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History Notes For Final 2nd Half of the Semester

12/15/2013 12:05:00 PM

North Pole First attempt to reach North Pole was made by William Perry of the British Navy. (Then Charles Francis Hall sailed and it ended in mutiny) Context was process of arctic travel 1892ish Greenland set the stage for the North Pole. There was a race as to who could get to the farthest latitude north. Developing new ship technology. Nansen 1893 Norwegian o Nansen gets the idea to design the double hulled Fran because of the Jeanette wreckage in 1844 which made people realize sea ice drifted around o double hull made the ship round and prevented ice from freezing to ice. There was a crazy wood support system attached to frame. o Every member had their own room o Nansen was stuck in Ice for 8 months and had to hunt for seal but returned a hero o The use of skis and dogs set stage for surviving artic condition Robert Peary 3 expeditions find dates o 1st failed o 2nd developed the Peary System of traveling3 parties of traveling (used in the south pole as well) 1st party breaks trail and builds igloos 2nd brings supplies 3rd is the polar party o Peary learned from the Inuits from his travels to Greenland. Difficult to like personality Cook o Cook had a faked photo Cook vs Perry o Both probably faked the mission to the north pole Richard Byrd

o Claims to have flown over but this was proven false Amundsen and Noble are successful

South Pole Very Cold A lot circumnavigation (Cook, Bellinghausen) James Ross named many things Discovery Expedition o Motivation: Fame o Led by Sco o 1902 BUT Shackleton was on the mission as well o Markham raised private funds but the crew was supplied by the British navy. o Markham warns not to use ski and dogs, but Scott brings them anyway. The crew was incapable of using them because they did not have the skill. o Shackleton v. Scotta lot of tension between two because of Shackletons natural leadership abilities. He had an inspiring personality, but Shackleton was sent home due to health reasons. He never forgot the humilitation. o They set up winter quarters on the south of Ross island. The expedition party was a party of 3 (Shackleton, Scott and Doctor Wilson) they left the following spring o On this expedition everyone was pushed to the limits of their strength Nimrod Expedition o Shackleton organizes his own, self-funded expedition o He got the farthest thus far; he was the first to discover the Trans-Atlantic Mountains. o Couldnt land in the same place so he started in Cape Royd o Brought Siberian Ponies instead of dogs (because of failed past puppy experience) This is stupid because there is no food for ponies in the south pole so they had to transport food. Dogs can eat each other

o Result of Mission: Had to turn back because food supplies were low. However a route through the trans-Antarctic mountains was found. Scott vs. Amundsen The race of a lifetime o The Fram Expedition (Amundsen) Initially he was going to the South Pole but both Cook and Perry claimed to have accomplished that He turns the ship in the opposite direction, telling no one Amundsen had no hierarchy. Amundsen was Norwegian. Amundsen reaches the Pole on December 17 with 12 health dogs (Scott arrived a month later). Amundsen initially left too early; had to return later. Amundsen also had depots but multiple depots, marked to be easily found (better strategy) o Scotts Expedition British explorer. A great deal of hierarchy in camp. During the winter they played games, while Amundsens crew was constantly improving. Scott sets up one ton depot, a massive amount of food storage and fuel(but far) on the way back. Scotts Journeyhe took 5 men but only had enough food for 4 Brought failed motor sledges On the route back, horrible weather, dwindling supplies. 1 member dies, another commits suicide. Gets within 11miles of one ton depot and all 3 pass away. Note difference in writing between Scoot and Amundsen. Scott was a boss and Amundsen was a terrible boring writer.

Shackletons Final Journey: The Endurance Expedition (1914) o Ship was frozen in ice and crushed o Mission was aborted

o Lifeboats sailed to Elephant Island. Took a lifeboat to South Georgia to a whaling station and got help and saved everyones lives o He returned a hero and was finally able to get over the Discovery Mission Spanish Explorers Ponce de Leon o Conquered Puerto Rico 1508 There because he came with Columbus on his second voyage Goes to Spain to receive funding to search for the Fountain of Youth in Florida (found in 1513) [Not mentioned in lecture but interestinghe was actually searching for] Was told that he would become the Governor of any new lands found Gold was another motivation Encountered hostile natives wherever he landed He had advanced weapon technology and gave small pox to many natives

