagram of Engine Pod w i t h Large Offset.

Fig.2.21 Design Model f o r Calculating Vibrations of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage w i t h a Discontinuous F l e x u r a l Axis.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v e r t x c a l v i b r a t i o n s f o r each load, three degrees of freedom must be t a k e n i n t o consideration: displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load along t h e axis Ox; displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load along t h e a x i s Oy; r o t a t i o n of t h e load r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i s Oz.

/231

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l a t e r a l b i n a r y v i b r a t i o n s f o r each load, three degrees of freedom must a g a i n be taken i n t o account: displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load along t h e a x i s O z ; r o t a t i o n about t h e a x i s Ox; r o t a t i o n about t h e axis Oy.
Calculation of v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of such a system i s discussed i n t h e e W i l l a b 0 i u u s t r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e so-called methods Subsection below. W of r e s i d u e s f o r v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s , which o f t e n i s r a t h e r convenient t o use. The c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of such a system i s not discussed here since, for c a l c u l a t i n g lateral binary v i b r a t i o n s , r a t h e r s a t i s f a c t o r y reIt should be sults can be obtained by using t h e design model shown i n Fig.2.18. noted t h a t , f o r t h e system shown i n Fig.2.21, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t e r a l binary v i b r a t i o n s could a l s o be c a r r i e d out by t h e method of r e s i d u e s .

250

2 . Calculation of Fuselage Vibrations i n t h e Plane-pf Symnetm by theeMethod of Residues

Let a two-dimensional e l a s t i c system, depicted i n F i g . 2 . 2 1 , execute steady forced v i b r a t i o n s i n i t s own p l a n e xoy under t h e e f f e c t of a harmonic e x c i t i n g load c o n s i s t i n g of f o r c e s and moments

a p p l i e d t o each load (Fig.2.22). During s t e a d y v i b r a t i o n , a l l p o i n t s of t h e system will execute harmonic y, and 9 v i b r a t i o n s with a n e x c i t a t i o n frequency p so that, i f we denote by r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e displacements of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c of t h e load along t h e axes Ox and Oy and t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e load r e l a t i v e t o i t s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , t h e n we can express t h e k-th load by

x,

Let us t h e n e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i o n s connecting t h e f o r c e s applied t o t h e loads w i t h t h e deformation of t h e beam segments. We W i l l consider t h e f o r c e s and deformations only f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e system corresponding t o t h e m a x i mum d e v i a t i o n from t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibrium ($.e., we w i l l study only amplitudes of f o r c e s and deformations). We t h e n c o n s t r u c t t h e equations of equilibr i u m f o r t h e k-th load (Fig.2.53). To t h e load, t h e following are applied: e x t e r n a l f o r c e s p i x , Pky ME (applied a t p o i n t A ) ; i n e r t i a f o r c e s of t h e load m,$'gk; m k p 2 y k ; Ikp29k (applied a t p o i n t c ) ; f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e load from t h e sewed of t h e beam t o t h e l e f t of

f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e load from t h e beam segment t o t h e r i g h t of it:

'k,
yk9

it:

Yk--l,

1232

Mk

The equations of equilibrium of t h e load are w r i t t e n i n t h e form

The p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n s of f o r c e s and displacements are i n d i c a t e d i n F i g s . 2 . 2 2 , 2 . 2 3 , and 2 . 2 4 . The q u a n t i t y I, r e p r e s e n t s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e external e x c i t i n g f o r c e s P i x t o t h e p o i n t of attach-

251

ment of t h e load t o t h e e l a s t i c beam. From t h e c o n d i t i o n of equilibrium of a s e c t i o n of t h e beam'(Fig.2.Zh) have

M;=Mk

we

fY k l k cos a k -

xklk

Sin a k .

(3.6)

To study t h e deformations, l e t us t u r n t o Fig.2.2& which shows t h e k-th s e c t i o n of a n e l a s t i c beam AkBk i n a p o s i t i o n of equilibrium and t h e same sect i o n i n a displaced p o s i t i o n ALBL Let t h e quantities x k ) y X k + l and yk+ be t h e displacement of t h e p o i n t A, and Bk (ends of t h e section), and l e t 9, and 8 k + l be t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of a tangent t o t h e e l a s t i c a x i s on t h e l e f t and , be t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e beam at t h e k-th secr i g h t ends. Furthermore, l e t 6 t i o n , i.e., t h e displacement of t h e r i g h t end of t h e beam ( p o i n t B k ) i n a dir e c t i o n perpendicular AkBk r e l a t i v e t o t h e tangent t o t h e e l a s t i c axis a t t h e l e f t end ( p o i n t A k ) . Then we can write

where 1 , and cyk are, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e l e n g t h and angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e k-th s e c t i o n of t h e beam (F'ig.2.24).

kLK'
x

Fig.2.22

Polygon of Forces Acting on a S e c t i o n of t h e E l a s t i c Fuselage Model.

252

Fig.2.23 Polygon of Forces Applied t o k-th Element of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage Model.

Fig.2.24 Polygon of Forces Applied t o a S e c t i o n of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage Model.

Applying t h e u s u a l methods of s t r e n g t h of m a t e r i a l s , we f i n d t h e following equations c o r r e l a t i n g t h e f o r c e s and deformations:

The d i s p h c e m e n t s of t h e beam p o i n t s x , and y k are r e l a t e d with t h e centerof-gravity displacements of t h e loads by t h e evident formulas

The recurrence formulas (3.3), (3.4), (3.5), and (3.7), t o g e t h e r w i t h (3.9), (S.lO), and ( 3 . U ) and if t h e f o r c e s and displacements of t h e k-th load are known, make it p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e f o r c e s and displacements of t h e ( k + l ) - t h load. Using t h e s e formulas, we can s o l v e t h e problem by t h e r1chai.n method", as follows: After a s s i g n i n g t h e amplitudes %yo and 9, a t t h e l e f t end of t h e beam, it becomes p o s s i b l e t o determine, successively passing from s e c t i o n t o s e c t i o n , t h e *Etudes a d f o r c e s at t h e extreme r i g h t end of I f t h e beam t h e beam, expressing them i n terms of t h e quanrtities xo, yo, 9,. has n loads, we can t h u s determine t h e q u a n t i t i e s X,, Y,, and M, a t t h e r i g h t

eg.(3.8),

253

end o r t h e f l r e s i d u a l l ~ . However, s i n c e t h e r i g h t end of t h e beam i s free, t h e ~lresidualllshould be equal t o zero, %.e., a t t h e r i g h t end of t h e beam t h e conditions

Xn=
should be s a t i s f i e d .

Yn=

M,=O

These conditions r e p r e s e n t a system of three equations f o r determining t h e unknowns xo, yo, zY0, i n terms of which we had a l r e a d y expressed t h e v i b r a t i o n anrplitudes and t h e f o r c e s on a l l loads of t h e beam.

T h i s method of c a l c u h t i n g t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of a system (Fig.2.21) i s completely analogous t o t h e well-known method of ItresiduesII (Tolle method), A used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of multidisk systems (Ref.20). similar method i s used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g flexural v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c beams. I n t h e American and English l i t e r a t u r e such a method i s known as Myklestadts method (Ref.33, 34). T h i s method permits: 1) f i n d i n g t h e curve of dynamic s t i f f n e s s (Fig.2.l.l) of a system at any p o i n t and i n any d i r e c t i o n by c a l c u l a t i n g vibrat i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t values of p; 2) f i n d i n g t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes of a system from a n a n a l y s i s of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system c l o s e t o resonance, when t h e forced v i b r a t i o n amplitudes i n c r e a s e without bounds.
T h i s method i s e s p e c i a l l y convenient when using e l e c t r o n i c c o q u t e r s , without which it i s p r e s e n t l y impossible t o conduct dynamic c a l c u l a t i o n i n t h e necessary volume.
For a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of this method it i s convenient t o express t h e f o r c e s and displacements at t h e k-th s e c t i o n i n terms of t h e values of xo, yo, and t o g i v e 6, i n t h e form

where Ai, BC, e t c . are c o e f f i c i e n t s . When c a l c u l a t i n g by t h e llchainff method, t h e values of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e k-th s e c t i o n must be used f o r determining t h e i r values f o r t h e ( k + l ) - t h s e c t i o n . Using recurrence formulas f o r f o r c e s and displacements, i t i s easy t o construct recurrence formulas f o r t h e corresponding c o e f f i c i e n t s . The followi n g formulas are obtained i n this manner:
9 . 9 9 9. For t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, Bk, c k , and D,, we have

254

6 6 6 For t h e q u a n t i t i e s B,, Ck, and D,, analogous formulas a r e obtained by replacing t h e q u a n t i t i e s A by B, C, and D, r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s p e r t a i n s a l s o t o t h e f o l lowing formulas [eqs.(3.14.) and (3.1511.
For t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

A i , B i , CgandDg:
sin ak AAf - I: sin ahcos ak A:$ 2EIk 6EIk

A:,.= A i - 1:

'

+6EIR Af--l,sin
For the c o e f f i c i e n t s cos

1isin2 ak

akAB,.

A i , B$, C{ andD$:
l2 ah +R A f + 6EIk A i 2EIk sin A: +I , cos a, A:. 6EIh
13,cos2 a k
ak

A{+,=,A{

- I:
For the C o e f f i c i e n t s

cos nk

A f , B f , . cf a d 0::

A f =A$-l

+mkp2A: -mkp2f1,AD,f Pl,;

I
and

Of:

The formulas f o r C," and DC are obtained from t h e last equation on replaci n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s B by t h e q u a n t i t i e s C and D, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
25 5

The derived formulas permit determining t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s at t h e next s e c t i o n from t h e i r known values i n t h e previous s e c t i o n . Thus, moving from s e c t i o n t o s e c t i o n o r from s t a t i o n t o s t a t i o n from l e f t t o r i g h t , t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t t h e r i g h t Ymm 0 . UL end of t h e beam a r e determined. On t h e r i g h t (free) end ( k = n), t h e conditions
-402

-005

+ B~xO -/- C:LJ, +Df80=0; u,,=A,Y+ B , Y X ~ + - C ~ ~ ~ + D , Y ~ ~ = O ; (3 *22) M, A t + Bfxo +CFyo+D f 8 , =O

X,, =A :
-

-0.10

-012

should be s a t i s f i e d .
I

-a.w

Solving this system, we f i n d t h e values of k, yo, and 9, of i n t e r e s t here :

A

Fig.2.25 Forced Vibration Mode of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage of a SingleRotor Helicopter Obtained by t h e Met hod of Residues

xo=*
Ah

(3.23)

where

Axo, Ayo, A g

A = determinant of t h e system (3.22); = determinants obtained f r o m t h e determinant A by r e p l a c i n g t h e corresponding column by t h e free terms of t h e equations.

Knowing t h e q u a n t i t i e s xo, yo, and 9, permits finding, by means of eqs.(3.l2), t h e displacements and f o r c e s a c t i n g i n each c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e beam. f i g u r e 2.25 shows t h e mode of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a single-rotor helicopter, determined by t h e i n d i c a t e d method. The v i b r a t i o n mode i n this case represented by three graphs: xk(x), y k ( x ) , and 8k(x). should

/236

Table 2.1 g i v e s t h e i n i t i a l d a t a f o r t h e performed c a l c u l a t i o n .

The forced Vibrations were c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e follawing f o r c e s applied t o t h e r o t o r hub (load No.3) :

P&. =0.05G;
where G i s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight.

P&,= 0.03G;

Mi =O,

256

Table 2.1

I ! - I I 12.4 1.13.7

1 I 1
15.1 16.7

9 / 1 0 18.4

-0.02:

I k (1
.. .
~

0.00155 0.00G6

0.0068

0.207

0,0015 0.00042 O.ooO28 O.OOU17 O.oW13

1.0

ak

One of t h e v i r t u e s of this method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h a t , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g forced v i b r a t i o n s it i s not necessary t o perform a preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes of t h e system. Furthermore, i n such a c a l c u l a t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t values of frequencies p, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o construct a graph of t h e dynamicstiffness of t h e system D(p) a t any p o i n t and a l s o t o & ? J f i n d a l l natural v i b r a t i o n frequenc i e s and modes. Figure 2.26 pres e n t s t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e graph of dyrm&c s t i f f n e s s -600 f o r t h e same system, given i n -400 Table 2.1 f o r forced Pgy The -2RG k f o r which D(p) = 0 give values of P t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of 0 in t h e system, w h i l e t h e mode of forced 200 v i b r a t i o n s a t a value of p c l o s e t o any of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n f r e 403 600 , 2, 3 , ...) quencies Pk (k = 1 gives, w i t h any d e s i r e d degree of accuracy, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode Fig.2.26 Curve of Dynamic Fuselage of this overtone. The modes of t h e S t i f f n e s s , Obtained by t h e Method of first three harmonics f o r t h e exResidues. amined system obtained i n this manner are shown i n Fig.2.27.

We note i n conclusion t h a t t h e method of Vesiduesll presented here requires performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h a very high accuracy ( a t least f o u r o r f i v e sign i f i c a n t d i g i t s ) . T h i s makes t h e above method u n s u i t a b l e i n p r a c t i c e f o r a /;?38 keyboard c a l c u l a t o r . However, as a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , v i b r a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e required volume can g e n e r a l l y be performed only on high-speed computers f o r which t h e i n d i c a t e d accuracy i s comnon.

257

x; v

p,=o

p2=o
xi y

ps pJ 192Ocqc/min

10

-5
x ;y
5

Fig 2.27 Natural Vibration Modes of t h e Three Lower Overtones of a Single-Rotor Helicopter Fuselage, Obtained by t h e Method of Residues.

3. Consideration of t h e Effect of S h e a r i w Deformation

A l l above-described methods of v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s f o r a f u s e l a g e were based on t h e use p f conventional r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e s t r e n g t h of materials f o r bendi n g of a t h i n beam. These r e l a t i o n s t a k e i n t o account only t e n s i l e and compress i v e deformation of t h e f i b e r s of t h e beam m a t e r i a l and d i s r e g a r d s h e a r deformat i o n . Furthermore, a consideration of t h e s e strains introduces c e r t a i n correct i o n s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s , which are r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e first harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s (decrease i n frequency by 5 - 6 % ) , somewhat g r e a t e r f o r t h e second harmonic (decrease i n frequency by 10 - l5%), stin g r e a t e r f o r t h e t h i r d harmonic ( 2 0 - SO%), and s o on. Therefore, i f a v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s requires c o n s i d e r a t i o n of high harmonics, t h e v i b r a t i o n should be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h consideration of s h e a r strains caused by t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e f u s e l a g e skin. T h i s can be performed i n t h e following manner: If t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out f o r a model of t h e type shown i n fig.2.21, t h e n a l l formulas of t h e llresiduell method can be used, w i t h t h e exception of eq.(3.8) which, i n this case, must be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

(3.24) where 6; i s t h e a d d i t i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n of t h e k-th s t a t i o n due t o t h e shear ; force $ 258

T h i s a d d i t i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n 6; can be determined by means of t h e following formula [see, f o r example (Ref.;?l)]:

, i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of t h e fuselage a t t h e k-th s t a t i o n , w h i l e Here, F i s some dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t determined by t h e formula

6(z) =

moment of i n e r t i a of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e n e u t r a l axis; s t a t i c moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e n e u t r a l axis of a p a r t of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n located above a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e n e u t r a l a x i s and a t a d i s t a n c e z from i t ; thickness of t h e f u s e l a g e s k i n a t a d i s t a n c e z from t h e n e u t r a l
axis.

The i n t e g r a l i n eq.(3.27) fuselage

i s taken over t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n F of t h e

I n conformity w i t h t h e c o r r e c t i o n i n eq.(3.8), c o r r e c t i o n s must be i n t r o 9 duced i n t o t h e recurrence formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , : A Ai, A,, etc. Section

/239

4. Combined
-~

Vib_rations of the-System-mlage-Rotor

1. VibratAons of t.hg - &stem Fuselage-Rotor

The methods of c a l c u l a t i n g v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c blades presented i n Chapt e r I assume t h a t t h e blade i s hinged t o t h e hub which, i n turn, i s attached t o a s t a t i o n a r y support. Actually, t h e hub i s attached t o a n e l a s t i c f u s e l a g e and f o r c e s a r e created during blade v i b r a t i o n t h a t cause t h e hub t o move so t h a t , i n r e a l i t y , t h e d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e hinge of t h e hub during blade v i b r a t i o n s i s not equal t o zero but t o t h e corresponding d e f l e c t i o n of t h e fuselage. Results of f l i g h t t e s t s have shown i n many cases that c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of blades performed without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e f u s e l a g e may r e s u l t i n s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s . In this connection, M.L.Mill has formulated and s t a t e d t h e problem of c a l c u l a t i n g combined vibrat i o n s of t h e system fuselage-rotor as a s i n g l e o s c i l l a t o r y system. The b a s i c r e s u l t s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c a r r i e d out i n this d i r e c t i o n are given below.

259

The frequencies and modes of natural combined v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system fuselage-rotor can be found by using t h e method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s , whose essence i s presented i n Subsections 2, 3, and 4 of S e c t i o n 2. However, performance of such c a l c u l a t i o n s involves a l a r g e volume of c o q u t a t i o n a l work. T h i s p e r t a i n s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o determinations of t h e l a t e r a l natur a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system fuselage-rotor, when t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s o f t h e r o t o r i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i s t o be determined. Furthermore, c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n between f u s e l a g e and blade v i b r a t i o n s genera l l y i s weak and t h a t t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system fuselager o t o r can always be divided i n t o two groups such that t h e frequencies of t h e f i r s t group are quite c l o s e t o t h e natural frequencies of t h e i s o l a t e d fuselage, i n whose c a l c u l a t i o n t h e blade mass i s considered as concentrated a t t h e r o t o r center, whereas t h e frequencies of t h e second group a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o t h e natural blade frequencies c a l c u l a t e d on t h e assumption t h a t t h e blades a r e attached t o a p e r f e c t l y r i g i d and i n f i n i t e l y heavy fuselage. When t h e hub attachment t o t h e f u s e l a g e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g i d ( e l a s t i c r o t o r s h a f t , e l a s t i c reduction-gear frame, g e a r case), it may happen that some of t h e frequencies of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e second group noticeably change i n c o w p a r i s o n w i t h blade frequencies c a l c u l a t e d by t h e u s u a l method. Therefore, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e f i r s t group can u s u a l l y be determined by means of methods presented i n this Chapter as fuselage frequenc i e s , disregarding e l a s t i c i t y of t h e blades. An.exception a r e s p e c i a l cases where, f o r example, t h e r o t o r s are attached t o l i g h t and e l a s t i c Wings on a h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration. I n such cases, t h e frequencies of combined o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e system fuselage-rotor must be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e above-described method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s .

A s regards t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies, i t i s apparently always necessary t o estimate t h e p o s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n of some of t h e s e frequencies due t o l o c a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment t o t h e f u s e l a g e .

Thus, t o allow f o r t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of f u s e l a g e and blade v i b r a t i o n s , it , & & s u f f i c e s i n p r a c t i c e t o estimate only t h e change i n n a t u r a l blade frequencies caused by l o c a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment.

In t h e next Subsection, we W i l l p r e s e n t a method f o r such a c a l c u l a t i o n t o determine t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , with considerat i o n of t h e f l e x u r a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r s h a f t . T h i s case i s t h e most important i n practice.
To t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r shaft one can always add t h e e l a s t i c i t y of o t h e r elements of t h e r o t o r attachment ( g e a r frame, g e a r case, e t c . ) . Here we w i l l give c e r t a i n important fundamental considerations, from which it W i l l become obvious t h a t only some of t h e n a t u r a l - b l a d e v i b r a t i o n frequencies are able t o change as a r e s u l t of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment.

I n Section 1 of thris Chapter it was shown t h a t not a l l harmonic components of f o r c e s generated by v i b r a t i n g blades llpasslt t o . t h e fuselage, s i n c e many are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e r o t o r hub casing.
260

For i n s t a n c e , during blade v i b r a t i o n s of a five-blade r o t o r i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, t h e f i r s t f o u r harmonic components of f o r c e s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e hub from t h e blades (w, 2w, 3w, 4 w ) are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub and only t h e f i f t h harmonic component i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e fuselage. Hence it i s obvious t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g forced blade v i b r a t i o n s due t o f o r c e s corresponding t o t h e harmonics w, 2w, 3 0 , and 4 w , we m u s t examine t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies (with t h e method of expansion i n n a t u r a l modes), c a l c u l a t e d f o r ordinary boundary conditions when t h e blade i s assumed t o be hinged t o a s t a t i o n a r y hub. When d e a l i n g w i t h f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f i f t h harmonic, t h e presence of combined v i b r a t i o n s of blade and f u s e l a g e must be t a k e n i n t o consideration. The p h y s i c a l meaning of this phenomenon i s t h a t t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of a r o t o r w i t h e l a s t i c blades can be divided i n t o two groups: 1) r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e f o r c e s from i n d i v i d u a l blades a r e n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub casing; 2) r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e f o r c e s from i n d i v i d u a l blades a r e summed a t t h e hub casing and a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e fuselage. Figure 2.28, as a t y p i c a l exawle, shows two such v i b r a t i o n modes f o r a r o t o r w i t h f o u r blades s i n c e t h e p i c t u r e i s c l e a r e s t f o r such a r o t o r . Both Vib r a t i o n modes A and B correspond t o t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p 1 of a single-mode overtone of a n i s o l a t e d blade i n t h e flapping plane and d i f f e r only by t h e phase d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o i n d i v i d u a l blades. The v i b r a t i o n mode A corresponds t o a s i t u a t i o n where p a i r s of opposite blades vibrate i n opposite phase. I n t h i s case, t h e f o r c e s p l , pa, p3 and p4 a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub mut u a l l y cancel out a t each i n s t a n t of t i m e and are not transmitted t o t h e fuselage. The v i b r a t i o n mode B corresponds t o t h e s i t u a t i o n where a l l f o u r blades vibrate i n phase. I n this case t h e forces p l , p2, p3 and p 4 are summed a t t h e hub and generate a f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e fusel a g e and varying i n time w i t h a frequency p
If t h e r o t o r hub i s a t t a c h e d t o a p e r f e c t l y r i g i d support, then t h e frequencies of both v i b r a t i o n modes A and B of t h e r o t o r are ide+ t i c a l and equal t o t h e frequency p1 or t o t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e first harmonic of a n i s o l a t e d blade w i t h a hinged b u t t . If t h e hub i s attached t o some e l a s t i c base w i t h a v e r t i c a l r i g i d i t y c, t h e frequency of t h e v i b r a t i o n mode A Will not change and remains e q u a l t o pl, whereas t h e frequency of t h e modes B w i l l decrease and that t h e more t h e lower t h e r i g i d i t y c 26 1

Fig.2.28 Vibration Modes of a Rotor w i t h E l a s t i c Blades.

It can be demonstrated t h a t t h e modes of t h e two i n d i c a t e d types exist f o r a r o t o r w i t h any number of blades 2. These v i b r a t i o n modes can be characterized by a formula. For example, a l l v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e z-bladed r o t o r corresponding t o t h e k-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s of a n i s o l a t e d blade are characteri z e d by t h e following l a w of blade vibration:
yn

(at ) =gk(X)

cos s $ n cos P k t ,

(4.1)

where yn(x, t ) = d e v i a t i o n of a p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinate x, belonging t o t h e n-t h blade ; cos s $ ~ = c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e l a w of v i b r a t i o n phase d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r i n d i v i d u a l blades, ?.e., o f t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e r o t o r as a whole; s = any i n t e g e r that can be c a l l e d t h e o r d e r of a given r o t o r ,2 , 3, 8). v i b r a t i o n mode ( s = 1

...,

The q u a n t i t i e s

$n

are determined by t h e formula

9 n =- n.
z

2n

On t h e basis of e ~ ~ ( 1 . 1 3i )n Section 1 , it i s easy t o show t h a t t h e vibraz 1 correspond t o a s i t u a t i o n i n t i o n modes of t h e o r d e r s s = 1 , 2 , 3, which t h e f o r c e s generated by i n d i v i d u a l blades are equalized a t t h e hub and t h a t only t h e m d e of t h e order s = z corresponds t o a s i t u a t i o n where t h e f o r c e s from i n d i v i d u a l blades are summed and t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e fuselage.

...,

The modes A and B presented i n F i g . 2 . 2 8 are modes of t h e second and f o u r t h order f o r a four-blade r o t o r . It i s obvious from t h e a f o r e s a i d t h a t t h e natur a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a r o t o r , corresponding t o v i b r a t i o n modes of a l l orders w i t h t h e exception of s = z, do not depend upon t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e hub attachment and t h a t only t h e frequencies corresponding t o t h e r o t o r vibrat i o n mode of t h e order s = z depend on this e l a s t i c i t y . W e can f u r t h e r show t h a t a l l harmonics of f o r c e s t h a t e x c i t e blade vibrat i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, w i t h t h e exception of t h e Iltransient" harmonics zw, 2zw, 3zw, e t c . w i l l e x c i t e only those r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e f o r c e s produced by t h e blades are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub and that only t h e harmonic components of t h e exciting f o r c e s corresponding t o t h e lltransientll harmonics w i l l e x c i t e r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e blade-generated f o r c e s are summed and t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hub. Hence, we can draw a u s e f u l p r a c t i c a l conclusion: If we construct an ordii g . l . 6 of Chapt.1) i n t h e flapping nary resonance diagram of t h e blade (see F plane, c a l c u l a t e d without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment t o t h e fuselage, t h e n t h e resonances with a l l of t h e harmonics, except f o r resonances w i t h t h e harmonics zw, 220, e t c . , correspond t o r e a l i t y . The resonances w i t h t h e harmonics zw, 2zw, etc., must be i n v e s t i g a t e d a d d i t i o n a l l y , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r hub attachment and r e f i n i n g t h e values of t h e corresponding n a t u r a l frequencies.

262

However, it should be mentioned t h a t , i n s t u d i e s of blade Vibrations i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, it i s g e n e r a l l y p o s s i b l e t o d i s r e g a r d t h e e l a s t i c i t y of hub attachment f o r such harmonics s i n c e t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e hub attachment i n a v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i s u s u a l l y l a r g e and has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e natural b h d e v i b r a t i o n frequencies (except f o r t h e case of r o t o r attachment of a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r t o l i g h t and flexible wings). I n studying t h e resonance diagram of a blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n t h e e f f e c t of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r hub attachment t o t h e f u s e l a g e must be t a k e n i n t o consideration. All above considerations hold a l s o f o r blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , w i t h t h e only d i f f e r e n c e that i n this case t h e Itranl)w, ( z + l)w, (2z - 1)w, (22 + l)w, sientll harmonics are t h e harmonics ( z e t c . Furthermore, at resonance w i t h t h e harmonics zw, 2zw, e t c . i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , allowance must be made f o r t h e combination of r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s w i t h t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e transmission system ( t h e p e r t a i n i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s can a l s o be c a r r i e d out on t h e basis of t h e method of dynamicstiffness).

2. Calculation of. t h e Natural Rotor Blade Vibrations i n t h e Plane of &tatiog, w i t h Consid-eration of E l a s t i c i t y of t h e Rotor t.0 t h e Fuselage
Let us examine t h e problem of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r mounted Let t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e s h a f t w i t h t o a f l e x u r a l l y e l a s t i c s h a f t (Fig.2.29). r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r c e P a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t a t t h e hub c e n t e r and l y i n g i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r be e q u a l t o c 0 . Consequently, t h e f o r c e P and t h e r e s u l t a n t displacement 6 of t h e shaft end are c o r r e l a t e d by

P = co6.

(4.2)

I n this case, it i s immaterial whether t h e displacement 6 i s produced by bendi n g of t h e s h a f t i t s e l f or i s due t o t h e e l a s t i c i t y of i t s attachment t o t h e fuselage. Let us d i s c u s s only t h e case when t h e given r i g i d i t y i s i d e n t i c a l i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e xOz, i.e., when t h e e l a s t i c support t o which t h e r o t o r i s attached i s i s o t r o p i c . I n r e a l i t y this i s not so, b u t t h e r i g i d i t i e s of att a c h e n t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e Ox and Oz axes g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r l i t t l e s o t h a t t h e support can be assumed as i s o t r o p i c , understanding by t h e quantity co t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean of t h e r i g i d i t i e s c, and c,:

C a l c u h t i o n of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r on a n e h s t i c base can be performed by t h e method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s .

First, we introduce t h e concept of d y L c s t i f f n e s s of a blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . L e t a f l e x u r a l l y e l a s t i c blade i n t h e c e n t r a l c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d be attached a t t h e r o o t by a hinge such that t h e hinge i s able t o move & f r e e l y i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e a x i s of t h e undeformed blade (see Fig. 2.30) 263

& I
Fig . 2 . 3 Diagram of Rotor on E l a s t i c Shaft.

li=Q cospt
f i g .2.3O Diagram f o r Calculation of Forced Blade Vibrations t o Det e d n e Dynamic Rotor S t i f f n e s s .

Furthermore, l e t t h e blade execute s t e a d y forced v i b r a t i o n s under t h e eff e c t of a lateral e x c i t i n g harmonic f o r c e

F = Fo COS p t ,
a p p l i e d t o t h e hinge A. I n this case, t h e p o i n t A of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e W i l l a l s o execute v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e l a w
u =u g cos p t .

W e W i l l c a l l t h e quantity

t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e blade. The dynamic blade s t i f f n e s s can be determined e i t h e r by t h e method given i n Subsection 2 of S e c t i o n 2 o r by t h e method of a u x i l i a r y mass (Sect.2, Subsect .4). I n so doing we must t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e blade moves i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d so that it i s no longer a question of solving a n equation of t h e t y p e of eq.(2.2), as had been done i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e fuselage, but of solving t h e equation of blade v i b r a t i o n in t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ( s e e Chapt.1, Sect.1, Subsect . 1 1 ) , which has t h e form

(E/u")"-((Nu')'+mu--2U=q(rl

t).

(4.5)

Here, N i s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e blade s e c t i o n at a r a d i u s r.
When using t h e method of a u x i l i a r y m a s s , t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i n t h e presence of a n attachment according t o t h e scheme depicted i n fig.2.30, With a d i f f e r e n t value f o r t h e a u x i l i a r y mass Am, a t t h e p o i n t A, using t h e method presented i n Chapter I, S e c t i o n 2, Subsection 5.

= f(p).

From t h e r e s u l t s of such a c a l c u l a t i o n we can construct t h e graph of Am, = An example of such a graph i s shown i n Fig.2.32. The p o i n t s of inf i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n f ( p ) g i v e t h e natural frequencies of t h e blade w i t h a f i x e d hinge a t t h e p o i n t A, i.e., t h e n a t u r a l f r e quencies of a blade f o r t h e case of a n i n f i n i t e l y l a r g e r i g i d i t y of t h e r o t o r s h a f t . The p o i n t s a t which Om, = 0 y i e l d t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of a blade attached f r e e l y accordi n g t o t h e scheme depicted i n Fig. 2.30. The magnitude of ' t h e dy- @ namic blade s t i f f n e s s correspondi n g t o this value of p can be determined from t h e formula

Fig.2.31 For Calculation of Dynamic S t i f f ness of a Rotor w i t h E l a s t i c Blades. normal t o t h e blade.

The a d d i t i o n a l term w20mb(p) i n this formula i s due t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e component of mass Am, d i r e c t e d along t h e

W e will show f u r t h e r t h a t t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e r o t o r as a whole can be found i f t h e d y n a m i c s t i f f n e s s o f t h e blade i s known. Let us t u r n t o F'i.g.2.31 which gives t h e planform of a r o t o r hub w i t h v e r t i c a l hinges and t h e k-th elast i c blade. L e t xOy be a coordinate system r o t a t i n g t o g e t h e r with t h e r o t o r with a n angular v e l o c i t y w. Furthermore, l e t t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub execute pres c r i b e d harmonic v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i n obedience t o t h e l a w

x=x, cos p i ;
y=,yo sin pt.

Such v i b r a t i o n s of t h e hub cause v i b r a t i o n s of t h e e l a s t i c blades i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , reducing t h e problem t o f i n d i n g t h e f o r c e s exerted by t h e Vib r a t i n g blades on t h e hub during i t s motion. Let us choose a n a u x i l i a r y r e c t a n g u l a r coordinate system r o t a t i n g t o g e t h e r O r , f o r which t h e O r - a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e passing with the rotor n through t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub and through t h e drag hinge A of t h e k-th blade. The Or-axis makes a c e r t a i n angle I ) ~ with t h e Ox-axis. We denote by uo and v, t h e coordinates of t h e hub c e n t e r i n t h e system fir. Then, obviously,
uo= --x sin ( J ~ y cos qk; ZJO = X COS qk y sin $,k.

+ +

265

During v i b r a t i o n s of t h e hub i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w n a t e s uo and vo w i l l vary i n time i n obedience t o t h e l a w

uo=( -xosin qk) cos p t (gocos IjlJ sin pi; vo=(x, cos $&) cos pf (gosin qk)sin p t .

(4.6),

t h e coordi-

-+ +

(4.7)

Furthermore, l e t u denote t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p o i n t of t h e elastic . & & blade a x i s a t a r a d i u s r from a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a s s i n g through t h e drag hinge A During v i b r a t i o n s of t h e of t h e blade and running p a r a l l e l t o t h e O r - a x i s . blade, t h e q u a n t i t y u i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e r a d i u s r and t h e t h e t such t h a t u = = u(r, t ) .
be t h e v e c t o r of t h e t o t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n of a p o i n t of r a d i u s r of t h e Let e l a s t i c blade azis. Then,
-

+wt,
where

-!-

"cor '

wml = v e c t o r of r e l a t i v e a c c e l e r a t i o n of a p o i n t due t o motion i n a - moving coordinate system d r ; wtr = v e c t o r of t r a n s l a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o motion of a p o i n t tog e t h e r w i t h t h e coordinate system n O r ; w C o r = v e c t o r of C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n .
-

W e t h e n introduce t h e u n i t v e c t o r s n, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Then, we can w r i t e

? and

3,d i r e c t e d along t h e axes r

arid

If we denote by w, and w, t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e v e c t o r of t o t a l accelerat i o n onto t h e axes On and Or, t h e following expressions are obtained:

w,=(io - w"o)

+ (u- oiu)+20vo;
- (Nu')'=q ,

*. w,= (wo - w2vo) - 02r - 2wuo- 20u.

(4.81

The equation of equilibrium i n t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d has t h e form (EJIC'')II

(4.9)

where q i s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e l a t e r a l l o a d applied t o a beam. During blade v i b r a t i o n s , t h e l a t e r a l load due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

q ( r , t )= - mw, = - m [(io .- w2u0) (U - A)

+.2wV01,

266

where m i s t h e l i n e a r mass of t h e blade Em = m ( r ) ] . S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(4.9), we o b t a i n t h e following p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation f o r determining t h e f u n c t i o n u ( r , t ) : where

If t h e motion of t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub i s given by eqs.(4.7), $(r, t ) W i l l be a known f u n c t i o n of t i m e .

t h e n t h e load

The unknown f u n c t i o n u(r, t ) should s a t i s f y eq.(4.10) boundary conditions

u ( 0 ,t)=u(O, t)=O;

as w e l l as t h e

u(L?, t )=( E I U ) l r - R

=0.

I
(4.13)

D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eqs .(4.7) and s u b s t i t u t i n g them i n t o e q . ( k . l l ) will y i e l d

q* (r, t)=mAk
COS

p i - t mB, sin p i ,

where t h e constants A, and

are determined by t h e formulas

The s o l u t i o n o f eq.(b.lO), corresponding t o s t e a d y forced v i b r a t i o n s due t o a load [see eq.(k.l3)], i s sougM i n t h e f o r m

u (r, t )=U (r) [
cos p t

/246

+B, sin p t ].

(4.15)

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(4..10) w i t h t h e right-hand s i d e f o r q4 we f i n d that t h e f u n c t i o n < ( r ) should s a t i s f y t h e ordinary diff e r e n t i a l equation

from eq.(4.13),

as w e l l as t h e boundary conditions

u (0)=U (0)=0;

2 (l?)=(Tu/)l;-R=o.

I
267

W e note f u r t h e r that, i n c a l c u l a t i n g blade v i b r a t i o n s e x c i t e d by v i b r a t i o n of t h e hinge A according t o t h e scheme depicted i n Fig.2.30, it is necessary t o s o l v e a n equation of t h e form

(E/u")"- (Nu')' -mu -w2u =0 ,

where u i s t h e t o t a l displacement of a p o i n t of t h e e l a s t i c b h d e swds of radius r. I n this case, t h e f u n c t i o n u(r, t) should s a t i s f y t h e conditions

u (0, f)=2x0 cos pf; u" ( 0 ,f)=O.

u" ( R ,t )=0;
(E/U")'Jr-R

=o.

I I
should s a t i s f y t h e equation

Seeking t h e s o l u t i o n of this equation i n t h e form

u= [uo

tu(r)]cos p f ,

we a r r i v e a t t h e conclusion that t h e f u n c t i o n

u(r)

(12)'' - (~2)' - (p2+

02)

mu =(p2 + 0 2 ) mu,,

The boundary which d i f f e r s from eq.(4.l6) o n l y by t h e constant % ( p a + w2). conditions f o r t h e f u n c t i o n E ( . ) i n this case f u l l y coincides w i t h eq~~(4.1'7). Thus, during blade v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e scheme shown i n Fig.2.30, t h e function i s t h e same as i n t h e problem of i n t e r e s t here [ s e e eqs.(b.Ih) and (4.17)1 i f we s e l e c t t h e amplitude uo such that t h e condition

u(r)

i s satisfied.
Physically, this means that t h e mode of forced blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e problem of i n t e r e s t here coincides w i t h t h e mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s excited acOn t h e basis of this r e s u l t , an important cording t o t h e scheme i n Fig.2.30. form& i s derived. For this, we note that during Vibrations of a blade attached according t o t h e scheme shown i n Fig.2.30 and e x c i t e d by t h e f o r c e F = F , cos p t , the s u m of t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of a l l l a t e r a l i n e r t i a f o r c e s applied t o t h e blade /2k7 should be balanced by t h e f o r c e F. Hence, we f i n d

Fo=Amb( p )(p*

w2) uo =

- (p2+d )

j! m
v.h

(uo 3-2) dr=

-(p2+~2)u~m~-(p2+~2) mzdr,
'v.h

where mb i s t h e blade mass up t o t h e drag hinge

268

On s a t i s f y i n g c o n d i t i o n

(4.B), we

o b t a i n t h e formula

meaning t h a t t h e i n t e g r a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade of t h e f u n c t i o n m E [where U i s t h e s o l u t i o n of eq.(4.16)1 i s expressed i n terms of dynamic blade s t i f f n e s s o r , which comes t o t h e same, i n terms of t h e a u x i l i a r y mass Am,(p).

It i s now easy t o Obtain expressions f o r t h e f o r c e s exerted on t h e hub by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades. We denote by Qk and Nk, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e p r o j e c t i o n s ont o t h e On- and Or-axes of a f o r c e exerted by t h e k-th blade k on t h e drag hinge of t h e hub. Then,
Qk--

1
v.h

nzw,dr=-

R,

m(u-ozu)dr-

- (It0
R

- 02uo

+20)vO)mb;
R

v.h

N,=- J mw, d r = - m6(vo-02wo - 2u0w)f

'v.h

$w2 v.h

mrdr+2w
v.h

mudr.

where No = w2 hinge

7 mr
'v.h

d r i s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e e x e r t e d by t h e blade on t h e drag

Denoting by X and Y t h e f o r c e s exerted on t h e hub by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades,

26?

we d e r i v e t h e formulas:

S u b s t i t u t i n g here eqs.(4.21) and (4.22) alad t a k i n g i n t o account t h e propert i e s of t h e trigonometric sums described i n Subsection 2, Section 1 of this Chapter [eqs.(l.l3)], we arrive at t h e f o l l a s i n g expressions:

On t h e o t h e r hand, we can c o n s t r u c t t h e equations of motion of t h e hub of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c shaft, which have t h e form

where

q , ,
co

= =

mass of t h e hub casing; shaft rigidity.

If t h e motion of t h e hub t a k e s p l a c e i n obedience t o t h e l a w

(4..6), t h e

last equations will yield

If we equate t h e s e expressions t o eqs.(4.23) and (4.24), we o b t a i n a system of two l i n e a r homogeneous equations f o r determining t h e amplitudes x o and yo:

Ax~+BIJ~=O; Bxo+AyO=O, where 270

(4 925)

Equating t o zero t h e determinant of this system, we o b t a i n t h e characteri s t i c equation f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l frequencies p:

whence A=&B. I n t h e case A = -B [as i s apparent from eq.(4.25)1, xo = yo. T h i s corresponds t o r o t a t i o n of t h e hub c e n t e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r [see eq. (4 -6) 1

Fig.2.32 Determination of Vibration Frequencies of a Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Shaft, by t h e Dynamic S t i f f ness M e t hod. I n t h e case A = B we have xi, = -yo, which corresponds t o r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r c e n t e r opposite t o t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equations (4.28) can be solved w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e quaT h i s y i e l d s t h e following equation: t i t y Am,(p).

27 1

T h i s equation can be solved g r a h i c a l l y by superimposing, on t h e curve of t h e a-liary blade mass b b = h b ( p p y two curves corresponding t o t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of this expression i n which we t a k e e i t h e r t h e upper s i g n s (minus s i g n i n t h e numerator and p l u s s i g n i n t h e denominator) o r t h e lower signs. The first of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s W i l l be denoted by Am,(p) and t h e second, by Am2(p).
The a b s c i s s a s of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s of t h e curve Aml(p) w i t h t h e graph of a u x i l i a r y blade mass &,(p) y i e l d t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c shaft, corresponding t o v i b r a t i o n modes i n which t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub r o t a t e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , w i t h a n angular v e l o c i t y p r e l a t i v e t o t h e coordinate system xOy f i x e d t o t h e r o t o r and hence w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y p + w relative t o t h e body-fixed coordinate system ( h e l i c o p t e r body). Obviously, such modes can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harmonics ( z - l)w, (22 - 1 ) w , e t c . The a b s c i s s a s of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s of t h e curves Am2(p) and Amb(p) yield t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c s h a f t i n which t h e hub c e n t e r r o t a t e s i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h a t of t h e r o t o r . Such v i b r a t i o n modes can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harmonics ( z + + I ) . , (22 + l ) w , e t c . Figure 2.32 g i v e s t h e graphs f o r t h e curves Amb(p), Am,(p), and Am ( ) constructed f o r t h e following i n i t i a l data: e o = 500 kg/m; m h u b = 3s kzzmz/m; mb = P j kg*sec2/m; w o = 190 rpm; 2 = 5. These graphs show appreciable d i f f e r ences between t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c s h a f t and t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of a n i s o l a t e d blade. For example, t h e p o i n t H of an i n f i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t y of t h e curve Amb(p) corresponds t o t h e frequency of a single-node overtone of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a n i s o l a t e d blade of t h e given Here, r o t o r (with a s t a t i o n a r y hub). I n this case, p = p1 = 64.0 cycles/min. Fig.2.33 shows t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of this overtone.

/250

p=p:,

Fig.2.33 Modes of Blade Vibrations. a Mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of s h a f t e l a s t i c i t y ; b Modes of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of blade e l a s t i c i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n t o this n a t u r a l frequency, a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c s h a f t a l s o has v i b r a t i o n frequencies correspondi t o t h e p o i n t s A, By C and D of t h e i n t e r c e p t s of t h e curves Am,(p) and Am, p ) w i t h t h e curve Amb(p). Here, v i b r a t i o n s of modes corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s A and D can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harVibrations cormonics ( z - l ) w , (22 l ) w , e t c . ( i n this case, 4.w and 9 w etc.). responding t o t h e p o i n t s C and B can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harmonics ( 2 + l)w, (22 + l ) w , e t c . ( i n this case, 6w, llw, e t c . ) .

272

These resonance curves were p l o t t e d f o r a h e l i c o p t e r which first had been equipped w i t h a four-blade r o t o r ; however, l a t e r t h e r o t o r hub had t o be modif i e d and t h e r o t o r was designed as a five-blade type s o as t o e l i m i n a t e t h e severe resonance of t h e blade w i t h t h e harmonic 3 w i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n (point A). Figure 2.33 g i v e s t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of shaft e l a s t i c i t y corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s A (p: = = 560 cycles/min) and B(pi = 761 cycles/min).

I n conclusion, we should mention t h a t t h e above method f o r determining t h e natural frequencies of a blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of shaft e l a s t i c i t y i s one of t h e most c q l e x examples of using t h e method of dywas t h e main reason f o r d e s c r i b i n g it here i n some d e t a i l . icstiffness;this A s regards f i n d i n g t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e with cons i d e r a t i o n of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e hub attachment and of t h e blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n w i t h consideration of t o r s i o n a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e transmission system (which are excited by t h e harmonics zw, Zzw, 3zw, e t c . ) , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s involved are much simpler and can be c a r r i e d out i n f u l l on t h e basis of t h e p r i n c i p l e s set f o r t h i n Section 2.

273

CHAPTER 1 1 1

/251

Ground resonance u s u a l l y i s t o mean spontaneous Vibrations (build-up) of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground w i t h i n c r e a s i n g amplitude. T h i s phenomenon w a s first noticed a f t e r a drag hinge p e r m i t t i n g t h e blade t o mve i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r w a s introduced i n t o t h e design of t h e r o t o r hub. I n t h e h i s t o r y of h e l i c o p t e r engineering t h e r e were quite a f e w cases where a h e l i c o p t e r was destroyed by v i b r a t i o n s of this type. Attempts t o eliminate ground resonance on a f u l l - s c a l e h e l i c o p t e r sometimes required extensive modific a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r design. T h i s forced d e s i g n engineers t o work on t h e development of t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance and reliable methods of i t s calcul a t i o n , which would permit s e l e c t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t r u c t u r a l members determining t h e s t a b i l i t y margin of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground. A t p r e s e n t t h e r e i s a t h e o r y of ground resonance which explains a l l t h e most important features of this phenomenon and permits c a l c u l a t i n g t h e design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on which depends ground resonance. T h i s t h e o r y a r o s e as a result of numerous t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of ground resonance c a r r i e d out both i n t h e Soviet Union and abroad. O f t h e Soviet works on t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance we m u s t p o i n t out first t h e works of B.Ya.Zherebtsov and A.I.Pozhalostin. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of ground resonance have shown t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l essence of this phenomenon involves t h e follow5ngt During natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e r o t o r b l a d e s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ( r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinges), which can arise from any impetus (wind gust, rough landing, etc.), i n e r t i a f o r c e s appear i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . Being t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r fuselage, t h e y cause i t s v i b r a t i o n s on t h e e l a s t i c landing gear. The f o r c e s swinging t h e h e l i c o p t e r vary w i t h a d e f i n i t e frequency depending upon t h e natural frequency of t h e blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ' a n d t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . A h e l i c o p t e r i s most easily swung when t h e frequency of change of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s i s c l o s e t o t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear. Simultaneously w i t h v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r body, f o r c e s arise which swing t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . The presence of this b i l a t e r a l couple between v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and blades r e s u l t s i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r becoming unstable at a c e r t a i n angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n , i.e., t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s once begun ( a s a consequence of some impetus) a r e not d q e d but increased. The b a s i c means of combatting ground resonance are:

1) The i n s t a l l a t i o n of s p e c i a l dampers on t h e drag hinges of t h e r o t o r b l a d e s which damp t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . 2) The i n t r o d u c t i o n of s p e c i a l damping elements i n t h e design of t h e

/252

274

shock absorber s t r u t or t h e p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Wdraul i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e shock absorber s t r u t s i n forward and reverse strokes, and a l s o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r i g i d i t y of t h e shock absorber s t r u t s and pneumatic tires. The proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade dampers and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r i g i d i t y and damping of t h e landing gear i s t h e main purpose of c a l c u l a t i n g a h e l i c o p t e r f o r ground resonance. The t h e o r y of ground resonance which W i l l be presented below holds t r u e only f o r r o t o r s w i t h a number of blades n 2 3 , The t h e o r y of ground resonance of a two-blade r o t o r has a number of s p e c i a l features and i s appreciably more complex (Ref .36). Section 1 . S t a b i l i t y of Rotor on E l a s t i c Base
1. Statement of Problem and Equations of Motion

The most important features of ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r can be obt a i n e d from an examination of t h e motion of some i d e a l i z e d mechanical system, which we will c a l l a Voter on a n e l a s t i c base". Such a system i s schematically shown i n Fig.3.l. The s h a f t of t h e r o t o r w i t h heavy and p e r f e c t l y r i g i d blades ( 3 ) , a t t a c h e d t o t h e r o t o r hub by means of t h e drag hinges ( 4 ) , r o t a t e s i n supp o r t s r i g i d l y connected w i t h some heavy casing (body) (1)which i s e l a s t i c a l l y mounted t o a s t a t i o n a r y base ( 2 ) and has only one degree of 2 freedom, namely forward displacement along t h e axis O x p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e . x I r o t o r . Upon displacement of t h e body (1)along t h e Ox-axis, an e l a s t i c r e s t o r i n g f o r c e i s gene r a t e d by t h e s p r i n g c and a damping f o r c e by Fig.3.1 Diagram of Rotor t h e damper k. Let us assume t h e e l a s t i c arid on E l a s t i c Base. damping c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e base t o be l i n e a r , 1 Casing; 2 Base; 3 i.e., t h a t t h e f o r c e X a c t i n g on t h e casing (1) Blade; 4 Hnge. during i t s displacement x ( t ) i s expressed by t h e fo m l a

where c = c o e f f i c i e n t of s t i f f n e s s of t h e s p r i n g ( s p r i n g constant); k = damping c o e f f i c i e n t .

We W i l l c a l l t h e q u a n t i t i e s c and k t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and damp, i s t h e proi n g of t h e e l a s t i c base. If' m, i s t h e m a s s of t h e casing (I) and P j e c t i o n onto t h e Ox-axis of t h e f o r c e exerted on t h e casing by t h e r o t o r , t h e n t h e equation of motion of t h e casing can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

27 5

m,x

+rcx +-cx =P,.

(1.2)

Here and below, t h e d o t s denote d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o time.

Furthermore, we w i l l assume t h a t t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s uniformly w i t h a n angular v e l o c i t y w i n vacuum, i.e., we w i l l neglect t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . The t h e o r y of ground resonance disregarding aerodynamic f o r c e s agrees r a t h e r w e l l w i t h experiment. Thus, o n l y i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g during blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n are t a k e n i n t o account. To construct t h e equations of motion of t h e blade, l e t us t u r n t o Figs.3.1 and 3.2. /253

Let us s e l e c t a s t a t i o n a r y r e c t a n g u l a r coordinate system Oxyz. The a x i s Oy i s d i r e c t e d along t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r s h a f t , at a p o s i t i o n of t h e casing (1) corresponding t o s t a t i c equilibrium. The d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-axis i s t a k e n such t h a t t h e only p o s s i b l e displacement of t h e casing i s d i r e c t e d along t h e Ox-axis

A s usual, l e t x be t h e displacement of t h e
a x i s of t h e r o t o r shaft t o g e t h e r with t h e casing
$k

Furthermore, l e t along t h e Ox-axis (Fig.3.2). be t h e azimuthal angle of t h e k-th r o t o r blade reckoning from t h e ' p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-

axis.
The angles $k of d i f f e r e n t r o t o r blades are determined by means of t h e formula For Derivation of Fig.3.2 Equations of Motion. where n i s t h e number of r o t o r blades; k = 1 , 2,

(1.3)

..., n.

W e denote by t v . h t h e d i s t a n c e AB (F'ig.3.2) from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n A t o t h e axis of t h e v e r t i c a l o r drag hinge B, and by 5 k t h e angle of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e k-tli blade during i t s r o t a t i o n relative t o t h e drag hinge, taking S k as posit i v e when t h e blade i s d e f l e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . Then, t h e coordinates x k and zk of t h e element of t h e k-th b h d e w i t h a m a s s dm a t a d i s t a n c e p from t h e a x i s of t h e drag hinge a r e expressed by t h e f o l lowing formulas:

D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e s e e5pressions twice w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e , we o b t a i n formulas for determining t h e , components of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e blade element:

276

I n d e r i v i n g t h e equations of small blade v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge we must, as usual, l i m i t ourselves t o small q u a n t i t i e s of t h e first order. Therefore, we can assume t h a t
(w

+i,)Z =

w2+

20ik.

Thus, w i t h a n accuracy t o small q u a n t i t i e s of t h e second order, t h e formulas f o r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s Sk and j ; k can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

When t h e system moves i n a vacuum, t h e r o t o r blades a t each i n s t a n t of time t are loaded only by i n e r t i a f o r c e s . The elementary i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g on a blade element are expressed by t h e formulas:
dXk= -dinsk;

dZk = - dmkzk.

..

I n t h e drag hinges of t h e r o t o r hub, l e t t h e r e be l i n e a r e l a s t i c and damp-& i n g devices which, during r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge, load it by t h e moment

d i r e c t e d toward t h e s i d e opposite t o t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n S k . We w i l l c a l l cb and k b , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of e l a s t i c i t y and damping of t h e blade. A t each i n s t a n t of t i m e , t h e moment from t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s applied t o t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge should be balanced by t h e moment M. Therefore, we can w r i t e
[xkesin($R+Ek)-ZReCOS($kfEk)]
I

dnz=cbik+Kbgkr

where i n t e g r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out over t h e blade l e n g t h 1 . The equation of motion of t h e k-th blade i s derived from t h e last express i o n and from eqs.(l.5) a f t e r simple transformations. Since we are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e equations of small blade v i b r a t i o n s , we can limit ourselves t o >erms of , C k , and after t h e first o r d e r of smallness relative t o t h e q u a n t i t i e s x, 2 d i s c a r d i n g terms containing squares and products of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s . Then, we can put cos Ek = 1;

sk,

27 7

sin Ek = Ek; sin (+&

+Ek)

=4. sin +Jk

+ER cos

+k;

COS (qR+ ER)

z z cos qR-ER sin qk.

After such s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e equation of small v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th blade W i l l t a k e t h e following form:

Here, t h e following n o t a t i o n s are used:

nb =

kb
h

relative damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade;

2 -- cb Pb,
IV.h

u ) = 0) r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge; v o = dimensionless blade parameter determined by t h e formula:

- n a t u r a l frequency of a nonrotating blade ( a t

where

s,,,
I , . ,

= p c m i = s t a t i c b l a d e moment

relative t o t h e drag hinge;

= Spdm = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag

hinge.

The right-hand s i d e of eq.(1.8) r e p r e s e n t s t h e moment due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade, generated by t h e r o t o r s h a f t displacement ( x ) . When t h e s h a f t i s s t a t i o n a r y , a t 2 = 0, eq.(1.8) d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s of a uniformly r o t a t i n g r o t o r i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of eq.(1.8) without t h e right-hand s i d e has t h e form

where S k o and rqk are arbitrary constants, w h i l e t h e quantity Pb i s determined by t h e formula

Pb = { P i o

v:w* - n b

and r e p r e s e n t s t h e angular frequency of natural b h d e v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of rotation. Furthermore, it i s necessary t o determine t h e f o r c e P, exerted on t h e casing 278

...

by t h e r o t o r . The f o r c e P , r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of v i b r a t i n g blades and, on t h e basis of t h e well-known theorem of motion of t h e c e n t e r of i n e r t i a ( c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ) of a mechanical system, can be determined as t h e product of t h e mass of t h e blade system and t h e component of a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e common c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system along t h e a x i s ox1

Let us d e r i v e formulas f o r determining t h e coordinates of t h e common c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system.

Let
Xk,

and zk be t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e k-th

C

, and z, of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade blade. Then, t h e coordinates x system can be c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e expressions:

k-1

( 1 . 1 0 )

Furthermore, l e t p, be t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade from t h e axis of t h e drag hinge. Then, i n conformity w i t h eqs.(l.4), t h e coordinates x , , z, can be determined as
xkc
zkc

= x -k
=v.h

cos 9.4

sin

@c cos (Ok

@c sin (+k

+Ek).

kk);

3 [see Chapt.11,

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e expressions i n t o eq.( 1.10) and considering t h a t , f o r Sect.1, Subsect.2, eq.(1.13)1,

3 cosq,=o;
k-l
n

k -1

2 sin+k=O,

( 1 . 1 1 )

w e o k t a i n t h e following simple expressions f o r t h e coordinates of t h e comon c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system:

(1.12)

k -1

279

The f o r c e P, a c t i n g on t h e e l a s t i c base can be determined fron: t h e formula

P , = -nm,x,.
Twice d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system ( 1 . 1 2 ) , we o b t a i n

/256

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(1.2) i n g equation of motion of t h e casing:

W i l l f i n a l l y yield t h e follow-

T h i s equation i s convenienkly w r i t t e n i n t h e form

X +2 n o i+p i x =
where t h e quantity

d
k -1

[ (.ik - u2ik)sin qk

+ poikcos

r e p r e s e n t s t h e t o t a l mass of t h e system, w h i l e n , i s t h e r e l a t i v e d a q i n g coeff i c i e n t of t h e e l a s t i c base, determined by t h e formula

x no=--,

2M

and t h e quantity p o r e p r e s e n t s t h e angular frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r i g i d r o t o r (without drag hinges) on an e l a s t i c base and i s determined by t h e formula

W e w i l l now write t h e system of equations of motion of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base, c o n s i s t i n g of t h e equations of motion of t h e blades [eq.(1.8)1 and t h e equation of motion of t h e casing of t h e base:

(1.16)

where k = 1 , 2,
280

..., n.

k-1

Thus, t h e equations of small v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base repres e n t a homogeneous system of ( n + 1) l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with p e r i o d i c c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r determining ( n + 1) unknown f u n c t i o n s x ( t ) , s , ( t ) (where k = = 1 , 2, n).

...,

2. S t a b i l i t y Analyzba.pd & s i c Results I n v e s t i g a t i o n s conducted by Coleman (Ref .35) and B.Ya.Zherebtsov showed t h a t , f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades n 2 3, this system of equations can be reduced t o a system of l i n e a r equations w i t h constant c o e f f i c i e n t s , i f we rep l a c e < , ( t ) by new v a r i a b l e s x,(%) and z , ( t > r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system. I n t h e case of a two-blade r o t o r , eqs.(l.l6) cannot be reduced t o equations w i t h constants. An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e s t a b i l i t y of motion of a two-blade r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base i s q u i t e comB.Ya .Zherebtsov studied plex. Its p r e s e n t a t i o n can be found elsewhere (Ref .36). a l s o t h e case of a two-blade r o t o r on a n i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c support when t h e /257 i n d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox- and casing of this support 'had two degrees of freedom Oz-axes ( s e e Fig.3.2) and t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e base i n both d i r e c t i o n s w a s i d e n t i c a l . I n this e x c e p t i o n a l case, t h e problem i s e a s i l y reduced t o a system of equations with constants.

Here, we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades n

2

3, which i s of t h e g r e a t e s t p r a c t i c a l value.

I n order t o o b t a i n t h e equations of motion w i t h constant c o e f f i c i e n t s , we w i l l transform eqs.(l.l6) t o t h e new variables x ( t ) , V(t), C ( t ) r e l a t e d w i t h t h e previous formulas: " \

The new q u a n t i t i e s 7 and E, as i s apparent from e q s . ( l . l 2 ) , a r e equal with a n accuracy t o w i t h i n t h e constant f a c t o r p c / n - t o t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system i n a moving coordinate system x'Az' whose axes are p a r a l l e l t o t h e Ox- and Oz-axes of t h e f i x e d system, w h i l e t h e o r i g i n of t h e coordinates A coincides w i t h t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r (see Fig.3.2).
To d e r i v e t h e equations of motion i n t h e new variables, a l l equations of motion of t h e blades [ t h e first equation of t h e system (1.16)l must first be m u l t i p l i e d by cos Jlk followed by a d d i t i o n of t h e i r l e f t - and right-hand s i d e s from k = 1 t o k = n; m u l t i p l i c a t i o n i s t h e n performed by s i n +k a g a i n followed by a d d i t i o n . Here, it m u s t be noted that, f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades n 2 3, we have by v i r t u e of e q s . ( l . l 3 ) of Chapter 1 1 :

281

Furthermore,

The last formulas are obtained by successive d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of e q s . ( l . l 7 ) .

This r e s u l t s i n t h e following system of equations:

( 1 . 2 0 )

Thus, we o b t a i n a homogeneous system of three l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e second order w i t h constant c o e f f i c i e n t s r e l a t i v e t o three unknown funct i o n s x ( t ) , T ( t ) , and G ( t ) .

/258

Now, t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s of t h e system can be c a r r i e d out i n t h e convent i o n a l manner.

Let us p u t

x=x,,ehf;
q =T o e i f ; C =<,eXt,

where xo, To, and G o a r e c e r t a i n constants. S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e expressions i n t o eqs.(1.20), we o b t a i n a system of t h r e e a l g e b r a i c l i n e a r homogeneous equations f o r determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s xO, To, and G o . Equating t h e determinant of this system t o zero, we o b t a i n t h e charact e r i s t i c equation f o r determining h . On expanding this equation i n powers of h, we o b t a i n
-6

1 f a~5+b~4+~h2feh+f=0,

(1.21)

282

Here and below, we introduce t h e following notations:

(1.22)

a= A,;
b =Bo

+Blw2; c =c, +c& d =Do+ DlZ2 + D2G4;

(1.23)
;

e = +E$ f =Fo+F,02+

F2&4.

283

The dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s of damping (blade) are d e t e r m h e d by means of

&

(of a n e l a s t i c base) and 5,

The dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t e i s obtained from t h e formula: (1.26)

It i s easy t o e x p l a i n t h e mechanical meaning of this important c o e f f i c i e n t . The q u a n t i t i e s S,,, and I , . , can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

where pi hinge.

d
mb

k is the

r a d i u s of i n e r t i a of t h e blade relative t o t h e drag

Therefore, eq.( 1.26) can be r e w r i t t e n as

e=-

1
2

=(:).

nm

The quantity p c / p i depends upon t h e l a w of mass d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e blade l e n g t h and, f o r d i f f e r e n t blades, l i e s w i t h i n t h e narrow limits of pc/pi = 0.8 0.9.

Consequently, it can be assumed i n f i r s t approximation khat t h e quantity E i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e t o t a l blade mass t o t h e t o t a l system mass (mass of t h e e l a s t i c base casing p l u s mass of t h e blades) and t h u s can be c a l l e d t h e relative r o t o r mass.

A d e t a i l e d analysis of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation shows t h a t only o s c i l l a t o r y i n s t a b i l i t y i s p o s s i b l e i n t h e system w h i l e aperiodic i n s t a b i l i t y i s -0ss i b l e (Ref .35). The boundaries of t h e zones of o s c i l l a t o r y i n s t a b i l i t y (corresponding values of 5) can be found i n t h e f o l l o d n g manner: A t t h e boundary of t h e zone of i n s t a b i l i t y t h e r e a r e p u r e l y harmonic (not damped and not increasing) v i b r a t i o n s , which f u r n i s h e s a p u r e l y imaginary value of one of t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (1.21)-. S e t t i n g , i n this equation, h = i s a real quantity) and equating t o zero t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s , (where we o b t a i n t h e following equations: /260

ip

(1.28)

284

Since t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a, b, c, d, e, and f are known f u n c t i o n s of W [see eqs.(1.23) and ( 1 . & ) 1 , w e can regard eqs.(1.28) as a system of two equations and 5, being t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e w i t h two unknowns p and W . The values of ;of r o t o r r o t a t i o n system (1.28), represent t h e dimensionless angular v e l o c i t y ; a t which harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system are p o s s i b l e , and t h e corresponding dimensionless angular v i b r a t i o n frequency 5.

W e can s o l v e t h e system (1.28) by making use of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e first equation of t h e system (1.28) i s b i q u a d r a t i c w i t h r e s p e c t t o Prescribing d i f from this equation followed by calculaf e r e n t values of E , we can determine t i o n of t h e value of a c e r t a i n quantity D(Z) e q u a l t o t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e second equation of t h e system (1.28) at this value of p:

5 .

From t h e r e s u l t s of this c a l c u l a t i o n , a curve f o r t h e dependence can be p l o t t e d . The values of a t which D vanishes w i l l a l s o be t h e of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone. W e can demonstrate that t h e values of at > 0, correspond t o steady motion of t h e system w h i l e t h e values of D < 0, correspond t o unsteady motion.

w,

w,

of D on boundaries which D > a t which

Calculation of t h e unstable range i s q u i t e laborious and, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, can be performed only on d i g i t a l computers. Figures 3.3 - 3.12 show c e r t a i n r e s u l t s of such c a l c u l a t i o n s c a r r i e d out by engineer V.G.Pashkin on t h e d i g i t a l computer 11 Strela". The graphs permit determining t h e s t a b i l i t y boundar i e s and t h e damping margins. The s t a b i l i t y of t h e system - i s determined i n g e n e r a l by t h e following f i v e parameters: v , E , Pbo, no, nb. The graphs are p l o t t e d f o r t h e two most frequently encountered values v o = 0.25 and v o = 0.3. Here, t h e value of pb0 = 0, i.e., f o r a r o t o r w i t h drag hinge dampers, i s examined. E l a s t i c elements are absent. The e f f e c t of e l a s t i c elements Will be discussed l a t e r i n t h e t e x t . For each of t h e values of v o t h e r e i s a series of graphs corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t values of E . The a b s c i s s a of each graph gives t h e values of t h e dimensionless corresponding t o t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone, while angular v e l o c i t y t h e o r d i n a t e g i v e s t h e dimenionless c o e f f i c i e n t n b of blade damping a t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone i s obtained. The graphs are constructed f o r d i f f e r e n t of t h e dimensionless damping c o e f f i c i e n t of a n e l a s t i c base. values

A s shown by t h e s e graphs, t h e width of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone s u b s t a n t i a l l y on a n i n c r e a s e i n damping E , depends upon t h e danping c o e f f i c i e n t s n b and ii,. ( a t fixed E , ) t h e unstable range narrows and, a t a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l value c o n t r a c t s i n t o a p o i n t . A t a value i i b > E$, t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone i s absent a t a l l values of G. For example, a t E = 0.02, v, = 0.25 ( s e e Fig.3.3), i f no = = 0.06, t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone c o n t r a c t s t o a p o i n t as soon as = 0.128; a t > > 0.128, t h e system i s stable f o r any ; ;( i n this case, E ; = 0.128).

: : ,

nb

nb

The r a t i o

6. = ,
nb % nb

whenever it i s g r e a t e r t h a n unity, i s conveniently

1266

c a l l e d t h e damping margin. The value of

w a t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y

zone c o n t r a c t s t o a p o i n t i s c a l l e d

285

c =O.OZ v,-o.25

Steady
no t i o n

Fig .3

.4

Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries ( e = 0.04; v , , = 0.25).

286

. . .. .

..

0.25

'b

~~

t-0.06
v,=0.25
-

0.20

a 15
0.10

Steady
mot i o n

I
I
. .

.J

1-

.- I

I Z

Fig .3.5

Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

(e =

0.06;

v0 =

0.25).

I l z

fig .3.6

Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries ( c = 0.08; v 0 = 0.25).

287

'b

0.25

0 . 2 0

0.15

0.10

0.OS

a
Fig .3.7

Graphs f o r Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries ( e = 0.10; v o = 0 . 2 5 ) .

Fig.3.8

Graphs for DetermLning I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

(G

0.02; v0 = 0.30).

288

E-0.04

Vo-O.30

x
Go= 0.02
.
I

Steady

Fig .3.9

Graphs f o r Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

(E = 0.04.;

v 0 = 0.30).

E=D.OG

vo=0.30

ii,=o.oz
/
~-

.0.04

Steady motion

Eg.3 . I D Graphs f o r Determiming I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries ( E = 0.06; v 0 = 0.30).

289

430
E , = 0.02

0.25

D.20

0. f 5

0.05

UJ

Fig.3.11

Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries ( C = 0.08; v0 = 0.30).

290

t h e c r i t i c a l value and can be c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e approximate formula:

Below, we w i l l give a p b s i c a l l y c l e a r e l u c i d a t i o n of this formula.

It should be noted that a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e q u s n t i t y i i b does not always lead t o a n improvement of s t a b i l i t y . A t low values of no ( t h i s can be t r a c e d from t h e graphs), a n i n c r e a s e i n i i b may even lead t o a s m a l l displacement of t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone toward smaller values of z. T h i s might result i n t h e appearance of i n s t a b i l i t y a t values of f o r which t h e motion was s t e a d y a t smaller n b .

An i n c r e a s e i n damping & of t h e e l a s t i c base a t moderate values of E , also ; hprovement of s t a b i l i t y ; however, a t very low values of E , a n inleads t o a crease i n n , may lead t o a rightward shift of t h e upper boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone and t h u s t o a broadening of t h e zone i t s e l f . An a n a l y s i s of t h e graphs permits t h e f o l l o w i n g important conclusion: Whenare of t h e same o r d e r of magnitude and d i f f e r t o ever t h e q u a n t i t i e s E , and one or t h e o t h e r s i d e by not more t h a n a f a c t o r of 2 - 3, any i n c r e a s e i n damp, w i l l r e s u l t only i n a n i n c r e a s e of s t a b i l i t y . A t such values of & i n g E, or E and no, t h e g r e a t e s t required damping occurs approximately a t
w=w,,

1 =-. 1-

V"

For this q u i t e important p r a c t i c a l case, B.Ya.Zherebtsov's simple approximate formula3$ can be derived, which shows t h a t t h e damping margin i s proport i o n a l t o t h e product of t h e q u a n t i t i e s iib and T h i s formula y i e l d s t h e values of t h e product Ebnoa t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone c o n t r a c t s t o a p o i n t :

c.

his approximate formula holds only a t F b , = 0; i t s v a l i d i t y can be t r a c e d from t h e graphs. A t Fbo # 0, we can use another approximate formula:

where t h e dimensionless q u a n t i t y A i s determined from t h e formula

>L
"

T h i s formula w i l l be derived i n S e c t i o n 3 . structed there.

Equation (1.31) will a l s o be con-

A=YO+

1+yo

1/

+ Pi, (?)

The graph i l E Figure 3.13 shows t h e dependence of A on j?bo ? f o r v o = 0.25. d i c a t e s t h a t t h e required damping can be s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduced by introducing & & a n e l a s t i c element i n t h e drag hinge of t h e r o t o r . An hprovement i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e system by a n i n c r e a s e i n is illustrated also by t h e series of graphs i n F'ig.3.&. A

eb

However, when introducing a n e l a s t i c element i n t o t h e design of t h e drag hinge o r when introducing soc a l l e d e l a s t i c i n t e r b l a d e couplings, i t i s necessary t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e bending moment a c t i n g on t h e blade r o o t i n f l i g h t i s generated both by t h e damper and by t h e e l a s t i c element i n t h e drag hinge. Therefore, upon i n 48 creasing t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e e l a s t i c element (on i n creasing F b o ) t h e moment exerted on t h e blade by t h e F'ig.3.13 Effect of e l a s t i c element ( o r i n t e r b l a d e couplings) w i l l i n c r e a s e simultaneously w i t h a decrease i n t h e required moment E l a s t i c i t y of t h e Drag Hinge on Reproduced by t h e damper. The optimal value of j?bo should be considered that value a t which t h e bending moment quired Damping. a t CORa c t i n g on t h e blade i n f l i g h t will be m i n i " , s t a n t damping margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground resonance. T h i s optimal value of p b o depends on &, and should be s e p a r a t e l y s e l e c t e d f o r each h e l i c o p t e r . For more d e t a i l s , see S e c t i o n 6.

' *' ''

3. Physical P i c t u r e of Rotor Behavior i n t h e Presence

of Ground Resonance
To e l u c i d a t e t h e p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e of r o t o r behavior i n t h e presence of ground resonance, l e t us examine t h e following problem:

Let t h e casing of t h e e l a s t i c base (fig.3.1) according t o t h e p r e s c r i b e d l a w :

x=xo sin pi,

execute harmonic v i b r a t i o n s

/268

(1.33)

where xo and p are t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency o f t h e casing.

Let us examine forced blade v i b r a t i o n s during such movement of t h e casing. The equation of motion (1.8) of t h e k-th r o t o r blade w i l l t a k e t h e following form i n this case:

--1p.h

(1.34)
p2xosin p t sin

292

F'ig.3.U.

Graphs I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e Effect of E l a s t i c i t y of t h e Drag Hinge (E = 0.04; v,, = 0.366).

=

Considering t h a t Q k

wt +

2 3 7 k n

(k

1 , 2,

..., n)

and representing t h e

right-hand s i d e of this equation as two harmonics, we can w r i t e t h e equation i n t h e form

T h i s i s t h e conventional equation of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a system w i t h one degree of freedom.

The right-hand s i d e of eq.(1.35) r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e which, i n this case, c o n s i s t s of two components, each of which r e p r e s e n t s a load varying + p ) , respecby a simple harmonic l a w w i t h a frequency equal t o (LU p ) o r (LU t i v e l y . E&- v i r t u e of t h e l i n e a r i t y of eq.(1.35), t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s due t o each of t h e s e loads can be examined independently. The f o r c e d (steady) vibrat i o n s of t h e blade will t a k e p l a c e i n obedience t o t h e law:

where

s2,

c p , l

cpz,

are c e r t a i n constants that are r e a d i l y determined from

eq.(1*35)

293

Thus, during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing of t h e e l a s t i c base according t o a simple harmonic l a w w i t h a frequency p, t h e r o t o r blades W i l l execute forced vib r a t i o n s w i t h two combined frequencies (w + p ) and (w p ) depending upon t h e angular v e l o c i t y u) of r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

The most i n t e n s e blade v i b r a t i o n s occur a t resonance, when one of t h e exc i t a t i o n frequencies (p + w ) o r ( p w ) i s c l o s e t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n fre-

quency of t h e blade p b = ,

L e t us first examine t h e case of resonance when

i n eq.(1.36) w i l l be appreciably g r e a t e r t h a n I n this case, t h e quantity t h e quantity s o t h a t we can neglect t h e second t e r m i n eq.( 1.36). With t h i s . s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and w i t h t h e condition (1.37), t h e l a w of motion of t h e blade w i l l have t h e form

s2,

where

Let us next c a l c u l a t e the f o r c e P, exerted on t h e casing of t h e e l a s t i c /269 base by t h e i n e r t i a of t h e r o t o r blades v i b r a t i n g i n this mode. For this, l e t us f i n d t h e displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system by means S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h e s e formulas eq.( 1.38) f o r S k and t a k i n g i n t o of eq.(1.12). account t h a t
n

and

3sin
k-1

easy transformations will y i e l d t h e following l a w of motion of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system:

x , = x + ce
2

Eo cos p t ;

e z,=CEosin 2 pt.

1 l

If we t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i n

294

t h e coordinate system x ' A z ' r e f e r r i n g to t h e casing are expressed by t h e formulas xi = x , x and z i = z , then t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e system of blades i n this coordinate system moves i n accordance w i t h t h e law:

, I zc=y e C E O sin pt.

Thus, a t resonance when t h e e q u a l i t y (1.37) i s s a t i s f i e d , t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system describes, i n t h e coordinate system f i x e d w i t h res p e c t t o t h e casing, a c i r c l e of r a d i u s & p e s o . I n this case, t h e angular vel o c i t y of i t s r o t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o this c i r c l e i s e q u a l t o t h e frequency p of t h e given v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing.

bt us t h e n determine t h e f o r c e P, a c t i n g on t h e casing, by means of t h e formula P, = -mbx,. Here, we o b t a i n t h e following expression:

p x = +nm,p2

..

x,

+' 2

Eo

cos p t .

S u b s t i t u t i n g here t h e expression for

so

from eq.( l.39), we o b t a i n

Thus, during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing by t h e harmonic l a w [eq.(1.33)1 and under t h e condition of blade resonance [eq.(1.37)1, t h e f o r c e exerted on t h e casing by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades v a r i e s i n time by a harmonic law with t h e same frequency p, w i t h a v i b r a t i o n phase n/2 (with r e s p e c t t o t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing) and i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e azimuth xo of t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing. Equation (1.42) can a l s o be represented i n t h e form

On deriving t h e equation of t h e casing (1.2) under t h e e f f e c t of t h e f o r c e P, given by such a n expression, we o b t a i n

Using our p r e v i o u s l y adopted notations, this equation can be w r i t t e n as

29 5

If it were p o s s i b l e t o f i n d t h e parameters of t h e system at which t h e l a w of motion of t h e casing [eq.(1.33)1 satisfies this equation, this would mean that, a t such system parameters, p u r e l y harmonic motion (undamped v i b r a t i o n s ) w i t h a frequency p would be p o s s i b l e . S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(1.33) i d 0 eq.(1.43), it i s easy t o demonstrate that this i s obtained when t h e following two conditions are s a t i s f i e d :

Furthermore, it should be r e c a l l e d that eq.(1.43) was derived from t h e cond i t i o n of blade resonance, i.e., under t h e c o n d i t i o n (1.37) which, t a k i n g po = p i n t o account, can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

From this equation, one can determine t h e value of t h e c r i t i c a l angular ve, of rotor r o t a t i o n at which undamped v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e system are poslocity w siblee Equation ( 1 . 4 4 ) g i v e s t h e value of t h e product k E b a t which undarped vib r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e ; then, as now i s obvious, this formula t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n (1.45) w i l l y i e l d t h e approximate formula (1.31). Thus, undamped v i b r a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e only at a value of w a t which two resonances occur simultaneously: resonance of t h e blade [ c o n d i t i o n (1.45)1 a d resonance of t h e e l a s t i c base p = po. A t such a value of w and on s a t i s f y i n g t h e condition ( I . & ) , t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base can be sustained by a variable e x c i t i n g f o r c e generated by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades, which here a r e i n a state of resonance.

A study of eq.(1.35) shows that blade resonance i s p o s s i b l e i n two cases, namely: when one of t h e combined frequencies (p + w ) o r ( p - w ) coincides w i t h t h e natural frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s , i.e.,

and when

O f t h e s e two cases, we examined only t h e first. For t h e second case, a l l derived formulas are obtained i n t h e same manner except that, i n a l l expressions, t h e quantity w i s replaced by t h e q u a n t i t y -w, i n c l u d i n g a l s o i n eqs.(l.&). undamped v i b r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e T h i s expression shows t h a t , a t p = Ip +

wI ,

296

o d y if &,Eb < 0, meaning t h a t i n this case one of t h e q u a n t i t i e s & and &, should be negative. Consequently ground resonance i s p o s s i b l e only a t Pb = = 1.p w~ and impossible a t p b = [p + w1.

L e t us next peruse t h e resonance diagram ( F i g .3.15). T h i s diagram gives /271 t h e curve of t h e natural blade frequency Pb as a f u n c t i o n of t h e angular vel o c i t y w, w i t h s u p e r p o s i t i o n of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s p = po + w and p = Ipo The diagram i s p l o t t e d f o r t h e case of Pbo < p o .

- wI .

A s we see from t h e diagram, t h e r e are two values of w a t which t h e condition Pb = po . w corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s A and B, i s satisf i e d . For t h e p o i n t A, we have t h e c o n d i t i o n Pb = po w and, f o r t h e p o i n t B, t h e condiPo t i o n pb = w

- I,

Thus, i n t h e first case w < po and i n t h e second, w > po. Turning t o t h e second condit i o n of t h e system ( l . , ! + ! + ) , we see t h a t it can be s a t i s f i e d ( a t p o s i t i v e values of and n,) o n l y f o r w > p o . Consequently, of t h e two p o s s i b l e values of w at which blade resonance i s p o s s i b l e , only one (w > p o ) can correspond t o undamped v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system. Fig .3.15 Resonance Diagram. Let us determine this value of w and c a l l it ( w c r ) c r i t i c a l . eq.(1.45) r e l a t i v e t o w and d i s c a r d i n g one of t h e obtained values find
1

ocr=Po

+ l/vF+p:,
~

(1 - v i )

1- v i

At

Fb,

0 we o b t a i n t h e formula

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e value of w ,, 1 . & ) , we f i n d t h e system (

from eq.(l.46)

i n t o t h e second c o n d i t i o n of

where

297

'

These formulas e x a c t l y coincide w i t h t h e approximate equations (1.31) and

(1.32)
The reasonings set f o r t h here, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s given i n S e c t i o n 2, permit t o state: The c o n d i t i o n q,n,

--

>

c(1-

VO)

always pro-

8 VO
v i d e s s t a b i l i t y a t t h e c r i t i c a l angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n determined by However, as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e graphs i n Figs.3.3 t o eq.(1.46). 3.12, this condition holds only when t h e q u a n t i t i e s and & are of t h e same o r d e r of magnitude. T h i s means t h a t ensurance of s t a b i l i t y a t w = wcr does not d e f i n i t e l y ensure s t a b i l i t y a t any w.

nb

4.

Rotor on a n I s o t r o p i c E - b s t i c Ease

The t h e o r y of s t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base presented i n this Section holds only i f t h e number of r o t o r blades n 2 3 and i f t h e e l a s t i c base has only one degree of freedom, namely motion along t h e Ox-axis (Fig.3.2). /272 However, a n analogous s t a b i l i t y t h e o r y can be constructed a l s o f o r t h e more g e n e r a l case where t h e e l a s t i c base has two degrees of freedom: displacement along t h e axes O x and 02. A s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s f o r this more complex system i s r a t h e r cumbersome. On t h e o t h e r hand, i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n one can almost always use t h e formulas f o r t h e case of a n e l a s t i c base w i t h one degree of freedom. Thus, this can be done whenever t h e natural l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l vibrat i o n frequencies of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing g e a r (see Sect.5) are far apart.

It i s of i n t e r e s t t o give a f e w simple r e s u l t s , obtained i n t h e s t a b i l i t y t h e o r y f o r a r o t o r on an e l a s t i c support w i t h two degrees of freedom i n t h e s p e c i a l case of a so-called i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c support when t h e s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e e l a s t i c attachment of t h e casing t o t h e base are i d e n t i c a l i n both d i r e c t i o n s (Ox and O z ) . I n this case, t h e e l a s t i c and damping p r o p e r t i e s of t h e base are i d e n t i c a l i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane XOZ. Therefore, such a base o r support i s c a l l e d i s o t r o p i c .
L e t t h e s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e i s o t r o p i c base, i d e n t i c a l i n d i r e c t i o n s of t h e Ox- and Oz-axes, be characterized r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c and k, so t h a t t h e f o r c e s P, and P, applied t o t h e base are r e l a t e d with t h e corresponding displacements x and z by t h e formulas
dx

= - C Z - I C - .dz dt

It i s found t h a t , i n this case, t h e r e can a l s o be i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e rot0.r on a n e l a s t i c base. Here t h e unstable range i s c l o s e t o t h e same value of w = = w , as before:
29 8

1
Wcr

+ 1/ vi +X0(1-4)
1- v i

=Po

(1.49)

At

Fbo

= 0, just

as before, we o b t a i n a simpler formula:

-- 1- Vo
-- -

(1.50)

I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t i e s po, Pb,, t h e formulas:

and v o are determined, as usual, by

Analogous formulas are obtained f o r determining t h e required damping, but t h e required damping i n this case i s g r e a t e r by a f a c t o r of 2. The formula f o r t h e required damping a t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone cont r a c t s t o a p o i n t , has t h e form

/273

The q u a n t i t i e s S e c t i o n 2. $ t e r a l

and A are determined, as before, by eqs.(1.26)

and (1.32).

Vibrations of a Single-Rotor Helicopter

1. __ Preliminary Comments
I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear we can regard t h e f u s e l a g e as a p e r f e c t l y s o l i d body a t t a c h e d t o a s t a t i o n a r y base (ground) by means of a system of e l a s t i c elements. The c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r , a s Will be shown below, can be reduced t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base, examined i n Section 1 . The i n i t i a l d a t a for such a c a l c u l a t i o n ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e l a s t i c base) are derived from a preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r i g i d f u s e l a g e on an e l a s t i c landing gear.
A h e l i c o p t e r regarded as a s o l i d body on a n e l a s t i c landing gear has six

299

degrees of freedom. However, s i n c e t h e fuselage, as a r u l e , has a plane of s y m m e t r y , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and lateral n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be examined independently of each o t h e r . For a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a n elongated fuselage, t h e lateral vib r a t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y c a l c u l a t e d from t h e viewpoint of ground resonance. I n t h e presence of l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s , t h e damping margin f o r eliminating ground resonance i s appreciably g r e a t e r . Therefore, t o c a l c u l a t e ground resonance of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r it s u f f i c e s t o examine only l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s ( s e e a l s o s e c t .5). When examining t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s , we must t a k e i n t o account three deg r e e s of freedom: 1) l a t e r a l displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; 2) r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s ( r o l l i n g ) ; 3) r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s (yawing). Generally speaking, t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s corresponding t o t h e s e three degrees of freedom cannot be regarded as independent. For exanple, on l a t e r a l displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of a h e l i c o p t e r , f o r c e s are generated t h a t cause r o l l i n g , e t c . However, i n a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r f o r which t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f u s e l a g e dimensions are r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e i n comparison w i t h i t s l a t e r a l dimensions ( t h i s need not be he case, e.g., f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of c o a x i a l and side-by-side conf i g u r a t i o n s ) , t h e yawing v i b r a t i o n s are weakly r e l a t e d w i t h l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and w i t h i t s r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . Therefore, i n f i r s t appro.dmation, t h e yawing v i b r a t i o n s f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r can be regarded as independent. Furthermore, during yawing v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i copter t h e displacements of t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n are r e l a t i v e l y small ( i n comparison w i t h l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s ) so t h a t , as a r u l e , yawing v i b r a t i o n s f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r are not dangerous s o far as ground resonance i s concerned. A s we Will s e e l a t e r (Sect.S), such v i b r a t i o n s are dangerous f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of fore-and-aft and side-by-side configurations. Thus, i n studying t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r it i s s u f f i c i e n t , i n first approximation, t o consider t h e f u s e l a g e as a body w i t h two degrees of freedom: 1) lateral displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; 2) r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axk ( r o l l i n g ) . With such s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e problem of n a t u r a l l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of , & & a h e l i c o p t e r can be reduced t o t h e problem of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a two-dimens i o n a l s o l i d body e l a s t i c a l l y attached i n i t s own p l a n e (Fig.3.16).

2. L a t e r a l and Angular S t i f f n e s s of k n d i r w Gear. F l e x u r a l Center

Let a r i g i d body A, simulating a h e l i c o p t e r fuselage, be mounted t o a staWe s e l e c t a f i x e d cot i o n a r y base by means of a system of s p r i n g s (Fig.3.16). o r d i n a t e system yc,z, d i r e c t i n g t h e a x i s coy along t h e a x i s of spmetry of t h e
300

body and t h e a x i s coz along t h e a x i s of t h e h o r i z o n t a l s p r i n g s c,l.

If, t o t h e body A, a f o r c e P, p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s coz a t a d i s t a n c e y from t h e p o i n t co i s applied, t h e n t h e deformations of t h e s p r i n g s Will cause t h e body A t o be displaced i n i t s own p l a n e s o that i t s a x i s of synadetry W i l l come t o occupy a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n CAY'. Let us denote by cp t h e angle of rotat i o n of t h e a x i s of symmetry of t h e body ( a n g l e of roll) and by z t h e displacement of t h e p o i n t c o (segment
COCA)

Let t h e s p r i n g s have l i n e a r chara c t e r i s t i c s . Then, as i s known, a p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e i s always found on t h e a x i s coy (or a value of y ) a t which t h e angular displacement cp of t h e body W i l l be equal t o zero, meaning t h a t , upon a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e P, a t this p o i n t , t h e body Will undergo p u r e l y forward d i s placement (cp = 0 ) . W e W i l l c a l l such a p o i n t t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber system.
F i g .3

. l h

Diagram of E l a s t i c Mounti n g of Helicopter.

ment

If, t o t h e body A, a couple With a moment M i s applied, t h e n t h e body W i l l undergo only angular displace-

t u r n i n g about t h e flexural c e n t e r .

It i s easy t o see that, f o r t h e simplest shock absorber system, as it i s shown i n Fig.3.16, t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y W i l l be l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t c 0 . The p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e shock absorber system i s conveniently characterized by t h e magnitude of t h e d i s t a n c e e from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c of t h e body t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c 0 .
If, t o t h e body, a f o r c e P, d i r e c t e d along t h e a x i s of symmetry coy i s app l i e d , t h e n t h e body W i l l undergo only forward displacement y along t h e a x i s coy. Since t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l l e l a s t i c elements of a shock absorber system are l i n e a r , t h e f o r c e s P,, P, and t h e moment M of t h e couple are l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d w i t h t h e corresponding displacements y, z, and cp of t h e body A.

Let this r e l a t i o n be expressed by t h e formulas:

We Will c a l l t h e q u a n t i t i e s c y , c,, and cy, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of v e r t i c a l , lateral, and angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber system.

The e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e shock absorber l e g are f u l l y determined by four parameters: p o s i t i o n of t h e flexural c e n t e r (e) and c o e f f i c i e n t s of stiffness c y , c,, and ccpFor t h e simplest shock absorber system depicted i n Fig.3.16, t h e coef/275 f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock a b s o r p t i o n can be determined by means of t h e formulas :

where
c:

and c i = c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s of t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l springs; 2a = d i s t a n c e between t h e axes of t h e v e r t i c a l springs (wheel track).

n)

Fig .3

- Pyramidal;

.l7 Various Landing Gear Configurations.

b

- With

vertical struts.

The types of h e l i c o p t e r landing g e a r s are mainly of two v a r i a n t s : 1) pyramidal landing gear; 2) landing g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s . The e l a s t i c shock a.bsorber systems corresponding t o t h e s e two types of landi n g g e a r are depicted i n Fig.3.17, a and b. The pneumatic t i r e s i n this scheme can be considered p e r f e c t l y r i g i d , aLld t h e i r e l a s t i c i t y can be simulated by s p e c i a l s p r i n g s w i t h s t i f f n e s s e s cpy and
302

. .. . .

.._

cPZn, equal, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o t h e v e r t i c a l and lateral s t i f f n e s s of t h e pneumatic tire. The c o e f f i c i e n t of v e r t i c a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e can be determined from t h e diagram of s t a t i c t i r e compression, which i s always available i n t h e c a t a l o g of wheels and r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e magnitude of t h e f o r c e compressing t h e t i r e toward t h e r i m s u r f a c e t o t h e magnitude of t h e corresponding t i r e compression. The l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e , i f t h e r e are no d a t a a v a i l a b l e , can a l s o be determined experimentally. The magnitude of l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e must a l s o be k n m f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s of shinany. Therefore, i f shimmy has been c a l c u l a t e d f o r a given wheel, t h e magnitude of t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s w i l l be known. For a n approximate determination of l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of a t i r e we can a l s o use Table 3.1.

Type of Pneumatic Tire

cp/cr
0.7-0.9

Arched Semi-balloon High -p r e s s u re

l i n e a r e l a s t i c element, and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s determined by t h e diagram of s t a t i c compression of t h e s t r u t which g i v e s t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on t h e s t r u t as a f u n c t i o n of t h e s t r o k e s of t h e strut. I n c a l c u l a t i n g small v i b r a t i o n s , t h e s t r u t can be replaced by a n equivalent l i n e a r e l a s t i c

0.4-0.64 0.3-0.4

where s S t i s t h e standing compression of t h e shock absorber. I n a landing gear system w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s (Fig.3.17,b) t h e flexural c e n t e r of shock absorption i s always s i t u a t e d a t t h e p o i n t c o on t h e ground surface. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s of such a landing gear a r e determined by eqs.(2.4) where c i and c ! are equal, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o

For a pyramidal landing gear ( Fig .3 4.1, a ) , t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r i s always above t h e ground surface, and i t s p o s i t i o n m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d by s p e c i a l formulas which we W i l l give below. The pyramidal landing g e a r i s a s p e c i a l v e r s i o n of a more co l e x landing g e a r system developed by t h e B r i t i s h B r i s t o l Aeroplane Co. ( R e f . 3 3 and depicted 303

(schematically) i n Fig.3.18. T h i s landing g e a r system d i f f e r s from t h e pyramid a l landing gear by t h e presence of a rocker AB and a s p e c i a l h o r i z o n t a l s p r i n g of s t i f f n e s s c a p . I n this system, t h e height of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r co (i.e., t h e q u a n t i t y e) can be varied by s e l e c t i n g a c e r t a i n s p r i n g cons t a n t c a p . I n p a r t i c u l a r , by choosing a c e r t a i n value of c S p it i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a p o s i t i o n a t which t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber system coi n c i d e s w i t h t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . I n this case, as will be s e e n l a t e r , t h e r e i s no coupling between t h e r o l l i n g v i b r a t i o n s and t h e l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , which permits obtaining good h e l i c o p t e r characteri s t i c s w i t h respect t o ground resonance ( s e e Sect .4, Subsect. 3).
For t h e landing g e a r system dep5cted.i.n Fig.3.18, we can write t h e followi n g formulas which can be derived e a s i l y by t h e u s u a l methods of s t r u c t u r a l mechanics :
cy =
1
1

(Gp)

(w) (5)
1
+

m
( 2 . 1 0 )
where
= d i s t a n c e between ground s u r f a c e and t h e p o i n t F of i n t e r s e c t i o n of

t h e axes of t h e shock s t r u t s ( s e e Fig.3.18);

1 = d i s t a n c e between shock absorber a x i s and t h e p o i n t A; 1, = d i s t a n c e between t h e poin5s F and A; 1, = d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t F and h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y .

A s a s p e c i a l case, t h e derived formulas c o n t a i n t h e formulas f o r calcuTo o b t a i n formulas of t h e l a t i n g t h e pyramidal landing gear ( s e e Fig.3.17,a). pyramidal landing gear, i t i s necessary t o s e t c a p = i n e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 7and ) (2.8).

3. Natural L a t e r a l Vibrations of a Helicopter

Let us now t u r n t o Fig.3.16. I n studying t h e l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s , l e t us use, f o r t h e body A, two degrees of freedom corresponding t o t h e c o o r d i w t e s cp e w i l l impose an a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n on t h e motion of t h e body A: W and z . W e will s t i p u l a t e that t h e p o i n t 0 , belonging t d t h e body A a t a d i s t a n c e ak from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e body remains s t a t i o n a r y . Then, t h e body A w i l l have one degree of freedom r o t a t i o n about t h e p o i n t 0,. The equation of natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e body A, a t t a c h e d i n this manner, w i l l have t h e form

(2.11)

where

I,, = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e body r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t 0,:

l o k =f , ma:;

(2.12)

I, = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e body r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ; m = m a s s of t h e body.

The c o e f f i c i e n t cok r e p r e s e n t s t h e angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber system upon r o t a t i o n of /278 t h e body A r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t 0,. The quantity cok i s r e a d i l y determined i f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r c o of t h e shock abs o r b e r a n d i t s angular s t i f f n e s s c c p and l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s c, are known. Upon r o t a t i o n of t h e body through a n angle cp r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t o k , t h e flexural c e n t e r i s displaced by t h e amount
z=cp (ah-e)

(2.13)

Landing Gear Scheme of t h e Fig.3.U Eit-istol 192 Helicopter.

I n this case, a f o r c e P, = c,z d i r e c t e d t o t h e l e f t and a couple of moment M = cYcp d i r e c t e d counterclockwise w i l l be applied t o t h e body a t t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r . The moment of t h e s e f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o the point 0, i s
M=P,
(Uk-

e>+C,~=[[C,$C,(Ok-e!'l(p.

Hence, we o b t a i n t h e f o l b w i n g formula f o r t h e angular s t i f f n e s s c o k :

The natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e body w i t h t h e f i x e d p o i n t 0, i s

C
P k = r
*&
%

Ok

or

During v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system a t t h e p o i n t o k , a r e a c t i o n f o r c e R arises If we could s e l e c t a p o i n t which w i l l depend on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p o i n t 0, of attachment 0, ( a value of a k ) f o r which R = 0, this would mean t h a t such a p o i n t 0, i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n node of a free system w i t h a movable p o i n t o k , and t h e corresponding frequency Pk i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of a f r e e system. The r e a c t i o n f o r c e R i s r e a d i l y determined: During v i b r a t i o n , t h e body A i s loaded by t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e F f i a p p E e d a t t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s O,

8"= -mi, = - m" yak

and a l s o by t h e couple of i n e r t i a f o r c e s . The f o r c e s exerted by t h e shock abs o r p t i o n on t h e body are a l s o reduced t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e

P, = c,z = c c ,p (+-e)
and t o t h e couple. Therefore, p r o j e c t i n g a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e body onto t h e axis coz, we o b t a i n

I f
then

R=[cz (a, - e) -mpia,] yoCOS pkt.

Equating this expression t o zero yields
cz (ak - e) -mpia,= 0.

From this, we o b t a i n t h e following formula r e l a t i n g t h e natural frequency of t h e system w i t h t h e po.sition a, of t h e vibration.node:

/279

a, =
1-

(z)2
e

(2.16)

'

where

Excluding t h e q u a n t i t y pk from eqs.(2.15) and (2.16), we o b t a i n a quadratic T h i s quadratic equation always has e m a t i o n f o r determining t h e quantity two r e a l r o o t s a l and a 2 , which correspond t o t h e two natural v i b r a t i o n overt o n e s of t h e system. For each overtone, we o b t a i n a c e r t a i n n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency pk which, a t a known a k , can be determined from eqs.( 2.16) o r (2.15). To determine t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies p k and t h e corresponding

306

Fig.3.19 Graphs for Determining t h e Natural Helicopter Frequencies.

Fig.3.20 Graphs for Determining t h e P o s i t i o n of Vibration Nodes.

" I I
I

p r - 215cyc/min
I

ItY

V i b r a t i o n node tone

J
Fig.3.21

of f i r s t o v e r t o n e

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Vibration Modes of t h e First and Second Overtones.

Fig.3.22 Diagram of a Linear E l a s t i c Element w i t h Damping.

307

quarrtities ak, i t i s converLent t o reduce a l l formulas t o a dimensionless form, introducing t h e n o t a t i o n s :

a,=e ak

.
9

( 2 3 )

The f i n a l formulas f o r determining w r i t t e n , i n such notations, i n t h e form

a , (k

1 , 2) and

Pk ( k

= 1 , 2) can be

(2.22) where (2.23)

>,=I/
(2.24)

1 -=;1
=k

(at

R = l , 2).

(2.24)

For convenience of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n nodes

of t h e f i r s t and second harmonics and t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n frequencies, Figs.3.19 and 3.20 show graphs c a l c u l a t e d by means of eqs.(2.22), (2.23), and

The lower of t h e frequencies p1 and pz Will be c a l l e d t h e frequency of t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone w h i l e t h e higher frequency W i l l be t h a t of t h e second overtone. The v i b r a t i o n node of t h e f i r s t overtone i s always below t h e c e n t e r > 0 ) w h i l e t h e v i b r a t i o n node of t h e second of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r overtone i s always above t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y (a, < 0 ) .

(al

Figure 3.21 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e first and second harmonics for a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a pyramidal landing gear.

4.

Determination of D a m p i n g C o e f f i c i e n t s

The damping of v i b r a t i o n s ( i .e. , absorption of energy .during.v i b r a t i o n s ) i s g e n e r a l l y small and can be neglected i n determinations of t h e n a t u r a l frequencies and p o s i t i o n s of t h e nodes ( a s was done i n Subsect .3). Damping of v i b r a t i o n s t a k e s p l a c e mainly i n t h e shock s t r u t s of t h e land- /281 i n g gear. Damping i n pneumatic t i r e s can be disregarded i n first approximation.

L e t us examine t h e system depicted i n Fig.3.Z. kt c e r t a i n l i n e a r e l a s t i c elements w i t h damping be i n s t a l l e d i n p l a c e of t h e s p r i n g s . Such a n element i s schematically shown i n Fig.3.22. Let t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on this element and i t s

308

displacement s ( s t r o k e of t h e element) be connected by t h e r e l a t i o n

W e w i l l c a l l t h e q u a n t i t i e s c and k, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e e l a s t i c element.

We w i l l denote t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e e l a s t i c elements i n t h e system shown i n Fig.3.16 by c l , c:, k:, and k:, respectively?'. The equation of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e body A r e l a t i v e t o t h e node can be w r i t t e n analogously t o e q . ( 2 . l l ) i n t h e form
f Ok(P

-tko,b+

CORY =0,

(2.26) and ( 2 . a ) and

where t h e q u a n t i t i e s I,, and c,, are determined from eqs.(2.12) t h e q u a n t i t y k o k , by t h e formula

ko, =2Rka2 2k: (ak - e)2.

(2.27)

We w i l l c a l l this q u a n t i t y t h e angular c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e shock absorber system upon r o t a t i o n of t h e body r e l a t i v e t o t h e v i b r a t i o n node 0,. Equation (2.26) can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

Y 4- 2 4 4

+PtY

=0 ,

(2.28)

where Pk ( k = 1 , 2) i s t h e frequency of t h e k-th v i b r a t i o n overtone, while t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t nk i s determined by t h e formula

The natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be des c r i b e d approximately by t h e l a w :

where
cpo = i n i t i a l angle of d e f l e c t i o n ;

= phase angle.

The natural v i b r a t i o n frequency Pk can be t a k e n as approximately equal t o t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e k-th overtone, c a l c u l a t e d without con-

'' The manner of

determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k: and k: W i l l be shown i n Subsect i o n 5 of this Section, and a l s o i n Subsections 1 and 2 of Section 3.