Balboa 1513 o He wanted to find a route to the Pacific o Wanted to go across the Isthmus of Panama in the pursuit of gold o He discovered the Panama canal Cortez 1521 o Conquered Tenochtitlan o Aztec Empire Conquered (already on decline) Diseases brought in by Europeans and technological superiority o Malinche was an Aztec slave girl given as a gift to Cortez. She could speak Mayan and eventually learned Spanish and was Cortezs translator.

o Cortez made allies: Tlaxcala (most powerful) among others Before he marched to 2nd largest city he had ~3,000 Tlaxcala Pizarro o 1524 in Panama sailing down the Pacific coast. Captures a ship, hears rumors of a rich kingdom and reaches the Incan Capital in 1531 o The Incan empire. There was a rivalry between the two sons of the ruler who died. Pouacar and Antepoluatl. (??) They focused on each other, not Pizarro. A. was captured by Pizarro and offered huge gold random. Pizarro said yes. Pizarro ended up with large fortune, but of course A. couldnt trust Pizarro, so Pizarro ordered A killed after ransom had been paid. Meanwhile, As men killed Pouacar. So Peru conquered. Orellana 1541 o Explores the Amazon River via the Coca River. o There were very populated villages along the river. Orellana as attacked by Amazonian River o Had to cross the Andes Mountains. o Can conquest be exploration? He started out as a conqueror but then ended up exploring the Amazon River Cabrillo o 1542 o Went up West coast of North America trying to find a route to China Vaca o 1520-1536 o Came from humble background o North Coast of the Gulf of Mexico They were shipwrecked and enslaved Cornado o 1540-42 o New Mexico. Looking for Quiviera mythical wealthy city o Bad guy.

o Married to a wealthy woman, so no need for more wealthjust wanted it De Soto o Went to Florida. o Found a shipwrecked survivor who became his translator o First European to cross the Appalachians He plundered, enslaved and brutally killed the natives. Half the expedition died.

Overall-There wasnt much written material because they wanted to keep the info to themselves. $$ important theme. Reduced population as a result of diseases. Uncertainty on claims to land. Oceanography Hatshepshut 1436-1458 BCE o First female ruler of Egypt o Sent expedition to Punt, source of Gold Ivory and Incense o Built ships that could survive reefs Assyrian Divers 880 BC Polynesians Tortise Shell Goggles Alexander the Great o 333BCE o Really cool diving bell Hard Hat DivingEngland 1837 Cornellius Drebbel 1620 o Invented early submarine David Bushnell o Invented Bushnells Turtle Human powered 1775-6 War Submarinehand propelled 1861 The C.S. Hunleyfirst successful in 1864 Sunk an enemy warship USS Housatonic Darwin H.M.S. Beagle o o Civil o o

o Noticed Atallshypothesized that Volcanos came from the ocean floor (go back to Course Reader) The ocean floor is not flat o Explored Galapagos Island o Explored Tierra del Fuego HMS Challenger o 1st global marine expedition o Tons of data collected o Found the Mariana trench o James Alden Titanic sinks April 1912 o Many deathsupwards of 1,000 o A lot of scientific underwater progress as result of Titanic SONAR1914 o Reginald Fessendsen o Meteor expedition that used sonar to map South America and Africa 1925-7 William Beebe and Otis Barton 1934 o Made underwater sea maps o Contributed never seen fishes etc. o Importanceall exploration was not done! o 3,028 feet underwater in a diving ball Jacques Cousteau o Won Academy award for Le Monde du Silence o First public view of whats going on under the sea Generated global interest o He invented scuba gear a lot of humans can explore the top 200 feet of the environment Marie Tharp* o Mid-Atlantic Ridge o First to do complete map of ocean Heezen and Tharp map 1957-77 o Proved continental drift Piccard ROV (remotely operated vehicles) o See readings

Alvin o See readings

Significance- Is it exploration if we are using robots? Benefits? Disadvantages? Women Explorers Why no few women explorers throughout history o Limited access to education o Limited access to financing o Universal marriage and no protection o It was difficult to travel great distances These things began to change in the late 18th and early 19th century o Better access to education, money o Some chose not to marry o Motorized transportation Mary Wortley Montagu o Married to a british ambassador in the Ottoman empire Divorced him and wrote letters describing Ottoman life which were published Wrote about the small-pox inoculation Maria Merian 1665 o Traveler interested in insects painter o Married with daughters She left her husband Wrote books on insects Jeanne Baret 1766-69 o Met husband de Cummerson in France, and then they went exploring together but Baret dressed up as a male o Circumnavigation o She was a natural healer o Her disguise was discovered Alexine Tinne o Sought the source of the Nile 1862-63