309

s i d e r a t i o n of danqsing

In o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e q u a n t i t i e s k: and k, f o r a s p e c i f i c landing gear system (see Fig.3.17,a and b) it i s necessary t o determine f i r s t t h e e f f e c t of t h e system formed by t h e shock s t r u t and t h e t i r e .
5 Combined Acti-0~n-G t h e .s;Vs&em Shock. Strut-P.ne:wa$i.c. T i r e
~

We w i l l d i s c u s s here a landing gear system w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s (see The t i r e - o l e o combination r e p r e s e n t s two s p r i n g s w i t h s t i f f n e s s e s Fig.3.17,b). Y p n connected i n sequence. c B a 8and c

Let us examine t h e work done by such a system f o r t h e case i n which t h e 1282 shock absorber has damping. Such a system i s shown i n Fig.3.23. Let t h e shock absorber have a l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c analogous t o eq.( 2.25) :

After d e r i v i n g t h e equations of motion of t h e t i r e - o l e o system, it i s easy t o show t h a t , w i t h t h e given harmonic l a w of v a r i a t i o n of i t s t o t a l s t r o k e s w i t h a frequency p, t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on t h e shock abs o r o e r i s expressed by t h e formula
ds

P=ceps+keq

(2.32)

Fig.3.23 Schematic Diagram of Tire-Oleo System.

where s e s and k,, are t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of some e p v a l e n t l y l i n e a r shock absorber of t h e conventional t y p e (Fig.3.22) and can be determined by means of t h e formulas :

Thus, i n v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s a landing gear system w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s (see Fig.3.17,b) can be replaced by t h e system shown i n Fig.3.16, i n which t h e chara c t e r i s t i c s of e l a s t i c i t y and damping of v e r t i c a l s p r i n g s are s e l e c t e d accordi n g t o eqs.(2.33) and (2.34). A t k B e 8= 0, eq.(2.33) y i e l d s a value of c, equal t o t h e value of c i obtained by t h e second equation of t h e system (2.8). Consequently, i n t h e presence of damping, eq.(2.6) g e n e r a l l y speaking - does not hold. However, f o r a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n of natural frequencies we can use eq. (2.6) f o r determining c:, s i n c e t h e value of c,, determined by eq.( 2.33)

i s c l o s e t o t h e value of c i found from eq.(2.6). After determining t h e natural frequency p, t h e value of c: can be r e f i n e d by eq.(2.33), followed by r e f i n e ment of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e frequency p.

For a n exact c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e natural frequencies we can use t h e method of successive approAmations ( i n p r a c t i c e , t h e above c o r r e c t i o n equivalent t o t h e first approximation i s s u f f i c i e n t ) or else t h e following method: Prescribi n g t h e values of c: i n t h e i n t e r v a l

w e f i n d t h e natural frequencies and then, from eq.(2.33), we f i n d f o r t h e given ce 9 = c i t h e corresponding value of ka. A s a r e s u l t of this c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e graph of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system can be p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of k s , a . Calculations show t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes depend l i t t l e on t h e q u a n t i t y ka. a Therefore, i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c a r r y out t h e above-described approximate c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h a subsequent s i n g l e refinement of t h e frequencies.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t n, i n g t h e t i r e damping, i n eqs.(2.27):

[eq.(2.29)]

we can set, neglect-

/283

For a pyramidal landing gear, t h e damping of v i b r a t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d approximately by t h e same method; however, i n c a l c u l a t i n g k e q , t h e q u a n t i t i e s c a s * and k a e a i n eq.(2.34) must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e values of t h e so-called s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e shock absorber reduced t o t h e t i r e ci:: and k;::, determined by means of t h e formulas :

Fig .3 .& Equivalent Damping as a Function of Shock Absorber Damping.

where 1 i s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e shock abs o r b e r a x i s a n d t h e p o i n t A ( s e e Figs.3.18 and 3.17,a) of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e axes of t h e lower i n c l i n e d s t r u t s .

Let us d i s c u s s i n more d e t a i l t h e dependence of t h e equivalent damping coFigure 3 .& g i v e s e f f i c i e n t ke, of t h e t i r e - o l e o system on t h e q u a n t i t y ka. a t h e graph of this dependence. A s i n d i c a t e d t h e r e , t h e q u a n t i t y k C Q i n c r e a s e s a t w h c h mazhum w i t h i n c r e a s i n g kB.a only up t o a c e r t a i n value ks. a = k",: damping kEix i s a t t a i n e d . Upon f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n ks. a , t h e damping of t h e t i r e - o l e o system decreases.

of k :

From eq.( 2.34) it i s easy t o o b t a i n t h e expression f o r t h e optimal value : (2.36)

For this value of k,.,, of c : ~ and k;agx :

e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 3 3and ) (2.34) g i v e t h e corresponding values

W e s e e from t h e last formula that t h e maximum o b t a i n a b l e value of k t t x i s

Therefore, from t h e cxn viewpoint of damping of l a t e r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s , t h e t i r e should be as r i g i d as p o s s i b l e and t h e shock absorber should be as l i t t l e r i g i d as p o s s i b l e . A t improper s e l e c t i o n of t h e landing gear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber 8 . 8) it may happen t h a t ground resonance i s
Y
C

g r e a t e r t h e smaller t h e r a t i o

-and t h e l a r g e r cYpn.
Cs. a

impossible t o eliminate no matter how f a r t h e shock absorber damping i s increased.

CP n

6 . Reduction of t h e Problem t o Calculation of a Rotor

on a n E l a s t i c Base
After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground, i.e., a f t e r determining frequencies, p o s i t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n nodes, and dampi n g c o e f f i c i e n t s for both natural v i b r a t i o n overtones, i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e ground resonance i n f i r s t approximation by reducing t h e problem t o c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base.

It would be p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y out a n exact c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance by deriving t h e equations of motion of t h e r o t o r blades and of t h e h e l i c o p t e r body i n a manner similar t o that used i n S e c t i o n 1 f o r a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base. Then, t h e order of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation would be higher t h e more degrees of freedom of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on an e l a s t i c landing g e a r are t a k e n i n t o account. However it would be necessary i n each case t o perform cumbersome calculations.
An approximate c a l c u l a t i o n based on reducing t h e problem t o a rotor on a f l e x i b l e support p e r r d t s using e s t a b l i s h e d d a t a obtained for a r o t o r on a n elas-

31 2

t i c base. tion.

The accuracy of such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s adequate f o r p r a c t i c a l applica-

The essence of such a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n i s as follows: An i n d i v i d u a l c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance i s c a r r i e d out f o r each natural v i b r a t i o n harmonic of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground; i n this, t h e h e l i c o p t e r casing i s C O ~ s i d e r e d as a body with one degree of freedom r o t a t i o n about t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n node.

The equation of motion of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a fixed v i b r a t i o n node has t h e form

The right-hand s i d e of this equation r e p r e s e n t s t h e moment of t h e f o r c e P due t o t h e v i b r a t i n g r o t o r blades r e l a t i v e t o t h e v i b r a t i o n node of t h e harmonic i n question. The q u a n t i t y h i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e plane of t h e r o t o r t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

W e t h e n introduce a new variable x = rp(h + a ) representing t h e degree of displacement of t h e r o t o r c e n t e r . Equation (2.39r can now be r e w r i t t e n i n a form analogous t o t h e equation of motion [eq.(1.2)1 of a n e l a s t i c base:

where t h e q u a n t i t i e s G q , kEq, c e q represent t h e mass, damping, and s t i f f n e s s of t h e equivalent e l a s t i c base and are c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e formulas:

Thus, t h e problem reduces t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n equivalent e l a s t i c base whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s determined from eqs.(2.41), (2.42), and (2.43).

It i s easy t o demonstrate that, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance by means of t h e formulas given i n Section 1 , we require only three c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e l a s t i c base m, = me q , no = n k [see eq.(2.8)1, and p, = Pk, which are obtained from c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e natural l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helicopter.
Thus, f o r each n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c /285 landing gear, we c a r r y out a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance by means of t h e formulas derived f o r a r o t o r on a flexible support (Sect .1) I n such a c a l c u l a t i o n , we can determine t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones and

313

t h e magnitudes of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e blade and landing gear, which are required f o r e l i m i n a t i n g instabili-Ly w i t h r e s p e c t t o each v i b r a t i o n overtone.

7 Analysis of t h e- R e -s u l t s off'Croqd-Re.sonance- C a c . l & $ t . s g The r e s u l t s of ground resonance c a l c u l a t i o n s are conveniently represented Figure 3.25 shows such a diagram f o r t h e Mi-& helicopter. The a b s c i s s a g i v e s t h e r o t o r rpm w h i l e t h e o r d i n a t e shows t h e r o t o r t h r u s t T.

as a diagram of s a f e rpm.

The v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o n t h e ground are c a l c u l a t e d i n two v a r i a n t s : 1) shock s t r u t s of t h e landing gear o p e r a t i v e ; 2) shock s t r u t s i n o p e r a t i v e .

Tk9
BO00

6000
4000

2000
0

Diagram of Safe Revolutions f o r t h e M i - 4 Helicopter. w1 Frequency of f i r s t v i b r a t i o n overtone w i t h s t r u t s inoperat i v e ; w, Frequency of second v i b r a t i o n overtone w i t h s t r u t s i n o p e r a t i v e ; v$- and w z Frequency of first and second overtones with s t r u t s o p e r a t i v e . Fig .3.25

T h i s must be done s i n c e t h e shock s t r u t s of t h e landing g e a r operate only when t h e compressive f o r c e of t h e s t r u t i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e so-called f o r c e of p r e t i g h t e n i n g of t h e shock absorber. Therefore, a t a c e r t a i n ( c r i t i c a l ) value of t h r u s t T = T,, of t h e r o t o r , t h e f o r c e compressing t h e s t r u t becomes less t h a n t h e f o r c e of p r e t i g h t e n i n g of t h e shock absorber and t h e s t r u t ceases t o operate. A t T > T,,, t h e shock absorber s t r u t s behave as r i g i d rods, and t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s a b l e t o rock only as a consequence of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e t i r e s which are virt u a l l y devoid of damping. The unstable range of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e s t r u t s .is u s u a l l y impossible t o eliminate and i s always p r e s e n t i n t h e diagram of safe rpm (this range i s hatched i n Fig.3.25).
The boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones ard t h e zone of p o s s i b l e values of r o t o r t h r u s t T and r p m n permitted by t h e r o t o r and engine c o n t r o l systems

3w.

(system pitch-gas) are p l o t t e d i n t h e diagram of safe rpm. Lf none of t h e possible combinations of t h e values of T and n come t o l i e o u t s i d e t h e boundaries of t h e unstable range, s t a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s ensured. I n t h i s case, it i s always d e s i r a b l e ( f o r g r e a t e r d e t a i l s , see Sect.6) t o have a c e r t a i n s t a b i l i t y margin, i.e., s u f f i c i e n t d i s t a n c e s i n t h e diagram between t h e boundaries of t h e unstable range and t h e boundaries of t h e p o s s i b l e T and n values.

For a s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h conventional larding-gear design & & (pyramidal landing g e a r o r g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s ; see Fig .3.17,a and b) , t h e frequency of t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone g e n e r a l l y i s below t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r (Fig.3.25), whereas t h e frequency of t h e second overtone u s u a l l y i s above this rpm. Therefore, s e l e c t i o n of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s must ensure absence of an i n s t a b i l i t y zone of t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone w i t h t h e s t r u t s operative. Here, a reliable damping margin i s required. The s t a b i l i t y margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone can be ensured i n p r a c t i c e only W i t h r e s p e c t t o r o t o r rpm" and can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c e r t a i n quantity 7 :

where n,
ax

= =

& m u m

n,

possible rotor rpm; r p m corresponding t o t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone of t h e second overtone.

Section 3. C h a r a c t g r i s t i c s o f D a w i l w of Landing - Gear and Blade. Influence on Ground Resonance

1 . -Determination o f t h e D-ing Gear ShocL Absorber

coefficient^ of t h e I a n d i r q

In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural frequencies of a h e l i c o p t e r we assumed that t h e shock absorbers of t h e landing gear have l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Actually, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e shock s t r u t of a landing gear are nonlinear as a r u l e . However, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g small h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s (as u s u a l l y done i n t h e t h e o r y of nonlinear v i b r a t i o n s ) t h e nonlinear shock absorber can be replaced by some equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber, f o r which t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and damping depend on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency and amplitude. For a n approximate determination of t h e s t i f f n e s s of a n equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber we have To determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of damping k of a n equivalent proposed eq.(2.5). l i n e a r shock absorber, we can suggest another s h p l e formula. This formula can be derived i f we consider as equivalent a l i n e a r shock absorber which, p e r vibrat i o n period, absorbs t h e same energy as a r e a l shock absorber a t t h e same vibrat i o n frequency and amplitude.
The most common designs of shock s t r u t s of a given landing gear absorb energy because of f r i c t i o n i n t h e packing glands and of t h e hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e set q when t h e hydraulic f l u i d i s forced through small o r i f i c e s .
If we assume t h e f o r c e of hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e i n such a shock s t r u t as pro-

p o r t i o n a l t o t h e square of v e l o c i t y , t h e n t h e dependence of t h e f o r c e of resistance P of t h e s t r u t on t h e rate ds of dt

i t s compression can be expressed as

where Po i s t h e f o r c e of f r i c t i o n i n t h e gland, w h i l e o1 and o2 are t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s t r u t i n t h e forward and r e t u r n s t r o k e s .

Let t h e rod of t h e shock absorber execute v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e l a w

dt Let us t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e energy absorbed by t h e shock absorber under t h e s e conditions during one o s c i l l a t o r y period. T h i s energy i s determined by means of t h e formula d s = ps, cos p t . s = so s i n p t and, consequently, s = -

On c a l c u l a t i n g this i n t e g r a l f o r t h e case i n which t h e f u n c t i o n P ( t ) i s given by eqs.(3.1), we o b t a i n

A =4POs,

+-a 3

ap2s;,

The damper w i t h l i n e a r damping (P = k s o r b s t h e energy A,

= rrkpso

*), dt

under t h e same conditions, ab-

during one o s c i l l a t o r y period.

A comparison of t h e expressions f o r A and A, y i e l d s t h e following formula f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of a n equivalent l i n e a r damper:

Thus, i n a real shock absorber s t r u t , t h e q u a n t i t y k,, depends on t h e amplitude s o and on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p, a f a c t t h a t must be t a k e n i n t o consideration i n calculating helicopter vibrations.

Figure 3.26 shows t h e q u a n t i t y k,, as a f u n c t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n arqlitude so. On a n i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude, t h e q u a n t i t y k,, decreases, reaches a minimum value ktl,n a t a c e r t a i n amplitude sg and, y o n a f u r t h e r inc r e a s e i n amplitude, rises again. An a n a l y s i s of eq.(3.4.) r e a d i l y yields t h e following formulas f o r determini n g t h e minimum value k " : and t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n amplitude sg of t h e rod : ( 3 05)

(3 *6)
We see from eq.(3.5) that t h e minimum damping of t h e shock absorber does not depend on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency and amplitude. For a rough estimate of t h e damping c a p a b i l i t y of t h e shock absorber system of t h e landing g e a r it i s convenient t o use eq.(3.5) and t o assume, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t i r e - o l e o system, t h a t k S s a = ktin. Here, it i s a l s o u s e f u l t o determine t h e q u a n t i t y s3 by means of eq.(3.6).

Whenever t h e r e i s a n occasion t o make damping t e s t s on f u l l - s c a l e shock s t r u t s , it i s suggested t o perform such t e s t s s i n c e t h e proposed formulas yield only approximate damping c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Damping tests can be c a r r i e d out by one of two methods: 1) determination of t h e dependence of t h e f o r c e of b d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e on t h e rate of t r a v e l of t h e rod; 2) determination of t h e energy absorbed by t h e shock absorber i n t h e presence of harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e rod. When conducting t e s t s by e i t h e r of t h e s e methods, t h e air ( o r nitrogen) should be drained from t h e shock s t r u t , s i n c e only t h e damping f o r c e s are t o be determined i n the test.

/288

t h e rod of t h e shock absorber under t h e e f f e c t of a constant load a t v a r i o u s values. I n t h e second method of t e s t i n g , harmonic v i b r a t i o n s are imparted t o t h e rod of t h e shock absorber on a s p e c i a l r i g w i t h a r o t a t i n g eccerb t r i c . The variable axial f o r c e i n t h e shock abs o r b e r i s measured a t d i f f e r e n t values of t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency ( r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e e c c e n t r i c ) of t h e rod. For a landing g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s

F i g .3.26 Vibration A m p E t u d e Dependence of Equival e n t Damping f o r Shock Absorber w i t h D r y F'riction and Quadratic Hydraulic Resistance.

(Fig.3.17,b), d i r e c t tests of t h e t i r e - o l e o system should be c a r r i e d out. It i s d e s i r a b l e t o make such tests a l s o f o r a pyramidal landing g e a r ( s e e Fig.3.17,a). Here, t h e shock absorber connected i n sequence w i t h t h e t i r e can be t e s t e d i n t h e same manner as that used f o r a landing g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s except t h a t a s p e c i a l t i r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t used on t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s s e l e c t e d , whose s t i f f n e s s i s g r e a t e r by a f a c t o r of n t h a n that of t h e t i r e corresponding t o a pyramidal landing gear. The value of n i s c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e formula

Y p n on where P S a a i s t h e f o r c e i n t h e shock absorber under t h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e P the tire.

2. E f f e c t of Locking of t h e Shock Absorber as a Consequence -~ of F r i c t i o n a l Resistance of t h e Gland and Self-Excited Vibrations of t h e Helicopter

The f o r c e of f r i c t i o n Po i n t h e packing (glands) of t h e shock absorber f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes i s independent of t h e rate of motion of t h e rod [eq.(3.1)]. Therefore, t h e e f f e c t of f r i c t i o n i n t h e gland i s analogous t o t h e e f f e c t of soc a l l e d d r y ( o r Coulomb) f r i c t i o n . T h i s l e a d s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t , i n t h e presence of small v i b r a t i o n s a t a variable f o r c e P < Po, t h e shock absorber does not operate and behaves l i k e a r i g i d rod. Therefore, a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y small v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e helicopter t h e shock absorbers are i n o p e r a t i v e and only t h e tires, which are v i r t u a l l y deprived of damping, a c t as e l a s t i c components of t h e landing g e a r system.
If t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n l i e s w i t h i n t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e shock absorbers, t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibrium of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , g e n e r a l l y speaking, w i l l always be unstable and small helicopter v i b r a t i o n s of i n c r e a s i n g amplitude are sure t o arise. Upon a n i n c r e a s e i n amplitude of t h e v i b r a t i o n s , t h e variable f o r c e i n t h e shock absorber a l s o i n c r e a s e s . A t a c e r t a i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude a, t h e f o r c e P i n t h e shock absorber becomes equal t o Po. A t l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of a > a : the force P > Po, and ( i f T < T c r ) t h e shock absorbers begin t o operate.
If t h e shock absorption damping i s p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d , self-excited vibrat i o n s with a c e r t a i n constant small amplitude a, g r e a t e r t h a n a?, are generated i n t h e system.

Thus, f o r any h e l i c o p t e r w i t h i n t h e unstable range w i t h t h e s t r u t s in/289 operative, t h e r e id11 always be self-excited v i b r a t i o n s caused by t h e e f f e c t of d r y f r i c t i o n i n t h e landing g e a r shock absorbers. Such s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s should never be confused w i t h ground resonance i n t h e conventional meaning of t h e t e r m . Self-excited v i b r a t i o n s are safe and may arise even when t h e margin f o r ground resonance ( a t l a r g e displacements) i s sufficiently great.

In t h e most common designs of shock absorbers (oleo-pneumatic s t r u t s ) , t h e f r i c t i o n i n t h e gland i s relatively g r e a t s o that, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e amplitude of such s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s , only t h e damping caused by tl6s f r a c t i o n need be allowed f o r and t h e f o r c e s of fiydraulic r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e shock absorber can be neglected. With P such a n a p p r o d t e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e amplitude of self-excited Vib r a t i o n s can only be g r e a t e r than A t h e a c t u a l amplitude.

Let us examine a system cons i s t i n g of two springs (1)and ( 2 ) connected i n s e r i e s , one of which w i t h a s t i f f n e s s c;,, simulates t h e t i r e and t h e o t h e r w i t h a s t i f f n e s s c,.,, t h e Some element [ p i s t o n ( 3 ) 1 w t t h d r y f r i c t i o n charshock absorber (Fig.3.27). a c t e r i z e d by t h e f o r c e Po i s connected i n p a r a l l e l with t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) . Under t h e e f f e c t of a f o r c e P ( t ) varying i n time according t o a c e r t a i n law, l e t t h e system execute v i b r a t i o n s such that t h e p o i n t A whose displacement we denote by s w i l l execute t h e harmonic v i b r a t i o n s
s = ~ o c o spt.

F i g .3.27 Diagram of In-Series Connect i o n of Tire and Shock Absorber w i t h Dry F r i c t i o n . Piston. l a n d 2 - Springs; 3

To estimate t h e amplitude of self-excited vibrations, we can der i v e c e r t a i n simple formulas.

( 3 -7)

If t h e amplitude so i s small, t h e s p r i n g (2) does not work and t h e s p r i n g (1)w i l l suffer a deformation s1 = s varying i n accordance w i t h t h e harmonic I n this case, t h e f o r c e P a l s o varies i n obedience t o t h e harmonic l a w (3.7). law p ="i". socos p t .

However, t h e work done by t h e system Will be of this type only i f P,,, t h u s i f so <

< Po and

A s soon as s o > 0 , t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) starts moving. Here, c:: n CD, t h e r e are c e r t a i n t i m e i n t e r v a l s when t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) operates [ s l i d i n g i n t h e element ( 3 ) l and t i m e i n t e r v a l s when t h e s p r i n g does not operate.
10

-.

1 -

L e t 6 = s - s1 be t h e deformation of t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) , which we w i l l consider as p o s i t i v e i f t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) i s compressed. Then, t h e dependence of t h e comp r e s s i n g f o r c e P on t h e quantity 6 can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

I n t h e presence of o s c i l l a t o r y motion, t h e dependence P = P ( 6 ) has t h e form of a h y s t e r e s i s loop (Fig .3.28).

3 19

When t h e q u a n t i t y 6 reaches a maximum value of a and remains constant after this ( 6 = a ) , f o r c e P can t a k e any value i n t h e i n t e r v a l c,.,a - P s P I c,.,a + Po. The r e l a t i o n 6 ( t ) f o r time intervals corresponding t o s l i d i n g be determined from t h e equation

/290

(f, #

0) can

which expresses t h e e q u a l i t y of f o r c e s on b o t h elements (1)and (2).

Fig.3.28

Eysteresis h o p f o r Shock Absorber w i t h Dry Friction.

Fig .3.29 Iaw of Time Rate of Change of Forces and Displacements i n Shock Absorber.

From this equation, we f i n d 6 ( t ) f o r t h e s l i d i n g s e c t i o n s :

For s e c t i o n s where s l i d i n g i s absent, we have 6

fa.

Figure 3.29 g i v e s graphs of t h e t i m e r a t e of change of t h e q u a n t i t i e s s ( t ) ,

6(t),

and P ( t ) f o r t h e case c S a a = c;,,

and so = 2 P O
pn

-.

The magnitude of t h e

v i b r a t i o n amplitude a of t h e shock absorber rod can be found from t h e expression f o r 6 ( t ) , i f we s e t t h e r e cos p t = 1 . T h i s Will y i e l d

The work done by t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e during v i b r a t i o n s can be determined from t h e formula

320

Ap, =4 Poa.

Let u s compare t h e system shown i n Fig.3.27 w i t h some equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber wl-iich, at a n q l i t u d e of t h e rod so, absorbs t h e same work and has t h e same value of f o r c e P, a x .
= rrk,,psE)

Equating t h e expression f o r work done by t h e l i n e a r shock absorber ( A = t o t h e work done by t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e AP,, we o b t a i n t h e followi n g expression f o r t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t k,, of a n equivalent Linear shock absorber:

/291

(3.10)

where T l i s some dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t depending on t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude so and determined by t h e formula

\ i

Ceg 'CF"

CFn .-

5 +- Po
CFn.So

&+1

Fig.3.30 Dimensionless Damping Coefficient 17 as a Function of t h e Relative V i b r a t i o n Amplitude

zo.

Figure 3.30 shows t h e dependence of t h e q u a n t i t y 17 on t h e dimensionless v i b r a t i o n a m p l i tude so. The q u a n t i t y 17 reaches a maximum A t so > 2, t h e dampvalue Q D L x = at = 2. i n g drops w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude.

so

The maximum value of k,,

km e qa X i s equal t o

A comparison of this value w i t h t h e value of k:,"x obtained f o r t h e l i n e a r t i r e - o l e o system [ s e e eq.(2.38)1 shows that t h e shock absorber w i t h d r y f r i c t i o n i n a system w i t h a pneumatic t i r e produces, under t h e same conditions, a m a x i mum daarping lower by a f a c t o r of n/2 t h a n t h e l i n e a r shock absorber.
Thus, t h e amplitude of s e l f - e x c i t e d h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s caused by f r i c t i o n i n t h e packing of t h e shock absorbers can be found from t h e c o r d i t i o n (3.10):

where k r e q i s t h e damping required f o r e l i m i n a t i o n of grourd resonance.

From this equation, we determined t h e corresponding value of from t h e graph i n Fig.3.30, t h e corresponding value of s o .

7 and then,

3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade Damers and t h e i r Analysis

lin our p r e s e n t a t i o n of methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance, we proposed t h a t t h e drag hinge dampers have l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , ;.e., that the moment of t h e damper M i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e - a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y 5 of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge: M = kb5.

/292

Typical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade Dampers. Fig.3.31 a - Linear dampers; b - F r i c t i o n dampers; c Stepped damper.

Actually, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of blade dampers are nonlinear as a r u l e . Two t y p e s of dampers are predominantly used: 1) hydraulic dampers; 2) f r i c t i o n dampers. Eydraulic danpers may have d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s depending upon design.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , a hydraulic damper can be l i n e a r (so-called laminar damper, charHowever, l i n e a r dampers are used extremely r a r e l y , a c t e r i s t i c a i n Fig.3.31).
s i n c e t h e y have s e r i o u s shortcomings. One of t h e shortcomings i s t h e g r e a t s e n s i t i v i t y of l i n e a r dampers t o tem-

322

p e r a t u r e , which i s explained by t h e f a c t that damping i n such dampers i s prop o r t i o n a l t o t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e hydraulic f l u i d which i s g r e a t l y dependent upon temperature. Another shortcoming of l i n e a r dampers i s that t h e moment of such a damper i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e blade v i b r a t i o n frequency. Actually, i f a blade executes harmonic v i b r a t i o n s relative t o t h e drag hinge 5 = so s i n v t , . t h e n the moment of t h e l i n e a r damper v a r i e s i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w M = kb5 = vkb5, cos v t .

T h i s causes t h e l i n e a r dampers, during forward f l i g h t of a helicopter, t o load t h e r o o t p o r t i o n of t h e blade w i t h l a r g e bending moments, s i n c e t h e blade v i b r a t i o n frequency i n f l i g h t i s by a f a c t o r of about 4 g r e a t e r t h a n a t ground resonance.
T h i s drawback i s l a r g e l y absent i n t h e most widely used hydraulic dampers w i t h a s t ped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (see F i g . 3 . 3 1 , ~ ) and a l s o i n f r i c t i o n dampers ( s e e Fig.9.31,3. The p o i n t A on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e stepped damper corresponds t o t h e i n s t a n t of opening of s p e c i a l valves. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a f r i c t i o n damper ( s e e Fig.3.31,b) a p a r t i c u l a r case of a stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . can be regarded as

To c a l c u l a t e ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h nonlinear blade dampers, t h e l a t t e r can be replaced by some l1equivalentl1 l i n e a r dampers whose c o e f f i c i e n t of damping depends upon t h e amplitude and frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s . The c o e f f i c i e n t k,, of such a n equivalent l i n e a r damper can be determined from t h e condition of absorption by this damper of t h e same energy p e r o s c i l l a t o r y period, a t a given harmonic v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency, as i s absorbed under /293 t h e same conditions by a nonlinear damper. For a f r i c t i o n damper, we have

where
M,

5,

= = v =

t i g h t e n i n g moment of t h e damper ( s e e Fig.3.31,b); amplitude of blade v i b r a t i o n s ; frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s .

From t h e same formula, we can determine approximately t h e value of k,, f o r hydraulic dampers w i t h a stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , i f t h e l a t t e r i s c l o s e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e f r i c t i o n damper. I n t h e gene+ case, t h e q u a n t i t y k,, can be determined from t h e known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c M ( S ) of a nonlinear damper by means of t h e formula
r

at

EE o

sin vt a n d T =2n
V

-.
323

For mentally inparted recorded

a manufactured damper, t h e q u a n t i t y k,, can be determined a l s o experii n s p e c i a l l a b o r a t o r y tests. I n such tests, harmonic v i b r a t i o n s are t o t h e rod of t h e damper and t h e magnitudes of t h e damper moment are on a n oscillogram.

The main shortcoming of dampers w i t h a stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and, i n part i c u l a r , of f r i c t i o n dampers i s t h e presence of a so-called e x c i t a t i o n threshold f o r h e l i c o p t e r s equipped w i t h dampers of this type. A h e l i c o p t e r which i s stable a t small v i b r a t i o n A amplitudes may become unstable a t l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes exceeding t h e e x c i t a t i o n threshold.

Fig .3.32 Work Absorbed p e r O s c i l l a t o r y Period. as a Function of Amplitude, f o r a Damper w i t h Dry F r i c t i o n and a Damper w i t h Linear Characteristic.

Let u s examine this phenomenon f o r t h e example of a f r i c t i o n damper. Figure 3.32 shows t h e dependence of t h e work A absorbed during one o s c i l l a t o r y period by f r i c t i o n dampers (curve a ) and l i n e a r (curve b) dampers on t h e blade v i b r a t i o n amp l i t u d e z o ( a t constant v i b r a t i o n frequency). For t h e f r i c t i o n damper, t h e graph A (so) i s represented by a s t r a i g h t l i n e , whereas f o r t h e l i n e a r damper it forms a parabola. A s r e s u l t of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e ground resonance, l e t t h e value k y q of t h e required damping of t h e blade be determined f o r t h e case of a l i n e a r damper; then, t h e curve a i n Fig.3.32 corresponds t o this value of k,, whereas t h e curve b corresponds t o t h e available damping of t h e f r i c t i o n damper a c t u a l l y lashed-up t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

Let t h e s e curves i n t e r s e c t a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t c y corresponding t o t h e amplitude s$-. Then, during blade v i b r a t i o n s with a n amplitude so < tz, t h e damping provided by t h e f r i c t i o n damper w i l l be g r e a t e r t h a n required, whereas during blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a n amplitude zo > 58, t h e damping w i l l be inadequate. The v i b r a t i o n amplitude 5: a l s o r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x c i t a t i o n : can be determined from eq.(3.15): threshold. The value of 5

Thus, i f t h e h e l i c o p t e r suffers some p e r t u r b a t i o n (shock) which s e t s up , & & v i b r a t i o n s (both of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and of t h e blade) then, i f t h e blade vibrat i o n a n p l i t u d e i s less t h a n sg, t h e motion will be stable and t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i l l d i e out. Lf t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t (zo > S$), t h e n increasi n g h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s w i l l occur. The presence of a n e x c i t a t i o n threshold f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h blade dampers of stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s a s e r i o u s shortcoming. There are quite a Pew cases known where a h e l i c o p t e r t h a t has been i n s e r v i c e f o r a long t i m e underwent ground resonance as t h e r e s u l t of some severe shock, u s u a l l y as a result of a rough landing w i t h only one wheel of t h e main landing gear making contact w5th t h e grourd.

T h i s main shortcoming of nonlinear dampers can be completely eliminated only by using dampers t h a t provide considerable damping a t low blade v i b r a t i o n f r e quencies (ground resonance) and s l i g h t damping a t a v i b r a t i o n frequency equal t o t h e r o t o r r p m (and higher).. I n p a r t i c u l a r , such a damper can be l i n e a r . Figure 3.33 shows C t h e diagram of a l i n e a r damper of this type. P The damper c o n s i s t s of a n e l a s t i c element of . \ s t i f f n e s s c and of t h e damper proper w i t h a coe f f i c i e n t k, connected i n series. Fig.3.33 Diagram of Element i n which t h e E l a s t i c Element The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s k and c of this damper can be s e l e c t e d such t h a t , a f t e r ensuring adeand Damper are Connected i n Series. quate damping a t ground resonance, t h e r e are small bending moments on t h e blade i n forward For t h e f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ( s e e Sect.6). c a l c u l a t i o n , such a n element can be replaced by some equivalent element of s t i f f ness c,, and a damping c o e f f i c i e n t k , , determined by means of t h e formulas

& . . h h ,

These formulas are obtained i n t h e same manner as eqs.(2.33)

and (2.34.).

4.

E f f e c t f Flaapi-m Motion of Rotor on Ground Resonance

As a l r e a d y s t a t e d , t h e conanonly used blade dampers a r e nonlinear. The main feature of any nonlinear damper i s t h a t , i f t h e motion of t h e blade c o n s i s t s of two harmonic components, t h e damping of one of t h e s e componerrts will depend on t h e amplitude and frequency of t h e o t h e r harmonic component, whereas a l i n e a r damper absorbs t h e energy of each of t h e harmonic components r e g a r d l e s s of t h e magnitude of t h e o t h e r .

T h i s feature of nonlinear dampers explains t h e following important phenomenon which has long been noted i n h e l i c o p t e r tests: When a h e l i c o p t e r i s opera t i n g on t h e ground, ground resonance may be caused by smooth d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l s t i c k from t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n . If t h e s t i c k i s t h e n returned r a p i d l y t o t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n , t h e v i b r a t i o n s die out. T h i s phenomenon i s u t i l i z e d i n experimental t e s t s of h e l i c o p t e r s f o r ground resonance. The /295 phenomenon i s analogous t o t h e e f f e c t of f l a p p i n g on t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r . Let us examine t h e mechanism of this phenomenon f o r t h e case of a f r i c t i o n damper ( see Fig -3.31, b)

Let u s first a t t a c k t h e f o l l a v i n g a b s t r a c t problem: ht some body A s l i d e w i t h a v e l o c i t y V along some p l a t e B ( s e e Fig.3.34) which i s executing harmonic v i b r a t i o n s i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n according t o t h e l a w y = yo s i n w t . 325

The body A i s forced a g a i n s t t h e v i b r a t i n g p l a t e B by a c e r t a i n normal f o r c e N. We w i l l assume that t h e f r i c t i o n between t h e s u r f a c e of t h e body A and t h e p l a t e B corresponds t o t h e i d e a l l a w of d r y f r i c t i o n , %.e., t h e f o r c e of f r i c t i o n i s constant i n magnitude and e q a l t o Po = pN where p i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n .

y=yo s i n w t

Fig .3.34 Diagram of Body Motion along a P l a t e Vibrating i n a Horizontal Direction.

Fig.3.35 Law of T i m e Rate of Change i n Relative Velocity and Force of F r i c t i o n during Uniform Motion of t h e Body along a Vibrating P l a t e .

The d i r e c t i o n of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e depends upon t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e relat i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e body A i n conparison w i t h t h e p l a t e B.

Let us assume t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e P applied t o t h e p l a t e as p o s i t i v e when d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e absolute v e l o c i t y of t h e body A, i.e., t o t h e r i g h t . The displacement y of t h e p l a t e B W i l l be considered as p o s i t i v e when d i r e c t e d t o t h e l e f t . Then t h e l a w of f r i c t i o n can be w r i t t e n as
P=
I O-p0

att a

v >g; v<y.

For t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of motion of t h e p l a t e , we have t h e expression

vre1 -=v-y =v .

050 cos wt.

Figure 3.35 g i v e s t h e graph of this dependence. The r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n of t i m e i s depicted by a cosine curve s h i f t e d by a n amount V along t h e ordinate. The graph i d i c a t e s t h a t , a t V < wy,, during one o s c i l l a t o r y period T t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l ( T - 2T1) during which V r e l i s p o s i t i v e i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e time i n t e r v a l 2T1 during which Vrel i s negative. Below this graph, we show a corresponding graph of t h e time dependence of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e P. During one osc i l l a t o r y period, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e f o r a c e r t a i n time i n t e r v a l 2T1 i s d i r e c t e d

326

t o t h e l e f t ( n e g a t i v e ) , w h i l e during t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l ( T t o t h e r i g h t , opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion.

2T,)

it i s d i r e c t e d

Thus, during motion of t h e body A (see Fig.3.34) along a v i b r a t i n g p l a t e B, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e p e r i o d i c a l l y v a r i e s i t s d i r e c t i o n only i f V < wy,. In t h i s case, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e f o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of time i s d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e motion s o that, on t h e average, t h e f r i c t i o n o f f e r s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e motion of t h e body A.

For a uniform motion of t h e body A t o t h e l e f t , we must apply t o it a /296 time-variant f o r c e which, at each i n s t a n t of time, would balance t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e . Let us c a l c u l a t e t h e average value Pa, of this f o r c e during t h e period, understanding by this a constant f o r c e which, during one o s c i l l a t o r y period, does t h e same work i n a b s o l u t e displacement of t h e body A as t h e a c t u a l f o r c e of f r i c t i o n . If t h e mass of t h e body A i s i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t and i f v i b r a t i o n s of t h e body A can be neglected and i f , i n a d d i t i o n , i t s motion on t h e v i b r a t i n g p l a t e can be assumed as uniform, t h e n t h e f o r c e P,, W i l l represent t h e a c t u a l f o r c e needed f o r a uniform motion *of t h e body A.
The work done by t h e average f o r c e p e r o s c i l l a t o r y period of t h e p l a t e w i l l t h e n be equal t o

A,, =Pa, VT.

The work done by t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e during one period W i l l be equal t o

Equating t h e s e two values of work A*, and A,,, p r e s s i o n f o r t h e average motive f o r c e :

Pay=P,

we o b t a i n t h e following ex-

[1-

4 1 ' .T T

To determine t h e value of
1

we note that
COS oT, =-

WYO

Hence, t a k i n g i n t o account t h a t T =

2n , w

we o b t a i n

Consew e n t ly,

Pa, =Po

2 1 -cos-1 -

( o",,

I) .
327

The obtained expression holds i f and only i f V < wyo. A t V > wy,, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e will not, change e i t h e r magnitude o r sign, remaining equal t o Po. Taki n g i n t o account t h e a f o r e s a i d and introducing t h e dimensionless average f o r c e
I

Pa,

=
PO

, we

o b t a i n t h e following expression f o r t h e latter:

f i g u r e 3.36 gives t h e graphs of t h e dependence of velocity V =

Fa, on t h e

dimensionless

-.V
WYO

A t a low r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e p l a t e , we can use a s y l i f i e d l i n e a r dependence-F,,(V) which i s obtained if, i n t h e expansion of cos- V i n a power series i n V, we limit o u r s e l v e s t o t h e f i r s t two terms. I n this case, we have

Thus, during slow motion of a body over a r a p i d l y v i b r a t i n g p l a t e , t h e average f o r c e of f r i c t i o n can be considered approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e first power of t h e v e l o c i t y

/297

where t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r i s

The above statements i n d i c a t e t h a t , wader t h e examined conditions, d r y f r i c t i o n i s i n a sense ec@valent t o l i n e a r viscous f r i c t i o n , t h e equivalent damping c o e f f i c i e n t being i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency and amplitude of t h e p l a t e . T h i s important f a c t was first noted by Heinrich (Ref.41) and checked experimentally by A.A.Krasovskiy (Ref

.a).

It i s obvious t h a t , during slow harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e body A over a r a p i d l y v i b r a t i n g p l a t e B, it i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o ap roximately c a l c u l a t e t h e and (3.20). damping of t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s , making use of eqs.(3.19

Thus, i f i n a n element w i t h d r y f r i c t i o n t h e r e l a t i v e motion of t h e rubbing u m of two harmonic v i b r a t i o n s , one low-frequency and surfaces represents t h e s t h e o t h e r high-frequency, t h e n t h e dampi of t h e low-frequency v i b r a t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d approximately by using eqsT3.19) and (3.20), understanding by w and yo t h e frequency and amplitude, r e s p e c t i v e l y , of t h e o t h e r (high-frequency) harmonic component.

Let us now r e t u r n t o a n examination of blade v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r equipped w i t h a f r i c t i o n damper lashed t o t h e drag hinge. Upon d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p i t c h s t i c k during o p e r a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground, blade flapping r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinges t a k e s p l a c e . A s i s known, t h e blade flapping angle i3 w i l l t h e n vary i n t i m e according t o t h e harmonic law:

F=a, --a, cos wt- 6 , sin ut,

where

al and

a. = coning angle; bl = f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s .
During blade flapping, C o r i o l i s f o r c e s arise which cause blade v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge. The amplitude of t h e first harmonic of blade v i b r a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge can be determined from t h e well-known formula (Ref .48)
a0

' V

1.0

0.5

1.0

p L
@Yo

E l =-

1-v2,

(3-21)

AS a l r e a d y explained i n Sections 1 and 3, during ground resonance ( i n t h e case pbo = 0) t h e blades v i b r a t e w i t h a frequency v o w (v, M 0.25), i.e., w i t h a frequency about f o u r t i m e s lower t h a n t h e frequency of forced blade v i b r a t i o n s caused /298 by f l a p p i n g . Therefore, i n conformity w i t h t h e foregoing statements, t h e damping moment a c t i n g on t h e blade a t ground resonance can be c a l c u l a t e d approximately by means of t h e formula

F i g .3.36 Relative Average F r i c t i o n Force as a Function of t h e Dimensionl e s s Velocity of t h e Body o v e r a Vibrating P l a t e .

M=keg E,

where

kq

= ; 2

-. Mo
WE1

The q u a n t i t y M, r e p r e s e n t s t h e t i g M e n i n g moment of t h e f r i c t i o n damper (see Fig.3 3 1 ,b)

Thus, forced v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of a blade w i t h a f r i c t i o n damper, caused by f l a p p i n g of t h e blade i n t h e t h r u s t plane, lead t o a n e f f e c t equivalent t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a l i n e a r d q e r i n t h e drag hinge whose dampof t h e i n g c o e f f i c i e n t [eq.(3.23)1 i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e amplitude f o r c e d blade v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge. Therefore, a l l statements o n t h e e x c i t a t i o n t h r e s h o l d of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h f r i c t i o n dampers (Subsect.3) hold o n l y when t h e r e i s no blade flapping. T h i s u s u a l l y occurs when t h e r o t o r is o p e r a t i n g a t low rpm. Consequently, t h e e x c i t a t i o n t h r e s h o l d must be estimated f o r ground resonance i n terms of t h e first overtone. Equation (3.23) should be used f o r estimating ground resonance i n t h e presence of r o t o r flapping ( a t t h e o p e r a t i n g r o t o r r p m ) . This i s e s p e c i a l l y important when c a l c u l a t i n g ground reso-

329
I

nance of a h e l i c o p t e r during t h e ground run, which w i l l be t a k e n up i n Section Section

4.

4.

Ground Resonance of a A e l i c o p t e r d u r i r x G r o 4 Run

In p r e s e n t i n g methods of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r natural lateral v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground (Sect.2), it was assumed that t h e r e was no Wobbling of t h e pneumatic t i r e on t h e ground surface.
When a t i r e wobbles i t s l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s diminishes, w h i l e t h e v e r t i c a l s t i f f n e s s remains unchanged. A decrease i n l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e during such rocking and a c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l damping during l a t e r a l displacements of t h e wobbling t i r e can be determined on t h e basis of t h e e x i s t i n g t h e o r y of shimmy of c a s t o r i n g wheels* A method of such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s given i n this Section. Any decrease i n l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e on wobbling (decrease i n t h e quantity c:, see Fig.3.17) l e a d s t o a decrease i n t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e first and second overtones and t h u s t o a reduction of t h e boundaries of t h e corresponding u n s t a b l e range. A s i n d i c a t e d above (Sect.2, S u b sect.7), f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone, corresponding t o t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone, i s above t h e o p e r a t i n g rpm of t h e r o t o r , and t h e margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o r o t o r r o t a t i o n s i s sometimes no more t h a n 30%. A reduc30%. t i o n of t h e unstable range during t i r e wobbling may be of t h e order of 20 Therefore, it might happen t h a t a helicopter, which i s stable when operating i n s i t u , becomes u n s t a b l e - d u r i n g t h e ground run. h this case, we can speak of a c r i t i c a l ground speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a t which motion becomes unstable.

1 . S t i f f n e s s and D a m i n e : of a Wobblilw T i r e

Let Let u s examine a t i r e uniformly rolling along t h e ground (Fig.3.37). t h e wheel execute l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s i n obedience t o a harmonic law, such t h a t t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e wheel remains a t a l l times p a r a l l e l t o i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e ~s t o t h e ground remains constant.
W e w i l l s e l e c t a s t a t i o n a r y r e c t a n g u l a r coordinate system zOs lying on /299 t h e ground surface, w i t h t h e Oz-axis being p a r a l l e l t o t h e wheel a x i s . Let t h e l a t e r a l displacement z of t h e d i a m e t r a l plane of t h e wheel vary i n time i n accordance w i t h t h e harmonic law:

where
zo = v i b r a t i o n amplitude; w = angular v i b r a t i o n frequency.

Let us t h e n determine t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e P, exerted on t h e t i r e by t h e ground during i t s motion.

We have i n mind t h a t t h e a c t u a l displacement i s t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e i n d i cated complex expression. The use of complex expressions i n deriving b a s i c form u l a s permits a n appreciable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
%

330

..

---

-.

Let h be t h e lateral deformation of t h e t i r e , i.e., t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e diametral wheel plane and t h e p o i n t of t h e t i r e which forms t h e c e n t e r of t h e contact area before l a t e r a l deformation. Then, t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e P, w i l l be eqal to
P,= cFA,
Diametral p l a n e of t i r e

where c : i s t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e i n t h e absence of wobbling. Furthermore, l e t s be t h e p a t h of t h e t i r e reckoned from t h e l i n e of wobbling and cp t h e angular deformation of t h e t i r e , i.e., t h e angle between t h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e d i a m e t r a l wheel plane w i t h t h e ground s u r f a c e and t h e tangent t o t h e m a t e r i a l l i n e belonging t o t h e t i r e s u r f a c e and r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e d i a m e t r a l wheel plane w i t h t h e undeformed t i r e s u r f a c e . The q u a n t i t i e s z , A , and y are r e l a t e d by t h e so-called conditions of wobbling which, i n conformity w i t h M.V.KeldyshTs m o t h e s i s (Ref.lS), have t h e form

Fig.3.37 Planview of Contact Surface and Line of T i r e Wobbling. cp - Angular deformation of t i r e ; A - L a t e r a l deformation of t i r e (lItiIt11). t i o n a l methods.

dz _

dh

ds

(4.3)

Here, CY and fi are c e r t a i n constants for a given t i r e , which can be found by convenChanging t o d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h respect t o time t and t a k i n g i n t o account t h a t
s = V t (where V i s t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e t i r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Os-axis),

we o b t a i n
d2

dh

dt

(4.4)

Putting
and

(4.5)

331

and t a k i n g i n t o account eq.(4.1), we o b t a i n from eqs.(4.4) t h e following exp r e s s i o n s f o r determining t h e constants h o and cpo:

vyo ido =iozo; (io yo - UVA, =.o.

+pv)

Hence,

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e found value of A, i n t o t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system (4.5) and t h e n i n t o eq.(4.2), we o b t a i n t h e following expression for t h e f o r c e P, exerted on t h e t i r e by t h e ground:

where

W e w i l l designate t h e complex q u a n t i t y

t h e l a t e r a l complex dynamic t i r e s t i f f n e s s i n t h e presence of l a t e r a l harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e wheel. The modulus of t h e complex dynamic s t i f f n e s s r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e amplitude Po of t h e lateral f o r c e t o t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude zo of t h e d i a m e t r a l plane of t h e wheel. The argument of t h e c o q l e x q u a n t i t y D(w) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v i b r a t i o n phase of t h e f o r c e P, w i t h respect t o v i b r a t i o n s z of t h e wheel. Furthermore, l e t us e x a d n e some l i n e a r e l a s t i c element w i t h damping ( s e e The f o r c e P a c t i n g on this element and i t s deformation s ( s t r o k e of Fig.3.22). t h e element) are connected by t h e r e l a t i o n [eq.(2.25)1

P=CS

+k . dt
dS

Let us introduce t h e concept of complex dynamic s t i f f n e s s of such a n element and e s t a b l i s h i t s c o n n e c t i v i t y w i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c and k of i t s stiffness and damping.

Let t h e displacement s of t h e e l a s t i c element v a r y i n time according t o t h e

332

harm0ni.c l a w s = sOeiwt by t h e harmonic law:

Then t h e f o r c e a c t i n g on this element w i l l vary a l s o

P =(c
or
where

+iwk) sOeiwt

P =Poeiot,

Po=(C
We d e s i g n a t e t h e q u a n t i t y

+iok) so.

t h e co lex dynamic s t i f f n e s s of. an e l a s t i c element with damping. A s shown by e q . ( 4 . 3 , t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e complex q u a n t i t y D(w) r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t i f f n e s s coe f f i c i e n t c of a spring, w h i l e t h e imaginary p a r t r e p r e s e n t s t h e damping coef- /301 f i c i e n t k of t h e element m u l t i p l i e d by w.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground i n conformity w i t h t h e scheme depicted i n Fig.3.16, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e l a s t i c i t y and damping of t h e elements c: and c: must be p r o p e r l y chosen.

It i s obvious that, t o c a l c u l a t e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r during ground run, it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e l e c t t h e h o r i z o n t a l e l a s t i c elements (cz" i n Fig.3.17)

such that t h e i r complex dynamic s t i f f n e s s w i l l be e q u a l t o t h e complex l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e i n wobbling. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and d a q i n g of t h e t h u s s e l e c t e d 11equivalent~le l a s t i c element can be determined, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s of t h e complex q u a n t i t y D ( w ) which i s e q r e s s e d by e q * ( 4 * 8 ) * Separating t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s i n eq.(4.8), we o b t a i n

(5) (!?E)
The r e s u l t a n t formulas are comparatively complex and require knowledge of t h e t i r e c o n s t a n t s CY and 8 . The formulas f o r determining ceq and k,, can be g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d i f we r e p l a c e M.V.Keldysh's conditions of wobbling by t h e so-called 11tiPtlI hypothesis, according t o which t h e l a t e r a l deformation of t h e t i r e X (IItilt11) i s connected

333

w i t h t h e angular deformation of t h e tire c p by t h e simple r e l a t i o n

A-rlcp,

( 4 12)

where
l1tiltII

B i s t h e so-called
C Y

coefficient.

As shown i n a paper by M . V . Keldysh ( R e f . 1 5 ) , this c o e f f i c i e n t i s approximately equal t o t h e radius r of t h e undeformed t i r e

0

IO

20

i i ,
0.2
O.1

(r being t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e t i r e a x i s and t h e ground i n t h e a b sence of compression).

10

20

30

Vkmlhr

I n this hypothesis, t h e first condition of t h e system (4.4) yields

Fig.3.38 R e l a t i v e L a t e r a l S t i f f n e s s and Lateral Damping of Tire as a Function of Helicopter Ground Speed

1 . ) . sec

we o b t a i n

Fig.3.39 Relative I a t e r a l S t i f f n e s s and L a t e r a l Damping of Tire as a Funct i o n of Dimensionless Helicopter Ground Speed.

On s e p a r a t i n g t h e r e a l and /_303 imaginary p a r t s i n this expression, we o b t a i n t h e following expressions f o r t h e s t i f f n e s s and damping coe f f i c i e n t s of a n equivalent e l a s t i c element :

334

The simp1 f i e d formulas (4.15) and (4.16) are more conver-ent f o r p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s and do not require knowledge of t h e t i r e constants CY and .fi The accuracy of t h e approximate formulas i s f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes. T h i s i s demonstrated by t h e comparison graphs i n Fig.3.38, which were obtained from c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e main landing gear wheels of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r (w =

- 18

1 corresponds -sec

t o t h e frequency of t h e second overtone of v i b r a t i o n s ) ,

using Keldyshts t h e o r y and t h e tilt theory. Thus, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of natural h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s during ground r u n it i s expedient t o use eqs.(4.15) and (4.16). I n this case, t h e quantity w i n t h e s e equations must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e frequency p of t h e l a t e r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s . Figure 3.39 p r e s e n t s graphs of t h e dependence of t h e dimensionless

lateral stiffness
t i v e velocity V =

(e)
C

= ceq and damping

() on t h e

dimensionless r e l a -

A s we s e e from t h e graph, t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s P T I Pr of t h e t i r e l a r g e l y depends on t h e h e l i c o p t e r speed. A t 7 = 3 (which, f o r t h e

- v V - -.

t i r e of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r a t p

18

A sec

i s about 50 km/hr), t h e l a t e r a l t i r e

s t i f f n e s s i s by a f a c t o r of 10 less t h a n t h a t of a s t a t i o n a r y t i r e .
2. Calculation of Ground Resonance and Results

The c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance during ground run can be performed i n t h e conventional manner (Sect .2) , except that t h e values of l a t e r a l t i r e s t i f f ness cZn, when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s , should be replaced by t h e v a l u e s of ceq derived from eq.(4.15); when determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of dampi n g of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s (Sect.2, Subsect.&), t h e a d d i t i o n a l damping of t h e h o r i z o n t a l e l a s t i c elements (see Fig.3.17) should be t a k e n i n t o account i n conformity e . t h eq.(d+..l6). I n this case, t h e values of w i n eqs.(4.15) and (4.16) must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e values of t h e frequency p of t h e corresponding vibrat i o n overtone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Such a c a l c u l a t i o n method i s completely j u s t i f i e d since, a t t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones, t h e r e are p u r e l y harmonic (undamped) v i b r a t i o n s , and eqs.(4.15) and (4.16) are derived p r e c i s e l y f o r t h e case of harmonic l a t e r a l t i r e Vibrations. The purpose of c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance i s t o f i n d t h e s e boundaries of t h e unstable range.

When using t h e formula

335

i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n frequencies, .a d i f f i c u l t y i s encountered connected w i t h t h e f a c t that, t o f i d t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency p t h e value of cog m u s t be known which, i n t u r n , depends upon p . Theref o r e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s (determination of p ) should be carr i e d out by assigning d i f f e r e n t values t o ceq i n t h e i n t e r v a l 0 C ceq < c:', and then, a f t e r determining p, d e r i v i n g t h e corresponding value of t h e ground Here, f o r determining this speed we have t h e formula run speed from eq.(4.17).

Based on such a c a l c u l a t i o n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o construct t h e graph of t h e dependence of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone boundaries on t h e ground r u n speed V. Here, F'ig.3.40 gives t h e r e s u l t s of a c a l c u l a t i o n of tGs type-for t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r . The graph shows t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone corresponding t o t h e second Yibration overtone as a f u n c t i o n of t h e ground r u n speed V.

A s i n d i c a t e d by t h e graph, t h e c r i t i c a l of t h e r o t o r corresponding t o r e v o l u t i o n s %r t h e onset of ground resonance appreciably decrease w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n h e l i c o p t e r speed. If f o r a s t a t i o n a r y parked h e l i c o p t e r t h e rpm margin i s 36%, this margin W i l l decrease t o 8%a t a ground r u n speed of 60 km/hr.
1
1

10

20

30

40

VkmJhr

F i g .3.4O Lower I n s t a b i l i t y Zone Boundary as a Function of Ground Run, f o r t h e M i - 1 Helicopter. ncr C r i t i c a l revolutions corresponding t o onset of self-excited vibrations; &: Revolutions correspondi n g t o t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone center.

It i s important t o note t h a t , upon a n irrc r e a s e i n speed V, t h e graph of n,, approaches some asymptote. T h i s has t h e following p h y s i c a l meaning:
Upon a n i n c r e a s e i n V, t h e lateral stiffness of t h e t i r e determined by t h e q u a n t i t y C,, [eq.(4.17) 1 decreases without bounds, a p p r o a c k i n g zero. I n this case, t h e natural. v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e first and secorad overtones decrease, w i t h t h e frequency p of t h e f i r s t overtone approaching zero and t h e frequency of t h e second overtone tending t o t h e value

336

The q u a n t i t y po r e p r e s e n t s t h e natural l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e absence of l a t e r a l t i r e s t i f f n e s s . The v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e h e l i c o p t e r corresponding t o this frequency repres e n t s t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r body about t h e p r i n c i p a l l o n g i t u d i n a l &s of i n e r t i a . The corresponding v i b r a t i o n node (see Sect .2, Subsect .3) coincides w i t h t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .
A s i t u a t i o n of this type might occur f o r a h e l i c o p t e r standing s t i l l o r moving over a smooth s u r f a c e of i c e , where i t can be assumed that t h e r e i s no f r i c t i o n between t i r e and ground (here, a l s o c t n = 0). T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a s i m p l i f i e d ( e s t i m a t e ) c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e ground run, when t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency & ground resonance d u r i i s determined from eq. 4.19). Here, f o r t h e m a s s of t h e equivalent e l a s t i c base (Sect.2, Subsect.6) we have t h e formula

in

I =J .
112

For t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r we have

where H i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e ground surface t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e helicopter. The q u a n t i t y k , , i s deterrrrined by means of t h e formula

iv\

The q u a n t i t y k : i s t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e v e r t i c a l e l a s t i c elements ( s e e fig.3.16), which depends on t h e damping p r o p e r t i e s of t h e shock s t r u t s of t h e landing g e a r and i s determined i n t h e same manner as that used i n Section 2, Subsection 5. Such a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a h e l i c o p t e r having a n unstable range l o c a t e d above t h e operating rpm produces a small e r r o r " i n t h e s a f e t y factor11*

3. Ground Resonance on Breakiw Contact of t h e Tires

w i t h t h e Ground

A l l above methods of c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance presumed l i n e a r i t y of t h e t i r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . However, i n r e a l i t y t h e t i r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (even approx-

337

i m a t e l y ) can be considered l i n e a r only in s i t u a t i o n s h which t h e t i r e , d u r i n g i t s deformation, remains i n contact w i t h t h e ground s u r f a c e . I n general, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e t i r e has a s l o p e as shown i n Fig.3.41.

Lf P, i s t h e f o r c e exerted by t h e ground on t h e t i r e and s , i s t p e corresponding displacement, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e t i r e has t h e form

-4 As L-

Fig .3 .l+l Nonlinear Dependence of t h e Force Exerted by t h e Ground on t h e T i r e on t h e V e r t i c a l Displacement of t h e Wheel Axis.

Lf t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n covers only small vibrat i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r near a p o s i t i o n of equilibr i u m corresponding t o t h e given r o t o r t h r u s t T a t which P, = Po and s, = s o , so that t h e p o i n t of t h e s t a t e of t h e t i r e during v i b r a t i o n s comes t o l i e on a c e r t a i n segment AB wholly w i t h i n t h e l i n e a r p o r t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e n a l l calc u l a t i o n methods based on l i n e a r i t y of t h e t i r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c are v a l i d ( f o r such small vibrations)

However, a t l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes it may happen that t h e p o i n t on t h e diagram d e p i c t i n g t h e state of t h e t i r e i s beyond t h e limits of l i n e a r i t y of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Obviously, this w i l l be t h e case whenever t h e amplitude of displacement A s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e amplitude of s t a t i c compression s o . The extent of s t a t i c compression s o , j u s t as t h e f o r c e Po, /306 depends on t h e r o t o r t h r u s t and decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r o t o r t h r u s t T, approaching t h e magnitude of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight G. I f T < G, t h e t i r e i s forced a g a i n s t t h e ground; however, t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t which t h e t i r e s begin t o break contact w i t h t h e ground is smaller t h e c l o s e r t h e quantity T approaches t h e value T = G. Therefore, breaking contact of t h e t i r e s on takeoff and landing i s most r e a d i l y achieved when t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i s l e s s t h a n t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight but s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y high. Calculation of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s on breaking contact w i t h t h e ground i s r a t h e r complicated. However, without a c t u a l l y performing such c a l c u l a t i o n s , c e r t a i n valuable but q u a l i t a t i v e conclusions can be drawn. Actually, during v i b r a t i o n s on breaking contact of t h e tires, t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e p r e s e n t s a nonlinear o s c i l l a t o r y system w i t h backlash. It i s known t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n freguency of a system w i t h backlash depends on t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and on t h e magnitude of backlash; t h e g r e a t e r t h e backlash ( a t a given amplitude), t h e smaller t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s . T h i s i s p h y s i c a l l y understandable, s i n c e t h e presence of backlash i s equivalent t o a decrease i n t h e average (during one o s c i l l a t o r y period) s t i f f n e s s of t h e e l a s t i c element. Consequently, during h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s on breaking contact w i t h t h e grourd t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies decrease, accompanied by a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e extent of t h e unstable range. Therefore, i f t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone correspondi n g t o t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone i s higher t h a n t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r , t h e n t h e rpm margin up t o t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone de-

338

c r e a s e s during v i b r a t i o n s on l i f t - o f f , and it may happen t h a t , a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitude, t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone "descends11 t o t h e operating r p m . Thus, a h e l i c o p t e r which, i n t h e presence of small v i b r a t i o n s , has a n is t a b i l i t y zone located above t h e operating r p m w i l l . be stable only a t s m a l l vib r a t i o n amplitudes not exceeding a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l amplitude a"', which can be designated as t h e e x c i t a t i o n t h r e s h o l d a t v i b r a t i o n s on Lift-off.

It i s obvious from t h e above statements that t h e magnitude of t h e e x c i t a t i o n threshold i s smaller, t h e weaker t h e f o r c e s f o r c i n g t h e t i r e a g a i n s t t h e ground, i.e., t h e more c l o s e l y t h e r o t o r t h r u s t approaches t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. Thus, t h e most dangerous s i t u a t i o n occurs a t t h e i n s t a n t of l i f t - o f f of t h e helicopter and inmediately a f t e r landing. Consequently, on occurrence of v i b r a t i o n s during takeoff o r landing t h e r o t o r t h r u s t m u s t be reduced immediately. T h i s causes t h e shock s t r u t s t o operate, i n h i b i t i n g v i b r a t i o n of bouncing.
It i s important t o note t h a t v i b r a t i o n s on l i f t - o f f a r e dangerous only i f t h e unstable range i s above t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r . From this Viewpoint, t h e landing gear c o n f i g u r a t i o n proposed by t h e B r i s t o l Company ( s e e Eg.3.18) i s of i n t e r e s t . A s i n d i c a t e d above (Sect.2, Subsect.2), it i s p o s s i b l e i n this landing gear configuration t o cause t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber system t o coincide w i t h t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r by choosing t h e s t i f f n e s s of a s p e c i a l s p r i n g c S p i f t h e landing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e gear are otherwise s a t i s f a c t o r y . Here t h e l a t e r a l forward v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e angular v i b r a t i o n s about t h e p r i n c i p a l l o n g i t u d i n a l axLs of i n e r t i a of t h e f u s e l a g e become independent.
Calculations show that i n this case t h e frequency of l a t e r a l forward vibrat i o n s i s approximately t h e same (somewhat lower) as t h e frequency of t h e f i r s t v i b r a t i o n overtone of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a landing g e a r of conventional configurat i o n , whereas t h e angular Vibration frequency may be appreciably reduced i n comp a r i s o n w i t h t h e frequency of t h e second overtone f o r conventional landing g e a r s ( i n t M s case, it can even be made equal t o t h e frequency of t h e f i r s t overtone). Thus, t h e use of a landing gear of t h e "Bristolll type permits obtaining /397 a r a t h e r low frequency of t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone s o t h a t t h e correspondi n g unstable range will come t o l i e below t h e r o t o r operating rpm. Ground resonance on breaking contact w i t h t h e ground cannot occur i n such a h e l i c o p t e r . S e c t i o n 5.

@ox& Resonance

of Helicopters of Other Configurations

1 . General Coments 1 ) , a c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s As i n d i c a t e d above (Sect .2, Subsect . of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground must be based on t h e problem of v i b r a t i o n s of a s o l i d body (disregarding f u s e l a g e e l a s t i c i t y ) on a n e l a s t i c base. A s o l i d body on a n e l a s t i c base has six degrees of freedom. Accordingly t h e r e are six natur a l v i b r a t i o n overtones f o r such a system, each corresponding t o a c e r t a i n vibrat i o n frequency and mode. For a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a s l e n d e r fuselage, we were able t o consider only l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s and t o d i s r e g a r d yawing o s c i l l a t i o n s (Sect .2, Subsect . I ) .
339

For a h e l i c o p t e r f o r which t h e moments of i n e r t i a of t h e f u s e l a g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e three p r i n c i p a l axes of i n e r t i a are magnitudes of t h e same order, such a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s impermissible. However, i f t h e r e i s a plane of symmetry of t h e fuselage, t h e n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s can be considered as independent. I n this case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s must t a k e three degrees of freedom i n t o consideration: 1) l a t e r a l displacement ; 2) angle of roll; 3) angle of yaw. A c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry ( l o n g i t u d i n a l vibrat i o n s ) must a l s o allow f o r three degrees of freedom: 1) l o n g i t u d i n a l displacement ; 2) v e r t i c a l displacement; 3 ) angle of p i t c h .

From t h e viewpoint of ground resonance, both l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l vib r a t i o n s are dangerous.

Below, we w i l l give methods of ca,lculating t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i copter which t a k e i n t o account a l l of t h e above-indicated degrees of freedom.

It should be noted t h a t t h e s e methods are a p p l i c a b l e a l s o t o a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r and permit obtaining r e s u l t s more a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e r e s u l t s of a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e method presented i n Section 2.
We w i l l a l s o d e s c r i b e a method of c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance i n a i r , caused by e l a s t i c i t y of t h e fuselage.

2. Calculation of Lateral Natural Vibrations w i t h Consideration of Three Degrees of Freedom

Figure 3.42 shows a h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear. Let us choose a r e c t a n g u l a r f i x e d coordinate system cxyz w i t h i t s o r i g i n a t t h e c e n t e r of gravit y c of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The cx-axis i s d i r e c t e d forward ( i n t h e plane of symmetry of t h e f u s e l a g e ) p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground, t h e cy-axis i s d i r e c t e d upward, and t h e cz-axis i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e r i g h t , viewed i n d i r e c t i o n ht z be t h e displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e heliof t h e cx-axis. copter i n d i r e c t i o n of t h e cz-axis, and l e t cp, and cpy be t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e fuselage relative t o t h e cx- and cy-axes (cp, being t h e angle of roll and cpy t h e angle of yaw). The equations of lateral v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

340

where

m I , and I ,

= mass of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; = moments of i n e r t i a of t h e fuselage r e l a t i v e t o t h e cx- and

=

I , , M, and My

cy-axes ; corresponding c e n t r i f u g a l moment of i n e r t i a ; = moments of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e fuselage r e l a t i v e t o t h e cx- and cy-axes; Z = p r o j e c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e fuselage a t t h e cz-axis.

Fig.3.42

Scheme of Helicopter on a n E l a s t i c Landing Gear.

Let us f i r s t study v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e absence of damping. I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t i e s I$, M y and Z i n t h e presence of small natural h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibrium can be l i n e a r l y expressed i n terms of t h e displacements z, cp,, and c p y . We can t h e n write t h e expressions f o r displacements of t h e flexural c e n t e r s of shock absorption ( c . f l ) i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s 1-1 and 11-11 of t h e f u s e l a g e (Fig.3.42) corresponding t o t h e f o r e and a f t landi n g gear i n terms of t h e q u a n t i t i e s z , cp,, c p , : 1) f o r e landing gear:
21 =Z--(Pzlll-qwl;

2) a f t landing gear:

11I

'I

where d i s t a n c e s of t h e p l a n e s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c ; e, and e2 = d i s t a n c e s from t h e cx-axis t o t h e flexural c e n t e r s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears.
1,
=

and 1 ,

Knowing t h e displacement of t h e flexural c e n t e r of %he fuselage cross sect i o n z i n t h e p l a n e of t h e given landing g e a r and t h e r o t a t i o n of this c r o s s s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e flexural c e n t e r (which f o r both c r o s s s e c t i o n s w i l l be /308 e q u a l t o cp,), we can determine t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e fusel a g e i n this c r o s s s e c t i o n i n t h e same manner as before (Sect.2, Subsect.2) f o r a plane body on a f l e x i b l e support. Determining t h e n t h e q u a n t i t i e s M,., My, and Z, we o b t a i n t h e following expressions:

MX

-c e l y y

mu= - c.?Y yg - C e l Y x

+ + Gz; +c,z;
C,Z

(5.2)

z= - c,z f C,'?,

$-c l y y ,

where t h e corresponding s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined by t h e formulas

The q u a n t i t i e

c z l , c z 2 , ccpl, and ccp2 r e p r e s e n t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l a t e r a l

and angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s . The f i r s t equation of t h e system (5.2) a l s o contains t h e t e r m Gz representi n g t h e moment of t h e f o r c e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight G r e l a t i v e t o t h e cx-axis, generated during t h e l a t e r a l displacement 2. S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.( 5.2) i n t o eqs.(5.1), we f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e following equat i o n s of small l a t e r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s :

Seeking t h e s o l u t i o n of this system i n t h e form

342

z= . zocos p t ;
'px =$ 9 ;

cos p i ;

ysr=y' Y cos p t ,

where zo, c p ,: cp:, and p a r e constants, we a r r i v e a t t h e following system of l i n e a r a l g e b r a i c equations f o r determining t h e s e constants:

Equating t o zero t h e determinant of this system

and performing simple transformations, we o b t a i n t h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies p of t h e h e l i copter: A p 6 f Bp4 C p 2 D =0,

+ +

where

(5.6)

hx

= e

'Ixy , h, =

I X

a r e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s .

1 ,

I Y

The p a r t i a l frequencies p z , pyx, pYy and t h e quantities p z y , P ; ~ , e t c . are obtained by means of t h e formulas

pi=-.

G 1 ,

Equation (5.6) i s a n equation of t h e t h i r d power w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e quan: ( k = l, 2, 3) are always real t i t y p2. It can be demonstrated t h a t i t s roots p and p o s i t i v e . Therefore, one of t h e p o s s i b l e methods of f i n d i n g t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies pk i s t h e graphic method i n which we construct t h e graph of t h e l e f t - s i d e of this equation, which i s regarded as a function of t h e quant i t y p. The p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of this graph w i t h t h e a b s c i s s a give t h e values of t h e natural frequencies ( f i g .3.43). Let us number t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system i n i n c r e a s i n g order: p1 < pz < p3. Let us c a l l t h e quantities pl, p2, p j , t h e frequencies of t h e first, second, and t h i r d overtones of t h e h e l i c o p t e r natural lateral vibrat i o n s . Each n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency corresponds t o a c e r t a i n v i b r a t i o n mode characterized by a c e r t a i n c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e amplitudes z o , cpz, cp;, which can be found f o r a given pk ( k = 1 , 2, 3) from eqs.(5.5) i f we s u b s t i t u t e t h e r e pk f o r t h e quantity p . T h i s w i l l yield t h e expression

where'k = 1 , 2, 3.

I t i s easy t o show t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of a given overtone i s chara c t e r i z e d by a c e r t a i n s t r a i g h t l i n e lying i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry of t h e fusel a g e xcy and r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e locus of t h e p o i n t s (belonging t o t h e f u s e l a g e ) remaining s t a t i o n a r y duri n g v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone.
I n f a c t , t h e displacement z,, of a c e r t a i n fusel a g e p o i n t A l y i n g i n t h e p l a n e xcy and having t h e coordinates x and y ( s e e F'ig.3.42) can obviously be determined by t h e formula
ZA =

Fig .3 4.3 Character of t h e Graph A = A ( p ) f o r Determination of t h e Natural Vibration F'requencies of a Helic o p t e r on a n E l a s t i c Landing Gear.

+~ x y - ~ u % .

I n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone, we have z=zo cos pkt; yx =7; cos p J ;

'?sr =y; cos PRt.

344

Hence,

Therefore, t h e c o n d i t i o n

r e p r e s e n t s t h e equation of t h e locus of t h e p o i n t s i n t h e plane xcy, whose vib r a t i o n amplitudes are equal t o zero during Vibrations of t h e k-th overtone. However, this i s a n equation of some s t r a i g h t l i n e .

Th

Thus, t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e k-th overtone can be charact e r i z e d by t h e p o s i t i o n of some s t r a i g h t l i n e i n t h e plane xcy. T h i s s t r a i g h t l i n e w i l l be designated here as t h e l i n e of t h e nodes of t h e k-th overtone of l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s . The equation of t h e nodal line [eq.(T.lO)l i s e a s i l y derived by means of eq.( 5.9) for a given value of p k

f i g .3 .& C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Arrangement of t h e Nodal Lines of Vibrations of t h e first, Second, and Third Overtones.

The r e s u l t s of natural l a t e r a l r i b r a t i o n analyses of a h e l i c o p t e r a r e conveniently represented as a s k e t c h giving a s i d e view of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e nodal l i n e s of a l l three v i b r a t i o n overtones, w i t h a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e correspondi n g frequencies (Fig .3 .&)

The approxbnate c a l c u l a t i o n method f o r natural l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s given i n Section 2 and based on t h e a s s m p t i o n of independence of yawing v i b r a t i o n s , /312 can be obtained as a p a r t i c u l a r case of t h e equations derived here.

If t h e cx- and cy-axes are t h e p r i n c i p a l axes of i n e r t i a (I,, t h e conditions

0 ) and i f

are s a t i s f i e d , t h e n eqs .( 5.4.) are resolved i n t o two i n d e p e d e n t systems of equations :

'XyX=I(G

-ce)

z-cQxpx;

mz = czz ceyx;

- +

(5.10')

34-5

--C,c?,.

(5.10)

Equation (5.10) determines t h e independent yawing v i b r a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e system of equations (5.10) determines t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s corresponding t o t h e p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e presented i n S e c t i o n 2 ( i n this case, two of t h e nodal l i n e s are p a r a l l e l t o t h e cx-axis, and t h e t h i r d coincides w i t h t h e cy-axis). For a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r , t h e conditions ct = c,t = 0 and I,, = 0 are never a c c u r a t e l y s a t i s f i e d . However, f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a n elongated fuselage, i f t h e angle a between t h e p r i n c i p a l a x i s of i n e r t i a cxo and t h e cx-axis i s low ( s e e Fig.3.42) and t h e mment of i n e r t i a I, i s s m a l l i n comparison w i t h t h e two o t h e r s (I, and Iz), t h e r e s u l t s of t h e llexactll and approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s may agree w i t h a n accuracy s u f f i c i e n t f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes

To determine t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of natural v i b r a t i o n s , one can use a n approximate method analogous t o that presented i n S e c t i o n 2 (Subsect.4) f o r a system w i t h two degrees of freedom. For each n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n overtone, we t h e n determine t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e assumption that i n t h e presence of damping t h e v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone r e p r e s e n t a l s o angular v i b r a t i o n s about t h e nodal l i n e of this overtone. I n t h i s case, j u s t as Sefore (Sect .2, Subs e c t .4), t h e equation of natural angular v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e nodal l i n e can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

where

t o t h e nodal l i n e of t h e k-th overtone; ccR( = PgIk = angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber system during r o t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e n o d a l l i n e of t h e k-th overtone; = corresponding damping c o e f f i c i e n t . kvk
= moment of i n e r t i a of t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e l a t i v e

I,

The moment of i n e r t i a of t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e l a t i v e t o t h e nodal l i n e can be determined by means of t h e formula:

I,=mh,2+
where

/ , c o s 2 y R + Ibrsin*yk$/,sin

Zy,,

(5.12)

hk = d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t h e nodal line; Y k = angle made by t h e nodal l i n e w i t h t h e cx-axis (Fig.3 .&)

The q u a n t i t i e s hk and yk are determined from t h e formulas

346

The c o e f f i c i e n t of angular damping kv, i s determined from t h e expression

k,, =2ki,di,
where

+2kZ,r1,2,j - 2 (klIayf ki,a;) cos2 ykr

(5 015)

d i s t a n c e s between t h e nodal l i n e s (Fig.3.45) and t h e l i n e s connecting t h e p o i n t of contact w i t h t h e ground of t h e t i r e s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears; wheel t r a c k s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s (fig 0 3016) ; damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l s p r i n g s (see Fig.3.16) of t h e f o r e and a f t landing gear, having t h e same meaning as i n Section 2 (Subs e c t .IC).

After determining t h e q u a n t i t y kV,, we can d e r i v e t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e k-th overtone :

k,- . ah=-!
2zkpk

(5.16)

3. C a l s l a t i o n of Natural Helicopter
Vibrations i n t h e Plane of S;vet-ry ( t u d i n a l Vibrations)

kt us t u r n t o fig.3.46. The problem of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry reduces t o a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of o s c i l l a t i o n s of a clamped p l a n e e l a s t i c s o l i d body i n i t s own plane (xOy). The v e r t i c a l s p r i n g s w i t h a s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t c y l and c y 2 simulate t h e v e r t i c a l r i g i d i t y of t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears, w h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l s p r i n g s cX1 and c x 2 simulate t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears i n f t h e tires of t h e landing gears a r e not braked, t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-ads. I t h e n cX1 a& c x 2 = 0. I n t h e case of braked t i r e s , t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e landi n g gear i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-axis i s composed of t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e t i r e and t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e t i r e suspension system ( f o r example, f l e x u r a l For approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e landing gear s t r u t s , etc.). l o n g i t u d i n a l s t i f f n e s s of one t i r e cZn can be taken as equal t o cZn 1.5 c;..
Iet t h e p o i n t M (Fig.3.46) w i t h t h e coordinates e, and e y represent t h e flexural c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber system at l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s . The q u a n t i t y e y i s t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r from t h e ground surface, w h i l e t h e q u a n t i t y e, i s ,determined from t h e expression

F i g .3.45 For Basic C o r r e l a t i o n s during Vibrations of a Helicopter R e l a t i v e t o t h e Nodal Wne of t h e k-th Vibration Overtone.

347

Let x and y r e p r e s e n t displacements of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e x - 4 J , ' l / c o p t e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox- and Cy-axes, and l e t cpz be t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e 02-&so Then, t h e equations of small v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e p l a n e xOy i n t h e absence of damping have t h e f om

where

Let us introduce t h e following n o t a t i o n s :

r o=c, e;

+cYe: +c,;

L e t us a l s o s u b s t i t u t e cpz by t h e new variable

S=@*.

Equations (5.18)

can t h e n be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

x = - p;x

+p;e,s; - P2; Y XY.

Y = -p2 Y y - p2,e,s;

s = -p;s +p;<x

Seeking t h e s o l u t i o n of this system of equations i n t h e form

x=xo cos pt; y =yo cos pt; s =so cos p t ,

(5.23)

we arrive a t t h e following system of l i n e a r homogeneous a l g e b r a i c equations f o r

, , yo, and so: determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s x

(5.24)

Equating t h e determinant of this system t o zero

/315

we o b t a i n t h e f o l l a J i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l Vib r a t i o n frequencies p :

p6+ up4

+bp2 +c

=0,

(5.25)

where

T h i s ecpation has t h r e e r e a l r o o t s p which can be found g r a p h i c a l l y by constructing t h e graph of t h e f u n c t i o n A = A(p) = p6 + ap4 + bp + c, similar t o t h a t i n d i c a t e d i n Section 5 (Subsect.2) for eq.(5.6) ( s e e fig.3.43). Let us t h e n arrange t h e r o o t s of t h e eq.( 5.25) i n ascending o r d e r X p1 < pa < p3 and designate by t h e q u a n t i t i e s p l , pa, and p3 t h e frequencies of t h e f i r s t , second, and t h i r d natural v i b r a t i o n overtones of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry, or l o n g i t u d i n a l vibrat i o n s . To each l o n g i t u d i n a l vibrat i o n overtone t h e r e corresponds i t s own v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e h e l i Fig.3.G Scheme of Helicopter on a n copter, which is conveniently charE l a s t i c Landing Gear, f o r Calculating a c t e r i z e d by t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e Vibrations i n t h e Plane of Symmetry. corresponding v i b r a t i o n node 0 k (here k = 1 , 2, 3 ) i n t h e p l a n e B y , i.e., t h e f u s e l a g e p o i n t s that remain s t a t i o n a r y during v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone. The coordinates of t h e v i b r a t i o n node x k and yk can be found i n t h e f o l lowing manner: The v i b r a t i o n amplitude a, and a y of any f u s e l a g e p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinates xk a d yk in d i r e c t i o n s of t h e Ox- and Oy-axes are determined by t h e obvious formulas

where cpo = sop is t h e angular v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

349

The coordinates xk and yk are determined from t h e conditions a, = 0 and

a y = 0, such that

The values of t h e r a t i o

Yo and - can be found f r o r n t h e first two equaXO

SO

SO

t i o n s of t h e system ( 5 . a ) ) i f t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p i s known. t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone, we o b t a i n

P Y .:

For vibra-

( : ) & = m i

Hence, we o b t a i n t h e following formulas f o r determining t h e coordinates of t h e v i b r a t i o n node:

/316

W e w i l l give two p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a s i m p l i f i e d c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l helicopter v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of symnetry.

When t h e flexural c e n t e r of shock a b s o r p t i o n M (see Fig.3.46) l i e s on t h e Oy-axis (e, = 0), t h e equations of motion (5.B) are s i m p l i f i e d and t a k e t h e form

my = - cYy;

Equation (5.28) d e s c r i b e s v e r t i c a l forward v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helicopter, which a r e not of i n t e r e s t from t h e Viewpoint of ground resonance. express l o n g i t u d i n a l Vibrations of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , which Equations ( 5 i n this case can be regarded as a system w i t h two degrees of freedom x and cpz. Such a system i s mechanically equivalent t o t h e system discussed i n Section 2

.a)

350

(Subsect .3) and depicted i n Fig .3.16. Therefore, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of a h e l i c o p t e r , it i s here p o s s i b l e (neglecting t h e moment due t o t h e f o r c e of t h e weight G ) t o use t h e graphs i n Figs.3.19 and 3.20 as w e l l as eqsa(2.22), (2.23), and (2.241, p u t t i n g t h e r e
x=

I , .
me;

The q u a n t i t y gk =

- W i l l represent
Yk

t h e ;.elative

d i s t a n c e between t h e vi-

e Y

b r a t i o n node of t h e k-th overtone (which here comes t o l i e on t h e Oy-axis) ard t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

For a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r , t h e q u a n t i t y e, i s g e n e r a l l y not equal t o zero, but In most cases, a n apu s u a l l y i s small i n coqparison w i t h t h e q u a n t i t y 1 + 1,. proximate c a l c u l a t i o n i n which we set e, = 0 w i l l give natural v i b r a t i o n values c l o s e t o t h o s e obtained by a n exact c a l c u l a t i o n and can be s u c c e s s f u l l y used as a preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n whenever one wishes t o o b t a i n r e s u l t s quickly, witho u t t h e need f o r g r e a t e r accuracy.
When c a l c u l a t i o n s of l o n g i t u d i n a l Vibrations are c a r r i e d out i n t h e presence of unbraked t i r e s ( c , = 0 ) , t h e equations of motion (5.18) a g a i n are resolved i n t o two independent systems :

mx=O;

I n this case, we can assume x = 0 during v i b r a t i o n s s i n c e t h e r e i s no /317 p r o j e c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s onto t h e Ox-axis. One of t h e natural frequencies of t h e system i s e q u a l t o zero and corresponds t o uniform motion of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r along t h e Ox-axis. The two o t h e r n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies, as i n t h e preceding case, can be found from t h e graphs i n Figs.3.19 and 3.20 o r from eqs.(2.22), (2.23), and ( 2 . a ) i n which we must p u t

The values of ak =

r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e s between t h e e,
xk

center

of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e v i b r a t i o n nodes which, i n this case, Lie on t h e Ox-axis.

351

F i n a l l y , when t h e r e i s no t i r e braking but e, = 0, t h e simplest formulas f o r n a t u r a l frequencies i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry are obtained:

To determine t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of natural l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s we can again use a n approximate method based on t h e assumption t h a t , i n t h e presence of damping f o r c e s , t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e g i v e n overtone are angular vib r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e n o d a l l i n e of t h e given overtone which, i n this case, r e p r e s e n t s a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e 02-axis and i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e p l a n e xOy a t a p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinates xk and Yk [see eqs.(5.27)1. The equation of vib r a t i o n s of this overtone can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form of es.( 5.11), except t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y I, is found from t h e formula

t h e r e i s no need t o allow f o r I n determining t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t k qk damping of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l e l a s t i c elemerks cX1 and c x 2 ( s e e Fig.3.46) s o t h a t o n l y damping of t h e v e r t i c a l e l a s t i c elements w i t h s t i f f n e s s e s c;
1

and c;

of

t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s m u s t be considered (see Fig.3.16). The corresponding damping c o e f f i c i e n t s k : l c a t e d i n Section 2 (Subsects .4 and 5). and ki2 a r e determined as i n d i -

By c a l c u l a t i n g t h e moment from t h e damping f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e nodal l i n e , w e o b t a i n t h e following expression f o r determining t h e quantity kq:

The dimensionless damping c o e f f i c i e n t d e t e d ned by t h e formula

?ik of t h e given v i b r a t i o n overtone i s

4.

Reduction - of t h e Problem t o Calculation o f a Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Base

After determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies a& modes of t h e helic o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance can be
352

reduced t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a flexible support, as presented i n Section 1 . The method of c a l c u l a t i o n based on reducing t h e problem t o a r o t o r on a f l e x i b l e support i s a n approximate method and analogous t o that given i n Sect i o n 2 (Subsect.6) f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r . The essence of t h e approximate method i s as follows: A s e p a r a t e calculat i o n of ground resonance i s performed f o r each natural v i b r a t i o n overtone; here, t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e i s regarded as a s o l i d body w i t h one degree of freedom, namely r o t a t i o n about t h e nodal l i n e of t h e given overtone. O f course, such a n approximate method holds only f o r t h e case i n which t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of d i f f e r e n t overtones are s u f f i c i e r r t l y llfarll from each o t h e r . When t h e r e a r e two Ifclose11 natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies, c e r t a i n correct i o n s must be introduced i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . The method of r e f i n i n g t h e calc u l a t i o n Will be presented below. Thus, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance, t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s w i t h res p e c t t o each overtone are s e p a r a t e l y considered as angular v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f u s e l a g e about some f i x e d s t r a i g h t Line: nodal Line of t h e given overtone.

It can be demonstrated t h a t , w i t h such a. s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e equations of motion of t h e system reduce t o a system of equations analogous t o t h e system (1.16) (Sect.1). In this case, a l l formulas of Section 1 remain i n f o r c e and we can use t h e graphs for determining t h e i n s t a b i l i t y f r i n g e ( s e e Figs.3.3 t o 3.12); however, here t h e quantity Tto i s t o mean a dimensionless dampi coefo r (5.36) f i c i e n t ?ik of t h e given v i b r a t i o n overtone determinable from eqs.(5.U? (Sect.5, Subsects.2 and 3), w h i l e t h e quantity E i s t o mean t h e quantity ek calc u l a t e d f o r t h e given overtone by t h e formula

i-1

where
i = 1 , 2,

s; number of r o t o r s , w i t h each of t h e q u a n t i t i e s formula

...,

Eik

determined by t h e

Here,

Ik
t,

= moment of i n e r t i a of t h e f u s e l a g e ( w i t h t h e r o t o r

masses concent r a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r ) r e l a t i v e t o t h e nodal l i n e of t h e k-th over) (5.3411; tone [see e q ~ ~ ( 5 . 1 2and d i s t a n c e between t h e c e d e r of t h e given i - t h r o t o r and t h e nodal l i n e of t h e k-th overtone i f l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s are considered, o r t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e nodal l i n e of t h e k-th overtone arid t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e given r o t o r i f l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s of

353

t h e h e l i c o p t e r are considered; n = number of blades of a given r o t o r ; S V a h and IVeh = s t a t i c moment and moment of i n e r t i a of t h e r o t o r blade relative t o t h e drag ( v e r t i c a l ) hinge. The r o t o r s can be d i f f e r e n t ; however, t h e above method i s v a l i d only i f a l l r o t o r s have i d e n t i c a l angular v e l o c i t i e s of r o t a t i o n and i d e n t i c a l values of t h e parameter v o [see eq.( 1.9) I.

A s i n d i c a t e d above, t h e approximate c a l c u l a t i o n method presented here holds only i f t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies of d i f f e r e n t overtones are s u f f i c i e n t l y Iffar apart". It can be demonstrated t h a t , i f t h e r e are two c l o s e natural latf o r example, p n and p m t h e n t h e e r a l ( o r l o n g i t u d i n a l ) v i b r a t i o n frequencies c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones can be performed f o r one overtone - f o r example, pm but i s r e f i n e d by s u b s t i t u t i r l g a c e r t a i n quantity geq f o r n, ( f o r a g i v e n overtone, where < Gm), which i s determined by t h e formula

neq

T h i s formula i s derived f o r t h e case of p n = p m yi.e., when t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e two overtones i n question coincide exactly. I f pn # # p m , t h e n eq.(5.39) y i e l d s a n understated value of Tieq.

If t h e r e are two c l o s e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies pn and p m , w i t h one of them - f o r example, p n being t h e frequency of t h e n - t h overtone of l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s and t h e other, p m , being t h e frequency of t h e m-th overtone of longit u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s , then, g e n e r a l l y speaking, a. r o t o r on a f l e x i b l e support with two degrees of freedom must be considered (see Sect.1, Subsect.4). I n this case, it i s p o s s i b l e t o a p p r o a t e l y estimate ( w i t h i n t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r ) t h e required damping by eq.(1.52), f o r a r o t o r on a n i s o t r o p i c flexible s q p o r t , subs t i t u t i n g i n t o it t h e q a n t i t i e s no and 8 f o r t h a t of t h e two examined over-

t o n e s f o r which t h e value of t h e r a t i o

n, i s 'k

smaller.

It should be noted t h a t such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s required only i n t h e r a t h e r r a r e case i n which, f o r both exarnined overtones, not only t h e values of t h e fre-

quencies p n and p m but a l s o t h e values of tity

- f o r one of t h -e overtones - i s l a r g e r by a f a c t o r of 2.5 - 3 t h a n f o r t h e k ' n m nn other - f o r e x a q l e , - = 3 - t h e n we can disregard v i b r a t i o n s of t h e

En
m'

nk

are - and em
CIl

nIl

n m

close.

If t h e quan-

n-th overtone, and examine only v i b r a t i o n s of t h e m-th overtone ( a s independent).

5. Self-Excited Vibrations i n F l i g h t of a Helicopter w i t h

an E l a s t i c Fuselage Self-excited v i b r a t i o n s of t h e ground resonance t y p e are a l s o p o s s i b l e i n

354-

h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t . The f u s e l a g e of a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r i s a n e l a s t i c system which has i t s own n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes. Lf t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of any overtone of a n e l a s t i c fuselage i s such t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r (or c e n t e r s of t h e r o t o r s ) during v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone i s displaced i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , t h e n ground resonance i s p o s s i b l e and t h e fusel a g e w i l l execute v i b r a t i o n s w i t h t h e mode of this overtone. The n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a n e l a s t i c f u s e l a g e are u s u a l l y high i n comparison w i t h t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h shock absorpt i o n of t h e landing gear, and only one o r two low natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics a r e Z dangerous from t h e viewpoint of t h e poss i b i l i t y of self-excited v i b r a t i o n s .
I

x-----c,

The lower natural v i b r a t i o n frequenci.es of t h e fuselage u s u a l l y correspond t o i t s f lexural v i b r a t i o n s . Figure 3.47 shows t h e v i b r a t i o n /320 mode of t h e first p a r t i a l of bending of t h e f u s e l a g e of a Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e horiz o n t a l plane. The v i b r a t i o n mode i s given as a curve of t h e e l a s t i c l i n e u = u(x) (u being t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinate x).

Fig.3.47 Mode of First Vibrat i o n Overtone of a n E l a s t i c Helicopter Fuselage.

The natural flexural v i b r a t i o n f r e quencies and modes of a f u s e l a g e can be found by conventional methods used f o r elast i c beams of v a r i a b l e c r o s s s e c t i o n (see, f o r example, Chapter I1 of this volume) o r can be determined experimentally ( i f a full-scale helicopter i s available).

If t h e frequency p o and mode u(x) of any flexural v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e f u s e l a g e are known, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of self-excited v i b r a t i o n s w i t h t h e mode of this p a r t i a l can be reduced t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base, using t h e formulas i n S e c t i o n 1 o r t h e graphs i n Figs.3.3 - 3.12. I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t y E should be determined by means of t h e formula
E=tl+E,+.

( 5 -40)

where s i s t h e number of r o t o r s .

, 2, The q u a n t i t i e s e l ( i = 1

..., s ) are determined from

355

where

xi = coordinate of t h e c e n t e r of t h e i - t h r o t o r ;
p = l i n e a r mass of t h e fuselage ( w i t h t h e i n t e g r a l t a k e n over t h e en-

t i r e f u s e l a g e length).
The q u a n t i t y Ui(x) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t t h e p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinate x, r e f e r r e d t o t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e c e n t e r of t h e i - t h r o t o r . The q u a n t i t y m e q i s t h e m a x i " value of k i n e t i c energy of t h e f u s e l a g e during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e given overtone, w i t h t h e vib r a t i o n arrrplitude a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e i - t h r o t o r being equal t o unity, r e f e r r e d t o t h e q a n t i t y p:. The q u a n t i t y no should t h e n be e q u a l t o t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e given v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e fuselage. It i s determined exc l u s i v e l y by h y s t e r e s i s l o s s e s i n t h e f u s e l a g e design and u s u a l l y amounts t o 0.05. 0.02

Such a comparatively low value of E , does not permit e l i m i n a t i r g ground resonance i n f l i g h t by means of a blade damper, and f l i g h t s a f e t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be ensured only a t s u f f i c i e n t rpm margins up t o t h e lower f r i n g e of ins t a b i l i t y . Consequently, s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e a i r are dangerous only f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h comparatively low natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e e l a s t i c f u s e l a g e . For example, f o r t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r t h e rpm margin up t o t h e lower boundary of i n s t a b i l i t y correspondi n g t o t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e f u s e l a g e (see Fig.3.47) i s 28%. Ground resonance i n t h e air constit u t e s t h e g r e a t e s t danger f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h a long Fig.3.48 Mode of Lower Vibration e l a s t i c wing (F'ig.3.48). The danger of Overtone of a Side-by-Side Helis e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s f o r such helicopter, Most Dangerous from t h e c o p t e r s i s aggravated by t h e f a c t t h a t Viewpoint of Ground Resonance. t h e r o t o r c e n t e r s coincide w i t h t h e a n t i nodes of t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n harmonic, which y i e l d s comparatively s m a U values m,, [eq.( 5.42) 1 and, consequentl y , r e l a t i v e l y wide i n s t a b i l i t y zones. S e c t i o n 6. S e l e c t i o n of Basic Parameters of Landing Gear and Blade Dmers Design Recommendations

As i n d i c a t e d by t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y of s t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c

3 56

base, t h e s t a b i l i t y margin, g e n e r a l l y speaking, can be increased by i n c r e a s i n g t h e degree of blade v i b r a t i o n damping as w e l l as t h e f u s e l a g e ' v i b r a t i o n damping, i .eo, by i n c r e a s i n g t h e damping c a p a c i t y of t h e l a r d i n g gear. However, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e t y p e s of damping are quite l i m i t e d i n p r a c t i c e , s i n c e both t h e blade damper and t h e landing g e a r have a number of o t h e r f u n c t i o n s not related w i t h ground resonance.
The blade damper works i n forward f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and loads t h e blade r o o t w i t h a v a r i a b l e bending moment which i s g r e a t e r t h e g r e a t e r t h e degree of it.s damping. The mechanical s t r e n g t h of t h e r o o t p o r t i o n s of t h e blade and hub, and consequently t h e i r weight, i s determined mainly by t h e presence of a damper.

A n extreme i n c r e a s e of t h e degree of damping of t h e landing gear without t h e use of s p e c i a l devices l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n shock absorber s t i f f n e s s and hence t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e dynamic loads during landing of t h e c r a f t .
These a s p e c t s of t h e work of blade dampers and of t h e landing g e a r must be considered i n designing a h e l i c o p t e r . It f r e q u e n t l y i s impossible t o provide a s u f f i c i e n t margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground resonance without using s p e c i a l devices, e i t h e r i n t h e blade damper o r i n t h e landing gear system. For h e l i c o p t e r s of single-rotor and fore-and-aft configuration, ground r e s & nance during t h e ground r u n may prove t h e most dangerous. Therefore, this i s conveniently considered t o be t h e design case f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e parameters of b l a d e and landing gear damping. For s i m p l i c i t y , we can consider that t h e h e l i copter o s c i l l a t e s about t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s going through i t s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y which i s a s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d assumption at high t a x i i n g speed( Sect.4,Subsect .2$. A s shown above, we derived very simple c a l c u l a t i o n formulas [eqs.(4-.18)-(4.21)1 2 f o r this case and w e r e able t o determine t h e required c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of land- & i n g gear and blade damper by t h e simplest method. However, a f t e r having s e l e c t e d t h e parameters f o r landing gear and blade dampers, a complete c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance f o r a l l p o s s i b l e cases i s required, including ground resonance during t h e ground run, followed by p l o t t i n g a diagram of s a f e rpm ( s e e Fig.3.25). If necessary, t h e s e l e c t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e landing gear and hub can t h e n be corrected.