Marianne North o Artist of tropical plants o Went to Canada, U.S., Jamaica and Brazil o Did most of her work out of a hut in the depths of the Brazilian forest. o 1870s-1880s Mary Kinsley o Explorer West Africa in 1890s o Wrote Travels in West Africa o Used this and lectures to raise money for more traveling Maria Hubbard o 1905 Labrador o Explored and drew a detailed map of Labrador which is still used today

NoteWe also discussed Mary Tharpe in underwater exploration section Dawn of the Space Age (World War I 1914 to 1918 WWII 1939 to 1945) Konstamtin Tsiolkovsky o 1857-1935 o Theoretical writings that established many of the basics of space flight Herman Oberth o 1894-1989 o Wrote a book on space fundamentals that led to the space rocket craze (in the west) of 1920s. Goddard- American o 1882-1945 o 1st rockets built 1926 o Worked alone, very secretive o Highest altitude ever reached only 9000 feet o Chronological overlap Von Braun o Worked for the Germans

o Inspirational leader o More advancements made than Goddard o Developed V-2, terrorist weapon (rocket) that was launched at London and mostly affected the civilian population o V-2 lead to advancements that helped with future rockets. o After the end of WW2, von Brauns team was captured and worked for the Americans o Slave labor ICBMs o Rockets meant to transport nuclear weapons (developed in o Spy o o o mid 40s) Not very accurateoften missed targets Satellites US wanted to launch BUT afraid would be considered a hostile Result: science program THEN Sputnik is launched in 1957 NASA was developed in response 1958

NASA in Action o President John F Kennedy 1961 made man on the moon a goal o The first Russian went into space 1961, only ~one month before the first American o Project Mercury early 1960s 25 missions 1st man-in-space program Goalto orbit a spacecraft around the earth 7 person Astronaut teamcalled the Mercury 7 The important flights Freedom 7- first American in Space Shepherd Friendship 7- 1st American in Orbit John Glenn Went wrongbut engineers managed to save the day Things can always go wrong. Be prepared.

Faith 7Last of the Project Mercury series. Completed 22 orbits to evaluate the effects of 1 full day in space

Project Gemini early 1960s o Practice rendezvous docking o Demonstrate that men could be put safely on the moon o Subject astronauts and equipment to space flight up to two weeks in duration o Perfect methods of entering the atmosphere and landing o Why was Project Gemini important? Before Gemini, NASA had only flown in space a few times. The Mercury missions proved that astronauts could fly in space. NASA had to learn what happens when people spend more time in space. It had to learn how astronauts could go outside a spacecraft in a spacesuit. It had to learn how to connect two spacecraft together in space. All of these things had to be done so we could go to the moon. Before Gemini, NASA had not done any of them. Gemini proved NASA could do them all. The Apollo Program o Apollo 8 was the first to orbit the moon o 1969 First man on the moon Lance Armstrong Apollo 11 One small step for manone giant leap for mankind Televised live around the world o Famous Apollo 13 Supposed to land on moon but SERIOUS problem Able to land safely on Earth

Humans vs. Robots o Humans often do the job better Speed and effectiveness Ability to improvise

 Ability to inspire o But Robots are cheaper Robots dont require a return trip They can also be good scouts/good precursors to humans o Use humans where they Survive most easily Outperform robots by the biggest margin Contribute more than just science o Some robots Lunik first robot to land on Moon (USSR) Spirit and Opportunity Robots

12/15/2013 12:05:00 PM Section Notes REVIEW Also North American was 2nd semester What do we take away from marine section?? Darwin Sonar National race in the context of the war Know the dates handed out on the sheet on the very first day. Right decades for the first semester and the exact dates for second half NORTH and South Focus on this happening in the context of nationalism race between different countries Scott Andersonwhat were the keys to the success of the polar explorations Learning from Inuits, big margin of error SPANISH Think in context of themeslooking for gold and wealth Importance of N. American Spanish lecture was that there was so recordno resources to rely on. There was no record because they had bad motivationsto find gold Connect writing- motivations-gold-of no writing is it exploration DAWN By the mid 20th century everything explored already so needed new. Early visionaries. Von Braunimportance of teamwork. After World war 2, nationalism fueled things. How did Cold War influence Mercury and Gemini Gemini/Mercury purpose of the programs and what learned NATIONALISM IS A SUPER IMPORTANT THEME Is female still exploration if people have already been there before? Be able to argue main themes?