1 .S e l e c t i o n of Blade Da.mer C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
~~~

The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e work of a blade damper i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e natural blade frequency ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c frequency f o r ground resonance) i s always by a f a c t o r of about 3 - ,?+ lower t h a n t h e frequency of forced blade vibrat i o n s i n forward f l i g h t .

I n f a c t , i n f l i g h t a blade executes forced Vibrations r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges w i t h a frequency u) e q u a l t o t h e r o t o r r p m whereas t h e natuw o = 0.25 0.3; i n any r a l blade v i b r a t i o n frequency i s p b = wow. Usual*, case, t h e angular v e l o c i t y u) of r o t o r r o t a t i o n a t ground resonance cannot be g r e a t e r than t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n i n f l i g h t

357

T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c explains, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e unsuitability of using danpers w i t h a l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (Sect.3, Subsect.3) i n View of t h e f a c t t h a t a l i n e a r damper, a t constant v i b r a t i o n amplitude, w i l l generate a moment p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency.
The simplest dampers producing a moment independent of t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency are f r i c t i o n dampers and hydraulic dampers w i t h stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , where this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c should be as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c A stepped hydraulic damper of this type of t h e f r i c t i o n damper ( s e e Fig.3.31,b). i s suitable for heavy h e l i c o p t e r s s i n c e it i s l i g h t e r i n weight t h a n a similar f r i c t i o n damper, t h e g a i n i n weight of t h e damper i n c r e a s i n g w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n i t s power. When using ordinary d a q e r s , t h e moment M , of t h e damper i s s e l e c t e d from b l a d e s t r e n g t h considerations, w h i l e i t s damping c o e f f i c i e n t i s determined from Here, t h e damping margin f o r ground resonance can be ensured o n l y eq.(3.23). by proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e landing gear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . When this i s -0ssible, s p e c i a l designs of blade dampers might be needed, which would produce l a r g e blade damping a t low v i b r a t i o n frequencies ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r ground resonance) and small blade damping a t v i b r a t i o n frequencies corresponding t o h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t . One of t h e simplest t y p e s of such a damper i s one connected i n series w i t h a n e l a s t i c element (see F'ig.3.33). Figure 3.49 shows one of t h e p o s s i b l e design versions of such a damper. Let u s designate this type of damper a Itspring damper11".

Fig.3 .49 Damper w i t h Series-Connected E l a s t i c EXement 1 E l a s t i c elements (rubber); 2 Casing; 3 Safety valve; 4 - Rod; 5 - Adjusting needle.

To estimate t h e advantages of a s p r i n g damper, we Will conpare it with a conventional f r i c t i o n damper. Let t h e h e l i c o p t e r undergo ground resonance duri n g t h e ground run s o t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone coincides w i t h t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r . Furthermore, l e t t h e maximum moment i n f l i g h t , , . permissible with r e s p e c t t o s t r e n g t h considerations of t h e blade, be equal t o M
The design of a s p r i n g blade damper for elirninati.ng ground r6sonance w a s proposed by engineers 0 .P.Bakhov, L.N.Grodko, I.V.Kurova, and M.A.Leykand (Patent No. Ii343.42)
"

>L

358

Then t h e equivalent damping c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h a f r i c t i o n damper i s detemnined by t h e following formula (3.23):

where i s t h e amplitude of t h e f i r s t harmonic of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . When using a s p r i n g damper, t h e corresponding equivalent damping coeffic i e n t i s detemnined from eq.(3.17)

si

where p b i s t h e frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s a t ground resonance, which can be considered e q u a l t o t h e product vow.
Pb=VQO.

The moment produced by t h e s p r i n g damper i n f l i g h t can be determined by means of t h e formula

which, i n t h e presence of harmonic blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency w, t h e following value of t h e amplitude of t h e moment M [ s e e eqs.(3.17)1:

gives

f we s e l e c t t h e values of c and k Iet us now pose t h e following question: I f o r a s p r i n g damper such t h a t it produces i n f l i g h t t h e same moment M , as t h e f r i c t i o n damper, t h e n w h a t i s t h e mx3" value of k : t r i n g obtainable by varying t h e q u a n t i t i e s c and k ? Here, we w i l l consider t h a t t h e amplitude of blade vii n f l i g h t and during t h e ground b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e first harmonic run of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s t h e same.
The r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n damping when using a s p r i n g damper i s conveniently characterized by t h e q u a n t i t y

.a&

359

S u b s t i t u t i n g i n this formula p b = vow and taking i n t o account t h e c o n d i t i o n M = M,, we o b t a i n

where t h e dimensionless q u a n t i t y i s

Thus, t h e r e l a t i v e advantage gained-from using t h e s p r i n g damper depends e x c l u s i v e l y upon s e l e c t i n g t h e value of k. Figure 3.50 ives a graph of t h e dependence $(E7 f o r t h e case vo = A s we see from this graph, = 0.25. a n i n c r e a s e i n k causes t h e quant i t y $ t o i n c r e a s e first and t h e n t o decrease, a t t a i n i n g a $ = - ,$ ,, a t a c e r t a i n value k = k o p t which we will c a l l optimal. Equating t o zero t h e d e r i v a t i v e d$ we f i n d dk

Fig.3.50

Dependence Jr = f ( k ) f o r VO = 0.25.

A t v o = 0.2.5, we o b t a i n kept = 3.74,

3.24.

Thus, t h e use of a s p r i n g damper permits i n c r e a s i n g t h e damping a t ground resonance by a f a c t o r of more t h a n 3, w h i l e keeping t h e moment loading t h e blade i n f l i g h t constant However, this does not exhaust t h e advantage of a s p r i n g damper as compared t o a customary damper. I n f a c t , a s p r i n g damper g i v e s 1lelasticityt1 i n t h e drag hinge ( c , ~ ) , and t h e presence of such e l a s t i c i t y , as i s showi.1 i n Section 1 , Subsection 2, reduces t h e e x t e n t of t h e necessary damping [see eq.(l.31) and t h e graph i n Fig.3.131. Calculations show t h a t w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l l above statements, t h e damping margin at ground resomnce can be i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 5 6 while keeping unchanged t h e moment a c t i n g on t h e blade i n f l i g h t .

2. Rotor w i t h I n t e r b l a d e E l a s t i c Elements and DamDers

So f a r we discussed only t h e case where t h e e l a s t i c element and damper i n t h e drag hinge a r e lashed up between t h e blade and t h e hub casing s o t h a t t h e moment a c t i n g on t h e blade depends e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e motion of t h e given blade and i s independent of t h e motion of t h e o t h e r blades. Occasionally, hub designs w i t h so-called i n t e r b l a d e coupling a r e used. The diagram of such a hub i s shown i n Fig.3.51. Let us assume t h a t each such i n t e r b l a d e element has a c e r t a i n s t i f f ness c and a damping characterized by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k, so t h a t t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on such a n element i s connected with t h e v a r i a t i o n of i t s l e n g t h s by t h e r e l a t i o n

( L

<

ds p===cs+k-.

dt

Fig.3.51 Diagram of Rotor Hub w i t h I n t erblade Coupl i n g .

I n this case; t h e moment exerted on a given (k-th) blade by t h e i n t e r b l a d e e l e ments will depend not only on t h e motion of this blade characterized by t h e angle s k ( t ) but a l s o on t h e motions of t h e two adjacent blades 5.k--1 ( t ) and < k + i ( t )

A t small v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinges, t h e moment a c t i n g on t h e k-th blade W i l l be expressed by t h e formula

. .
M=cO(Ek-Ek--l)$CO (Ek-Ek+l)$-kO (ik-Ck-1)
kO ( E k - E k f l ) ,

whence
co =ch2;

k, =kh2,

where h i s t h e a r m of t h e i n t e r b l a d e element ( s e e Fig.3.51). Therefore, t h e equations of motion of blades i n this case have t h e followi n g form [compare w i t h eq.(1.8)1:

where

&.=1,2,3,.

.n.

361

If t h e r o t o r s h a f t vibrates harmonicalQ
x=xo cas p t ,

(326

w e can f i n d t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades. eqs.(6.8) i n this case have t h e form

The right-hand s i d e s of

Equations

( 6 . $ )

t h e n permit a s o l u t i o n of t h e form

Let us c a l c u l a t e t h e e l a s t i c moment exerted on t h e k-th blade by t h e i n t e r blade e l a s t i c elements during blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o some one of t h e s e w) = p b . W harmonics - f o r example, t h e harmonic (p e have

MeL

=ci)

(Ek-

Ek-1)

f cO

(kk

- Ekfl)

=CO

(2Ek -Ek-l

-&+I).

Moreover,

tk=bl sin

where

Using t h e s e expressions, we o b t a i n

Taking i n t o account t h a t

sin y k - - 2i)=sinykcos 2n --cOsyksin n

2n -,

we f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e following expression:

362

n n

I n t h e case of ordinary e l a s t i c elements of angular s t i f f n e s s ceq located between t h e blade and hub casing, we would have

Thus, t h e i n t e r b l a d e e l a s t i c elements f o r t h e given blade are equivalent t o one ordinary e l a s t i c element of s t i f f n e s s

We can a l s o e s t a b l i s h e x a c t l y t h a t t h e i n t e r b l a d e dampers f o r t h e given /327 blade a r e equivalent t o one ordinary damper lashed up between t h e blade and hub casing and having a damping c o e f f i c i e n t

(6.10)

Consequently, c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r with e l a s t i c i n t e r b l a d e coupling and dampers can be c a r r i e d out by conventional formulas, t a k i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e damper as equal t o k e g and t h e s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e drag hinge as e q u a l t o ceq

TABU3 3.2
Number of

Table 3.2 p r e s e n t s t h e values of t h e quantity

4

Blades

12

I 1 1 I
3

co

ko

2x n

(6.11)

co

ko

f o r r o t o r s w i t h a d i f f e r e n t number of blades.

One of t h e shortcomings of a r o t o r w i t h i n t e r b l a d e dampers l i e s i n t h e f a c t that, during simultaneously d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e blades r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinges ( a l l t o one s i d e and by t h e same angle) which might occur i n t r a n s i t i o n f l i g h t regimes and during run-up of t h e r o t o r , such dampers do not operate. I n e d s t i n g hub designs, this drawback i s sometimes eliminated by using composite designs i n which t h e e l a s t i c elements are made i n t h e form of i n t e r blade couplings w h i l e t h e dampers are made s e p a r a t e l y f o r each blade, i.e., a r e mounted between blade and hub casing.

363

3. S e l e c t i o n of S t i f f n e s s and D a m i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r landing Gears3$

After choosing t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade dampers, t h e b a s i c parameters of t h e landing g e a r can be s e l e c t e d . For h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e u s u a l singler o t o r and fore-and-aft configurations t h e wheel t r a c k 2a (see fig.3.17) should be s e l e c t e d such t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency p p n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r duri n g t h e ground r u n ( r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis going through t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ) w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e s t r u t s ( o n l y t h e t i r e s are operative) i s app r o d m a t e l y 20% higher t h a n t h e operating r p m of t h e r o t o r . T h i s i s given by t h e condition (4.19):

If t h e landing g e a r i s of t h e four-wheel type, t h e q u a n t i t y 2cP,"a2 i n t h e above formula must be replaced by t h e quantity cy, = c = c [ s e e eq.( 5.3)l. v1 y2 Since t h e t i r e s are s e l e c t e d i n terms of a standing load, t h e quantity c;, i n t h e given formula can be considered as known; t h e r e f o r e , i t w i l l y i e l d t h e corresponding value of a.
The s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorbers and t h e i r damping can be s e l e c t e d by assuming t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone during t h e ground run (during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h o p e r a t i v e s t r u t s ) coincides w i t h t h e operating r p m of t h e r o t o r . Such a n approach i s s u e s from t h e following considerations: If t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorbers i s s e l e c t e d such t h a t t h e unstable range during t h e ground run i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e operating rpm, ground resonance might occur a t t h e i n s t a n t of becoming a i r b o r n e ( s e e Sect .4, Subsect .3) s i n c e , during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on l i f t - o f f of t h e t i r e s , t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone can lldescendll t o t h e operating r p m . It i s u s u a l l y impossible t o make t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone lower t h a n t h e operating r p m (with t h e exception of t h e landing gear of t h e B r i s t o l system whose design, however, i s r a t h e r complex) s i n c e this would require a n unfeasibly l o w s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorbers. On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone i s located d i r e c t l y a t t h e operating r p m and t h e damping margin i s s u f f i c i e n t , no ground resonance on breaking contact w i t h t h e ground can occur since, during l i f t - o f f of t h e t i r e s , t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone w i l l be lower t h a n t h e operating rpm. This w a s checked i n numerous c a l c u l a t i o n s and programming on a n e l e c t r o n i c computer of ground resonance on t i r e l i f t - o f f , performed by engineer Yu.A.Myagkov. For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t us assume that t h e landing gear i s equipped w i t h v e r t i c a l shock absorber s t r u t s (see Fig.3.17,b). A s shown i n S e c t i o n 2, Subsection 5, t h e maximum damping of t h e t i r e - o l e o system obtainable i n choosing t h e optimal damping of t h e shock absorber depends on t h e r a t i o
ac "

1328

-.

C8. a

Making use of

CYPn

The method of s e l e c t i n g t h e landing g e a r parameters proposed here was developed by engineer Yu.A.Myagkov.

364

eqs.(2.37)

and (2.38) and considering that, during t h e ground run,

we can o b t a i n t h e following formula which determines t h e maximum p o s s i b l e coeff i c i e n t of available h e l i c o p t e r damping during t h e ground run:
(6.12) where

T h i s means t h a t t h e maximum p o s s i b l e damping c o e f f i c i e n t which can be Obt a i n e d during t h e ground r u n by varying t h e q u a n t i t y ks. a depends exclusively on

the ratio

Therefore, knowing t h e damping required f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n cypn of ground resonance, it i s easy t o determine t h e necessary s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber c a a a If t h e blade damping i s known, t h e r e c p i r e d damping no can be determined by eq.( 1.31)

i s t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade i i b r e f e r r e d t o t h e n a t u r a l viwhere ?fn b r a t i o n frequency p p n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r during t h e ground run w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e s t r u t s (using only t h e t i r e s ) :

F''

i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h operative s t r u t s

a t optimal damping, r e f e r r e d t o t h e quantity p p n :

It i s required t o provide a damping margin of

Using eqs.(6.12),

(6.&),

and (6.16),

we o b t a i n

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o l lowing manner:

where

Fig.3.52 Graph of t h e Dependence of t h e Coeff i c i e n t CY on N.

After s e l e c t i n g t h e blade and t i r e characteri s t i c s and designating t h e necessary d margin 1, t h e left-hand s i d e of eq.(6.18 i s known. Knowing t h e quantitycu, it i s easy t o f i d t h e quant i t y u from eq.(6.19) and t h e n t h e necessary s t i f f ness ce. * of t h e shock absorber. For convenience of determining 3.1, Fig.3.52 g i v e s t h e graph of t h e dependence CY(.).

Ti%

To s e l e c t t h e s t i f f n e s s c S e a by t h e i n d i c a t e d method. we can t a k e T I = 1 s i n c e t h e l ~ k i n e m a t i cdam~~ i n g of t h e t i r e during t h e ground A n i s disregarded i n t h e formulas [see The a c t u a l damping margin 1w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this a d d i t i o n a l eq.(k.Z)I. damping should be a t least 1.5 - 2%.
After t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber i s found, i t s optimal damping coe f f i c i e n t can be determined by eq.(2.36), namely

where

Since, i n r e a l i t y , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e shock absorber damping i s gen! : e r a l l y nonlinear (Sect.3, Subsect.l), we must understand by t h e quantity k t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of a n equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber.

here t h a t t h e case without kinematic danping i s obtained during v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on i c e , when t h e r e i s no f r i c t i o n between t i r e and ground (see Sect.4, Subsect.2).

It should be r e c a l l e d

One of t h e b a s i c d i f f i c u l t i e s i n designing a landing gear i s t h e complexi t y of providing t h e necessary damping of t h e shock s t r u t . If t h e s i z e of t h e o r i f i c e s through which t h e bd r a u l i c f l u i d p a s s e s when t h e shock absorber i s operative i s s e l e c t e d from t h e condition of ground resonance, then, as a r u l e , t h e work of t h e shock at+ s o r b e r during landing w i l l be u n s a t i s f a c t o r y ( t h e f o r c e s Will be t o o g r e a t when making contact w i t h t h e ground). If this s i z e i s s e l e c t e d from t h e conditions t r n ; t a n t of v a l v e opening of landing, t h e n we o b t a i n t o o small a damping during h e l i c o p t e r l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s , which i s completely i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r avoiding ground resonance.
T h i s d i f f i c u l t y can be over: come by two methods (Ref .B) 1) i n c r e a s e i n damping on t h e backstroke of t h e shock absorber; 2) i n s t a l l a t i o n of spec i a l valves i n t h e design of t h e shock absorber.

I.
S

V a l u e opens o n l y on l a n d i n g a, t t h e i n s t a n t of maximum o v e r l o a d

The first of t h e s e methods i s t h e simplest and involves t h e following: The s i z e of t h e o r i f i c e s through which t h e hydraulic f l u i d i s forced during t h e f o r ward s t r o k e of t h e shock absorber (compression) i s s e l e c t e d from Fig.3.53 Shock S t r u t w i t h Valve. t h e landing conditions, w h i l e t h e s i z e of t h e o r i f i c e s through which t h e hydraulic f l u i d p a s s e s during t h e r e t u r n s t r o k e of t h e shock absorber (extension) i s s e l e c t e d from t h e ground resonance conditions. T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because of t h e f a c t that, during h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s , one of t h e shock s t r u t s ( r i g h t or l e f t ) executes a backstroke a t each i n s t a n t of t i m e . Therefore, g e n e r a l l y speaking, t h e necessary damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a t ground resonance can be secured only by damping i n t h e backstroke of t h e shock absorbers. However, damping i n t h e backstroke can be increased only

O r i j i c e s f o r damping of ground resonance

within

certain

limits. An extreme i n c r e a s e of damping i n t h e backstroke (very small o r i f i c e s ) l e a d s t o a very slow Ifemergencell of t h e shock absorber s t r u t s from a compressed
s t a t e a f t e r touchdown.
Therefore, i n heavy r o l l e d landing on rough ground when

367

t h e first touchdown my be followed by f u r t h e r impacts, such a method of increasi n g t h e danqsing might be unacceptable. The second method does not have this shortcoming and involves t h e following: A s p e c i a l s p r i n g valve i s placed i n t h e shock absorber, which opens only when t h e compressive f o r c e i n t h e shock absorber exceeds ( a t touchdown) a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l value P",'., A t P,. '., < Pip'.,, t h o s e o r i f i c e s whose s i z e had been sel e c t e d from conditions of ground resonance w i l l be o p e r a t i v e w h i l e a t Pa.a > > Pfi"."'., t h e o r i f i c e s of l a r g e r diameter whose s i z e had been based on conditions of l i m i t i n g t h e landing overload become o p e r a t i v e . Figure 3.53 shows a design scheme and a diagram of dynamic compression of such a shock absorber.

Another important f a c t o r t o be allowed f o r i n designing a landing gear i s t h e i n e v i t a b l e presence i n any shock absorber of p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e s (Sect.2, Subsect.7), i.e., f o r c e s i n whose presence t h e shock absorber begins t o operate. For a h e l i c o p t e r landing gear, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o have t h e smallest p o s s i b l e preloading f o r c e s Po since, a t high r o t o r t h r u s t , t h e f o r c e s P on t h e landing g e a r decrease and since, a t P < Po, t h e shock absorbers do not operate. I n this case, ground resonance may develop w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e shock absorbers on e l a s t i c t i r e s which a r e v i r t u a l l y without damping. For h e l i c o p t e r landing gears, t h e s t r u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be chosen such t h a t t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e w i l l not be more 0 % of t h e standing load on t h e shock absorber a t zero r o t o r t h r u s t . than 1

CHAPTER I V

THEDRETICAL PRINCIPLES OF CALCULATING BEARIES OF MAIN HELICOPTER C O M F O N E N T S

The s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e main Components of a h e l i c o p t e r depends i n many res p e c t s upon t h e performance of t h e i r bearing assemblies, which means t h a t cons i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o problems of t h e t h e o r y of c a l c u l a t i n g a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering. A s known, t h e l i f e expectancy of general-purpose a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings may vary w i t h i n wide limits owing t o various f a c t o r s of a m e t a l l u r g i c a l and techn o l o g i c a l nature. I n this r e s p e c t , t h e necessary r e l i a b i l i t y of bearing assemb l i e s i n g e n e r a l machine c o n s t r u c t i o n i s achieved by introducing suitable s a f e t y f a c t o r s , i.e., some overestimate of design loads. It i s l o g i c a l that, i n this case, t h e requirement f o r accuracy of c a l c u l a t i o n of bearings can be reduced s u b s t a n t i a l l y . O f course, f o r a i r c r a f t components, where an increase i n r e l i a b i l i t y should be a t t a i n e d by improving t h e design without i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e and weight of t h e bearing assemblies, such a procedure i s unacceptable. T h i s i s a l l t h e more s o s i n c e a i r c r a f t bearings are manufactured from high-quality materials, have high p r e c i s i o n , and are subjected t o very s t r i c t i n s p e c t i o n i n production, as r e s u l t of which t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e i s noticeably reduced. A i r c r a f t bearings, including t h o s e used i n h e l i c o p t e r s , should be c a l c u l a t e d as a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s i b l e w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e i r loading and s e r v i c e . I n recent years, thanks t o s t u d i e s by Soviet and f o r e i g n researchers, cons i d e r a b l e advances have been made i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings; nevertheless, t h e s e a r e by no m e a n s always s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of bearings working under complex combinations of ext e r n a l loads and v i b r a t i o n s w i t h small amplitudes; t h e s e are t h e cases of g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t f o r h e l i c o p t e r engineering. The lack of r e l i a b l e c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings working under t h e above-indicated conditions, handicaps t h e design of reducing gears, p i t c h c o n t r o l s , and hubs of t h e main and e can c i t e many examples where t h e s e v i t a l l y imt a i l r o t o r s of h e l i c o p t e r s . W p o r t a n t components f a i l e d prematurely due t o t h e f a i l u r e of improperly s e l e c t e d bearings.

I n this Chapter, we w i l l attempt t o report t h e r e s u l t s of t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s which had t h e purpose of r e f i n i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r bearings of h e l i c o p t e r components. A s shown i n p r a c t i c a l use, t h e methods of c a l c u l a t i o n given below permit a f u l l e r u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e load-carryi n g capacity of t h e bearings. Such methods, i n designing bearing assemblies, have f r e q u e n t l y made it p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t l y compact and l i g h t s t r u c t u r e s capable of operating r e l i a b l y f o r p r o t r a c t e d p e r i o d s of t i m e a t relativel y high loads.

369

Section 1 . Equations of S t a t i c EafLlibrium of Radial and Radial-Thrust B a l l B e a r i m s under Combined h a d The r e l a t i o n s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bearings are based on r e s u l t s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of external loads over t h e r o l l i n g bodies.

W e will construct equations from which we can d e r i v e t h e pressure on t h e b a l l s i n t h e g e n e r a l case of loadi n g of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. after 2 A on at a n ature

kt a single-row b a l l bearing, landing, have a r a d i a l p l a y

t h e shaft and i n t h e housing e s t a b l i s h e d operating temperregime of t h e assembly.

Upon applying a n arbitrary ext e r n a l load t o t h e bearing, t h e c e n t e r of t h e i n n e r r a c e i s s h i f t e d t o a point 0 ' w i t h coordinates s, t, and u, w h i l e i t s a x i s of r o t a t i o n x' i s def l e c t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e x-axis through some angle -S whose p r o j e c t i o n s onto t h e p l a n e s xOy and XOZ are e q u a l t o 9, and S z , r e s p e c t i v e l y (Fig.4.l).

Fig.4.1 Scheme of Displacements of Inner Race of Bearing under a n A r b i t r a r y W e r n a l Load.

Iet us t a k e a r e c t a n g u l a r coo r d i n a t e system x y z w i t h i t s o r i g i n at t h e c e n t e r 0 of t h e outer race. The x-axis i s d i r e c t e d along t h e axis of r o t a t i o n of this r a c e ( s e e Fig .4 . 1 )

Let us assume t h a t t h e b a l l whose c e n t e r Ob, l i e s i n t h e plane P1 which, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p l a n e xOz, makes t h e angle $ i s a c t e d upon by normal f o r c e s P,) i d e n t i c a l i n magnitude and d i r e c t e d along a common s t r a i g h t l i n e passing through t h e c e n t e r s O o u t and 0,, of t h e cross s e c t i o n s of t h e raceways of t h e o u t e r and A s i s comon i n t h e theory of a n t i i n n e r r a c e s and t h e p o i n t Ob, (Fig.4.2). f r i c t i o n bearings, we w i l l d i s r e g a r d any displacement of t h e c e n t e r of t h e cont a c t area of t h e b a l l w i t h t h e inner r a c e from t h e p l a n e P1 as w e l l as t h e tang e n t i a l f o r c e s arising a t t h e p o i n t s of contact of t h e b a l l w i t h t h e races.
According t o t h e well-known H e r t z formula, we have

Here, 6,) i s t h e convergence of t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n O o u t O i n due t o e l a s t i c deforma.tions a t t h e contact zones. For b a l l bearings with t h e usual i n t e r n a l geometry, we can put

. L a 4

370

where
v = f a c t o r depending on t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e r a d i i
Tin of t h e raceways of t h e o u t e r and i n n e r r a c e s and t h e diameter of t h e b a l l d b a ; d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t s Oout and O , , a t t h e momerit of contact of t h e b a l l w i t h t h e r a c e s (when 64 =

routand

= 0).

If t h e diameter d,, i s expressed i n millimeters and t h e f o r c e s i n kilograms, t h e n a t a modulus of e l a s t i c i t y E = 2.08 x 10" kg/cm2, of t h e material of t h e r a c e s and b a l k , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t B, i s ecpal t o 62.

The f a c t o r v has values i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4.1. TABI.E L.l

-

rocos (i)

Fig.4.2

Polygon of Forces Acting on t h e Ball.

A=

It follows from t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of t h e bearing elem e n t s that t h e external f o r c e s and moments applied t o t h e i n n e r r a c e can be w r i t t e n as ( s e e Fig.4.2)
P , sin Fc;

R, = - 4 P, cos pc sin 9:

Y,= P P, cos p,+cos (J; M,=r, 2 P, sin Pc cos $;

& A

M, =ro
Here,

r] P , sin &, sin 9.

I

Q = angle of contact between b a l l and r a c e s ; ro = r a d i u s a t which t h e c e n t e r s of t h e balls are located. extends over a l l loaded balls.

The s i g n C

Let us assume that t h e r a c e s have a p e r f e c t l y r e g u l a r geometric shape which does not change when a load i s applied. I n this case, t o determine t h e convergence of t h e raceways 6~ and t h e angle of contact 89 we can use t h e formulas

Having e q r e s s e d , i n eqs.(l.b) and ( 1 . 5 ) , a l l l i n e a r quantities i n fract i o n s of t h e d i s t a n c e g, we can rewrite them i n t h e form

where Po

cos

i s t h e so-called i n i t i a l angle of contact (angle of co%

t a c t i n p u r e l y axial displacement of t h e r a c e s due t o t h e operating r a d i a l p l a y 2a).

In eqs.(l.6) and ( l . ) , t h e terms Fl and F2 denote t h e q u a n t i t i e s

and
r 0 a,----.

a1- PO
g

It should be borne i n mind t h a t t h e o p e r a t i v e axial p l a y of t h e bearing so i s connected w i t h t h e angle B O by t h e following r e l a t i o n :

2so=2gsin

Bo

or, changing t o relative q u a n t i t i e s ,

The r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s are denoted everywhere by t h e same l e t t e r s as t h e a b s o l u t e q u a n t i t i e s but w i t h v i n c d i . These equations d e s c r i b e t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball bearings under any combinations of external loads. They permit f i n d i n g a l l parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s between ind i v i d u a l b a l k . However, it should be remembered that, due t o t h e conplexity of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e q u a n t i t i e s ~ J Iand B.J, and t h e r e l a t i v e displacement of t h e races, p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e equations involves a l a r g e calculat i o n volume. I n engineering c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e s e are u s u a l l y replaced by various approximate c o r r e l a t i o n s . One of t h e most convenient v a r i a n t s of such correlat i o n s , w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t l y high accuracy, i s described below. A n a n a l y s i s of t h e operating conditions of bearing assemblies of various t y p e s shows t h a t , i n most cases, t h e r e s u l t a n t r a d i a l f o r c e R = (R; + R,) and t h e r e s u l t a n t moment M = M; + M,)12 absorbed by t h e bearing a c t i n o n u n d t h e same plane. I n conformity w i t h this, by laying out t h e p l a n e of t h e coordinates xOz such t h a t it coincides w i t h t h e plane of a c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l loads app l i e d t o t h e bearing, we can write

372

R, =R;
M,=M;

(1.9)

As shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n depends l i t t l e on t h e angular arrangement of t h e set of balls. Taking this i n t o account, we can assume t h a t t h e b a l l s are arranged symmetrically w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e plane xOz. Under this condition, we have

t=O;
( 1 . 1 0 )

Keeping i n mind t h e e q u a l i t i e s (l.lO), we t h e n expand - eq.(1.6) i n a Maclaurin s e r i e s i n t h e neighborhood of = 0 and F2 = E = 0. E m i t i n g ours e l v e s t o l i n e a r terms we obtain, a f t e r easy transformations,

/336

E+=E+
-

C ; (O S

p +;sin

9) cos +.

( 1 . 1 1 )

In t h e e q u a l i t y (l.ll), we have
6 = (3 cos2 p0>2

-1

( 1 . 1 2 )

and

and i3 are none o t h e r t h a n t h e relative convergence of t h e The q u a n t i t i e s raceways and t h e angle of contact i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n Q = 90. A s follows from eq.(1.7),
sin p,+= cos p* = cos

--isin

+ Ucos6

Treating t h e equalities i n t h e same manner as eq.(1.6.), d i s c a r d i n g all nonlinear terms, and making appropriate trsnsformations, we o b t a i n

(1.a)

373

Having p u t

we can represent eqs.(l.ll)

and (1.15) i n t h e form

determining t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l whose c e n t e r l i e s i n The q u a n t i t y t h e plane xOy can be expressed i n terms of t h e angles $ and B o :

E=---. cos80
cos $

The lgading zone of t h e bearing, as i s known, can be found from t h e condit i o n t h a t 6 4 = 0 at i t s boundaries. S e t t i n g FQ = 0 i n t h e e q u a l i t y ( 1 . 1 7 ) , we o b t a i n t h e following expression e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e boundaries of t h e loading zone:

The r e l a t i v e convergence of t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s a t t a i n s a maximum 6 0 a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e loading zone, which i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n Q = Q o = 0, if cos p + s i n f3 = 6h > 0, and i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n Q = qD = B O ' , I f ii cos p + S s i n p = = 6A < 0 (Fig.4.3).

FQ

$io =
< Qfo
Fig.4.3 Loading Zone of Bearing.

I n t h e case Jlo = 0, 0 < - $ t o , and i n t h e case 4'

5

$to 5 1 8 0 '
=

and

180, 1 8 0 ' <

360'

and

$io 1

360'

- $2,

It i s understandable t h a t eq.( 1.20) holds only i f t h e parameter h exceeds u n i t y i n absol u t e magnitude. I f hl s 1 , t h e n t h e loading zone w i l l be 36c0, i.e., a l l balls w i l l c a r r y a load i n t h e bearing; i n this case, t h e q u a n t i t y 6 i s always p o s i t i v e and t h e s i g n of h coincides w i t h t h e s i g n of cos Q o . The l a t t e r means that, f o r bearings i n which a l l balls are loaded 0 S h 5 1 a t Qo = 0, and -1 5 h < 0 a t Qo = 1 8 0 ' .

374

Having t a k e n Q = Q o i n t h e e q u a l i t y ( l . l 7 ) , we f i n d
-

6 , ~y means of eq.(1.2),

=q 1+ A

cos q0).
that

(1.21)

( 1 . 1 7 ) , and (LZl), r e c a l l i n g

FQ

A, we can
g

reduce e q . ( l . l )

t o t h e form (1.22)

Equations (1.19) and (1.21) show that i n t h e case X = 0 3 , i.e., a t a 1 8 0 ' loading zone 6 = 0 so t h a t f3 = Bo i s independent of t h e loading l e v e l . Let us introduce i n t o t h e examination t h e sum

J k = z (1 + a1C O S +0)3/2 ~ ( 1 $ ~ c o s * ) 3 ' ~ C O S k -*, ~

(1.23)

where
R= 1, 2, 3.

Here, as i n ' a l l preceding e q u a l i t i e s , t h e angle $ can assume only t h e d i s c r e t e values t h a t determine t h e angular p o s i t i o n of t h e loaded balls.

Let us next transform eqs.(l.3) by means of t h e obtained expression.

After s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t h e s e equations P+, s i n B$, and cos f+, by t h e i r values from eqs.( 1.22) and (1.18) i n conformity w i t h t h e e q u a l i t i e s (1.9) and (1.23) and t a k i n g eq.(1.21) i n t o account, we o b t a i n

-rvdg,

- B@2 cos pJ2X

375

I 1

Equations (1.19) and

(1.a) yield

t h e following expression f o r t h e angle B :

The e q u a l i t i e s ( 1 . 2 4 ) and (1.25) c o n s t i t u t e r e l a t i o n s which, i n engineering c a l c u l a t i o n s , can r e p l a c e t h e 1lexactIl equations of s t a t i c equilibrium of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. A s s h m by a c t u a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e e r r o r produced by this s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t h e end results u s u a l l y does not exceed a f e w percent When changing t h e number of balls, t h e sums (1.23) vary only s l i g h t l y . permits expressing them i n terms of t h e i n t e g r a l s This

which are a f u n c t i o n of t h e product h cos

Jlo.

Here, k = 1 ,2 , 3.

It i s easy t o demonstrate that, w i t h t h e u s u a l number of balls, we have

J

=cosk--l $o jk.
4.2.
Table 4.2
11

(1.27)

, are given i n Table The values of t h e i n t e g r a l s j

A C O S lJl0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.111 1.25 1.429 1.667 2 2.5

iz
~~

12
~~~

1 .ooo 0.868 0.766 0.686 0,622 0.570 0.528 0,494 0.466 0.443 0.425 0.409 0,395 0.380 0.366 0.352

0,000 0.065 0.114 0.151 0.180 0,202 0,220 0.233 0,243 0.250 0.255 0.257 0.258 0,258 0.256 0.254

0.338

0.251

0.500' 0.435 0.385 0.346 0.316 0.292 0.273 0.258 0.246 0.237 0.231 0.226 0.223 0.220 0.218 0.215 0.212

1.000 0.875 0.804 0.757 0.726 0.705 0.690 0.676 0.670 0.663 0.657 0.651 0.645 0.639 0.633 0.626 0.619

3.33

5
10 20
f m

-20 -10 -5 -3.33 -2.5 -2 -1.667 -1.429 -1.25 -1,111

-1

0.323 0.309 0,294 0.286 0.279 0.271 0.262 0.247 0.229 0.211 0.192 0.171 0.147 0.120 0.084 0.000

0.247 0,242 0.236 0,233 0.229 0.225 0.221 0.212 0.201 0.189 0.175 0.159 0.140 0.116

0.083 O.OO0

0.210 0.207 0.203 0.201 0.199 0,197 0.194 0.188 0.18.1 0.172 0.162 0.149 0.133 0.112 0.080 0.000 1

0.612 0.605 0.596 0.59 0.587 0.583 0.578 0.5G7 0.558 0.543 0.528 0.512 0.488 0.459 0.414 0.000

376

S e c t i o n 2. Calculation o f Radial and Radial-Thrust B a l l BeariIws un&r Combined -$ads, f o r Absence of M i s a l i a m e n t of the Races

1. Pressure - - on Balls
If t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e bearings i s l a r g e i n comparison w i t h t h e diametral dimensions of t h e bearings and i f a l l components of t h e bearing assembly have a high r i g i d i t y , then, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l i n g bodies, we can d i s r e g a r d t h e misalignment of t h e r a c e s under load and t a k e i n t o account only t h e i r displacements i n r a d i a l and axial d i r e c t i o n s .

Let us introduce t h e q u a n t i t i e s To and A i n t o eq.(1.22) which determines t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k i n r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings.

Equations and (1.25) which connect t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l loads applied t o t h e bearing, i n t h e absence of m i s a l i g m e n t of t h e r a c e s , i.e., i n t h e case 8 = 0, can be represented i n t h e form

(1.a)

W e will not w r i t e out t h e expression f o r t h e moment s i n c e , a t 19 = 0, it does not p l a y a n independent r o l e and i s not used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . W e w i l l assume, f o r convenience, that t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis coincides w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r a d i a l load R. Under t h i s condition, t h e r a d i a l d i s placement u i s p o s i t i v e , and hence t h e angle $ o i s e q u a l t o zero. This f a c t i s t a k e n i n t o account both i n eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) and i n a l l subsequent r e l a t i o n s .

It should be noted that t h e case @ = 0 i s fundamental i n t h e theory of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. Usually, when no s p e c i a l s t i p u l a t i o n s are made as t o design and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of loading a bearing assembly, this i s t h e case applicable. Basic i n v e s t i g a t i o n s (Refs.22, 23, 29, and 4.2) have been c a r r i e d out t o r e f i n e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings working under combined loads.
The s t a t i c load c a p a c i t y of a b e a r i n g i s characterized by t h e magnitude of maxi" p r e s s u r e on t h e rolling body. According t o eq.(1.22) t h e maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l i s

For p r o t r a c t e d s t a t i c loads on a nonrotating bearing, t h e

bearing

377

stress o m a xon t h e t r a c k of t h e i n n e r r a c e caused by this p r e s s u r e should not exceed ,!+O,OOO kg/cm2. If t h e s t a t i c loads a c t i n g on a nonrotating bearing c r e a t e g r e a t e r contact stresses, t h e n n o t i c e a b l e t r a c e s of r e s i d u a l deformations, i n t h e form of depressions made by t h e b a l l s , will appear on t h e t r a c k .
The i n d i c a t e d p e r m i s s i b l e value of omax i s s e l e c t e d from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e e x t e n t of r e s i d u a l deformation (permanent s e t ) of t h e t r a c k i s not more t h a n one micron p e r centimeter of t h e ball's diameter. I n this case, t h e smoothness of t h e bearing r o t a t i o n i s not d i s t u r b e d and t h e bearing c a p a c i t y i s not lessened. I n t h e r e l a t i o n s required t o c a l c u l a t e t h e l i f e expectancy of bearings, t h e quantity

appears, where m i s t h e exponent of t h e load i n t h e l i f e expectancy formulas.

By means of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (1.22) and (2.3), we reduce t h e expression (2.4) t o t h e form

p,,= mP,.
The c o e f f i c i e n t w here i s equal t o

(2.5)

W e note t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y P,, i s t h e constant p r e s s u r e PJI = const, a t which t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e of t h e r o t a t i n g r a c e under t h e given s e r v i c e conditions i s t h e same as f o r t h e a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s between t h e balls. T h i s j u s t i f i e s denotins it as t h e equivalent p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l f o r a rotating race.

It should be borne i n mind that, i n some cases, i t i s impossible t o relate t h e q u a n t i t y P,, t o t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e t r a c k as i s done i n eq.(2.4), but only t o t h e loaded zone

$yo - $io.

At m

3.33, as i s adopted i n Soviet p r a c t i c e ,

x (1 + A cos +0)5

(2.7)

378

For p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of eqs.(2.6) and (2.7) it must be remembered that, f o r t h e s e l e c t e d d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis, t h e a n g l e i s equal t o zero. The angles JI;, and i n eq.(2.7) are t a k e n i n r a d i a n s . The values of t h e coef-

$lo

eo

f i c i e n t w found by this formula are given i n Table of t h e i n t e g r a l s j,

4.2,

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e values

The p r e s s u r e s Po and P,, l a t e d i n two ways.

at t h e given external loads R and A can be calcu-

The first c o n s i s t s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e q u a n k i t i e s by megns of eqs.(2.3) , and A obtained and (2.5), making use of t h e values of 6 from a d i r e c t s o l u t i o n of eqs.( 2.1) a d (2.2). Since e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1and ) (2.2) have a complex s t r u c t u r e ,

it i s l o g i c a l that this procedure encounters g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s . These are s t i l l l a r g e , even when t h e problem is

solved approximately. The second way, more acceptable f o r p r a c t i c a l use i n determining t h e p r e s s u r e s Po and P,, i s based on t h e f o l lowing considerations :

p,j

I f t h e angle of contact of a l l b a l l s i s t h e same p = const, t h e n

&

Fig Resultant of Force Applied t o Bearing. The r e l a t i o n s (2.8) d i f f e r from eqs.(2.1) i n t h a t t h e y do not c o n t a i n terms allowing f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n angle of contact a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b a l l relative t o t h e plane x h . For a 180 loading zone, when half of t h e b a l l s a r e o p e r a t i v e i n t h e bearing, we have A = &m so t h a t p = Bo, j , = 0.279, j, = 0.229 and w = 0.587. For t h e given case, eqs.(2.8) yield

./+ ./+

such t h a t
p
0-

R
z cos pjz

-4.37

R . ___ z cos p0
R cos pfi

P -wP0=2.57
PQ2

(2.10)
*

379

10"

20"
-

30"

40"

5 0 '
..

600

70"

80"

90"

__ .
0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70
1.oo

1.000 1.ooo 1.000

0,889 0,890 0.880 0.920 0.926 0.936 0.948 0.956 0.961 0.967

1.070 1.210 0.966 0.924

1.308 1.380 1.422 1.428 1.398 1.308

1.091 1.146 1.196 1.212 1.192 1.152 1.080 1.014 1.078 1.116 1.116 1.094 1,050 0.976 1.010 1.034 1.030 1,000 0.950 0.874

1.ooo

0.880 0.958

1.ooo 1.ooo
1.000

0.873 0.933 0.974 0.994 0.984 0.952 0.906 0.826 0.858 0.898 0.930 0.938 0.916 0.880 0,830 0.750 0.856 0.858 0.676 0.872 0.850 0.804 0.746 0.667 0.874 0.636 0.842 0.828 0.798 0.750 0.686 0.602 0,862 0.824 0.822, 0.802 0.748 0.718 0.648 0.566 0,893
Bo = 12"

1.ooo
1.ooo 1.ooo

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70 1.oo

1.399 1.249 1.184 1,136 1.114 1.066 1,056 1.038 1.028 1.020

1.171 1.109 1.077 1,046 1,034 1.018 1.008 i.002 0.995 0.983

0.839 0.642 0,847 0,853 0.841 0.860 0.831 0.859 0.862 0.647 0.809 0.754; 0.6S1
0 , S7C 0.816 0.68s

0.833 0.833; 0.809 0.771 0.713' 0.636

0.603 0.606 0.799 0.781 0.721 0.655 0.579 0.602 0.789 0.772 0.734 0.688 0.623 0.538
0.610

0.89s 0.90E 0.912

0.813
Bo = 18"

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53

0.70 1

1.628 1.453 1.327 1.252 1.217 1.169 1.108 1.073 1.056

1.035

1.476 1.338 1.238 1.172 1.140 1.108 1.058 1.027 1.018 1.008

1;001 0.785 0.961 0.818

0.804 0.813 0.804 0.770 0.718 0.647 0.797 0.799 0.789 0.759 0.697 0.623

0.961 0,786 0.780 01782 0.766 0.727.. 0.672 0.597 0.951 0.781 0.777 0.770 0.749 0.707 0.649 0.572 0.948 0.782 0.941 0.784 0.932 0.789 0.924 0.789 0.926 0.797 0.915 0.806 0.771 0.761 0.741 0.696 0.637 0.560 0.763 0.749 0.719 0.675 0.612 0.534 0.748 0.730 0.694 0.646 0.582 0.496 0.739 0.717 0.671 0.618 0.554 0.466 0.736 0.707 0.661 0.604 0.536 0.455 0.732 0.682 0.647 0.590 0.518 0.429

.oo

380

\
0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70 1.oo

T A B U 4.3 (corrtfd)
0"
10"
20" 30" 40"

50"

60"

70"

80"

90"

I
1,914 1.609 1.483 1.389 1.336 1.249 1.175 1.121 1.087 1.051 1.815 1..528 1.415 1.326 1.279 1,204 1.125 1.078 1,051 1,016 1.478 1.321 1.218 1.150 1.119 1.OG9 1.011 0.975 0.955 0.932 0.872 0.865 0.858 0.850 0.847 0.845 0,837 0.828 0.826 0.819 0.692 0.692 0.692 0.692 0.692 0.692 0.693 0.696 0.698 0.701 0.6G7 0.665 0.661 0.656 0.655 0.650 0.647 0.642 0.639 0.632 0.641 0.635 0.629 0.621 0.618 0.611 0.600 0.593 0.589 0.580 0.594 0.587 0.577 0.566 0.560 0.551 0.544 0.535 0.527 0.515 0.530 '0.523 0.514 0.504 0.500 0.492 0.460 0.466 0.455 0.440 0.454 0.447 0.440 0.431 0.424 0.413 0.396 0.383 0.373 0.358

Bo = 36"
0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70 1.oo 2.171 1.815 1.G29 1.496 1.445 1.343 1.207 1.129 1.098 1.053 7,051 1,756 1.567 1.425 1.359 1,262 1.156 1.086 1.053 1.006
1.823 1.426 1.574 1.242 1.403 1,132 1.272 1.052 1.205 1.011 1.144 0.970 1.060 0.913 0.999 0.870 0.967 0.848 0.925 0.821

0.795 0.777 0.757 0.746 0.742 0.736 0.724 0.714 0.707 0.696

0.580 0.507 0.575 0.507 0,574 0.514 0.578 0.514 0.578 0.514 0.578 0.510 0.578 0.510 0.578 0.509 0.578 0.506 0.5781 0.502

0.455 0.453 0.453 0.451 0.449 0.449 0.445 0.444 0.440 0.434

0.368 0.310 0.388 0.307 0.385 0.304 0.380 0.299 0.379-0.299 0.3751 0.299 0.370 0.291 0.364 0.285 0.364 0.283 0.356, 0.275

Values o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70 1.oo

1.ooo 1 .ooo 1,000 1.000 1,000 1.ooo 1.000 1.ooo 1.ooo 1.ooo

0.995 0.962 0.950 0.968 0.966 0.963 0.970 0.972 0.977 0.982

1.297 1.150 1,055 1.005 0.985 0.952 0.937 0,934 0.934 0.935

L.520 1.350 1.212 1.130 1.093 1.045 0.979 0.944 0.928 0.907

1.710' 1.502 1.355 1.232 1.190 1.d20 1.041 0.986 0.952 0.919

1.682: 1.655 1.475 1.325 1.275 1.175 1.082 1.015 0.973 0.926

2.0301 1.758 1.540 1.400 1.330 1.225 1.107 1.025 0.976 0.922

2.150 1.825 1.608 1.452 1.375 1.260 1.122 1.032 -0.972 0.905

2.230, 1.870 .1.680 1.477 1.395 1,275 1.133 1,030 0.968 0.896

2.270 1.900 1.710 1.490 1.408 1.283 1.140 1.029 0.966 0.890

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11

1,237 1.125 1.093

1.065

1.090 1.OS1 1.034 1.014

0.929 1.039 0.919 0.991 0.913 0.979 0.913 0.963

1.190' 1.142 1.082 1.040

1.301 1.235 1.159 1.100

1.384 1.299 1.213 1.146

1.438 1.333 1.257 1.181

1.480 1.369 1.270 1.188

1.489 1.377 1.280 1.197

-\

TABU3 4.3 ( c o d td)

20"

zvda,

\
0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70

0"

10"

30"

40"

50"
~~

60"
1-

70"

80"
1

90"

1.053 1.037 1,006 0.999 0.994 0.988 0.982 0.976 0.914 0.916 0,923 0.929 0.931 0.933 0.951 0.921 0,897 0.885 0.883 0,873 1.017 0.981 0.937 0.911 0.891 0.870 1.071 1.02: 0.95: 0.92; 0.895 0.864

1.111 1'.136 1.149 11152

1.051 0.983 0.931 0.892 0.851 1.057 0.986 0.925 0.885 0.834

1.oo

1.017 1.010 1.006 1.001

1.082 0.991 0.918 0.877 0.626

1.077 0.989 0.917 0.869 0.812

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70

1.oo

1.336 1.231 1.170 1.125 1.104 1.067 1.041 1.024 1.013 0 * 999

1.260 1.175 1.115 1.077 1.057 1.033 1.011 0.996 0.986 0.974

0.972 0.879 0,962 0.873 0.952 0.866 0.941 0.860 0.937 0.856 0.932 Q .856 0.935 0.856 0.934 0.856 0.932 0,856 0.929 0,856

0.944 0.931 0.915 0.899 0.889 0.872 0.856 0.837 0.830 0.819

1.003 0.979 0.957 0.933 0.920 0.894 0.865 0.846 0.830 0.806

1.048 1.008 0.981 0.957 0.942 0.9OG 0.865 0.836 0.818 0,789

1.070 1.036 0,999 0.965 0.944 0.906 0.865 0.825 0.799 0.770

1.091 1.056 1.017 0.973 0.951 0.913 0.858 0.810 0.780 0.751

1.102 1.062 1.013 0.965 0.942 O.SO6 0.856 0.808 0.780 0.737

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70

1,451 1.285 1.215 1.182 1.150 1.096 1,043 1.016 1.005 0.989

1.oo

1.411. 1.249 1.195 1.159 1.120 1.071 1.021 0.992 0.971 0,953

1.227 1.132 1.078 1.034 1,011 0.980 0.959 0.936 0.923 0.905

0.863 0.863 0.859 0.856 0.854 0.850 0.847 0.841 0.836 0.836

0.775 0.773 0.772 0.769 0.768 0.766 0.764 0.764 0.764 0.764

0.778 0.776 0.769 0.762 0.758 0.755 0.746 0.737 0.732 0.728

0.782 0.773 0.764 0.754 0.749 0.741 0.728 0.714 0.705 0.701

0.778 0.772 0.7611 0.749' 0.7411 0.729 0.707 0.690 0.678 0.658

' I

0.775 0.767 0.754 0.741 0.732 0,719 0.692 0.668 0.652 0.6341

0.767 0.759 0.747 0.732 0.722 0.705 0.678 0.652 0.634 0.615

0.02 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.53 0.70

1.525 1,367 1,269 1.195 1,157 1.098 1.035 0.993 0.970 0,945

1,480 1.333 1,233 1,157 1,120 1.066 1.012 0,970 0.946 0.914

1.363 1.124 1.141 1.076 1.045 0.996 D.946 3.910 D,890

1.149 1.060 0.990 0.942 0.922 0.888 0.858 0.832 0.815 3.863 0.798

0.756 0.748 0.746 0.744 0.736 0.728 0.723 0.718

0,638 0,637 0.638 0.639 0.639 0.639 0.639 0.639

0.600

0.599 0.599 0.597 0.592 0.589 0.585 0.582

0.566 0.%66 0.564 0.558 0,557 0,554 0.550 0.544 0.540 0.5341

0.540 0.536 0.534 0.531' 0.527 0.520 0.511 0.502 0.500 0.4931

0.526 0.525 0.521 0.518 0.514 0.508 0.498 0.491 0.485 0.473

3 82

Equations (2.10) are known i n t h e theory of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings as IlSt;*ibeck formuhstt

For t h e case sented as

A # 1 . 2 1 7 t a n Bo t h e p r e s s u r e s Po R
P,=4.37
z cos i?lo '
z c o s 90
KOF
'

and P , ,

can be repre-

h'F P =2.57 ~,
e%

(2.11)

where F

(R2 +

i s t h e r e s u l t a n t load on t h e bearing (Fig.4.4).

T h i s same form of n o t a t i o n can a l s o be r e t a i n e d when t a k i n g account of t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e angle B 4 .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values of Po and P,, (2.5) i n t o eq.(2.11), we o b t a i n

from t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.3) and

(2.12)

The c o e f f i c i e n t s ko and k are unique r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s r e f e r r e d t o t h e r e s u l t a n t load F. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e y can be found from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) by d i f f e r e n t i n d i r e c t methods which preclude t h e need f o r d i r e c t s o l u t i o n of t h e s e equations. The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and k f o r bearings w i t h i n i t i a l angles 8 , and 36', obtained from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) by t h e of contact Bo = 0 , 12, 1 p a p h o a n a l y t i c method (Ref.30), a r e given i n Table 4.3. Irrtroduction of t h e t a b u l a t e d r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and k g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s f i n d i n g t h e p r e s s u r e s Po and P,,, p e r m i t t i n g t h e use, f o r this purpose, of r a t h e r simple and convenient formulas [eqs.( 2 . 1 1 ) l . The c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and k are given i n Table quantity

4.3 as a f u n c t i o n

of t h e

, which c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e l e v e l of t h e load received by t h e ZVd? B A which determines t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e bearing, and of t h e a n g l e cy = tan-' R' resultant . ; ? I

I n calculating t h e quantities zv d i a

and a l s o Wd2ba

as w e n as

A
zvdza

'
383

t h e diameter d,,

i s always expressed i n m i l l i m e t e r s -

2. Reduced Loads
force A

@$ =

Let us denote by Q t h e r a d i a l f o r c e which, i n combination w i t h t h e axial = 1.217 t a n Bo& a t a constant contact angle between balls and races B o = const, c r e a t e s t h e same equivalent p r e s s u r e P,, as t h e a c t u a l combinaThe f o r c e Q i s commonly c a l l e d t h e llreduced dynamic load".

t i o n of e x t e r n a l loads applied t o t h e bearing.

Along with t h e concept of reduced dynamic load, t h e concept of "reduced s t a t i c load11 i s widely used i n t h e t h e o r y of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. By reduced s t a t i c load we mean t h e r a d i a l f o r c e Qo which, under t h e i n d i c a t e d conditions, e x e r t s a maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l Po equal t o t h e a c t u a l pressure. The replacement of a c t u a l loads by reduced loads, determined as i n d i c a t e d above, permits using d a t a from c a t a l o g s and handbooks of r a d i a l l y loaded bearings, when c a l c u l a t i n g bearings operating under combined loads.
A comparison of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.10) and (2.11) shows t h a t

I n o t h e r countries, and r e c e n t l y a l s o i n domestic use, a formula of t h e following type i s o f t e n used t o determine t h e reduced loads:

Q =xR+yA.
Different sources g i v e d i f f e r e n t values of t h e r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s x and y, s o t h a t t h e reduced loads c a l c u l a t e d f o r one and t h e same case may d i f f e r substantially. Since a l l c a l c u l a t i o n met hods f o r r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t hrust b a l l bearings under combined loads, used i n p r a c t i c e , a r e based on t h e same i n i t i a l equations [eqs.(l.l) ( l . ? ) ] and b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r only by t h e assumptions used f o r sinp l i f y i n g t h e i r s o l u t i o n , one of t h e p r i n c i p a l c r i t e r i a of t h e q u a l i t y of one o r another c a l c u l a t i o n method i s t h e closeness of t h e reduced loads calculated on i t s basis t o t h e "exact'! value of t h e s e loads obtained from t h e i n d i c a t e d equations.

Figure 4.5 g i v e s a comparison of t h e reduced loads determined by means of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of Table 4.3 w i t h t h e reduced loads found as t h e r e s u l t of t h e The same diagram shows t h e reduced "exact" s o l u t i o n of eqs.( 1.1)t o (1.7). l o a d s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Standards Organization (ISW r e c e n t l y adopted i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s and c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method of M.P.Belyanchikov (Ref .&) which i s now being recommended f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of generalpurpose bearings.
~~

4 @

-x- Draft of recommendations f o r c a l c u l a t i n g dynamic load-carrying capacity of b a l l and r o l l e r bearings, I s , No.278, 1960.

A s we see from Fig.4.5, t h e reduced loads obtained by using t h e d a t a of Table 4.3 are c l o s e s t t o t h e i r Ilexact 11 values

Use of t h e IS0 method, under c e r t a i n conditions w i l l overestimate 30%which t h e reduced loads by 20 i s n a t u r a l l y impermissible f o r beari n g assemblies of a i r c r a f t components.

S u f f i c i e n t l y accurate .values of t h e reduced loads are obtained with t h e method developed by M.P.Belyanchikov f o r c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h contact angles of Bo 2 26'. However, a t smaller cont a c t angles, t h e accuracy of t h e method decreases s t e e p l y . For i n stance, i n t h e case of contact 8 ' , the e r r o r angles of Bo = 12 - 1 i n t h e reduced load may go as high as 40%. For contact angles l e s s 2 ' , this method i s g e n e r a l l y than 1 unacceptable.
0
0.5
1.0

1.5

a2$

3. S t a t i s t i c a l Theory of Eynamic
I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of l i f e expectancy we g e n e r a l l y use t h e princiDles of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l theorv of f a t i g u e of metals, which assumes t h a t f a i l u r e bf t h e m a t e r i a l under t h e effLct of a l t e r n a t i n g loads i s a random process of accumulation of f a t i g u e cracks having various p r o b a b i l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Such a n approach t o t h e problem of l i f e expectancy i s highly u s e f u l f o r any machine component operating under a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s , including a n t i f r i c t i o n s bearings which f a i l as a consequence of f a t i g u e chipping of t h e t r a c k s or rolling body. S t a t i s t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , underlying modern methods of determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings, were developed mainly by Weibull (Ref.43) I n v e s t i g a t i o n s by Harris ( R e f .45) and and Lundberg and Palmgren (Ref o t h e r s were devoted t o t h e development of t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r small probab i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e . Fig.k.5 Comparison of Various Methods f o r Calculating Reduced Loads on a Bearing. Load-Carrying Capacity

.a).

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r y of t h e dynamic load capacity of r o l l e r bearings can be formulated i n t h e f o U a J i n g manner:

Let qbe

be t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e bearing, r o t a t i n g

a t a n rpm of n, works

h hours without s i g n s of f a t i g u e .

385

On t h e basis of t h e theorem of &thematical s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e product of independent events, disregarding t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e r o l l e r by v i r t u e of i t s smallness i n comparison w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e t r a c k s , we can write
%e=

qlvtqrr

(2.W

where qro and qst a r e t h e corresponding p r o b a b i l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e relia b i l i t y of t h e r o t a t i n g and s t a t i o n a r y r a c e s . Taking i n t o account t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t a t e of stress under t h e e f f e c t of contact l o a d s and t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e primary f a t i g u e microcracks formed i n r o l l e r bearings, h n d b e r g and P a b g r e n introduced t h e following d i s t r i b u t i o n determining t h e p r o b a b i l i t y F A of t h e appearance of t r a c e s of f a t i g u e on & p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k of l e n g t h A L a f t e r N r o l l e r s loaded by a constant f o r c e P have r o l l e d along it:

Here,

H,
T~

= c o e f f i c i e n t depending upon m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , s u r f a c e f i n i s h , and = maximum tangential

p r e c i s i o n of manufacture ; stress a c t i n g i n areas p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e area of contact s t r a i n ; zo = depth a t which this s t r e s s arises; AV = s t r e s s e d volume.

A t m2 = 0, which might occur when t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e introduced by each element of volume does not depend upon i t s l o c a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e surface, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n (2.15) changes t o t h e customary Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n . The s t r e s s T~ and t h e depth zo can be expressed, r e s p e c t i v e l y , by t h e m d mum bearing stress o0 a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e area of contact s t r a i n and t h e semiminor a x i s b of this a r e a :

(2.16)
The s t r e s s e d volume AV, i n f i r s t approximation, can be taken as equal t o /348
A V =2az0AL ,

( 2 . 1 7 )

where a i s t h e semimajor a x i s of t h e area of contact s t r a i n . A s follows from t h e t h e o r y of contact s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s , f o r r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings,

I n t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.18) t h e following 'notations are adopted:

The c o e f f i c i e n t s H,, aT, and CY,, s t r i c t l y speaking, are not constants; however, for a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes this can be disregarded s i n c e t h e limits w i t h i n which t h e i r values vary (depending on t h e r a t i o b/a) a r e q u i t e n e g l i g i b l e . It i s easy t o prove t h a t

where A$ i s t h e c e n t r a l angle corresponding t o t h e examined p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k *

By means of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.l-6)

(2.19) we can reduce eq.(2.l5) t o t h e

fo m
:A). - H N , c o s & Pm'N' n l l c-

dba

(2.20)

The number of balls contacting each p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k during h hours of work of t h e bearing w i l l be

N=30.~nh (1 f q ).

(2.21)

S u b s t i t u t i n g this value i n t o eq.( 2.x)),

we f i n a l l y o b t a i n
(2.22)

- H3zl cos $i (nh)' o -The exponents m and c are expressed i n terms of t h e exponents ml, i n t h e following manner:

m2, and 387

According t o t h e d a t a of f o r e i g n bearing manufacturers, which are gen& J ! '/ e r a l i z e d i n t h e recommendations of t h e ISO, m = 3 and c = 1.8 ( a t d,, < 25 m). The p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k of t h e s t a t i o n a r y r a c e l o c a t e d a t t h e azimuth JI when t h e balk, r o l l along it, i s loaded each t i m e by t h e same f o r c e P t . S e t t i n g , i n conformity w i t h this, P = P\Ir i n eq.(2.22), we o b t a i n f o r this p o r t i o n

It follows from eq.(2.&) that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y q,, , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e rel i a b 5 l i t y of t h e s t a t i o n a r y r a c e as a whole, i s equal t o

where

During a s u f f i c i e n t l y long time i n t e r v a l , each element of t h e t r a c k of t h e r o t a t i n g r a c e w i l l contact t h e balls a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l azimuths. Accounting f o r this f a c t and considering t h e hypothesis of l i n e a r swmnation of damageability t o be v a l i d , eq.(2.22) w i l l y i e l d f o r each p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k of t h e r o t a t i n g r a c e

Subsection 1 . The p r o b a b i l i t y c & , , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e e n t i r e r o t a t i n g r a c e i n conformity w i t h eq.(2.26) w i l l t h e n be

388

The c o e f f i c i e n t H3, f i g u r i n g i n t h e above e q u a l i t i e s , can be represented a s , and t h e q u a n t i t y t h e product of a c e r t a i n constant H

2m,+m,-2
3

H, =

(2.28)

which i s a f u n c t i o n of 7 and 0 , i.e., geometry of t h e bearing.

'

parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e i n t e r i o r For this, eqs.(2.%), (2.25),

Let us assume t h a t t h e i n n e r r a c e r o t a t e s . and (2.27) w i l l y i e l d

The i n d i c e s Ilin11 and IroutIl (eq.0 = equivalent o u t e r ) as w e l l as t h e upper and lower s i g n s i n eqs.(2.18), (2.19), (2.211, and (2.28), p e r t a i n , res p e c t i v e l y , t o t h e inner and o u t e r r a c e s of t h e bearing.

.Lis

At 7

0.2, 0 = 0.52 and h

let

Furthermore, l e t us introduce t h e q u a n t i t i e s Co a.nd f, over t h e formulas

where
1

and

'

. . ..

...

. ... .. . _-_.... .

Using eqs.(2.30)

and (2.3l), we transform eq.(2.29)

such t h a t

Having expressed here P , , i n terms of t h e equivalent dynamic load Q, we

obtain
1 -

1 -

Q(n/i) = C f q m ,

(2.33)

where

c = c, (cos Po) (1-

Aj

I n l i k e manner, we can examine t h e case where t h e o u t e r r a c e r o t a t e s . Combining t h e formulas o f l i f e expectancy for r o t a t i o n of t h e i n n e r and o u t e r r a c e s and introducing t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and kt which t a k e i n t o account t h e e f f e c t of t h e type of load and temperature regime of t h e bearing on t h e loadc a r r y i n g capacity, we f i n a l l y have

Here k , = 1i f t h e i n n e r r a c e r o t a t e s , and

i f t h e outer race rotates.

I n t h e s p e c i f i c numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball /351 bearings on t h e basis of t a b u l a t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s k , and k, t h e values of t h e kine-

Pig.4.6
390

Kinematic Coefficient k,.

matic c o e f f i c i e n t k k can be determined approximately as a f u n c t i o n of t h e guant i t y w = 0.587 graph i n Fig.4.6. k0 I n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of u t i l i z a t i o n C, and C u s u a l l y t a k e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f ' as e q u a l t o 150 200.

- from t h e

Calculations show that, a t a given e, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f // depends mainly . 1 1which corresponds t o t h e IS0 recommendaon 7 . A t m = 3, C = 1.8, and 1 = 1 t i o n s , this c o e f f i c i e n t has t h e values i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4.4. For general-purpose bearings, t h e l i f e expectancy h,, a t which t h e probab i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s equal t o lo%, i s considered t o be t h e r a t e d l i f e . Since we have a t q
=

0.9 a value of f ,

1 , it follows t h a t

Comparing t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.34.) and (2.36), we f i n d

-=
h1o

f,.

(2.37)

It follows from eqs.(2.37) and (2.31) t h a t t h e average l i f e expectancy of r o l l e r bearings i s determined from t h e expression

where I? i s t h e g a m a f u n c t i o n of t h e argument ( 1+

+).

The r a t i o of t h e median l i f e expectancy hS0, corresponding t o t h e r e l i a b i l i t y q = 0.5, t o t h e r a t e d l i f e hlo will t h e n be

Equations (2.38) and (2.39) show t h a t t h e main parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e l i f e expectancy of r o l l e r bearings i s t h e exponent 1 .

In most

cases, t h e r a t i o

varies w i t h i n limits from 4.08 hl0

h50

t o 5.

At

39 1

bo = 4.O$, hl0

A t h50 - 5, 1 = 1 . 1 ' 7 and ha, = 6.5. hl0 h10 h10 A s experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e , t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y Noticeable d e v i a t i o n s d e s c r i b e t h e d i s p e r s i o n of l i f e expectancy a t q,, 2 0.9. are observed i n t h e region of small p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e . These devia/352 t i o n s can be t a k e n i n t o account if, f o r this region, eq.(2.3?) i s replaced by t h e following:
1 =

1.34

and

- = 4.95.

Here, ho i s some t h r e s h o l d of l i f e expectancy, p r i o r t o which t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s equal t o zero. Since we have f , w i t t e n i n t h e form

w

C ~ O ( I- qbe)ll't

at

qbe

< 0.9, eq.(2.40)

can f i n a l l y be

According t o Harris' d a t a (Ref.45), t h e r a t i o f o r b a l l bearings i s

h 10 T h i s means that, t o ensure 100%r e l i a b i l i t y , a r a t e d l i f e margin of 0.045. t h e order of 22 i s required which corresponds t o a load margin of 2.8.

h0 -

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e s t a t i c t h e o r y of dynamic load c a p a c i t y of radial and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings have been presented above. The corresponding s t a t i c t h e o r i e s of dynamic load c a p a c i t y can be developed i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n f o r bearings of o t h e r types The main r e s u l t s of s t a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e l i f e expectancy of r o l l e r bearings have been applied both i n f o r e i g n and domestic p r a c t i c e . However, it should be borne i n mind here t h a t some of t h e fundamental r e l a t i o n s used i n prep a r i n g our own c a t a l o g s and manuals have a form d i f f e r i n g from that i n o t h e r countries. le, our c o e f f i c i e n t s of u t i l i z a t i o n Co and C are not calcuand (2.33) but are t a k e n as e q u a l t o l a t e d from eqs.(2.30 For

For general-purpose bearings, f = 65. W e r e c a l l t h a t , i n Soviet p r a c t i c e , t h e exponent m i s considered as e q u a l t o 3.33.

The l i f e expectancy of two-row bearings as w e l l as of r o l l e r bearings cons i s t i n g of several i d e n t i c a l bearings which can be regarded as one multirow bearing, i s determined by t h e expression 392

0.39 K , , K ~ Zcos

P0egj ( t ~ h , , ) ~C =

The equivalent p r e s s u r e e n t e r i n g here i s

where P,,,

and k ,

are t h e equivalent load and kinematic c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e

j - t h bearings. Equations (2.43) and (2.44.) follow d i r e c t l y from t h e r e l a t i o n s given above f o r i n d i v i d u a l bearings.
If a l l bearings are loaded i d e n t i c a l l y , t h e n

A s shown by a n a n a l y s i s of t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f Ni n Table 4 . 4 t h e performance of r o l l e r bearings l a r g e l y depends upon ll. I n eqs.(2.42) this important f a c t i s not t a k e n i n t o account, which i s t h e i r e s s e n t i a l shortcoming.

,m

A s i s known, f o r high-precision a i r c r a f t bearings manufactured from p a r t i c u l a r l y high-grade m e t a l , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of u t i l i z a t i o n have much l a r g e r values t h a n those obtained from eq.(2.42) f o r f = 65. Therefore, using t h e d a t a of machinery c a t a l o g s and handbooks f o r calculat i o n s of a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s , it can be expected t h a t , i n r e a l i t y , t h e r a t e d l i f e h,, w i l l not correspond t o t h e 10%p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e but w i l l be app r e c i a b l y smaller i n value. With this approach t o a determination of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of bearing assemblies of a i r c r a f t components, this l i f e expectancy i s o f t e n i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e required lifetime. I n p r a c t i c e , this i s achieved by replaci n g h,, i n eqs.(2.36) and (2.43) by h, understanding by h t h e l i f e expectancy a t which t h e l e v e l of r e l i a b i l i t y of bearings f o r a i r c r a f t components i s ensured.

4..

E f f e c t of-Axial

Load on Bearing Performance

Let us d i s c u s s t h e manner i n which a n axial load a f f e c t s t h e performance of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. Figures

4.7

and

4.8

show t y p i c a l graphs of t h e r e l a t i o n

p l o t t e d from d a t a of c a l c u l a t i o n s performed i n compiling t h e md2ba tables of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k , and k.

R = const,

2 = f(*) R

for

393

As we see from t h e s e graphs, f o r each load level t h e r e i s a range of values A i n which 3 < 1 of . Its boundaries are given i n Table 4.5. R R
TABLlI
R
zvdk

4.5
deg.

I
I O 0-0.15 0-0.28 0-0.37 0-0.43

Values of

A/R a t Different Contact h g l e s Bo

1 1 8 0.56-0.82 0.55-0.84 0.47-0.85 0.00-0.86 0.84-1.20 0.76-1.21 0.38-1.21 0.00-1.22

0.02 0.11 0.35 1.00

0.26-0.38 0.25-0.45 0.22-0.47 0.04-0.49

0.39-0.56 0.37-0.60 0.35-0.63 0.00-0.65

A t values of

A as i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4.5, R

t h e axial load not only w i l l

not reduce t h e load c a p a c i t y of t h e bearing but even i n c r e a s e it somewhat. It i s t r u e that this i n c r e a s e i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e t h e p o s s i b l e decrease of t h e reduced dynamic load i s s e v e r a l percent.

In r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, t h e balk are a c t e d upon by C o r i o l i s f o r c e s which tend t o make them r o t a t e about axes perpendicular t o t h e contact surfaces. F r i c t i o n f o r c e s a r i s i n g a t t h e p o i n t s of contact w i t h t h e r a c e s prevent such 11spinningf1 of t h e balls. If t h e r e i s an unloaded zone i n t h e bearing, t h e n this zone contains no f r i c t i o n f o r c e s that would prevent rlspinning" of t h e b a l k , and t h e b a l k begin t o s l i d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s ; a t high rates of r o t a t i o n , t h i s w i l l lead t o overheating and r a p i d wear of t h e bearings. It i s l o g i c a l t h a t , i n designing high-speed bearing assemblies with r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, it i s always necessary t o have a l l b a l k s h a r e t h e load. I n p r a c t i c e , this i s achieved e i t h e r by i n s t a l l i n g t h e bearings a t suitable contact angles o r w i t h some a u x i l i a r y axial load produced by preloading.
The magnitude of t h e loading zone depends on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between axial and r a d i a l loads applied t o t h e bearing. The g r e a t e r t h e r a t i o A/R, t h e l a r g e r . this zone. A s i n d i c a t e d earlier, a t Q o = 0 t h e loading zone i s 360' i f 0 5 h < 1 The value h = 0 corresponds t o t h e case of axial loading of t h e bearing i n which t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k are i d e n t i c a l . The value A = 1 determines t h e minimum magnitude of t h e r a t i o A/R a t which a l l balls are loaded. T h i s , i n p a r t i c u lar, follows from eq.(1.22) which shows that, i n t h e case q 0 = 0 and h = 1 , the f o r c e absorbed by t h e b a l l located a t t h e azimuth Q o = 1 8 0 ' vanishes.

j ,

Taking i n t o account t h a t , a t h = 1, we have j , = 0.425, 0.231, we f i n d from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) that

j ,

0.225, and

394

Fig.4.7 Relation

Graphs of t h e

3 = ) + ( f R
and@, =

at

Certain Constant Values

of
zvd:,
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0 .A g ~

Fig.4.8

Graphs of t h e Relation Constant Values of

zvd2ba

= f ( + ) at Certain R and B o = 36'.

0.2

0 . 4
o*8

&

0.2

0.4

0 . 6

0.8

A
2vdL

Fig.4.9

Dependence of t h e Ratio on Load Level.

~ = 1

Fig.4.10
R

Dependence of t h e Ratio on Load Level.

\=I

(L)
\

( A )

395

A -

sin2 PO

+To+
cos Po

- 1.666

R,,

-1)

where t h e r a d i a l load R i s determined by t h e expression

w h i l e t h e r a t i o is

'

= 0.5025

2 +%o
1

+ 0.905- 2+30
60

sinzpo

+so+" 52-4

-_

cos2 po

A s we s e e from t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.46), (2.47), and (2.481, t h e values of

depend on t h e i n i t i a l contact angle as w e l l as on t h e level X=1 and o f t h e load received by t h e bearing.

(+)

For t h e most f r e q u e n t l y encountered i n i t i a l contact angles Bo = 0, 12, l8, 26, and 3 6 O , we p l o t t e d i n figs.4.9 and 4.10 on t h e basis of eqs.(2.46), (2.47),
and (2.48) curves determining t h e values

and

as a f u n c t i o n of

R zvdi, For s m a l l loads,

With a n i n c r e a s e i n load, t h e q u a n t i t i e s crease.

will a l s o inat
= 1 ,

/356

For instance, f o r t h e angle Bo = 23'

we have

zvd;,

A s shown above, i n t h e case of a constant contact angle between b a l k and

3 96

r a c e s f o r a loading zone of 1 8 0 ' = 1.217 t a n B o . The values of t h e r a t i o

A

and a parameter h =

*m,

the r a t i o

A
R

with c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n

( ~ ) l m=

t a c t angle as a function of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b a l l r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane XOZ can be found from t h e curves i n Fig.4.U. Figure 4.12 shows curves by means of which t h e corresponding values of t h e r a t i o can be (2) R
x=m

determined.

'

Fig.4.11

Dependence of t h e Ratio on t h e b a d Level.

m

Fig.4.12
( + ) I = ,

Dependence of t h e Ratio on t h e b a d Level.

<+)\=

The graphs i n Figs.4.11 and 4.12 are constructed by means of t h e formulas

which follow from eqs.(2.1)

and from t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.12) and (2.13).

These d a t a permit estimating t h e e f f e c t of t h e axial load on t h e load cap a c i t y of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. With t h e i r a i d , one can establ i s h t h e optimal ~ a preloading l w i t h which t h e bearings should be mounted i n t h e assembly and s e l e c t t h e most r a t i o n a l values of t h e i n i t i a l contact. angle Bo f o r d i f f e r e n t combinations of r a d i a l and axial loads.

5 . Approximate -Solutions of Equations (2.1) and (2.21

It should be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e angle Bo i s determined by t h e r a d i a l c l e a r ance 20. present i n t h e bearing a f t e r f i t t i n g t o t h e shaft and i n t h e housing a t a n e s t a b l i s h e d operating temperature of t h e component, and a l s o by t h e a c t u a l , & . J i '

397

d i s t a n c e g between t h e c e n t e r s 0, and 0, of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s of t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s [see Fig.4.2 and eq.(1.7)1. Because of t h e e f f e c t of s h a f t - f i t t i n g t o l e r a n c e s , nonuniformity of heating of i n d i v i d u a l elements of t h e assembly, and p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i n e a r expansion of t h e s h a f t and housing, t h e clearance 2A may d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y from t h e i n i t i a l r a d i a l clearance i n a self-contained bearing. Deviations of t h e radii of t h e raceways and b a l l diameter may have a noticeable e f f e c t on t h e magnitude of t h e d i s t a n c e g. I n t h i s connection, when c a l c u l a t i n g highly loaded r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b d l bearings t h e angle Bo cannot always be replaced by t h e r a t e d i n i t i a l contact angle i n d i c a t e d i n a catalog. T h i s f a c t must not be disregarded i n designing v i t a l bearing assemb l i e s of h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s and of o t h e r a i r c r a f t . The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ko and k f o r r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h i n i t i a l contact angles Bo d i f f e r i n g from standard can be obtained by i n t e r p o l a t i o n of t h e d a t a presented i n Table 4.3. A t t h e same time, a number of cases exist i n which it i s more convenient not t o r e s o r t t o this method but t o solve t h e problems i _ n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of such bearings by a d i r e c t determinat i o n of t h e q u a n t i t i e s 6, and h from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2), using t h e following approximate methods.

A R

, i.e'.,

i f a l l bearings share t h e load, t h e i n t e g r a l s can

be found from t h e expressions

The right-hand s i d e s of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.50) r e p r e s e n t t h e f i r s t terms of have been expanded f o r $, = 0 power s e r i e s i n which t h e products j k ( l + and 0 I h 5 1. I n v i e w of t h e r a p i d convergence of t h e s e series i n t h e i n d i cated region, t h e terms containing t h e parameter h i n a power higher t h a n t h e t h i r d are discarded here. Solving eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.5O), successive approximations w i l l yield t h e working formulas

398

A=D2

3 14-Di 16
l - - D32 i

(2.52)

where

A=-

Bo rvdg,

The c o e f f i c i e n t s D1, D,,

D , are correspondingly equal t o

/358

-3

4 --.-

R A

(sin2 Bo -_ 2D,)I2
COSZBO

1+ D,

(2-53)

1 1--DO2 32
3

16

If

A (L ) , the R R /x=1
2

formula f o r t h e e m u m p r e s s u r e on t h e balls can be

represented i n t h e f o r m

It follows from eqs.(2.3) can be equated t o

and (2.51) t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t

cAA i n

eq.(2.54)

It i s obvious t h a t , i n t h e examined case, t h e reduced loads Q o and Q can be expressed i n t h e following manner:

399

A comparison of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.56) and (2.13) y i e l d s , f o r t h e given case,

~,,=0.229Gh~) cos &sin a;

K =0.390w2hA) cos

i 3 , sin a.

(2.57)

If t h e r a d i a l load i s R = 0 then, i n conformity' w i t h t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.53), we have D, = 0 and D, = 1 . S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o eq.(2.55), we o b t a i n t h e following f o r t h e case of p u r e l y axial loading:

= obtained from Figure 4.13 g i v e s graphs of t h e dependence t h e i n i t i a l equations of s t a t i c equilibrium of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l 1 t h e values bearings without s' l i f y i n g assumptions. There, t h e s i g n ~ 1 denotes of t h e c o e f f i c i e r l t 3 ; ) c a l c u l a t e d by eq.( 2.58) , f u r n i s h i n g graphic proof of i t s completely s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy.

g;) 26)(A),

The described method of determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s only when t h e r e are no unloaded b a l k i n t h e bearing.

To

and h can be used

N o w l e t t h e loading zone be l e s s t h a n 360'. For a loading zone less t h a n 360, t h e quant i t y h can vary w i t h i n limits from t o 1 and from -a t o some negative value h+ corresponding t o t h e case where t h e bearing absorbs a p u r e l y r a d i a l load. I n t h e absence of an axial load, t h e c e n t e r of t h e contact area llslidestl t o t h e middle of t h e raceway and t h e angle B vanishes. If, i n e q . ( l . l 9 ) , t h e angle B i s equated t o zero and a t r a d i a l loading of t h e bearing, we obviously have
0
0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

&=cos

Po-

1.

(2.59)

Fig.4.13 _Gra hs _of t h e Dependence' ; : k = k00 (A)

(A).

Let us introduce t h e n o t a t i o n s

(2.60)

The values of E as a f u n c t i o n of h are given i n Table

At
4.00
....

6 =

4.6.

cos B o

1and B = 0, t h e second equation of t h e system (2.1) can be

represented as

where

We r e c a l l that, i n conformity w i t h the-accepted d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis, t h e angle B o = 0 and t h u s h cos Jlo = h and h 0 = 6(1 + A ) .

TAUWE 4..6

1
h
El

E2

E3

E4 . .

E4

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

1.244 1.173 1.097 1.017 0.930 0.831 0.717 0.586 0,429 0.238 0

1.125 1.149 1.187 1,242 1.317 1,409 1.522 1.662 1.836 2.055 2.321

1.666 1.594 1,532 1,476 1.430 1.386 1.346 1,309 1,277 1,247 1,217

0,600 0.697 0.816

0.968 1,166 1.443 1.857 2.546 3.915 8,021

00

-0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4

-0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9 -1

-0,304 -0.704 -1.248 -2.021 -3.191 -5.111 -8.663 -16.91 -47.49

--w

2.670 3.126 3.146 4.597 5,899 7.998 11.74 20.23 52.48

03

1.185 1,164 1.139 1.115 1,093 1.075 1.051 1.032 1.015 1

-8.441 -4,296 -2.927 -2.243 -1,829 -1.550 -1.360 -1.210 -1.094 --I

It follows from t h e e q u a l i t y (2.62) that 1 , : should s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n

To s o l v e eqs.(2.1)

and (2.2) i n t h e case of

A , we proceed < R ( R ~X=I

in

t h e f o l l o w i r g manner:

A s s u m i n g -the parameter A as known, i t e r a - t i o n of t h e second

e q u a t i o n of t h e system (2.1) w i l l f u r n i s h t h e q u a n t i t y

60

1 + h

Replacing

t h e trigonometric f u n c t i o n s of t h e angle f3 by t h e corresponding values from eq.(2.2), we t a k e t h e following as a n approximate value of 6 :

where

It should be borne i n mind t h a t , s i n c e eq.(2.63) i s approz&mte, t h e value of 6 determined from this expression f o r A = Will d i f f e r somewhat from t h e value corresponding t o eq.( 2.59). i;wt hermore, f ram e qs ( 2.1) we have

Prescribing A , we t h e n use eqs.(2.63) t h e dependence

and (2.65) f o r p l o t t i n g t h e graph of

From this graph, knowing t h e r a t i o -, A F ( h ) (Fig.k.l&). R R we f i n d t h e value of h which c o n s t i t u t e s a n approximate s o l u t i o n of eqs.(2.1) and (2.2), Using t h e obtained value of h , we c a l c u l a t e by eq.(2.63) t h e a c t u a l from it. value of 6 and t h e n f i n d

A =

z0

A s shown by numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e accuracy of eqs.(2.63) and (2.65), j u s t as of eqs.(2.51) and (2.52), i s completely s u f f i c i e n t f o r engineering app l i c a t i o n s . The d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e values of and h c a l c u l a t e d by t h e indicated formulas from t h e corresponding IIexactII values determined by eqs .( 2.1) and (2.2) f o r i n i t i a l contact angles of Bo 2 4.5' a r e u s u a l l y no more t h a n 3 - 4%.

so

On t h e basis of eq.(2.63),

we can w r i t e

(2.66)
Recalling that E,
=

and

E=
B,md2,*

,we

f i n d t h e following

/361

f o r t h e case

< (A) : R R
/x=1

(1 + ~ ) j g ' ~

Here,

4.02

*' H
R

1
1
Ae

A comparison of t h e equalities (2.l-l)

this case can be expressed as

and

(2.67) r e a d i l y shows that t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ko i n

l~,=0.229~,jR) COS a.

Accordingly,
0
I
A

r
A

~ = 0 . 3 9 0 . ~ ~ 6cos " ) a.

For c e r t a i n u l t r a - p r e c i s i o n high-speed bearing asseniblies, a proper determination of t h e r e l a t i v e displacements of t h e bearing races under load i s of importance. When combined loads are absorbed by r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, this problem i s solved i n t h e fOllOwbg manner: Equations (1.13) and ( l . l 6 ) , i n t h e absence of mutual misalignment of t h e r a c e s (F
= t~

Fig.4.a Auxiliary Graph f o r Approximate Solution of Eqs.(2.1) f o r a Loadi n g Zone less t h a n 360'.

6. Relative Displacements of Races

3
g

= 0),

indicate that

On t h e basis of eq.(1.19),

we f i n d

R *

Under this condition, disregarding t h e quantity

x2

owing t o i t s smallness i n t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.42), t h e following expr_ssions_ are obtained from eqs.'(2.51) and (2.52) f o r t h e r e l a t i v e displacements s and u:

403

It i s easy t o d e f i n e t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e displacements and w i t h any change i n t h e r a t i o s of r a d i a l and axial loads on t h e example of a 36207 bearing, f o r which t h e c u r v e s u =

& &

2 -\ a d are p l o t t e d by means md?, ) \ md?, A of eqs.(2.71) i n Fig.4.15 f o r a constant value of t h e axial load f \ zvd2ba = 0.53). For comparison, t h e s i g n IlxII i n d i c a t e s t h e exact values of displace-

;=s'

ments

s and ; calculated

by eqss.(1.3),

( 1 . 6 ) , and ( 1 . 7 ) f o r t h e cases X

= 0 and

h = 1 , which determine t h e limits of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of eqs.(2.71).

A s follows from t h e presented data, t h e equation of moments does not e n t e r i n t o t h e system of equations by means of which we i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e load i n r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings operating without misalignment of t h e races. Therefore, t h e assumpt i o n of t h e e f f e c t of t h e r a d i a l f o r c e and moment i n one plane, which was used i n d e r i v i n g eqs ( 1 .&) , introduces no a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t would narrow t h e range of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e aforementioned method of c a l c u l a t i n g such bearings. R D 0.1 0 2 0.3 o,c 0.5 0.6 0.7 z Zvdba U n t i l now, we had assumed t h e r a d i a l and &a1 loads a c t i n g on t h e bearing as R '\ given. Curves of = Fig.4.15 i md:, The r a d i a l loads on bearings are a t a Constant and = found from t h e equations of equilibrium z v d : , of t h e s h a f t t o which they are f i t t e d . Value of t h e Axial Load.

( :

u u :'

A t l a r g e d i s t a n c e s between t h e i n d i v i d u a l supports, a determination of such loads i s not d i f f i c u l t since, i n this case, t h e y depend l i t t l e on t h e moments absorbed by t h e bearings s o t h a t t h e s e can be disregarded i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . Often, considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s are encountered i n c a l c u h t i n g a x i a l loads. S t r i c t l y speaking, t h e axial load can be considered as known only i n t h e case i n which t h e bearing i n question absorbs t h e e n t i r e &a1 f o r c e applied t o t h e s h a f t , as t a k e s p l a c e i n bearing assemblies w i t h one bearing f i x e d i n a n axial direction.
O f course, i f t h e equations of equilibrium of t h e s h a f t are not s u f f i c i e n t f o r f i n d i n g t h e loads a c t i n g on i t s supports, it i s impossible t o make a s e p a r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n of bearings mounted on s e p a r a t e supports. I n such cases, t h e pressures on t h e balls can be determined only by solving t h e equations of equilibrium of t h e s h a f t simultaneously w i t h t h e equations of s t a t i c equilibrium of a l l beari n g s f i t t e d t o this s h a f t .

S e c t i o n 3 . Certain Problems i n Calculating Radial-Thrust B a l l B e a s x s w i t h Consideration of Misalignment of

1 . Basic R e l a t i o n s h b s

In a number of h e l i c o p t e r units, narrowly spaced r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l beari n g s absorb combined loads i n which t h e moment plays. a n appreciable i f not t h e main r o l e . It i s understandable t h a t , i n determining t h e parameters characteri z i n g t h e performance of such bearings, it i s imperm i s s i b l e t o d i s r e g a r d t h e misaUgnment of t h e r a c e s as had been done i n t h e preceding Section; t h i s g r e a t l y complicates t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n .
!

1
Fig . 4 . % Diagram of Loading of Two Ball Bearings by Radial and M a l Forces and Moment.

The absence of reliable methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings receiving appreciable moments a t c l o s e spacing of t h e supports i n t e r f e r e s with t h e d e s i g n of numerous bearing assemblies, i n p a r t i c u lar t h e assembly of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l swashplate which i s one of t h e most s t r e s s e d and v i t a l elements of a helicopter.

kt us examine c e r t a i n problems i n t h e calculat i o n of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, w i t h considerat i o n of misalignment of t h e i r r a c e s under load. The r e s u l t s obtained i n s o l v i n g t h e s e problems y i e l d ans w e r s t o t h e b a s i c questions a r i s i n g i n t h e designing of bearing assembxes f o r h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s which have t o absorb l a r g e moments.

kt t h e bearing assembly, c o n s i s t i n g of two r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, absorb a combined load i n t h e form of a r a d i a l f o r c e R applied i n t h e middle between t h e supports, a n a x i a l f o r c e A, and a moment M It i s assumed t h a t t h e f o r c e R and t h e (Fig.4.U). moment M a c t i n one and t h e same plane.
L e t us a s s i g n t h e index 1 t o t h a t bearing of a given assembly for which t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e balls caused by t h e a c t i o n of t h e f o r c e R and t h e moment M are cumulative. A l l q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h i s bearing Will be w r i t t e n w i t h this index. The index 2 i s given t o t h e second bearing i n this assembly and t o a l l q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o it.

Let us d i r e c t t h e axes of t h e coordinates f o r t h e bearings 1 and 2 as shown i n Fig.4.16. It i s obvious that, i n t h e coordinate system xlylzl, t h e f o r c e R
and t h e moment M always have p o s i t i v e values whereas t h e axial f o r c e A can be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e or negative The conditions of equilibrium of t h e shaft t o which t h e bearings are mounted reduce t o t h e following system of equations:

405

where L i s t h e d i s t a n c e between supports. Since t h e moments M, and M, a t smitll d i s t a n c e s between t h e supports are not L and % L b u t may even appreciably only cammensurable w i t h t h e moments R,

u,=u${c;

i2=sinBo+Z P->;

(3.2)
I

u2= -u+c;.

3$

All r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s , as before, are expressed i n f r a c t i o n s of t h e d i s t a n c e g = rout + r i n -

I n bearing assemblies of t h e type i n question, we g e n e r a l l y use r a d i a l t h r u s t b a l l besrings w i t h l a r g e i n i t i a l contact angles, f o r which t h e r e l a t i v e d isplac_ements 6 1 and r a r e l y exceed 0.25 s i n 2 Bo. For t h e i n d i c a t e d values of 6, and S2, t h e e q u a l i t i e s (3.3) can be replaced by t h e following approxkae relati o n s :

x2

For t h e s e l e c t e d d i r e c t i o n of t h e axes of t h e coordinates, t h e angle J l o determining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e most loaded b a l l i n t h e bearing l i s always equal t o zero. The angle q O 2 c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e most loaded b a l l i n t h e bearing 2, depending upon t h e r a t i o of t h e r a d i a l f o r c e R t o t h e moment M, may have e i t h e r a value of zero ( f o r t h e p r e v a i l i n g moment) o r may be e q u a l t o B O o ( f o r t h e p r e v a i l i n g r a d i a l load)

Bearing i n mind t h e l a t t e r circumstance it becomes p o s s i b l e by means of the equalities ( 1 . & ) , ( 1 . 2 5 ) , ( 1 . 2 1 1 ,( 1 . 2 7 j , and (3.4), t a k i n g t h e comments made on t h e order of t h e q u a n t i t i e s 6 , and 6 , i n t o account, t o represent t h e f o r c e s and moments t a k e n by t h e bearings 1 and 2 as follows:

The f o l l u h n g n o t a t i o n s a r e adopted i n eqs.(3.5)

A s follows from e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2and ) (1.13), we have

Since, a t

6S

0.25 s i n 2 Bo, we can p u t approximately t a n p = t a n B + t h e last expression will y i e l d

j 1+i2=2iprsin

s i n Bo cos Bo

Po.

Using t h e e q u a l i t y (1.21),

we f i n a l l y have

/366

The r e l a t i o n s (3.5), (3.6), and (3.7) t o g e t h e r w i t h e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 1 make ) it poss i b l e t o determine a l l parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t he performance of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings f o r c l o s e l y spaced supports, when misalignment of t h e r a c e s under load cannot be disregarded. A s shown by numerical calculations, t h e accuracy of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s obtained on t h e assunption t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s 6, and 6, do not exceed 0.25 s i n 2 B o a t i n i t i a l contact angles of Bo> 26O, w i t h which we usually d e a l i n bearing assemblies intended f o r absorbing l a r g e moments, i s s u f f i c i e n t .

W e will next analyze t h e b a s i c c a l c u l a t i o n cases encountered when designing bearing assemblies of this type f o r h e l i c o p t e r units.

2. caseof - ~llPuretl Moment

If a bearing assembly consisting of two i d e n t i c a l r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings absorbs a IlpurelJ moment (Fig.k.l8), then by v i r t u e of t h e i d e n t i c a l loads It i s l o g i c a l t h a t , on both bearings we must have 2, = R , , A, A,, 2nd M, = M, i n this case, JrOz = Jrol = 0 , A l = h 2 , and 6 , , = ho2.

Fig.4.18 Diagram of h a d i n g of Two B a l l Bearings by a IIPurell Moment.

A s indicated i n eq.(3.7),

Fig.4.19 Effect of Preloading on t h e Loading Zone.

=

a t JrOz

0, X 1 = A z ,

and 6 0 1

= bo,,

we have

Consequently, under t h e e f f e c t of a llpurell moment,

should always be g r e a t e r s i n BOApr t h a n unity. T h i s becomes obvious when taking i n t o account t h a t t h e product s i n BOKp;,, represents t h e r e l a t i v e convergence of t h e raceways caused by t h e preloading, ?.e., t h e relative approach of t h e raceways present before applying 1367 a n e x t e r n a l load t o t h e assembly.
It i s understandable t h a t t h e r a t i o
6 01

Equation (3.9) determines t h e loading zone as a f u n c t i o n of t h e l e v e l of t h e load and t h e preloading. This r e l a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , shows t h a t , t o have a l l balls share t h e load, t h e bearing should be mounted w i t h a r e l a t i v e preloadEo 1 ing a p r s i n Bo

409

The e f f e c t of t h e preloading on t h e loading zone i s shown i n Fig.4.19. Frequently, t h e preload is not given as a relative axial displacement b u t as a corresponding axial load A p r , determined by t h e expression

zp,

Since, under t h e e f f e c t of a rlpurell moment, we have R, = R, and A, = A,, t h e first two equations of t h e system (3.1) are i d e n t i c a l l y s a t i s f i e d . The t h i r d equation of t h e system, f o r t h e case of a I'pure11 moment, can be transformed by means of eqs.(3.5), (3.6), and (3.7) in t h e following manner:

Using eqs.(2.3),

(2.5),

(3.9), and (3.111, it i s easy t o construct t h e

and *=F
vdi,

graphs of t h e r e l a t i o n s 7vdba - Fo(&)

(A), from which we rOzvd&

can

f i n d t h e maximum and equivalent p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l l s . The curves shown i n Fig.4.20 can s e r v e as a t y p i c a l example of such graphs. They were obtained on t h e assumption t h a t Bo = 36', 6 = 0, and Epr s i n Bo = 0.01.

Let us now represent t h e maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l Pol i n t h e form

zhM)M

Po, =

2j21A-_roz s i n PO (1 + c cot pol

4 . 37zAM)M

2roz s i n PO (1

+ c cot BO)

(3 012)

Acc,ordingly, we p u t

and P,,

It i s necessary t o note t h a t under t h e e f f e c t of t h e llpure11 moment,P,, = P,, 1 .

= Po,

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t i s

A t zero preloading when A I = eq43.a)

according t o eq.(3.9),

we o b t a i n from

/368

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t kLM) corresponding t o eq.(3.15) can be d e t e r Here, t h e a b s c i s s a gives t h e q u a n t i t y M = mined from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.21. 1-6 t a n Bo 1 M -~ i s taken as The q u a n t i t y p = t a n Bo + 6 zvdta s i n Bo( 1+ 6 c o t Bo) ro a parameter.

-.

1.2

Fig.4.20

Values of

Po 1

and

vd2,Ea Vd2ba as a Function of f o r Bo = 36'.

M
rozvdta

Fig.4.21 Values of t h e Coeff i c i e n t kb''as a Function of t h e Parameters p and M.

The g r a hs i n 5 s.4.22 and 4.23 show t h e mode of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e coeff i c i e n t s kiMP and k(MFas a f u n c t i o n of preloading when Bo = 36' and 6 = 0. The curves 3.ndicate t h a t t h e preloading should be s e l e c t e d such that t h e parameter h l l i e s w i t h i n t h e limits of 1t o 1.25. A t such a s e l e c t i o n tif t h e preloading, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t kAM) and hence t h e maxi" p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l drop by 10 - l-2%. I n this case, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k ( and, t o g e t h e r w i t h it, t h e equivalent p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l w i l l keep approximately t h e same magnitude as i n t h e case Without preloading. Analogous conclusions can be drawn from a study of o t h e r combinations of t h e q u a n t i t i e s B o and 5 .

It i s extremely important t o estimate t h e e f f e c t of preloading on t h e angu-

l a r s t i f f n e s s of t h e bearing assembly. T h i s i s e a s i l y done by means of t h e second equation of t h e system (3.4) which, f o r t h e case of a ~ t p u r emoment, ~~ can be represented i n t h e form

Equation (3.16) shows t h a t a change from h l = CD t o h l = 1 1.25 l e a d s t o a decrease inmisalignment of t h e r a c e s of t h e bearings by a f a c t o r of 2.2 t o 2.

It i s obvious from t h e a f o r e s a i d that, i n i n s t a l l i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h a n optimal preloading corresponding t o values of t h e parameter h l from 1 t o 1.25, t h e s e r v i c e conditions of t h e bearing assemblies loaded by a moment improve noticeably.

0.02

0.04

0 . 0 6

0.08

&slnpO

-Fig.4.22 Values of t h e Coeff i c i e n t k i M ) versus Preloading f o r Certain Constant Values of

Fig.4.23 Values of t h e Coeff i c i e n t k(M) versus Preloading f o r Certain Constant Values of

M r,zvdt,

M
r, zvdz,

The preloading a t which t h e parameter A I = 1t o 1.25, i n p r a c t i c a l calculat i o n s , can be coqmted from t h e approx-te formula

where

A =

+ H [(1.96 - 1.94)31]2'3

(1.96- 1 . 9 4 ) X

(3.1-7)

I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t i e s Pol and Pcq I a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y equal t o

l + =(0.657 -0.645)

Pol.

3. Simul&anecus Action -o f o m e n t and M a l Force

/370

In t h e presence of simultaneous a c t i o n of moment and &a1 f o r c e (Fig.&.&), t h e loading conditions of t h e bearings 1 and 2 are d i s s i m i l a r , which g r e a t l y complicates t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r determining t h e ball p r e s s u r e s . To f i n d t h e q u a n t i t i e s Pol, P e q l , P o z , and P e q 2 , a number of a u x i l i a r y graphs must be cons t r u c t e d . The sequence of p l o t t i n g such graphs i s e a s i l y understood from t h e following example :
For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t us assume Let t h e i n i t i a l contact angle be Bo = 36. t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e preloading i s 0 and t h e r e l a t i v e base 5 = 0, i.e., l e t us study t h e case d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e bearings of t h e p i t c h cont r o l ,maskplate, f o r wMch t h e s e assumptions are s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d .

xpr=

Fig.4.a

Diagram of h a d i n g Two B a l l Bea?.-ings by Moment and Axial Force.

Fig.4.25
= 6,,(u,

Typical Graph of T o , = A ) f o r R = R 1 - R, = 0.

According t o eqs.(3.5) f o r a r a d i a l load of R = R1 = Rz = 0, t h e q u a n t i t i e s 601, So,, A l , and A z are c o r r e l a t e d by t h e following r e l a t i o n s :

In t h e e q u a l i t y (3.19), as i n a l l subsequent r e l a t i o n s , we have t a k e n i n t o during t h e simultaneous a c t i o n of moment and axial f o r c e - we account t h a t have llroa = q O l = 0, j u s t as In t h e case of a c t i o n of a llpurel1 moment.

From eq.(3.7)

a t zero preloading we o b t a i n

&om this follows

Henceforth, t h e r a t i o
602 7 wi
6 . 1

l l be denoted everywhere by

N.

Making use of - t h e e q u a l i t i e s (3.6), (3.191, (3.231, and (3.21), l e t us p l o t t h e curves go, = F I ~ ~ ( U A , , ) s a t i s f y i n g the-condition R = R1 R, = 0 (Fig.4.25). , = const, we f i n d t h e values of N. /371 I n t e r s e c t i n g t h e obtained curves by l i n e s 6 corresponding t o t h e s e l e c t e d values of 6,, f o r t h e given values of h (from m t o 0 ) . Furthermore, t a k i n g A , as a parameter, we can use eqs.(3.1), [3.5), and

t h e preceding e q u a l i t i e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s the ratios

A
zvd?,

1 pe, 1 W1 The r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e presented graphically, as i s done i n

Po
02

u3/2

ad pe,

= %3/2

-.

w2

, and

rozvdta

zvd?, romd:a p e r m i t s determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s and h l ; when t h e s e are known it becomes easy t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d u m and equivalent p r e s s u r e s Po and P,, 1. From

Figs.4.26

4.28.

Figure 4.26,

from t h e given v a . h e s of

and

Fol

Po 2 and Po 1 maximum and equivalent p r e s s u r e s Po, and P e s 2 . Figs.4.27 and 4.28, we f i n d t h e r a t i o s

pe, and t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e pe,

2
1

--% rozvdb&
0.7

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1
A
ZVdh

The case = 0 and 6 = 0 was analyzed above. For a r b i t r a r y values of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s and a l s o f o r o t h e r i n i t i a l contact angles Bo, det e r m i n a t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e s Po l, Peql, Poz, and P , , , i s made i n t h e same manner as i n t h e example under study. I . should be remembered t h a t , i n t h e presence of preloading, t h e q u a n t i t y FOl cannot be l e s s t h a n sin

nPr

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2-

Fig.4.26

A
Z V ~ ? a

on rOzvdt, f o r C e r t a i n Constant Values of

Dependence of

601

and A,.

W e should note t h a t t h e case of APr = 0 and 5 = 0 i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c not only f o r bearings of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l b u t a l s o f o r many largediameter r o l l e r bearings used i n r o t a r y devices of modern machines and mechanisms.

It i s obvious from t h e presented material that, f o r t h e p r e v a i l i n g moment 1 , t h e bearing 2 i s u s u a l l y t h e most loaded, although a t f i r s t glance when h l t h e s e r v i c e conditions of t h e bearing 1 , toward which t h e axial load A i s directed, seem more severe.

=-

The presented method of c a l c u h t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a n bearings under t h e combined a c t i o n of moment and axial f o r c e requires a l a r g e volume of c a l c u l a t i o n s and constructions. Therefore, i t s use i s warranted only i n s p e c i a l s t u d i e s havi n g t h e purpose of determining t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n & bearing assemblies w i t h c l o s e l y spaced supports, and a l s o f o r p l o t t i n g a w d l i a r y graphs f o r c a l c u l a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l standard s t r u c t u r e s . If such graphs have not been constructed beforehand, t h e engineering c a l c u l a t i o n s should use t h e simplif i e d procedure based on c r i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s obtained f o r t h e case of small loads, when t h e f o r c e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d between t h e balls i n t h e most unfavorable manner.

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4- 1

A1

0 . 4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

1
a1

Fig.4.27 Ratio
1

Dependence of t h e f o r Cer-

Fig.4..28 Ratio

Dependence of t h e

Po, 1 on -, Po 11

t a i n Constant values of

Zol.

f o r Cerpe, 1 11 t a i n Constant Values of Sol.

1 -on -,
peq 2

4 . Wt

Dependences on--Small Loads

In t h e presence of small loads, it can be assumed that t h e contact angles of a l l b a l l s are approximately i d e n t i c a l and e q u a l t o Bo.
After discarding i n eqs.(3.5) a l l terms-that al&w f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n con, and bo, by t h e maximum p r e s s u r e s t a c t angles and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s ,& on t h e b a l l s Po, and Poz, which i s more convenient f o r small loads, we have

K , =zP,, A,=zP,,

cos 8, j z l ;

sin pojll; M,=r,zP,,sin~,j,,;

R2=zPOzcos Pojz2;
A,=zP,,sin

(3.22)

Poj,,;

M2=rozPozsin ~ o j 2 2 .

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e dependences (3.22) i n t o eqs .( 3 . I ) , we o b t a i n

R=zPol cos Po ( j 2 1 - x 3 / 2 j Z zcos qO2);

A=#,,
sin 3 0 ( j ~ l - x 3 ~ 2 j ~ 2 ) ;

M =rozPolsin Po (1+ C c o t Bo) ( j Z + l x 3 / 2 j 2 2 cos qO2),

(30 2 3 )

where, as before, u =
T

- i-)Po, -

2/3 ,

601 Po, Since i n this case t h e angle Jroa need not be e q u a l t o zero, t h e e q u a l i t y ( 3 . 7 ) , under c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this circumstance, Will yield

Let us examine t h e system of equations

L222

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t t h e values of A l , A,, and u f o r zero preloading, s a t i s f y i n g equations (3.251, a l s o s a t i s f y e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2 3and ) (3*2&>, if we set

It m u s t be r e c a l l e d that, i n t h e first case, t h e angle and i n t h e second, t o 180.

qOz i s equal t o zero

If t h e axial f o r c e p l a y s t h e major r o l e i n t h e e x t e r n a l load, t h e n t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n i n t h e form

I f t h e moment predominates, it i s g e n e r a w acceptable t o use t h e form of n o t a t i o n given e a r l i e r :

According t o eqs .( 3

.a), we

have

As regards t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ki)
KIM)=&

, k(:),

kL),

and khA), t h e s e are equal t o

~b( d)=w 2 (02 A).

0.587

( M ) . (A)*
O1

(AI;
01

( M ) = A (M); 2 0.587 0

It should be noted that, between t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k p ) and i s t s t h e following r e l a t i o n :

dM) , there

ex-

4.17

T
-0.4

-0.8
- II. 9 Y

0.2

0.4

0.6

0 . 8 1.0

1.2

1.4

x ! -

Fig .4.a Nomograms f o r Approximate Calculations of Bearings Loaded by Axial and Radial Forces and Moments. The s o l u t i o n of t h e system (3.25) can be represented i n t h e form of graphs shown i n Fig.4.29. From t h e s e graphs, knowing T and v, it i s easy t o f i n d t h e values of u and h l , from which we c a l c u l a t e t h e roduct h cos ( t o z and t h e n /375 c a l c u l a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kd\) , k i A ), , kiAP, o r k y ) , k&!) , k i M ) After this, it i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o determine t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e balls.

kpi

kbIf9

The graphs i n Fig.4.29 are i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t n e i t h e r t h e angle fi nor 6 f i g u r e s i n them. Thus, we have a r r i v e d a t a r a t h e r convenierrt approximate method of c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h l a r g e i n i t i a l contact angles i n t h e most common case of t h e i r loading. The preloading, as a l r e a d y demonstrated by a study of bearing assemblies loaded by a Ilpurell moment, mainly has a n e f f e c t on t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e system but l e a v e s t h e c a l c u l a t e d values of t h e maximum and equivalent b a l l p r e s s u r e s p r a c t i c a l l y unchanged. Thus, t h e presented approximate method of determining t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s , based on t h e a s s q t i o n t h a t t h e preloading i s e q u a l t o zero, can be used f o r solving a r a t h e r wide range of problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h l a r g e i n i t i a l contact angles i n s t a l l e d i n bearing assemblies, with c l o s e l y spaced supports and absorbing a n a r b i t r a r y combined load. I n simpler loading cases, when examLning t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s between b a l l s correspondhg t o s m a l l loads, it i s r e l a t i v e l y easy t o allow f o r t h e preloading i f necessary.

L e t t h e assembly be loaded o n l y by t h e moment and t h e axial f o r c e . I n t h e absence of a r a d i a l load, as follows from eqs.(3.23), we have j,, - x W 2 use of this r e l a t i o n , we reduce t h e expressions f o r t h e j,, cos JIo2 = 0. M a k i c o e f f i c i e n t s k(') and t o t h e form

TA)

Equations (3.32) are v a l i d a l s o i n t h e presence of preloading. The c o e f f i c i e n t s kbr) , ki'), and k(Z') determined from eqs.(3.32) f o r Since, a t zero preloading can be found from t h e graphs i n F'igs.4.30 and 4.31.

d : ) ,

small val6es of t h e r a t i o

1 , t h e c o e f f i c i e r . t s kk')
7

and k C Mf ) o r t h e bearing 2

a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n f o r t h e bearing 1, t h e question n a t u r a l l y arises whether we can equate t h e i r values by proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e preloading. Without dwelling on t h e transformations r e l a t e d w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n of this problem, s i n c e t h e y are s u f f i c i e n t l y obVious from t h e foregoing, we w i l l d i r e c t l y give t h e t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n . Figure 4.33 p r e s e n t s curves giving t h e values of t h e r a t i o

A,, s i n Bo

a t which i d e n t i t y of t h e s t a t i c and dynamic loads of t h e bearings 1

and 2, <.e., e q u a l i t y of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kdy) and o r ky) and kbM) , can be t h e o r e t i c a l l y secured. The values of t h e s e a d j u s t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e shown i n Figs .4.30 and 4.31 as broken l i n e s . For assemblies which should have high r i g i d i t y , it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t a l l /376 bal ls i n both bearings be loaded. T h i s problem i s a l s o e a s i l y solved by proper choice of t h e preloading. Since, under t h e combined a c t i o n of moment and axial f o r c e , t h e loading zone i n t h e bearing 1 i s always g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e bearing 2, t h e c o n d i t i o n of complete loading of t h e balls of both bearings i s t h e inequalkb;) , k(lM) , and k(,M) and t h e i t y h, 2 1 . The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Epr s i n Bo ratio corresponding t o t h e case h , = 1 , are a l s o given i n F'igs.4.31

60 1

kiz)

G ! ) ,

601

and 4.32. Figure 4.33 shows t h a t , w i t h a preloading which ensuresloading of a l l b a l h of both bearings, t h e angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e assembly i n c r e a s e s by a f a c t o r of more t h a n 2, which causes t h e max5" and equivalerrb p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k t o i n c r e a s e by about 1 0 15%.

The l i m i t dependences obtained f o r t h e case of small loads are r a t h e r convenient f o r p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , s i n c e t h e y s u b s t a n t i a l b l e s s e n t h e laboriousness of determining t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e balk. It must only be remembered

419

F'ig.4.30

Values of t h e Coeffor

F'ig.4.31

Values of t h e Coef\I-/

f i c i e n t kbM) = k p ) ( $ )

) fop f i c i e n t k(M)= k ( M(l? t h e Case of Simultaneous Action of Moment and Axial Force.

t h e Case of Simultaneous Action of Moment and M a l Force.

0.4

0.8

1.2

7 1

0.4 4 8 1.2

1.6 2.0 2.4

Fig 4.32 Values of Preloading f o r Ensuring t h e Conditions k( M ) = k2 , kby) = ko 2 and 1 hz = 1 .

Fig.4.33 E f f e c t of Preloading (Condition h 2 = 1) on Angular S t i f f n e s s of t h e Assembly.

t h a t t h e use of t h e s e l i m i t dependences l e a d s t o a c e r t a i n overestimation of t h e r a t e d b a l l pressures. For contact stresses of t h e order of 20,000 kg/cm", this amounts t o 15 - 25% f o r t h e angle Bo = 26' and t o 2 - 17% f o r t h e angle Allowing f o r this f a c t i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r a t e d loads of a given bearBo = 60'. i n g assembly w i t h t h e use of t h e above c r i t i c a l dependences, t h e values of t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r can be reduced considerably. On t h e basis of t h e dependences presented above, we can determine t h e pressures on t h e b a l k of e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded double-row t h r u s t b a l l bearings. Here = 0, we must remember t h a t f o r a n i n i t i a l contact angle of Bo = 90' a t eqs.(3.32) y i e l d t h e Itexact11 values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2 8and ) W e note t h a t i n this case t h e q u a n t i t y T r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i v e eccen(3.29).

zpp

tricity

e ( F i g -4=34)
r 0

If a single-raw t h r u s t b a l l bearing t a k e s a n e c c e n t r i c a l l y applied &a1 force, t h e n

where The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k g ) and k ( A ) are found from t h e curves These curves are obtained from t h e values of h correspondp l o t t e d i n Fig.4.35. i n g t o t h e equation
j 4 =
Ji

which, i n turn, i s obtained d i r e c t l y from t h e con-

d i t i o n s of s t a t i c equilibrium

92

0 . 4

0.6 0.8

Fig .4.34 Double-Row Thrust Ball Bearing Loaded by M a l Force and Moment ( E c c e n t r i c a l l y Applied k a l Force).

Fig.4.35 Values of t h e Coef) a f i c i e n t kp) and k C Aas Function of T .

5. D i s t r i b u t i o n of hag between Raws

Radial-Thrust - B a l l Bearings -

of

Balls of Double-Row

Radial-thrust b a l l bearings w i t h i n i t i a l contact angles of 26 and 3 6 O , having a small preloading, are widely used i n h e l i c o p t e r components designed f o r t a k i n g simultaneously a c t i n g radial and &a1 loads (Fig.4.36).

W e w i l l attempt t o e s t a b l i s h t h e manner i n which t h e load i s d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e rows of balls of such bearings, working under conditions precluding t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n o t i c e a b l e misalignment of t h e i r races.
Keeping i n mind t h a t a small preloading has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e b a l l p r e s s u r e s , we Will use t h e limit dependences given i n t h e preceding Subsection

/378

421

Fig .4 .36 Double-Row Radial-Thrust B a l l Bearing Loaded by Radial and Axial Forces.

Fig.4.37 Values of and of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s k g > a s a Funct i o n of

-.
1

f o r a n approximate s o l u t i o n of t h e problem. Setting G =

and Apr = 0 i n t h e e q u a l i t i e s (3.4) and

(5.7)

and r e c a l l i n g

602 , we f i n d h 2 = hl. The index I ' l l 1 i s 1 + A, cos JlO2 1+ hl given t o t h e r o w of balls toward which t h e axial f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d . Since, i f t h e bearing i s loaded by r a d i a l and &a1 f o r c e s , t h e angle will be JrOz = 1 8 0 ' and thus cos JlO2 = 1 , s o that eqs.(3.23) W i l l y i e l d , f o r t h e case under study,

that

6,

60,

and

5,

The dependences determining t h e , p r e s s u r e s Po and Po, f o r double-row r a d i a l t h r u s t ball bearings can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following manner:

where

422

The e q u i v a l e n t . p r e s s u r e s f o r both rows of b a l k are, respectively, e q u a l to

The values of t h e parameter A, and of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t h e quarrtity

1 - A cot
T

e;)

as a f u n c t i o n of

B o can be found from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.37.

Fig.4.38

P i t c h C o n t r o l of Helicopter Rotor.
For

A s shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e f i r s t row i s always more loaded.

2

1 2 r

e 1.67 a t h l < 1 , this row c a r r i e s t h e entire load applied t o t h e bearing. W A note t h a t , f o r T = 0.6, t h e r a t i o = 1.67 t a n Bo. R I n t h e presence of predominantly axial loads, when one row of b a l l s i s

operative, more accurate r e s u l t s are obtained by using t h e dependences i n Sect i o n 2 f o r c a l c u l a t i n g double-row r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings of a l l types, i r h cluding t h o s e examined i n this Subsection.

6. & w l e s of Calculation
Ekamle 1 . Let us determine t h e r a t e d l i f e of t h e bearings of t h e s w a s k p l a t e of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l (Fig.4.38) loaded by t h e moments M = 150 kg-m and r o t a t i n g a t 240 rpm. The bearings have t h e following parameters: Bo = 3 6 O , ro = 79 m a d b a = 9.525 m, z = 4-2, Relative base

= 0.1,

preloading A p r = 0.

Since t h e bearing has zero preloading, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kbM) and k ( ) needed f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l o a d s on t h e balls are determined by means of Fig.4.21.

W e then calculate the quantities

M=

r v d i * sin Bo (1 ! - C C O t B O ) to

M .-=

Since
r l n (out)

1 150 42*lr9.5252~0.588 (1 + 0. l a 1.376) 0,079

.-

0.744.

db*

0.515, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t v i s t a k e n as e q u a l t o unity.
t h e value kh) = 0.912 corresponds t o t h e obtained

According to Fig.4.21, values of p and M. Thus, t h e maxi

p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k i n both bearings W i n be

4 . 3 7 ~ 0 . 9 1 150 2~ - 134.7 kg. 2*0.079a42.0.588(1 + 0.1~1.376)

~

I n t h e examined case, A l = A 2 =
pT1

a.

Consequently,
134.7 =79.1 kg.

=eF2 =

WA,,Po,

=0.587*

The equivalent p r e s s u r e Peg *, determining t h e Life expectancy of t h e asTaking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n that, a t A , = sembly, can be found from eq.(2.&). this equation w i l l y i e l d = A z = CO, k,, = k,, = 1.2 ( s e e Fig.4.5),
1 -

TS

=23*33 I C , ~

e
10

1.2 1x 1.2 79.1 = 1 14.8 kg.

Here, we assume t h a t 1 =

-. 9

For bearings with t h e i n d i c a t e d dimensions, according t o eq.(2.42) e f f i c i e n t of u t i l i z a t i o n w i l l be

t h e co-

A s a r e s u l t of s t a n d tests, f o r bearings of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l cam p l a t e t h e . 1 . product of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k,k,kw = 1 I n conformity w i t h this, eq.(2.43),

(nh)Oe3 C
0.39x~b#&zPeg-~C O S Bo

considering t h a t h = hlo, w i l l f u r n i s h
67,794 0.39% 1.1~41 21 ~4 . 8 ~ 0 .809

=40.5.

Hence,

E x a l e 2. kt us c a l c u l a t e t h e maxi" and equivalent p r e s s u r e s on b a l l s i n bearings examined i n example 1 when they absorb a moment of M = 60 kg-m and a n axial f o r c e of A = 500 kgf. Since t h e r e l a t i v e base 5 i s small, Figs.4.26 determining t h e i n d i c a t e d p r e s s u r e s . From t h e q u a n t i t i e s

4.28 w i l l be used f o r

/381

-M

roz vd:,

60 0,079~ 42x 1x9 S252

=0.1993 kql"

and from
A 500 --0.1312 zvdta 42h 1~9.5252
kq/"
2

by means of Fig.4.26

we f i n d

Kol

0.055 and A l

0.7.

Furthermore, l e t us c a l c u l a t e Pol and Peq 1. Since A 1 = 0.7 corresponds t o t h e value w = 0.678, t h e n according t o eqs.(2.2) and (2.6) we have

Po, =B , ~ d ~ 6 ~ ' ~ = 6 r9.5252~0.055~/2=72.5 2xl k9 ; p =~P,-,l=49.2 kg. C P '

From t h e graphs i n Figs.4.27

and 4.28 we f i n d t h e values of Pes2/Pe,

and

PO2/Pol. Using t h e s e %lues, we o b t a i n

Po2~1.085Pol=78.7 kq; eq2=o.875p 091 =43 kcj. 425

Section

4.

Calculation of Tapered R o l l e r Bearings u_nder- Comgned Loads

1 . Calculation of Single-Row Tapered R o l l e r Bearings

Methods w e r e presented above f o r . c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball bearings absorbing combined loads. &t us now examine t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of calculating' tapered r o l l e r bearings working und e r conditions of a complex load.
c r o s s s e c t i o n a t angle

I I

to p l a n e o f l o a d i n g

First, l e t us g i v e t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of determining t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o l l e r s of a single-row tapered r o l l e r bearing a t given values of t h e r a d i a l and axial loads applied t o it (Fig.4.39).
The normal f o r c e s PJ' and P I G exerted on t h e r o l l e r by t h e o u t e r and i n n e r r a c e s are c o r r e l a t e d by t h e r e l a t i o n

P;=

cos (y

- yr)

cos

r,

p,.

(4 1)

F'ig.4.39

Diagram of h a d i n g of Tapered R o l l e r Bearing by Radial and Axial Forces.

For t h e u s u a l values of t h e angles y and y t , we c a n consider f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes t h a t

Pi= P,.

(4.2)

I n conformity w i t h t h e Hertz theory, it i s p o s s i b l e t o s e t , f o r t h e case of l i n e a r contact and w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy,

P, =B6,,

( 40 31

where 6 4 i s t h e convergence of t h e r a c e s i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n located a t a n angle J' t o t h e loading plane.

~

I n t h e absence of rriisalignment of t h e r a c e s under load, t h e convergence 6 4 i s determined by t h e expression

ba
=s sin

/382

f3 u cos p cos

I).

( 4*4)

Here,
u and s = r a d i a l and axial displacements of t h e i n n e r r a c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e o u t e r race, reckoned from t h e p o s i t i o n a t which t h e clearances i n t h e bearing a r e s e l e c t e d ; p = angle of t a p e r of t h e o u t e r r a c e . Having p u t
U cot ? S A ,
S

(4.5)

426

we o b t a i n from eqs.(4.3)

and (4.4)

P + = B s sin,@ (1 +h cos 9).

(4.6)

If t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r a d i a l load coincides w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis ( R > 0) t h e n t h e displacement Will. be u > 0 . I n t h i s case, t h e c e n t e r of t h e loading zone l i e s i n t h e cross s e c t i o n Q = q 0 = 0. If t h e r a d i a l load a c t s i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n ( R < O), t h e n t h e displacement Will be u < 0, i n which case t h e c e n t e r of t h e loading zone i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n

= $0 =

UOO.

According t o eq.(4.6),

t h e maximum value of t h e f o r c e PQ i s e q u a l t o

Po=B s sin @ ( 1 +h cos $ 0 ) .

Using t h e e q u a l i t y

(4.7)

(4.7), we f i n a l l y have
P +-

l+Acos$o

(1 +A cos +).

A s follows f r o m t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium,

R=l+)icos+o

cos p

(1+ k cos +) cos +;

A=

l+Acos$o

sin

(1

+A cos +).

(4.9)

For t h e usual number of r o l l e r s , eqs.(4.9)

can be replaced by t h e r e l a t i o n s

R =Poz cos flj z cos q0;

A =Pozsin flj l .

(4.10)

Here,

"=2n

(1+ A cos $ 0 )

J .(1 +Acos+ocosqJ)dqJ=

The boundaries of t h e loading zone

$ o ;

and $ ' are determined i n t h e same

lo

manner as f o r t h e r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball bearings [see eq.(1.20) explanation t o it].

Equation (4.10) Will yield, if f o r s i m p l i c i t y we s e t R > 0 and t h u s
1 R Po= -12 rcosp'

and t h e

Jlo

= 0,

The equivalent p r e s s u r e ' P,, sented i n t h e form

f o r a tapered r o l l e r bearing can be repreP =wPo,

eP

(4.13)

where

The values of t h e q u a n t i t i e s j,, given i n Table 4.7.

j,,

and w as a f u n c t i o n of h cos Q0 are

TABU
A
cos $0

4.7
A cos $0
2.000 2.500 3.333 5.000 10.000 -10.000 -5.000 -3,333 -2.500 -2.000 -1.667 -1.428 -1.250 -1.000 0.405 0.389 0.371 0.354 0.336 0.318 0.300 0.281 0.261 0.240 0.218 0.194 0,167 0.136 0.000 0,268 0.267 0,264 0.261 0.256 0.250 0.242 0.234 0.222 0.210 0.196 0.178 0.156 0.130 0.000 0.698 0,692 0.686 0,679 0,670 0.660 0.648 0.634 0.617 0.598 0,575 0.548 0.518 0.484 0.000

12
1 0.909 0.833 0.769 0.714 0.667 0.625 0.588 0.555 0.526 0.500 0.479 0.460 0.440 0.424 0.5 0.454 0.417 0.385 0.357 0.333 0.312 0,294 0,278 0.263 0.250 0.258 0.264 0.266 0.268

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.o 1.111 1.250 1.428 1.667

1 0.913 0.853 0.806 0.773 0.751 0,738 0.729 0.725 0.722 0.720 0.718 0.714 0,708 0.704

Calculation f o r tapered r o l l e r bearings, j u s t as f o r r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, i s u s u a l l y tal-ried out by means of reduced s t a t i c and dynamic loads. These loads are found from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t

428

A comparison of t h e e q u a l i t i e s ( 4 . a ) w i t h eqs.(4.12)

and (4.13) y i e l d s

,&&

where

I n conformity w i t h eqs. &.lo), t h e values of t h e parameter X needed f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k6.l and k C Rshould ) s a t i s f y t h e condition

Since we have
J2

0.5 a t h

1 , t h e value of

I -

should not exceed 0.5 f o r

a l l r o l l e r s i n a single-row tapered r o l l e r bearing t o be loaded.

A t I- 2 0.5, t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kAR) and k ( R ) can be determined These graphs were p l o t t e d on t h e basis of t h e from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.40. e q u a l i t i e s (4.16) and (4.17).
If
I - i

0.5 and t h u s X

1, t h e expressions f o r t h e i n t e g r a l s j, and j , take

1 .

t h e form
1-

J2"-

2 1 t A

h -

From eqs.(4.17)

and (4.18), we f i n d
A =A;
1
J2

(4.19)

Thus, f o r

< 0.5 when a l l r o l l e r s s h a r e t h e load, we have

429

A s follows from t h e e q u a l i t y

(4.20), for

a l l loaded rollers,

Q0=0.5R+0.25A cot.8; Q=0.76~l?+0.38wAcot

The values of w as a f u n c t i o n of curves shown i n Fig.4.41.
T

8.

are conveniently determined from t h e

These r e l a t i o n s f u r n i s h an answer t o a l l b a s i c problems a r i s i n g i n calcu-. l a t i n g tapered r o l l e r bearings t h a t t a k e combined loads, provided t h e misalignment of t h e i r r a c e s can be neglected.

Fig.4.40 Values of t h e Coeff i c i e n t s kp) and k ( R ) as a Function of T .

Fig.4.41 Values of w as a Function of T .

0.8 t h e curves of ke) = A s shown b Fig.4.40, i n t h e region T = 0.6 and kE) = k ( R )( 7 ) have a r a t h e r well-defined minimum. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t proper choice of t h e contact angle B y f o r a given combination of r a d i a l and axial loads, w i l l ensure maximum and equivalent p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l e r s having a minimum value. The optimal contact angles a t which t h e conditions Po = = Pgin and P , , =* : : P a r e s a t i s f i e d are determined from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.42.
= khR)( T )

These graphs were p l o t t e d on t h e basis of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e r e l a t i o n s zpo R zpe q = Fo ( L ) and = F for a number of contact angles i n t h e range from

Ri

(R/'

A\

0 t o 30'.

430

2. Remazk-s on Calcul&ion of B e a r - m Assemblies of Two Taxered R o l l e r Bearirvrs If a bearing assembly c o n s i s t i n g of two tapered r o l l e r bearings i s loaded by a moment a c t i n g i n combination w i t h r a d i a l and axial f o r c e s (lig.4.43), t h e following system of equations can be used f o r i t s c a l c u l a t i o n :

R=zPol cos B (izl - x j z 2 cos qO2); A =zPol sin p (ill -x i l 2 ) ;

M =rozfol s in B (1

+C cot p) ( j Z + l j2? cos +, &

x

i
(4.23)

which i s analogous t o t h e system of equations (3.23) and (3.24) describing t h e * conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of bearing assemblies w i t h two r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, on t h e assumption t h a t t h e contact angles of a l l balls are i d e n t i c a l and equal t o t h e i n i t i a l angle. It should be noted. t h a t eqs.(l+..23) a r e I1exactl1s i n c e , i n tapered r o l l e r bearings, t h e contact angles a r e a c t u a l l y constant and do not change under load; t h e s e equations are v a l i d i n both absence or presence of misalignment of t h e races. I n eqs.(4.23) t h e quantity
M.

i s used i n p l a c e of t h e quantity

Thisis

explained by t h e f a c t t h a t , f o r tapered r o l l e r bearings, we have

Po, -

- 602

601

Po 1

= M..

I n t h e case of zero preloading, t h e values of h l and M. s a t i s f y i n g J386 The q u a n t i t i e s T and v here eqs.(4.23) a r e found from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.44.. have t h e same meaning as f o r t h e r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings [ s e e eqs.(3.26) and ( 3=27) I

Fig.4.42 Values of t h e Optimal Contact Angle as a Function of t h e R a t i o A/R.

Fig.4.43 Diagram of h a d i n g of Two Tapered R o l l e r Bearings by Radial and Axial Forces and Moments.

From t h e found values of A l and H, we t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e c p a n t i t y A, cos

$02..

The maximum and equivalerrt p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l e r s i n t h e bearings 1 and 2 are determined from t h e expressions

Here,

S e t t i n g B = 90 i n t h e system (4.23)> we arrive a t t h e following equations d e s c r i b i n g t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of double-row t h r u s t r o l l e r bearings :

The methods of s o l v i n g eqs.(4.26) a r e obvious from t h e preceding; consequently, we need not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s t h e s e here.
If we assume u = 0 i n eqs.(4.26)

t h e y Will t a k e t h e form

. L i s
(4.27)

A =zPo j l ;

M =rozP0j z .

Equations (4.27) c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n single-row t h r u s t r o l l e r bearings. The values of t h e maximum Po = k p A and t h e equivalent P,,
Z

k(A)A
z

432

Nomograms f o r Calculating Bearings h a d e d fig.&.& by Radial and h a 1 Forces and Moments. p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l e r s a t i s f y i n g eqs.(4.27) a r e conveniently found by means of t h e curves kbA) = k(,A) ( T ) and k C A )= k ( A )( 7 ) given i n fig.4.45.
At A s 1 , when a l l r o l l e r s are loaded i n t h e bearing, t h e i n t e g r a l s j , and j , are determined from eqs.(L+..l$).

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t i n this case which t a k e s p l a c e when

M < 0.5, A
r 0

we have
h=2q
KyA)=-=

h
Section 5.
Ca&uhtion-of

1+ A =

1f2.r.

Vibrating Ekariws

In designing

h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e proper s e l e c t i o n of bearings f o r t h e hubs of

433

t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s preserrts appreciable d i f f i c u l t i e s . These bearings, as i s known, operate under s p e c i f i c conditions of v i b r a t i o n . They do not f a i l because of contact f a t i g u e but as a consequence of l o c a l wear of t h e r a c e t r a c k s , which has come t o be known as !*false brinellingll. It i s understandable t h a t t h e u s u a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r such bearings are inappxcable.

/(y, p)
5
4

3
2
1

L?Z 0.4

0 . 6 0.8 T

The complexity of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bearings of hubs of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y low r i g i d i t y of t h e i r b a s i c components, e s p e c i a l l y on heavy h e l i c o p t e r s , may lead t o n o t i c e a b l e deformation of t h e races, which i s d i f f i c u l t t o t a k e i n t o account when determini n g t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o l l i n g bodies. So f a r it has been i n p o s s i b l e t o develop g e n e r a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods t h a t would allow f o r t h e e f f e c t of a l l fact o r s determining t h e load c a p a c i t y of bearings i n t h e hubs of t h e main and t a i l rotors However, a v a i l a b l e experimental d a t a permit c e r t a i n recommendations as t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of p e r m i s s i b l e loads and determination of t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e most common t y p e s of bearings used i n t h e s e complex and v i t a l u n i t s . T h i s i s t h e same f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e bearings i n t h e hinges of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l and c o n t r o l mechanisms of h e l i c o p t e r s which, j u s t as t h e hub bearings, operate under v i b r a t i o n s . Here, it i s merely necessary t o t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e loads absorbed by most of t h e s e bearings have a dynamic c h a r a c t e r .

Fig.4.45 Values of t h e Coefficients k g ) and k ( * ) as a Funct i o n of T .

The p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t have a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e performance of v i b r a t i n g bearings. Pract i c e has shown that r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n of many Soviet bearing assemblies f o r h e l i c o p t e r s i s p o s s i b l e only when using s p e c i a l o i l s and l u b r i c a n t s . Therefore, i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o problems of s e l e c t i n g t h e l u b r i c a n t s f o r a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. T h i s r i m a r i l y p e r t a i n s t o bearings f o r t h e axial (feathering7 hinges of t h e hubs of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s , which absorb appreciable axial loads generated by t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s of t h e blades.

1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Mechanism of under Vibration Conditions

W e a r

of- & t i f r i c t i o n

Bearings

Let us examine t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e mechanism of wear of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n s .

A t s m a l l v i b r a t i o n amplitudes, when contact of t h e r o l l i n g body w i t h t h e races t a k e s p l a c e only a t some s p o t s on t h e t r a c k s , d e n t s from t h e b a l l s o r grooves from t h e r o l l e r s W i l l form i n t h e bearing which, as t h e i r s u r f a c e s chip, F a i l u r e of t h e r o l l i n g bodies i n most cases change t o deep p i t t i n g (Fig.4.4.6). begins only a fte r appreciable damage t o t h e r a c e s . A n a n a l y s i s of t e s t r e s u l t s shows t h a t , i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n , t h e wear of bearings i s l a r g e l y determined by o d d a t i o n processes and s p e c i a l l u b r i c a t i o n conditions i n t h e zones of contact of t h e r o l l i n g bodies w i t h t h e r a c e s .

Fig.4.46

Races of Thrust B a l l and Roller Bearings a f t e r M e n d e d Service i n t h e Presence of Vibrat i o n s of Small Amplitude.

I n t h e contact zones t h e r e i s i n t e n s e f r e t t i n g corrosion. The o x i d a t i o n products of i r o n formed i n this case mix w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t and produce a unique p o l i s h i n g compound which causes r a p i d wear of t h e t r a c k s . The r o l l i n g motion of t h e r o l l i n g bodies c r e a t e s l u b r i c a t i o n Ilbarriersll ahead of t h e contact area, while j e t s of l u b r i c a n t a f t of this area tend t o fill t h e space behind t h e movIf t h e l u b r i c a n t i s t o o s t i f f and does not have t i m e t o i n g body (Fig.4.47). fill t h i s space immediately, t h e p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e contact area i s coated only by a t h i n f i l m of l u b r i c a n t . Naturally, a t t h e i n s t a n t of change i n d i r e c t i o n , t h e r o l l i n g body Will p a s s this poorly l u b r i c a t e d p o r t i o n sooner t h a n t h e l u b r i c a n t Will be a b l e t o reach it. T h i s causes t h e appearance of p r e s s u r e peaks leading t o a c c e l e r a t i o n of wear a t t h e periphery of t h e contact area between r o l l i n g elements and r a c e s , where t h e change i n direct i o n t a k e s place. A t very low v i b r a t i o n amplitudes, when t h e contact a r e a s i n t h e extreme p o s i t i o n of t h e r o l l i n g body overlap, disturbance of t h e l u b r i c a n t l a y e r may be constant. I n this case, t h e p r e s s u r e peaks i n c r e a s e even more and t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e beaTings decreases noticeably. A n i n c r e a s e i n mo- /390 b i l i t y of t h e l u b r i c a n t w i l l improve t h e s e r v i c e Conditions of v i b r a t i n g beari n g s . Nevertheless, even when using highly f l u i d o i l s , t h e s e r v i c e conditions of such bearings s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r from those of bearings r o t a t i n g i n a s i n g l e direction.

It i s obvious from t h e a f o r e s a i d t h a t , i n bearing assemblies operating i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n , o i b r a t h e r t h a n grease should be used i n a l l cases where this i s p o s s i b l e r e l a t i v e t o design considerations. When grease i s used, t h e load c a p a c i t y of v i b r a t i n g bearings drops s t e e p l y .
2. Lubrication of m g h l y Loaded Vibratiw Bearings i n t h e Presence of splall Vibration A m l i t u d e s
~

Since t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t have a . considerable e f f e c t on t h e l i f e expectancy of v i b r a t i n g bearings, one can d i s c u s s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e loads f o r such bearings only i n conjunction w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t s used.

43 5

Helicopter bearings s u b j e c t t o v i b r a t i o n s can be divided i n t o two b a s i c groups : 1) Bearings i n t h e hubs of t h e main and tail r o t o r s , p i t c h c o n t r o l s , and 0 ' . c e r t a i n c o n t r o l elements operating at vi-bration amplitudes up t o 1 For t h e s e bearings, t h e t o t a l number of v i b r a t i o n s between two major overhauls, during which t h e y are replaced, u s u a l l y amounts t o less t h a n 10 m i l l i o n . 2) Bearings of t h e c o n t r o l mechanisms which execute a l i m i t e d number of v i b r a t i o n s (up t o 100,000) w i t h amplitudes of more t h a n 20'. W e s t i p u l a t e t h a t no overlap of adjacent contact areas exists i n this case. P r a c t i c e has shown t h a t bearings of t h e second group Will operate satisf a c t o r i l y on high-quality greases. This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t appreciable grooving by t h e r o l l i n g bodies can be permitted on t h e t r a c k s of such bearings, s i n c e t h e i r 1 U b i I c a t Lon performance i s u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e magnitude barrier of t h e p e r m i s s i b l e moment of f r i c t i o n . I n bearings of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l and cont r o l elements belonging t o t h e f i r s t group, t h e use of grease r e s u l t s i n a noticeable drop in load-carrying capacity; however, because of design considerations this i s a n unavoidable e v i l and t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t l u b r i c a t i n g q u a l i t y of t h e g r e a s e must be compensated by some reFig.4.47 Diagram of Lubricad u c t i o n of t h e permissible loads. Since t h e t i o n i n t h e Presence of p e r m i s s i b l e w e a r of t h e t r a c k s of t h e hub bearVibration. ings of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s i s not g r e a t , prolonged o p e r a t i o n a t high contact stresses i s p o s s i b l e only i f o i l s w i t h a c e r t a i n complex of physicochemical p r o p e r t i e s are used. The l i f e expectancy of v i b r a t i n g bearings depends l a r g e l y on t h e q u a l i t y of t h e s e a l of t h e bearing u n i t s . I n t h e presence of f a u l t y seals t h a t permit p e n e t r a t i o n of atmospheric oxygen i n t o t h e assemblies and a l s o a t small l u b r i cant volume and l a r g e a i r volume, t h e l i f e expectancy of v i b r a t i n g bearings dec r e a s e s noticeably. A r a t h e r e f f e c t i v e means f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of bearings s u b j e c t t o v i b r a t i o n s i s p r e s s u r e f e e d of t h e l u b r i c a n t and, especiall y , use of o i l c i r c u l a t i o n which continuously s u p p l i e s f r e s h unoxidized o i l / 3 9 1 t o t h e contact zones and c a r r i e s o f f products of w e a r .

Let us d i s c u s s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e problems of s e l e c t i n g o i l s f o r t h e hubs of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s , s i n c e t h e s e problems are v i t a l f o r h e l i c o p t e r engineering.

O i l s f o r the f e t h e r L L . A s shown i n numerous experiments, t h e bearings- of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges, which absorb r a t h e r l a r g e axial loads due t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s of t h e blades, are espec i a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e physicochemical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t . The o i l s f o r such assemblies, whose s e r v i c e l i f e u s u a l l y determines t h e o v e r a l l lifetime of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r hubs, should meet t h e following b a s i c requirements:

436

First, t h e o i l s shoiild not cause a step-up i n t h e o d d a t i v e processes t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e contact zones. Second, t h e o i l s should r e t a i n high f l u i d i t y i n t h e e n t i r e operating temperature range and should provide s u f f i c i e n t o i l - f i l m s t r e n g t h over t h e whole of t h e contact area. The permissible v i s c o s i t y l e v e l of t h e o i l i s l i m i t e d a l s o by t h e permiss i b l e magnitude of t h e f r i c t i o n moment of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge. Based on our experience w i t h operating t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s , we can s t i p u l a t e that - a t minimum oDeratirvz tenmeratme - t h e kinematic v i s c o s i t y should not exceed 90,000 c e n t i s t o k e s . Tests show t h a t , i n this case, t h e r e i s no n o t i c e a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e moment of f r i c t i o n and no decrease i n s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearings due t o decreased f l u i d i t y 0.005 of t h e oil. It should be noted t h a t MS-& o i l 0.004 which works s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of t h e main r o t o r hubs of t h e M i - 1 and 0.003 Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s a t temperatures as low as 0002 -25'C, reaches t h e i n d i c a t e d kinematic visc o s i t y a t a temperature of 2 . 0 ' ~ . 0.001
By v i r t u e of t h e s p e c i f i c operating cond i t i o n s of v i b r a t i n g bearings, s e l e c t i o n of t h e o i l s and greases f o r t h e s e u n i t s should be Fig.4.4.8 F r i c t i o n Coefficient based exclusively on t e s t r e s u l t s during vib r a t i o n . The standard procedure of t e s t i n g of Thrust B a l l Bearings as a o i l s and greases on a f o u r - b a l l t e s t e r i s Function of B r i n e l l i n g Mark Depth i n Races. completely u n s u i t a b l e here. The l u b r i c a t i n g q u a l i t y of o i l s and greases f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs i s prefera b l y checked i n t h r u s t b a l l bearings, s i n c e t h e y operate a t higher contact stresses. Experiments show t h a t l u b r i c a t i n g materials w i t h optimum performance i n such bearings are a l s o b e s t f o r v i b r a t i n g bearings of o t h e r types, including t h r u s t bearings w i t h ~ ~ s l e w e rd ol ~l ~ e r s which a r e p r e s e n t l y used with success i n t h e main r o t o r hubs of a l l series-produced Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s , and a l s o f o r multi-row r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings used i n t h e main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of a nmber of h e l i c o p t e r s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Since t h e load i n t h r u s t b a l l beari n g s is d i s t r i b u t e d uniformly over t h e b a l l s , each contacting region of t h e t r a c k during v i b r a t i o n can be regarded as a n iwiependent t e s t o b j e c t .
0

A n e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r i n t e s t i n g o i l s and greases f o r bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs i s a proper e v a l u a t i o n of t h e condition of t h e t r a c k s . Even at very moderate contact stresses, b r i n e l l i n g marks made by t h e balls appear on t h e t r a c k a f t e r brief o p e r a t i n g p e r i o d s . If t h e appearance of such d e n t s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r depth, i s considered as a s i g n of i n c i p i e n t failure of t h e bearing, t h e n bearings which otherwise might s t i l l operate r e l i a b l y f o r a long t h e m u s t be r e j e c t e d . The curves i n Fig.4.48 i n d i c a t e t h e mann e r i n which t h e depth of t h e dent a f f e c t s t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of a t h r u s t A t a b r i n e l l i n g depth of 7 - 10 p , t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t irrb a l l bearing. c r e a s e s by 30 - 40%. An i n c r e a s e i n f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h i n such limits i s u s u a l l y not p e r c e p t i b l e i n s e r v i c e . Therefore, t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h r u s t b a l l b e a r i r g s a t a depth of t h e dent up t o 10 p should be r a t e d as l ~ s a t i s f a c t o r y l ~ .

Such a b r i n e l l i n g depth can be permitted a l s o i n r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings.

Tests have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e MS-20 o i l i s one of t h e best for v i b r a t i n g bearings. I n conformity w i t h this, this o i l can be adopted as a standard f o r estimating t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of o i l s and g r e a s e s intended f o r s e r v i c e i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g Mnges of main a d t a i l r o t o r hubs. The r e s u l t s of t e s t i n g t h r u s t b a l l bearings running on MS-20 o i l are given i n Fig.4.49 as a curve of t h e l i f e expectancy o = o(nh) e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e contact stress o and t h e product nh of t h e number of v i b r a t i o n s p e r minute and d u r a t i o n of operation i n hours. The tests were c a r r i e d out a t a v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e revolving r a c e of 'go = 4.5', frequency of n = 2 4 0 cycle/min, and oil-bath temperature of 20 40 C.

'

Fig.4.49

Curve of W f e Eipectancy o = cr( nh) f o r Thrust Ball Bearings.

K g .4.50

Curve of X s t r i b u t i o n
A :
A::

of t h e Ratio

,"t
8

For t h e values o f t h e contact stresses determined by t h e curve of l i f e expectancy p l o t t e d i n Fig.4.49, ?% of t h e b r i n e l l i n g marks on t h e t r a c k s have a depth not exceeding 10 p.
maximum Amtax and average A ?

by t h e experimental curve of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n F which, as 5s seen i n Fig.4.50, countered i n engineering.

It should be noted t h a t a d e f i n i t e s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n exists between t h e depth of t h e d e n t s . This r e l a t i o n i s e s t a b l i s h e d AFa ATa

i s c l o s e t o t h e Maxwellian d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t e n en-

(.av Atest)

0 . f the

ratio

A :

A n a n a l y s i s of t h e l i f e expectancy curve i n Fig.4.49 permits proposing 0 9 2 t h e following regime of a c c e l e r a t e d s e l e c t i o n tests of o i l s and greases f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of t h e main r o t o r hubs: d u r a t i o n 100 hrs, number of v i b r a t i o n s &O/mi n, v i b r a t i o n amplitude 4.5', contact s t r e s s e s 34,000 kg/cm2. T h i s regime permits comparing t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e t e s t e d o i l w i t h those of t h e MS-20 o i l .

One must remember that, w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t e s t i n g time, t h e r o l e played by oxidative processes i n t h e contact zones i n c r e a s e s i n importance. Neverthe-

438

less, p r e s e l e c t i o n tests of o i l s and greases f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinge bearings can be c a r r i e d out by t h e above a c c e l e r a t e d program, s i n c e a c c e l e r a t e d tests freguently permit t h e immediate r e j e c t i o n of many s q l e s . .
Under conditions of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e MS-20 o i l possesses e x c e l l e n t l u b r i c i t y . However, it can be used only i n summer. During t h e winter, t h e MS-20 o i l i s u s u a l l y replaced by MS-a o i l whose l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s are a l s o completely s a t i s f a c t o r y . Since t h e MS-I& o i l s o l i d i f i e s a t a temperature of -30C, it cannot be used a t lower temperatures, which g r e a t l y i n t e r f e r e s w i t h wintertime operation of h e l i c o p t e r s . Replacemerrt of t h e MS-l.4 o i l by general-purpose o i l s w i t h low pour p o i n t s does not yield favorable results. T e s t s have shown that t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main r o t o r hubs f a i l r a p i d l y when operating on ordinary low-congealing o i l s , j u s t as when operating on greases. T h i s problem must be discussed i n some d e t a i l , s i n c e t h e r e g u l a r i t y of this r e s u l t has long been d i s puted by c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e f i e l d of l u b r i c a n t s , which has handicapped s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of l u b r i c a t i n g t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main r o t o r hubs a t low temperatures. E k p e r h e n t s have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t o i l s used f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs, a t a temperature of 100C, should have a kinematic 10 c s t . Increased wear of t r a c k s as w e l l as chipv i s c o s i t y of not l e s s t h a n 9 ping and d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e r o l l i n g bodies a r e observed when working w i t h lowviscosity oils.

Luw pour p o i n t o i l s of high Viscosity i n t h e p o s i t i v e temperature range g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t of a low-viscosity m i n e r a l o r s y n t h e t i c base and a high-polymer thickening agent. I n most cases, t h e thickeners and t h e base i t s e l f have low l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s . Theref ore, s p e c i a l antiwear a d d i t i v e s containing s u l f u r , chlorine, phosphorus, o r c e r t a i n combinations of t h e s e chemically a c t i v e elements are added t o such o i l s . I n zones of high contact temperatures, t h e a d d i t i v e s r e a c t w i t h t h e s u r f a c e of t h e metal, forming films of s u l f i d e s , chlori d e s , and phosphides of i r o n which prevent a d i r e c t contact of t h e rubbing bodies and t h u s reduce w e a r .
According t o d a t a obtained w i t h t h e standard f o u r - b a l l t e s t device, t h e lub r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of low pour p o i n t thickened o i l s w i t h antiwear a d d i t i v e s by f a r exceed t h e l u b r i c a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of t h e MS-20 and MS-& o i l s . Nevertheless, t h e y a r e completely unsuitable f o r working under v i b r a t i o n conditions. T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t that, under t h e e f f e c t of antiwear a d d i t i v e s , o x i d a t i v e processes are stepped up i n t h e contact zones; t h e s e p l a y a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n t h e mechanism of w e a r of Vibrating bearings. Here one must a l s o consider t h a t most high-polymer compounds used i n o i l s of low pour p o i n t r e a d i l y decompose und e r mechanical action, w i t h t h e formation of polymers of lower molecular weight. Decomposition of t h e thickening agent l e a d s t o a decrease i n v i s c o s i t y of t h e o i l . In bearing assemblies worldng i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e average /394 decomposition of t h e o i l u s u a l l y i s n e g l i g i b l e . However, s i n c e only small volumes of o i l d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e r o l l i n g bodies are s u b j e c t t o t h e mechani c a l action, l o c a l decomposition w i t h a consequent drop i n Viscosity i n t h e cont a c t zones may r e a c h appreciable magnitudes and l e a d t o noticeable l o s s of s t r e n g t h of t h e o i l f i l m . Contradictory r e s u l t s are o f t e n obtained when t e s t i n g o i l s w i t h antiwear

439

a d d i t i v e s . T h i s shows t h a t t e s t i n g of such o i l s should be c a r r i e d out on a suff i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of samples and t h a t t h e i r l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s cannot be judged by s o l i t a r y favorable r e s u l t s .

It follows from t h e a f o r e s a i d t h a t t h e o i l s f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs should c o n t a i n no antiwear a d d i t i v e s o r degrading thickeners. T h i s explains t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e of such assemblies w i t h any of t h e conventional low pour p o i n t o i l s , i n whose development t h e above f a c t s w e r e not taken i n t o account

Guided by t h e above d a t a on t h e performance of l u b r i c a t i n g materials under conditions of v i b r a t i o n , t h e A,n-Union Research I n s t i t u t e f o r Petroleum and G a s Conversion arid Production of Syrrthetic Liquid Fuel ( V N I I NP) has proposed t h e N I I "-25 f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of main and t a i l r o t o r low pour p o i n t o i l V hubs (Ref .28)

The o i l V N I I NP-25 contains a low-viscosity petroleum f r a c t i o n w i t h a pour p o i n t of -67OC and a high-viscosity thickener d i s t i n g u i s h e d by extremely high mechanical and thermal s t a b i l i t y . Under t h e e f f e c t of high temperatures of f r i c t i o n , t h e petroleum f r a c t i o n i n t h e contact zones may evaporate; however, contact of t h e r o l l i n g bodies w i t h t h e races cannot t a k e p l a c e because of t h e presence of a f i l m of t h e thickener which has r e l a t i v e l y high adhesive propert i e s . The high thermal arid mechanical s t a b i l i t y of t h e thickener and t h e o ~ d a N I I "-25 durt i o n i n h i b i t o r only n e g l i g i b l y changes t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e oil V i n g service.

The basic p r o p e r t i e s of t h e o i l V N I I "-25

are given i n Table 4 . 8 .

TABLE 4.8

Pour Point, OC

I
I

Kinema t i c Viscosity , cat

L ubr i ca t i ng Capacity on Four-Ball

Extent of Corrosion i n Pi nkev i ch D ev i ce ( a t a Temperature of for 50 hrs) Steel 30KhGSA

Critical Load P,,, kg

Width

of Wear
Spot,

-56

10.2

I 23660

64

"

1B$g;'."5" 1
+

70C

*'lo'

Brass LS-59

0.85

As t h e t e s t r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e , t h e o i l V N I I NP-25 i s c l o s e t o t h e MS-X) o i l with respect t o l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s during v i b r a t i o n .

Bearings of a l l types working on t h e o i l V N I I NP-25 show l i t t l e wear both a t p o s i t i v e and negative temperatures.
An improvement i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of o i l s may c o n s t i t u t e a n imp o r t a n t f a c t o r promoting a pronounced i n c r e a s e i n t h e lifetime of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of h e l i c o p t e r s . Therefore, studies i n this d i r e c t i o n w i l l acquire a n

- .~

ever g r e a t e r scope. I n such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be given t o t h e above-described c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e mechanism of wear and l u b r i c a t i o n COG d i t i o n s of highly loaded v i b r a t i n g bearings.
O i ls for - n e g s e bearims of flappi-w a.nd drag hinges. These bearings, as a r u l e , are less loaded than t h e bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges, so t h a t they a r e not as sensitive t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t . The s e l e c t i o n of lubric a t i n g materials f o r needle bearings of t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of r o t o r hubs i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t that s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of t h e l u b r i c a n t when t h e r o t o r i s i n o p e r a t i v e l e a d s t o no unfavorable consequences. I n t h e flapping and drag hinges ( i f t h e y are p r e s e n t ) of t a i l r o t o r s , t h e l u b r i c a n t cannot be permitted t o s o l i d i f y s i n c e increased moments of f r i c t i o n i n t h e s e assemblies may

r e s u l t i n shaking of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . A t p r e s e n t , 11hypoidll l u b r i c a n t s are used i n t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s . P r a c t i c a l experience w i t h h e l i c o p t e r o p e r a t i o n has shown t h a t hypoid o i l s , d e s p i t e t h e i r content of f r e e sulfur a t ordinary s p e c i f i c pressures, ensure a s u f f i c i e n t l y long l i f e for v i b r a t i n g needle bearings. maid l u b r i c a n t s , just as o t h e r o i l s w i t h antiwear a d d i t i v e s , are unsuitable f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinges.

Fig.4.51

Feathering Hinge of Rotor Hub.

m o i d o i l has high t a c k i n e s s alad hence provides t h e necessary l u b r i c a t i o n f o r c o n t a c t i n g elements even i f t h e hubs are not completely t i g h t . The replacement of hypoid oil by greases (which i s sometimes r e s o r t e d t o i n t a i l r o t o r s of h e l i c o p t e r s operating a t e s p e c i a l l y l o w temperatures) greatly shortens t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of needle bearings i n f l a p p i n g a& drag hinges.

. -

Calculation -_ of- Hub B e a r i m s i n Main and T d l Rotors

Bearirgs of f e a t h e r i m himes. Figure 4 . 5 1 shows a t y p i c a l d e s i g n of f e a t h e r i n g hinges f o r t h e main r o t o r hubs of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s .

I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of bearings f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs, it i s common t o take i n t o account t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e blade N and t h e moment i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n M, c r e a t e d by t h e damper.

4-41

I n f e a t h e r i n g hinges manufactured according t o t h e scheme shown i n F'ig.4.51, t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e blade i s absorbed by t h e t h r u s t bearing (1). The moment of t h e danper i s absorbed i n p a r t by t h e same bearing and i n p a r t by t h e radial bearings (2) and (3). The loads on t h e r a d i a l bearings (2) a d ( 3 ) i n f l i g h t are comparatively s m a l l ; consequently, t h e y are usually s e l e c t e d from s t a t i c considerations based on t h e weight moment of t h e blade t r a n s m i t t e d t o them when t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s /396 standing, t h e r o t o r i s not r o t a t i n g , and t h b blades .abut t h e coning stops. As shown i n p r a c t i c a l use, t h e loads on t h e r a d i a l bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges due t o t h e weight moment of t h e blade may go as high as 100 IlO% of t h e i r s t a t i c load c a p a c i t y c a t a l o g r a t i n g .

hr

Fig.4.52 Thrust Bearing w i t h Slewed R o l l e r s ; Recording of Motion of t h e Bearing Cage during Vibration.

Fig.4.53 Curve of W f e Ekpectancy o = o(nh) f o r Thrust Bearings w i t h Slewed Rollers.

The l i f e expectancy of t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e basis of t h e experimental r e l a t i o n CT = o ( n h ) obtained from tests w i t h t h e proper types of bearings under v i b r a t i o n conditions a t p u r e l y axial load. For t h r u s t b a l l bearings, t h e curve of l i f e expectancy o = o(nh) i s p l o t t e d i n Fig 04.49

A s mentioned before, thrust bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s are being used i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs of a l l series-produced Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s . The b a s i c diagram.of such bearings i s shown i n Fig.4.52. Thanks t o arrangement o f t h e seats of t h e cage a t a n angle t o t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n i n bearings of this type, t h e cage not only vibrates t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e revolving r a c e but a l s o shifts continuously, although very slowly, i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . T h i s continuous d i s placement of t h e cage preyents flbrinellingl' of t h e r a c e t r a c k s and l e a d s t o a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e of t h e load-carrying c a p a c i t y of t h e bearing.
Tests have e s t a b l i s h e d that t h e l i f e expectancy of t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s l a r g e l y depends on t h e rate of displacement of t h e r e t a i n e r . T h i s r a t e i s commonly characterized by t h e time T,, during which t h e cage t u r n s The optimal values of t h e time T, f o r t h e v i b r a t i o n through a n angle of 360'. amplitudes and frequencies a t which t h e t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges operate are 4 . 0 80 min. When T, > 80 min, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e bearing due t o s p a l l i n g of t h e metal on t h e r o l l e r s increases. Despite continu-

44.2

ous displacement of t h e cage, t h e same s u r f a c e areas of t h e r o l l e r s are i n cont a c t w i t h t h e races. Therefore, failure of t h r u s t bearings w i t h slaved r o l l e r s begins i n most cases w i t h damage t o t h e r o l l e r s . It should be mentioned that, a t T, = 2 . 5 t o 6 hrs, t h e d u r a b i l i t y of t h e r o l l e r s drops by a f a c t o r of about 2. When T, < 40 min, f r i c t i o n l o s s e s and w e a r of t h e t r a c k s i n c r e a s e noticeably. The curve of l i f e expectancy u = ~ ( n h ) f o r t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l lers having a n optimal r a d i a l displacement of t h e cage of T, = 40 - 80 min i s shown i n Fig.4.53. T h i s curve has been p l o t t e d from t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h several batches of such bearings and MS-X) o i l a t a n a n p l i t u d e of t h e revolving r a c e cpo = 4.5 and a frequency n = 240 cyc/min, i.e., under conditions analogous t o t h e test conditions whose r e s u l t s w e r e used i n constructing t h e r e l a t i o n u =
= o(nh) i n Fig.4.49.

Bench tests and operating experience i n d i c a t e that t h e curves of l i f e expectancy p l o t t e d Yn Figs.4.49 and 4.53 can be used f o r determining t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e of r o t o r hub thrust bearings f o r a l l operating conditions t h e s e units encounter under r e a l conditions.
A s we see from figs.4.49 and 4.53, t h e equation of t h e l i f e expectancy f o r v i b r a t i n g bearings has t h e same form as f o r bearings r o t a t i n g curves 0 = ~ ( n h ) i n one d i r e c t i o n :
am* (n/z)=const,

where we have d+ = 10 f o r t h e case of p o i n t contact and m = 6.66 f o r t h e case of l i n e a r contact.

Let us t a k e f o r t h e base t h e product nh = 120,000, which corresponds approximately t o a 50O-ho~r operating l i f e of h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e M i - 1 type. A t nh = 120,000 t h e permissible contact stresses are 29,000 kg/cm f o r t h r u s t b a l l bearings and 18,800 kg/cm f o r t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s . Let A, denote t h e axial f o r c e which, i n a bearing w i t h uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s over t h e r o l l i n g bodies, sets up contact stresses equal t o t h o s e permissible a t nh = lX),OOO. Then, i n conformity w i t h eq.(3.l) t h e permissible f o r c e on t h e b a l l will be

Here we have t a k e n i n t o accourrt that f o r ball bearings t h e contact stresses are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cube r o o t and f o r r o l l e r bearings, t o t h e square r o o t of t h e load.
S p e c i a l experiments have e s t a b l i s h e d that t h e moment which m u s t be t a k e n i n t o account i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a thrust bearing f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinges i s about 25 - 50% of t h e mane& of t h e damper, depending on t h e d e s i g n features of t h e assemb* and on t h e clearances. Here t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed i n terms of t h e instantaneous maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e r o l l i n g body, meaning that t h e moment a c t i n g on t h e thrust bearing of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge i s a r b i t r a r i l y considered as constant i n magnitude and d i r e c t i o n .

The u m p r e s s u r e on t h e r o l l i n g body of a t h r u s t bearing, loaded by a n axial f o r c e and moment, can be represented i n t h e form

Comparing this e q u a l i t y w i t h eq.( 5.2), we o b t a i n t h e following expression f o r determining t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e of t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges f o r r o t o r hubs :

As follows from Sections 3 and 4, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t khA) depends on t h e relat i v e e c c e n t r i c i t y of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e axial force, which i n this case i s equal t o
~=(0.25-0.5)-. M d
r0N

( 5 *4)

For t h e u s u a l c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e moment of t h e damper and t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e , T does not exceed 0 . 1 ; t h e r e f o r e , a l l r o l l i n g elements are always loaded i n t h e t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges$. For thrust r o l l e r bearings i n which a l l r o l l e r s share t h e load, we have
K6A) = 1

+27.

(5.5)

t h r u s t ball and r o l l e r For small values of T, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ~ A for ) bearings p r a c t i c a l l y coincide. T h i s permits use of eq.(5.5) even f o r calculat i o n s of t h r u s t ball bearings. From eqs.(5.4.) and (5.5), we f i n a l l y find

It should be noted t h a t t h e c d c u l a t i o n of r a d i a l - t h r u s t bearings of d i f f e r e n t types intended f o r s e r v i c e i n f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs can a l s o be performed by means of eqs.(5.3) and (5.5) i f t h e permissible &a1 loads A, corresponding t o t h e value nh = 120,000 are predetermined f o r t h e s e bearings. Here it i s assumed that t h e moments a c t i n g on t h e bearings a r e known from c a l c u l a t i o n s o r experiments.

It must be remembered t h a t t h e values of A, which were not obtained from

It i s known that t h e r e l a t i v e e c c e n t r i c i t y at wbich unloaded r o l l i n g elements occur i s 0.5 f o r thrust r o l l e r bearings and 0.6 f o r t h r u s t ball bearings.

t h e complete curve of l i f e expectancy cr = o(nh) r e l a t i v e t o a c e r t a i n probabili t y of failure of t h e bearings but from a recomputation based on r e s u l t s of experiments c a r r i e d out a t some value of nh f o r a n i n s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of test specimens, may be i n c o r r e c t ; apparently, this i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an app r e c i a b l e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e l i f e expectancy, which i s d i f f i c u l t t o e l i c i t a t a s i n g l e load level.

Fig.4.54

Feathering Knge of Rotor Hub, on Multi-Row Radial-Thrust Bearing.

Multi-raw r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h contact angles of Bo = 4.5' and a reduced r a t i o of t r a c k r a d i u s t o b a l l diameter a r e being s u c c e s s f u l l y used i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of c e r t a i n h e l i c o p t e r s ( s e e T h i s r a t i o i s u s u a l l y e q u a l t o 0.515 i n a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. I n Fig.4.54). t h e mentioned multi-row bearings it has been reduced t o 0.510, which leads t o a decrease i n contact s t r e s s e s by about 7% and t h u s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearings by a f a c t o r of 2. It i s l o g i c a l t h a t such a way of i n c r e a s i n g t h e load-carrying c a p a c i t y of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings i s u s e f u l mainly f o r t h e case of v i b r a t i o n s , s i n c e a reduction i n t h e r a t i o of t r a c k radius t o b a l l diameter i n c r e a s e s t h e l e n g t h of t h e a r e a of contact s t r a i n due t o which t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s e s i n c r e a s e noticeably. Test r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n t h e case of high-quality manufacture ensuring a s u f f i c i e n t l y uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l load over t h e bearings of t h e assembly, t h e permissible contact s t r e s s e s on whose basis t h e axial f o r c e must be c a l c u l a t e d are here &,OOO kg/cm2 f o r multi-row r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. Available d a t a on t h e p e r m i s s i b l e contact s t r e s s e s i n r a d i a l - t h r u s t r o l l e r bearings f o r s e r v i c e under v i b r a t i o n conditions are s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t l y verified. The above values of p e r m i s s i b l e contact stresses p e r t a i n t o cases of t h e s e r v i c e of f e a t h e r i n g hinges i n main and t a i l r o t o r hubs w i t h o i l s not i n f e r i o r If this requirement i s i n l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s t o t h e o i l s MS-20 and M S - z . n o t m e t , t h e s e values must be reduced accordingly.

445

.. ..

... .. ..

--- -. ..

.. .

- . . .._-..

The p e r m i s s i b l e contact s t r e s s e s are noticeably a f f e c t e d by t h e s i z e of t h e r o l l i n g elements s o t h a t , when using l a r g e bearings, a c e r t a i n c o r r e c t i o n should be introduced f o r t h e scale f a c t o r . A s shown by t e s t results, t h e values of t h e p e m i k s i b l e stresses given above can be considered binding f o r bearings w i t h b a l l s up t o 25 m i n diameter and r o l l e r s u g t o 15 m i n diameter. On changing from r o l l e r s w i t h a diameter of 15 m t o r o l l e r s w i t h a diameter of & mm, t h e p e r m i s s i b l e contact stresses f o r t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s drop by about 10%. Needle Bearings of F l a p _ p_ i w. a -+ Drag K n g ~ . In most r o t o r hubs, needle bearings a r e used f o r t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges. The performance of needle bearings i s u s u a l l y estimated i n terms of t h e magnitude of s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e p e r u n i t area of p r o j e c t i o n of t h e t r a c k of t h e inner race. I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of needle bearings f o r drag hinges it i s g e n e r a l l y assumed t h a t t h e load i s uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e l e n g t h of t h e needles ( s e e I n conformity w i t h this, t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e f o r bearings i s Fig.4.55,a). t a k e n as equal t o

q=- N
Dl,

(5.7)

where

diameter of t h e t r a c k of t h e i n n e r r a c e ;

12 = t o t a l working l e n g t h of t h e needles.

Needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g hinges, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e blade N, t a k e a c e r t a i n moment M (Fig.4.55,b) whose constant component Ma i s determined w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by t h e expression

Here,

Mrot

zrOt

= t o r q u e of t h e r o t o r ; = number of blades of t h e r o t o r ;
=

lldriftll of t h e middle of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge from t h e a x i s of rotation; 1, = d i s t a n c e between f l a p p i n g and v e r t i c a l hinges; t V e h = IIoffsetII of drag hinge.

, / l J

The v a r i a b l e component M, of t h e moment M y when calculahing needle bearings of t h e f l a p p i n g hinges of rotor hubs, i s disregarded s i n c e it has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e i r l i f e expectancy. It i s customary t o assume that t h e load i n f l a p p i n g hinges manufactured i n conformity w i t h t h e scheme i n Fig.4.55,b i s d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e l e n g t h of t h e bearings according t o t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e . I n this case, t h e loaded state of t h e bearings i s characterized by t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q1 and 92 on t h e o u t e r edges of t h e r a c e s caused by t h e combined a c t i o n of t h e

44-6

f o r c e N and t h e moment M a . mula

These p r e s s u r e s are c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e f o r -

where B i s t h e working width of t h e bearing assembly. S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(5.9) t h e value of M,, we reduce it t o t h e form

A s design d a t a i n d i c a t e , proper choice of t h e 11driftIl a permits approachi n g t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q, and g, s u f f i c i e n t l y close t o t h e average s p e c i f i c

p r e s s u r e q,

basic powered f l i g h t regimes. W e note t h a t t h e DtC !*drift11 of t h e middle of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge from t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n by a d i s t a n c e a i s equivalent t o r o t a t i o n of tinis hinge through a n angle S h S h =
=

N i n the

= tan-'

a (see ~ig.4.55).
tv. h

_--

/ F a
Fig.4.55
For Calculation of Needle Bearings of Flapping

and Drag Hinges of Rotor Hubs.

According t o eq.(5.10), t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q1 and qa depend on t h e cent r i f u g a l f o r c e N and on t h e torque M r o t . Therefore, t h e s e can be regarded as /lLo1 c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s of t h e r o t o r rpm and power. After using eq.(5.10) f o r p l o t -

447

I I

I llulllLlllllI~lIlI IIIIII IIIIII IlIlIll1ll11l1 I I I I III

t i n g t h e graphs of q, = ql(N,,, ) and q , and Q ( N r o t ) f o r t h e most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r o t o r rpm, as i s done i n Fig.4.56, i t becomes easy t o determine t h e values of t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q, and q, i n t h e main f l i g h t regimes of a h e l i c m t e r and a l s o t o estimate t h e correctness of- s e l e c t i o n of t h e lldriftll a and, i f necessary, t o i n t r o d u c e .suitable c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e r o t o r hub design.
If t h e f l a p p i n g hinges are made i n t h e form of two independent s q p o r t s whose spaci n g L s u b s t a n t i a l l y exceeds t h e diameter of t h e t r a c k D (Fig.4.57), it can be assumed that, w i t h i n each support, t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s i n t h e bearings are constant.

I n this case, t h e r a t e d s p e c i f i c pressures determining t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e needle bearings i n t h e f l a p p i n g hinges are equal t o Fig.4.56 S p e c i f i c Pressures q, and q, as a Function of Rotor R p m and Power. NC,ht = r o t o r r p m and power = i n c r u i s i n g regime; nLot , N:? = r o t o r r p m and power at c r u s i n g speed; .,";;, N :; = rotor rpm and power i n takeoff regime; n;: t, NJ,"~ = r o t o r rpm and power i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

where tc i s t h e t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e needles i n both bearings.

When using hSrpoid l u b r i c a n t s , t h e perm i s s i b l e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s i n well-sealed needle bearings corresponding t o a l i f e expectancy of 1 0 0 0 hrs a t 2 4 . 0 cyc/min a r e a t least 350 kg/cm2 f o r t h e flapping hinges and 400 kg/cm" f o r t h e drag hinges. The r e l a t i v e l y small value of t h e permissible specif i c p r e s s u r e s i n f l a p p i n g hinge bearings can be explained i n p a r t by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y work at v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of 2 t o 6O, whereas t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e drag hinge bearings u s u a l l y does not exceed 1 ' . Although this c o n t r a d i c t s e s t a b l i s h e d opinFig.4.57 For Calculation of ions, p r a c t i c a l use has shown t h a t , a t v i Widely Spaced Needle Bearings b r a t i o n amplitudes t o lo, t h e l i f e expectof Flapping f i n g e s . ancy of needle bearings i s higher t h a n a t amplitudes of 2 - 6 ' . The f a c t t h a t , due t o deformation of t h e p a r t s under load, t h e a c t u a l s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s on t h e edges of t h e needle bearings of f l a p p i n g hinges may a t times exceed t h e r a t e d press u r e s p o s s i b l y p l a y s a d e f i n i t e r o l e here.

Many years of a c t u a l s e r v i c e experience confirm that, i n s e l e c t i n g t h e

448

/4.02

s i z e of needle bearings f o r t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of r o t o r hubs of l i g h t and medium h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e above-indicated values of permissible s p e c i f i c pressures can be used as a r e l i a b l e guide. For heavy h e l i c o p t e r s whose u n i t s gene r a l l y have a r e l a t i v e l y lower r i g i d i t y , t h e s e f i g u r e s can be used as guide only

F a i l u r e of Needle Bearing Fig .4.59 due t o I n s u f f i c i e n t R i g i d i t y of the Structure.

Fig 4.. 58 E f f e c t of S t i f f ness of P i n and F l e x i b i l i t y of Races on t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of S p e c i f i c Pressures over t h e Length of Needle Bearings i n a Flapping Hiwe. a - I n i t i a l version; b Effect of p i n of increased s t i f f n e s s ; el~ c - E f f e c t of ~ ~ f l e x i b l ends of bearing r a c e s .

Fig .4.60 For Calculation of Needle Bearings i n T a i l Rotor Hubs.

i f s p e c i a l measures a r e t a k e n t o ensure a uniform load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e drag hinge bearings and i f t h e diagram of t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f l a p p i n g

hinges approximates a t r a p e z o i d a l diagram ( s e e Fig.4.55,b). A s a r u l e , a satisf a c t o r y load d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e l e n g t h of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g and drag hinges can be obtained by p r o p e r l y choosing t h e s t i f f n e s s of r i n g s and p i n s and a l s o by s u i t a b l y r a i s i n g t h e f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e ends of t h e r a c e s . T h i s i s shown s p e c i f i c a l l y i n fig.4.58 which contains experimental diagrams of t h e varia t i o n i n d i s t a n c e between t h e g e n e r a t r i c e s of t h e o u t e r and i n n e r races, f o r

449

t h r e e design versions of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge i n t h e r o t o r hub of a heavy helicopter. It should be noted that inadequate mechanical s t r e n g t h of t h e r i n g s and p i n s i n f l a p p i n g and drag hinges may not only result i n l o c a l i n c r e a s e s of t h e depth of b r i n e l l i n g marks a t t h e edges of t h e t r a c k s but a l s o i n s p a l l i n g of l a r g e p o r t i o n s of t h e i r s u r f a c e and sometimes even i n breakage of t h e needles (Fig.4.59) Calculation of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g hinges of t a i l r o t o r hubs /4-03 (Fig.4.60) i s appreciably more d i f f i c u l t t h a n c a l c u l a t i o n of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g hinges of main r o t o r hubs, s i n c e they g e n e r a l l y absorb a r a t h e r l a r g e a l t e r n a t i n g moment which cannot be disregarded i n estimating t h e i r performance. T h i s moment i s created by a l t e r n a t i n g aerodynamic and i n e r t i a ( C o r i o l i s ) f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blades of t h e t a i l r o t o r i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . I n rough calc u l a t i o n s , t h e loaded s t a t e of needle bearings i n t a i l r o t o r flapping hinges i s usually characterized by t h e instantaneous maximum s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s e t up on t h e edge of t h e t r a c k . On t h e assumption t h a t t h e load i s d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e l e n g t h of t h e -bearings i n accordance w i t h t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e , this p r e s s u r e i s equal t o

D l

where
Mt,r
= torque of t a i l r o t o r ; z t S r = blade number of t a i l r o t o r ; M, = amplitude of v a r i a b l e moment loading t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.

The values of t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e g c a l c u l a t e d from eq.(5.l2) f o r t a i l r o t o r s of l i g h t and medium h e l i c o p t e r s a t c r u i s i n g speed should not exceed 300 - 350 kg/cm". When hypoid l u b r i c a n t s a r e used i n t h e f l a p p i n g hinges, it can be expected t h a t t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e bearings w i l l be a t l e a s t 1000 hrs. Finally, t h e l i f e expectancy of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs i s determined from tests of such u n i t s on special rigs.

4. Calculation

of B e a r i w s f o r t h e P i t c h C o n t r o l and Control Mechanisms

The permissible loads on t h e bearings of t h e pitch-control hinges and t h e i r connecting c o n t r o l elements g e n e r a l l y a r e determined by experiment. For this, endurance t e s t s a r e performed on s p e c i a l r a t h e r complex i n s t a l l a t i o n s which perm i t simulating a l l t y p e s of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l i n f l i g h t . The loads on t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l a r e of a dynamic nature. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r from t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h i n Fig.4.61, f o r t h e blade hinge moment M, and t h e f o r c e s P l o n g and P l a t i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l rods connecting 450

t h e corresponding rockers of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l w i t h t h e hydraulic boosters.

It i s l o g i c a l t h a t , w i t h such a complex c h a r a c t e r of loading, any recommendations as t o t h e design of bearings for p i t c h c o n t r o l hinges w i l l of necess i t y be only conditional. Nevertheless, c e r t a i n suggestions might guide t h e designer i n problems of t h e s e l e c t i o n of bearings f o r t h e s e v i t a l u n i t s ; i n this respect, we w i l l b r i e f l y d i s c u s s t h e s e .

I
~

Flig.4.61 Oscillograms f o r Blade Hinge Moment and Forces i n Longitudinal and L a t e r a l Control Rods.

Fig.4.62 Load on Bearings of P i t c h Control Hinges.

If we t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t , i n conventional r o t o r designs, only t h e a b s o l u t e magnitude of t h e blade hinge moment changes and t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e amplitudes and phases of i t s i n d i v i d u a l harmonics remains constant, t h e n t h e s e l e c t i o n of bearings f o r such hinges of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l based on t h e same design configuration can proceed from t h e m a x i m u m value of t h e absorbed load P , a x (Fig.4.62).

For p i t c h c o n t r o l s c l o s e i n design t o t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l s of M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s ( s e e Fig.4.38) w i t h all-metal r o t o r blades of r e c t a n g u l a r planform and using greases of t h e type TsIATIM-201, t h e permissible load P",:, can be determined from Table 4.9. T h i s t a b l e w a s compiled from r e s u l t s of stand t e s t s w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p r a c t i c a l experience i n operating p i t c h c o n t r o l s . The values of t h e permissible loads P:zrm given i n t h e Table f o r a r o t o r rpm of 2 4 . 0 correspond t o a Life expectancy of 1000 1200 hrs. For o t h e r r p m , t h e l i f e expectancy i s found from t h e expression

&

h=-,

240,000

(5.13)

where n i s t h e r a t e d r o t o r r p m .

TABWE

4.9
-

P e r m i s s i b l e V al u es P,"::, Various Bearings

( k g ) for

Site of I n s t a l 1a t i o n

Ball.

R o l l er, and T h r u s t
-~

Hinge

of Type ShS
..

H i n g e s of s w a s h p l a t e , t u r n r o d , and l e v e r s of b l a d e B e a r i n g s of u n i v e r s a l joint Bearings of rockers o f l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l controls B e a r i n g s of l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l r o d s connecting t h e rockers w i t h o u t e r r a c e of Cardar joint B e a r i n g s of c o l l e c t i v e pitch lever
Qs,

2 Dl

0 . 8 Qst
2D I

Db

Qst

Qst

2D I

= p e r m i s s i b l e s t a t i c l o a d on a n o n r o t a t i n g b e a r i n g , g i v e n i n

c a t a l o g s an d manuals;

= d i a m e t e r of i n n e r r a c e t r a c k of n e e d l e b e a r i n g or s p h e r e s

of h i n g e d b e a r i n g , i n mm; b = wid th of o u t e r r a c e of h i n g e d b e a r i n g , i n nun; 1 = working l e n g t h of t h e n e e d l e s , i n nun.

I f t h e n a t u r e of t h e loads d i f f e r s from t h a t of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l s of t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s with all-metal r o t o r blades, t h e n t h e permissible values P ; :, should be r e f i n e d as a r e s u l t of a p p r o p r i a t e stand and s e r v i c e tests. Above, we have examined v i b r a t i n g bearings t h a t execute a l a r g e number of v i b r a t i o n s (more t h a n lo7) during t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e . The permissible loads on t h e bearings of t h e c o n t r o l mechanism of a i r c r a f t , f o r which t h e t o t a l number of v i b r a t i o n s does not exceed 100,000 and t h e vibrat i o n amplitude i s equal t o 20' and more, should be determined - according t o VNPP by t h e following experimental formuh?:

2 &Perm =awmzdh.

( 5 *a>

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c y p e r m f o r c e r t a i n types of bearings operating on greases a t v i b r a t i o n numbers 25,000 and 100,000 a r e given i n Table 4 . 1 0 .

It i s assumed t h a t t h e contact areas of adjacent r o l l i n g elements do not overlap =

TABLE: 4.10
TvDe

of Be ari n g

,.

Inside

] V a l u e o f C o e f f i c i e n t ODerm

1 t:b:ons
~ n s

7 0 0 : :
t o 50

200 900000
B a l l , radial

__

1
I

l 2
I
1.6

e "::

9 4

980000

5
4

981000
-

above 9

2 ' 2 5
4
4

1000

I
-

1 I

2 1 . 6
2

1.6 2.8 2.8

_-

to 10
to50

B a l l , spherical

1200

I
I

- -.

971000 1300

4.7

3.3

Section 6.

_ Bearings _ -

Theory - - and S e l e c t i o - n o f Basic-Parsmeters of Thrust w i t h ltSlewed11 Rollers

A s i n d i c a t e d i n previous Sections, t h r u s t bearings with c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r s arranged a t an angle t o t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n are being used with success i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s . The high load-carrying c a p a c i t y of such bearings, known as t h r u s t bearings w i t h llslewedlf r o l l e r s , i s exp l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e cage, during v i b r a t i o n s , not only v i b r a t e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e revolving r a c e but a l s o shifts continuously i n one d i r e c t i o n . The time of r o t a t i o n of t h e cage T, through a n angle of 360", c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r a t e of this displacement, i s determined by a number of f a c t o r s . It i s dependent on t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n between r o l l e r a & races, v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency of t h e revolving race, and on a number of geometric paramet e r s of which t h e angles of slope of t h e cage seats p l a y a major r o l e . It i s l o g i c a l t h a t t h e s e angles should be s e l e c t e d such that t h e t h e T, dl1 be withi n optimal limits ensuring a long l i f e expectancy of t h e r o l l e r s a t acceptable wear of t h e t r a c k s . A t h e o r y i s presented below by means of which this problem can be solved.

1 . Determination of t h e Time T,
In t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s , t h e r a t i o of angular v e l o c i t y of
t h e cage t o angular v e l o c i t y of t h e revolving r a c e A =
w, depends upon t h e w

d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . T h i s causes a continuous displacement of t h e cage, which i s observed i n such bearings during v i b r a t i o n . The values of t h e r a t i o A corresponding t o counterclockwise and clockwise r o t a t i o n of t h e bearing are found i n t h e following manner: The f o r c e s of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n a r i s i n g a t t h e p o i n t s of contact of t h e r o l l e r w i t h t h e r a c e s a r e reduced t o t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s Fly, F , , , Fzy< F Z x , and t h e moments MI, , M , , (Fig.4.63). A t a constant c o e f f i c i e n t of s h d i n g f r i c t i o n p, between r o l l e r s and races, t h e magnitudes of t h e s e f o r c e s and moments can be c a l c u l a t e d with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by t h e formulas

Here, P = f o r c e absorbed by t h e r o l l e r i n question; y1 and y, = coordinates of t h e contact p o i n t s a t which t h e r e i s no s l i d i n g i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e r o l l e r axis; d, = diameter of t h e r o l l e r ; 1 = working l e n g t h of t h e r o l l e r .
I n deriving eqs.(6.1), i t was assumed t h a t t h e normal loads q, and q2 are d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e r o l l e r l e n g t h according t o t h e l a w

L4.97

q1=
92- --

(1 --K

+);

P i

1+K-,

;)

where

4.54

Such a d i s t r i b u t i o n of normal loads i s due t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e moment

(Fly
+

G;) d

which t e n d s t o turn t h e r o l l e r about t h e axLs 0,x.

Since t h e

u s u a l b a d concentration a t t h e edges of t h e r o l l e r has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e time T,, we will d i s r e g a r d it t o s i m p l i f y t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n View of t h e smallness of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e p c ( F l x F Z x ) we consider that

The c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g e q ~ ~ ( 6 . 1 a) r e determined by t h e e q u a l i t i e s

Mobile

fG

All

\a;
Fig.4.63

Rotor

Forces and Moments

where
p=I
rosin y

Acting on 11Slewedlt R o l l e r s .

From t h e kinematic r e l a t i o n s and t h e equations of moments r e l a t i v e t h e a x i s O,y, we can o b t a i n t h e following expressions":

to

/ko8

All

It i s assumed that t h e q u a n t i t y pc(2A 1) can be neglected f o r Unity. i n e r t i a momerrt of t h e r o l l e r - i s disregarded.

The

45 5

(ZC?

- 1).

I n t h e s e expressions,

where
f,,

M,

a t t h e ends of t h e r o l l e r and t h e f r i c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e l u b r i c a n t ; p, = c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n between t h e r o l l e r s and cage.

= c o e f f i c i e n t of r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n ; = moment t a k i n g i n t o account t h e f r i c t i o n

The upper s i g n s r e f e r t o t h e case of F , , i n d i c a t e t h e case of F,, - F , , < 0.

F , , > 0, while t h e lower s i g n s

The angle of s l o p e y i s considered p o s i t i v e i f t h e r o l l e r can be placed i n a r a d i a l p o s i t i o n by t u r n i n g about t h e p o i n t 0 , counterclockwise. Under this condition, t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g .4.63 correspond t o p o s i t i v e values The s i g n s of t h e angles of slope o f . t h e of t h e f o r c e s c a l c u l a t e d by eqs.(6.1). r o l l e r s and t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n are determined when viewing t h e r o l l e r from t h e s i d e of t h e movable r a c e .

A r o l l e r w i t h a n angle of s l o p e y generates t h e following moment, r e l a t i v e t o t h e &s of r o t a t i o n of t h e cage:

M-= ( F I X -F,,)r,cos y+(F1,- F 2 , ) r 0 s i ~ ~~-(hf,~--M~~).

AS Shawn by c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o r o l l i n g and t h e f r i c t i o r ; of t h e r o l l e r a g a i n s t t h e cage and l u b r i c a n t have p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e magni, = 0 i n t o account tude of this moment. I n c o n f o r d t y w i t h this, t a k i n g f = p and considering that i n real designs t h e angle i s y < 6' and hence cos y w 1, t h e last e q u a l i t y , by means of eqs.(6.1), (6.3), and (6.4), can be transformed such t h a t

M =pPt,B,
where
M -= 2 p ~ ~ A , , - 2 A , , ~ ( 2 A -1).
21

(6.5)

Table 4.11 g i v e s t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, of t h e q u a n t i t y l/p.

and

All as a function

456

Values o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t . A10 and A 1 1 a t U p

0 10.05 1 0 . 1 0 10.15 10.20
1 0 . 2 5 10.30 1 0 . 3 5
10.40 10.45 10.50

I n t h e case of negative values of p, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, determined by me ns of t h e r e l a t i o n

AI0

and A,,

can be

(-PI=

- AI0 (PI

and

(6=6)

&(-P)=All(P).

These r e l a t i o n s follow d i r e c t l y from eqs .(6.3).

A t small v i b r a t i o n amplitudes, when t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s can be disregarded, t h e equation of motion of t h e cage of t h e bearing w i t h 11slewed" r o l l e r s reduces t o t h e condition

M,1 -Mf,=
Here , M,i = CM
= =

0.

( 6* 7 )

M , ,

t o t a l moment of t h e s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n f o r c e s exerted on t h e roll e r s by t h e bearing r a c e s ; moment of f r i c t i o n .

L e t u s assume t h a t t h e cage has z seats, i n each of which a r e s r o l l e r s . The angles of s l o p e of t h e cage seats, a t a n average r a d i u s r, a r e denoted i n terms of y,, and t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s i n terms of yi, The subs c r i p t i denotes t h e number of t h e cage seat, w h i l e t h e s u b s c r i p t k i n d i c a t e s t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e r o l l e r i n i t . Usually, i n each seat t h e r e are two r o l l e r s . The load on a r o l l e r w i t h a w o r k i n g l e n g t h l i k i s e q u a l t o

where

tc

t o t a l working l e n g t h of t h e r o l l e r s i n one seat;

N = axial f o r c e applied t o t h e bearing.

A change i n d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e bearing i s equivalent t o a change i n signs of t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s . Bearing i n mind this f a c t , we o b t a i n t h e f o l l o h i n g expression from eqs.(6.5), (6.6), and (6.8):

4-57

I--

where A,,

(pik ) ard A,, (pik ) are t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,,

and A,,

for

For d e f i n i t i v e n e s s , we w i l l consider that t h e s i g n s of t h e angles of /k10 s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s are given f o r t h e case of counterclockwise r o t a t i o n of t h e bearing. After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(6.9) i n t o eq.(6.7), we obtain: f o r counterclockwise r o t a t i o n :

A-

nt=l+l

(6 .lo)

f o r clockwise r o t a t i o n :

Knowing t h e q u a n t i t i e s A' and A", it i s easy t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t i m e T,. From Fig.4.52 it follows that, during each half-period of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e cage i s displaced by a n angle Acp, = (A' AN)cpo. Consequently, t h e t i m e of r o t a t i o n of t h e cage through a n angle of 360' Will be

T,=

360

2 I A'

- A" I 'pori '

where n =

1 i s the TO

number of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e revolving r a c e p e r minute.

Since t h e moment of f r i c t i o n Mi, of t h e cage should be indepeladent of t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n , we w i l l have, i n conformity w i t h t h e above c o r r e l a t i o n s ,

458
. ...

....... .

180 T,= -

VOW

, .~ I 2
~

IEE 2
i-1 k- 1

(6.12)

(pik)l

+.(20-30)

- (30-40) . - (45-55)

of experiments s e t u p t o determine t h e time T, a t low temperatures, when, owing t o a n i n c r e a s e

O i l VNII NP-25 ( v = 10 c e n t i s t o k e s a t t = +lOOOC and u = 50,000 c e n t i s t o k e s a t t = -4OOC)

2. S e l e c t i o n of Angles of Slope of Cage S e a t s

A p r e s c r i b e d rate of displacement of t h e cage i s ensured by proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e angles of s l o p e of i t s s e a t s . I n this case, not only t h e r a t e d values of t h e angles but a l s o t h e allowances f o r manufacture, which have a n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t on t h e t i m e T,, must be kept i n mind. The remaining geometric.parameters of t h e bearing, i n f l u e n c i n g t h e time T,, are s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of design considerations.

Manufacturing deviations of t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e cage seats, even w i t h upto-date t e c h n o l o a and rigorous q u a l i t y cont r o l of t h e f i n i s h e d a r t i c l e s , go as high as 7 10'. I f no s p e c i a l measures are t a k e n i n t h e manufacture of bearings, such deviat i o n s may r e a c h 20 - 30'.

a
Fig.4.64 D e t e k n a t i o n of t h e Values of p w i t h Clearance between Rollers and Cage.

The time T, depends a l s o on t h e c l e a r ance between r o l l e r s and cage. I n t h e presence of clearance, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e roll e r s i n t h e seats of t h e cage and hence t h e a c t u a l angles of slope of t h e r o l l e r s are determined by t h e f o r c e s of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n exerted on t h e r o l l e r s by t h e races. Since, i n t h e g e n e r a l case, a determination of t h e s e f o r c e s i s d i f f i c u l t , we w i l l assume that t h e r o l l e r s , w i t h equal p r o b a b i l i t y , can occupy any of two p o s i t i o n s shown i n Fig .4 .64 : i n p o s i t i o n I:

459

i n position 1 1 :
P i , =r c s i n ye.-

Iik

z
' -

lik

e.

'

rcsin

( yci-

4)
'

2rC

It i s obvious from t h e s e e q u a l i t i e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t of clearance on t h e t i m e T, can be t a k e n i n t o account by i n c r e a s i n g t h e design d e v i a t i o n s of t h e angles of slope of t h e cage seats t o t h e q u a n t i t y

i s t h e maximum where 5 , is half of t h e manufacturing allowance, while e m a x clearance.

The most g e n e r a l case of arrangement of t h e cage seats of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t i s t h e case where t h e cage contains z1 seats w i t h a n angle of slope y 1 f 5 (yl > 0 ) and z 2 seats w i t h a n angle of s l o p e 0 f 5 .

To s i m p l i f y f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s , l e t us assume t h a t 1 i k = 1 = const. If t h e q u a n t i t y 5 i s such t h a t t h e difference A ' - A " i s p o s i t i v e , then, provided t h a t t i k = 1 = const, t h e time T, can change from a c e r t a i n

/k12

t o a certain

Here ,

x,3 and v =
21

k-1

k-1

The c o e f f i c i e n t v i s u s u a l l y c l o s e t o unity ( v = 0.98 1 ) . his i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e time T, depends l i t t l e on t h e number of r o l l e r s s i n one seat. I n t h e expressions f o r and T L m i n ) , t h e minimum and maxi values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n p are denoted by p and p With good l u b r i c a t i o n , we have p x 0.05 and p x 0.08.

Timax)

kt t h e upper and lower Emits of t h e range of optimal values of T, be equal t o T : and TZ r e s p e c t i v e l y . A s follows from t e s t r e s u l t s , t h r u s t bearings with slewed r o l l e r s operating i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs Will have a t i m e T/, = 80 min and TZ = 40 min. It has been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t , t o determine t h e maxi s t a b i l i t y of t h e rate of displacement of t h e cage, t h e q u a n t i t i e s y 1 and x should be s e l e c t e d such that, at a g i v e n value of 5 , TLmaX)Will be e q u a l t o TO. A t = TO, t h e q u a n t i t i e s yl, x, and 5 are c o r r e l a t e d by a d e f i n i t e

Timax)

= T i i n eq.(6.13), this r e l a t i o n can be g r a p h i c a l l y relation. Setting represented as a family of corresponding curves$: Figure 4.65 which gives a family of such curves shows t h a t t h e condition TLmax) = TL imposes c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e q u a n t i t i e s y 1 and 5 . Thus = 80 min, t h e r a t i o x should not exceed 1.28 f o r 5 = 0 and 0. and t h e angle y 1 should not be l e s s t h a n some m i n i m u m angle 1 + 5 (where y i s t h e value of y P i n , f o r x = 0 and 5 = 0 ) . The range of time r a t e = T(,min)/T(cmax) of change of cage displacement i s characterized by t h e r a t i o

T L ~ ~

Curves of y 1 = y l ( x ) f o r Fig.4.65 Different Values of t h e Deviation of 5 .

Fig.4.66 Dependence of t h e Ratio ll on t h e Deviation of 5 f o r D i f f e r e n t Angles of y 1.

Figure 4.66 contains t h e curves of r\ = r\(F) f o r t h e angles y 1 = 5 and y 1 = 30, p l o t t e d on t h e assumption t h a t TLmax = TL. J3gb-e 4.66 shows t h a t t h e r a t i o r\ depends mainly on t h e quantity 5 . The angle y 1 has a r a t h e r minor e f f e c t on 7 . Thus, from t h e viewpoint of s t a b i l i t y of t h e r a t e of cage displacement, d i f f e r e n t combinations of t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e s e a t s are approximately equivalent, provided t h e y s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s T(cmax) = T i . According
>c

Everywhere where no s p e c i a l s t i p u l a t i o n s have been made, it i s assumed t h a t = 80 min. Here, a l l s p e c i f i c numerical values p e r t a i n t o t h e case d, = 9 mm, r c = 40 mm, 1 = 8 mm, v = 1 , cp, = 4.5, n = 2 4 . 0 cyc/min, p = 0.06.
T:

4.61

t o Fig.4.66,
=

t h e d e v i a t i o n of E at which T:min)

= Tfl =

40

min and t h u s

1=

&- =
80

0.5,

i s about 5'.

Hence, even with t h e most c a r e f u l manufacture of

cages, t h e r e might be cases i n which t h e t i m e T, w i l l exceed t h e limits of t h e optimal range.

I n p r a c t i c e , we encounter two variants of arranging t h e cage seats. I n t h e first, a l l s e a t s have a n i d e n t i c a l angle of slope not exceeding ' 1 w h i l e i n the second, s e v e r a l seats are arranged a t a n angle of 3 - 6' with a l l o t h e r s e a t s being r a d i a l . Let us compare t h e s e v a r i a n t s f o r t h e following examples.
1 = 8 mm, e m a x= 0.2 and n = & O cyc/min.

kt us examine a bearing f o r which y 1 = 45 ', x = 0, d, = 9 mm, r, = 40 mm, nun, 5, = 7', and s = 2; t h e bearing operates at 'po = 4.5'

If a l l r o l l e r s have a n angle of slope equal t o y, we have

where

Figure 4.67 gives t h e curves of T, = T,(y), showing t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e time T, as a f u n c t i o n of t h e angle y f o r p = p ' = 0.05 and p = p " = 0.08. We d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e curves of T, = T,(y) a r e g i o n bounded by v e r t i c a l The 3, a c t u a l values of t h e t i m e T should l i e w i t h i n this region. It i s easy t o note t h a t , f o r such a bearing, TCmax) = 74 min and T L m i n ) = 31 min. These values are r a t h e r close t o optimal. Results of experiments set up t o determine t h e time T, f o r s e v e r a l hundreds of bearings with t h e indicated parameters have shown t h a t t h e a c t u a l values of T, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes do not extend beyond t h e limits of t h e i n d i c a t e d range, being grovqed about average values of T i a v ) = = 50 - 60 min.
-t

straight lines y = y 1

5, +

= 60' 3,
emax

and y

y1

- 5, -

e m = 30'.
ax

N o w l e t t h e bearing have t h e following parameters: y 1 = 5', x = 5, d, = r, = 28'm, 1 = 4.2 nun, e m a x = 0.2 mm, f , = 7', s = 2 and l e t it opera t e a t rpo = 4.5 and n = 300 cyc/min.
=

" ,

to 5.

W e assume t h a t t h e a c t u a l angles of slope of t h e r a d i a l seats a r e equal Then,

&

(6.16)
where

P1=-

rc sin Y1

and

pZ=-.

I
rc sin E

Figure 4.68 which g i v e s t h e curves of T, = T , ( S ) p l o t t e d from eq.(6.16) shows t h a t , a t 5 = 0, t h e time i s T , = 163 - 261 m5.n depending on t h e f r i c t i o n coefficient p . I f 5 NN - 5 ' , t h e n t h e t h e T, Will tend t o i n f i n i t y . I n o t h e r words, at small negative d e v i a t i o n s of t h e angles of slope of t h e r a d i a l seats, t h e cage may s t o p moving. Such cases are o f t e n observed when t e s t i n g bearings w i t h l a r g e values of x.
1,- min

l"30'

Fig.b.67 The Time T, as a Funct i o n of t h e Angle of Slope of t h e Cage Seats y

Fig.4.68 The Time T, as a Function of t h e Deviation of 5 .

A t IJ.

0.08 and 5

5 , + emax

- 15', 3,

we have T,

4.7 min.
OJ

Consequently,
=

i n t h e case i n question t h e time T, may vary from T i m a x ) =

t o TO"")

47 rin.

These examples i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y t h e first v a r i a n t of p o s i t i o n i n g t h e cage seats enables t h e bearings t o operate under conditions c l o s e t o optimal. Positioning of t h e seats of t h e cage a t i d e n t i c a l angles W i l l a l s o reduce t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s e s ard t h e nonuniformity of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e normal load along t h e contact l i n e s .

3. F r i c t i o n Losses
...

F r i c t i o n l o s s e s i n t h r u s t bearings w i t h ~lslewedllr o l l e r s depend both on t h e

463

r a t e of t h e displacement of t h e cage and on t h e mode of s e l e c t i o n of t h e quantit i e s y and x which provide cage displacement a t a given rate.
The moment of f r i c t i o n of t h e bearing i s u s u a l l y w r i t t e n as

L &

where f f , i s t h e reduced f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . Using t h e r e l a t i o n s obtained i n t h e preceding subsections, a f t e r a number of transformations we f i n d

(6.18)
Here,

f , ,
f,t

c o e f f i c i e n t of r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n ;

= c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g l o s s e s due t o s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n .

The c o e f f i c i e n t f , 1 can be represented i n t h e form [ s e e (Ref .27)1

where

On hand of Table 4.10 it i s easy t o demonstrate that, w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n angle of s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s , t h e r a t i o reaching, a t y = sin-'

first i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y , A l l (PI 0.57 t/r,, a value e q u a l t o unity. Upon a f u r t h e r in-

'

'A1o(p)' W i l l n o t change. T h i s means t h a t t h e A,l(P) quantity T,(O) r e p r e s e n t s t h e m i n i m u m time obtainable a t a given value of t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p [ s e e eq.( 6.15) 1. crease i n t h e angle, t h e r a t i o Figure 4.69 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , at t h e same r a t e of cage displacement, t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s e s decrease w i t h decreasing angle yl. Hence, t h e minimum f r i c t i o n l o s s e s a c t u a l l y occur when a l l cage seats are p o s i t i o n e d a t the radial direction.

A t optimal rates o f cage displacement

464

non-observance of this arrangement of seats may lead t o a n i n c r e a s e i n s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n l o s s e s by a f a c t o r of 1.5.

4.

Additional Consideratiog-of w i t h r1Slgwedtt R o l l e r s

-Ct*-aL

T h r x t Bearing Design

According t o t h e above formulas, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e nonuniformity of b a d d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o l l e r length, i s equal t o

Since 12BloI 2 1 p
2

d B, 21
r

y1

I,

we can consider w i t h s u f f i c i e n t ac-

curacy t h a t K

= Up-

Bl0.
21

Thus, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K depends only on t h e

a n g l e y . It follows from t h e curve of K = K(y) p l o t t e d i n Fig.4.70 t h a t , on changing from an angle of 5' t o a n angle of 45' which corresponds t o t h e posit i o n i n g of a l l seats a t i d e r r t i c a l angles, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K w i l l decrease from 0.35 t o 0.14.. The arrangement of a l l cage s e a t s a t equal angles i s p r e f e r a b l e a l s o i n f t h e angle of s l o p e of t h e seats i s View of t h e following considerations: I i d e n t i c a l , t h e f o r c e s FIX - Fzx d r i v i n g t h e r o l l e r s a g a i n s t t h e i r l a t e r a l s u r f a c e s are very small. I f Mf, = 0 and s = 1, t h e s e f o r c e s a r e t h e o r e t i c a l l y absent.

a3
0.2 0. I

r'

Fig.4.69

Losses Due t o S l i d i n g Friction.

Fig.4.70 Coefficient K as a Funct i o n of t h e R o l l e r Angle of Slope.

A t d i f f e r e n t angles of s l o p e of t h e seats, when t h e Ilslewedll r o l l e r s must Fzx may overcome t h e r e s i s t a n c e of r a d i a l l y arranged r o l l e r s , t h e f o r c e s Flx a t t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l magnitudes (up t o 0 . 1 pP) and cause wear of t h e cage (espec i a l l y a t l a r g e x).

465

So f a r , it has been assumed that a l l r o l l e r s are of i d e n t i c a l length. Now l e t us see what happens a t a n a l t e r n a t i o n of long and s h o r t r o l l e r s i n staggered sequence.

Table 4 . 1 3 shows that, i n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e t i m e T, and t h e reduced coe f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n f f , vary negligibly, whereas t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K f o r s h o r t r o l l e r s i n c r e a s e s by a f a c t o r of 3 . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t it i s expedient t o use r o l l e r s of t h e same l e n g t h i n t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s .
TABLE EFFECT OF DISTRIBUTION OF

4 . 1 3
ON T,,
f f , , AND K

ROLLER LENGTH

~-

R o l l e r s of i d e n t i c a l length mm ) Long and s h o r t r o l l e r s a1 t e r n a t i n g i n s t a g g e r e d sequence (l1=11 m m , f2=5 mm )

(l,=f2=8

0.00616 48
0.MI674

0.14 0.43
(for short

45*7

rollers)

estimating t h e e f f e c t of a nonuniform load d i s t r i b u t i o n caused 'by t h e d a c t i o n of t h e moment ( F l y + F Z y ) 2 on t h e l i f e expectancy of a bearing, one 2 must not l o s e s i g h t of t h e f a c t that t h e load a t each contact p o i n t does not remain constant but changes w i t h any change i n d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a t t h e ends of t h e r o l l e r s t h e normal load v a r i e s i n accordance with t h e law

In

A s a consequence, t h e nonuniformity of load d i s t r i b u t i o n caused by t h e /4.17 e f f e c t of t h e a'bove moment should not excessively reduce t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearing. The u s u a l concentration of load on t h e ends of t h e r o l l e r s , which we have disregarded assuming t h a t q = const a t y = 0, i s of importance. To l e s s e n t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t of t h e l a t t e r , it i s p r e f e r a b l e t o use r o l l e r s w i t h a camber.

5. Ekaniple of Calculating a Thrust Bearing w i t h IISlewedIl R o l l e r s

If

In conclusion, l e t us give a n example of c a l c u l a t i n g a t h r u s t bearing w i t h slewed 11 r o l l e r s

4..5',

Given: axial load N = x),OOO kg, v i b r a t i o n amplitude of revolving r a c e cpo frequency n = 180 cyc/min.

For t h e given conditions, we s e l e c t a bearing w i t h t h e following parameters: d, = 12 m, r, = 61 mm, 1 = 10.5 mm ( t o t a l l e n g t h of r o l l e r s : 1 ' = 12 m), z = 20, and s = 2. Wanted: t o determine t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e cage seats t h a t w i l l ensure o p t h a 1 rate of displacement and maxi." s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearings.

W e c a l c u l a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t v:

Let us assume that a l l s e a t s have a n i d e n t i c a l angle of slope. After subs t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(6.15) cpo = 4.5", n = 1 8 0 cyc/min, v = 0.99, and p = p ' = From = 0.05, we will construct t h e curve of T, = T.(y) by means of Table 4.11. t h e curve we f i n d t h e value y ' of t h e angle y a t which T, = Ti = 80 min. I n our case, y' = 46'. Taking 5 , = 7' and emax= 0.18 mm, we determine t h e deviat i o n of 5 :
E=7+57.3~60 O*=12'.
2x61

The normal value of t h e angles of slope of t h e seats of t h e cage i s

y =y'f

E=

4 64- 12 = 58'.

The contact s t r e s s e s i n t h e bearing are

a=860

1 / "

--- - 860
zsxd, 1

2oJooo
2 0 ~ 2 ~ 11.05 .2~

= 17 000

kq Jcm

.
0.

According t o Fig.4.53, nh = 27 X 1O4 corresponds t o this value of sequently, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearing i s

Con-

h=-- 27x lo4- 1500 hr5.

180

4.6 7

1. X z , P.M. and Pozhalostin, A.I.: Vibrations and Dynamic Strength of Prop e l l e r s ( V i b r a t s i i 5 dinamicheskaya prochnost' vozdushnykh vintov) Tr. Tsentr Aero-Gidrodinam. Inst., N o .609, 1947. 2. M i l t , M.L.: Dynamic Twisting of a n Autogiro Rotor Blade i n Flight (0 dinaTekhn. micheskom zakruchivanii l o p a s t i r o t o r a a v t o z h i r a v p o l e t e ) Vozdushnogo F l o t a , N o .2, 1933. 3. Bashkin, V.E.: Induced V e l o c i t i e s of a P r o p e l l e r Fkposed t o Flow a t a n Angle t o i t s Axis (Induktivnyye s k o r o s t i vozdushnogo v i n t a , obduvayemogo pod uglom k yego o s i ) . Paper presented a t t h e All-Union Congress on Theor e t i c a l and Applied Mechanics, Moscow, 1960. 4 . Wekrasov, A.V. : Calculation of Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies of P r o p e l l e r Blades (Raschet form i c h a s t o t sobstvennykh kolebaniy lopastey T r . Tsentr. cero-Gidrodinam. Inst N o .898, 1964. vozdushnykh vintov) 5. Nekrasov, A.V.: Calculation of Natural F l e x u r a l and Torsional Vibration Modes and Frequencies of a Helicopter Blade i n Vacuum (Raschet form i chas t o t sobstvennykh izgibnc-kruti 1 nykh kolebaniy l o p a s t i v e r t o l e t a v N o .898, 1964.. p u s t o t e ) . T r Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. Inst 6. Nekrasov, A.V.: Calculation of S t r e s s e s i n a Helicopter Rotor Blade a t High Flying Speeds (Raschet napryazheniy v l o p a s t i nesushchego v i n t a v e r t o l e t a na b o l t s h i k h skorostyakh p o l e t a ) . T r Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. I n s t N o .898, 1964. Calculation of Bending Stresses i n a Helicopter Blade a t 7. Nekrasov, A.V.: Low and Moderate F l y i n g Speeds (Raschet izgibnykh napryazheniy v l o p a s t i v e r t o l e t a na malykh i srednikh skorostyakh p o l e t a ) . T r Tsentr. Aeroo -913, 1964. Gidrodinam. Inst., N S o l u t i o n of t h e Cauchy Problem f o r One Equation (0 r e s h e n i i 8. Galkin, M . S . : P r i k l . Mat. i Mekhan. Akad.. &auk zadachi Koshi d l y a odnogo uravneniya) SSSR, Vol.XX; No.2, 1956. Determination of High Natural Frequencies of P r o p e l l e r 9. Epskaya, M.E.: Blades and Turbine Buckets (Opredeleniye vysokikh sobstvennykh c h a s t o t vintovykh l o p a s t e y i turbinnykh lopatok). T r . Mezhdunar. Assots. Pochvoved. SSSR, No.676, 1949. Calculation of Natural 10. Marchenko, V.M., Sarmina, L.A., and Vronskiy, G.V.: Blade Vibrations by I n t e g r a l Equations on High-speed Computers (Raschet sobstvennykh kolebaniy lopastey s pomoshchtyu i n t e g r a l ?qykh uravneniy na T r . Tsentr. Aerobystrodeystvuyushchikh vychisliteltIqykh mashinakh) Gidrodinam. Inst., N o .898, 1964. Tables of I n t e g r a l s , Sums, Series, and 1 1 . m z h i k , I.M. and Gradshteyn, M.S.: GITTL, 1951. Products ( T a b l i t s y i n t e g r a l o v , s m , ryadov i proizvedeniy) 12. Bogatyrev, B.V. : S t a t i c and Dynamic S t r e n g t h of Rotor Blades of Rotary-wing A i r c r a f t ( Staticheskaya i dinamicheskaya prochnost t lopastey r o t o r o v Akad Nauk SSSR, 1948. vintokrylykh apparatov) Self-Excited O s c i l l a t i o n s of Helicopter Blades (Samokole13. Gureyev, D . I . : Izd. W A i m . Zhukovskogo, N o .391, 1950. baniya l o p a s t e y g e l i k o p t e r a ) Vibration Method of L i n e a r i z a t i o n of Certain Nonlinear Krasovskiy, A.A.: S y s t e m ( 0 vibratsionnom sposobe l i n e a r i z a t s i i nekotorykh nelineynykh sistem) Avtomatika i Telemekhanika, Vol.9, N o .l, 1948.

.,

.,

.,

a.

468

1 5 . Keldysh, M.V.:

16.

17.

18.

19.
20.
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Translated f o r t h e National Aeronautics and Space Administration by t h e 0 .W.kibiger Research Laboratories, Inc.