120 Kiraval

pages. If authors do include their names on submitted papers,

anonymous reviewing cannot be guaranteed. You can mention
your name and other related details in the covering letter.
Please submit your papers to the following email as
attachment. kiranavali.submission@gmail.com. You are
requested to send two separate files - one in word format (.doc
or .docx,) and another one in unicode.txt format. It is
necessory to upload your paper to web. Provide your personal
details in the mail.
Space is too precious. Hence we request to embed the
citation in text itself and collect the works cited at the end of
the paper. More clearly you are advised to follow M.L.A. style.
You can use easybib (http://www.easybib.com) or any other
tools to generate the works cited list.
Subscription
To subscribe Kiraval please send your subscription
amount to the following address either as cheque, DD or
MO. DD and cheque should be in favour of SANSKRIT
RESEARCH FOUNDATION payable at any bank at
Thiruvananthapuram.
I SSN 0975-4067
KIRAVAL
Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation
The New Trivandrum Sanskrit Series
Vol.V. Book.I & II
January-June
2013
SANSKRIT RESEARCH FOUNDATION
T.C 39/37
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM-36
KIRAVAL
Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation
Editor
Dr.M. Manimohanan
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady
dr.m.manimohanan@gmail.com
Executive Editor
Dr.C.S.Sasikumar
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady
drsasikumarcs@yahoo.co.in
Managing Editor
Dr.G.Narayanan
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady
dr.g.narayanan@gmail.com
Editorial Board
Dr.V.Sisupalapanikkar,Professor of Sanskrit(Rtd.) Uty. of Kerala
Dr.R.Vijayakumar, Professor of Vyakarana, S.S.U.S.Kalady
Dr.K.Muthulakshmi, Associate professor in Vedanta, S.S.U.S.
Kalady
Dr.K.K.Sundaresan, Registrar, Kalamandalam
Editorial Advisory Board
Dr.T.Devarajan, Professor of Sanskrit(Rtd), University of Kerala
Dr.P.Chithambaran, Rtd.Professor of Vedanta,S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr.P.K.Dharmarajan, Professor of Sahitya, S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr..S.Sobhana, Associate professor in Vedanta, S.S.U.S.Kalady
Dr.K.Sekharan, Professor of Sanskrit, University of Calicut
Associate Editor
Prof.R.Jinu
jichelnu@yahoo.co.in
Views expressed in the articles are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of the publishers
Kiraval 119
Submission & Subscription
Kiraval, the journal of Sanskrit Research foundation is
published with the intention to keep up the rich academic
tradition of Thiruvananthapuram in the area of Sanskrit
learning.. The journal covers contemporary trends in the study
of Sanskrit. and related subjects and problems in methodology.
Contemporary Indology surpasses classical Indology in all
aspects. The new trends in social sciences and cultural studies
influenced new Indology to a great extent. Philosophy,
literature, grammar, fine arts etc. were analysed and discussed
in the light of new ideologies. In this milieu we would like to
reconsider our traditional knowledge systems to make them
transparent.
We are inviting excellent original research papers from
scholars. Kiraval is a peer reviewed journal. Eminent
academicians and experts form our review panel. We are
expecting co-operations from all.
Submission Guidelines
Manuscripts should be typed in a 12 pt. font and double-
spaced on one side of plain paper, with wide margins to allow
for editorial notes and instructions to the printer. Equations
and symbols should be typed if possible; in any case, clarity is
essential. The first page of the manuscript should contain the
article title. Each page of the manuscript should be
consecutively numbered, including pages of references and
captions. As we follow a double-blind reviewing procedure,
authors are requested not to include their name or
affiliation in their submitted papers. Self-identifying
citations and references in the article text should be avoided.
Authors should thus make sure that their names and/or
affiliations are NOT mentioned on any of the manuscript
118 Kiraval
Bhargavaraman.K is a Lecturer (Contract)in Vyakarana, , Sree
Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Regional cen-
tre, Thiruvananthapuram
Dr.C.N.Vijayakumari is assistant Professor in the Department
of Sanskrit, University of Kerala.
Sreedas A.V is Research scholar, Sree Sankaracharya Univer-
sity of Sanskrit, Kalady
Contents
Ia Upaniad and Rmyaa Dr.V.Vasudevan- 7
Bhadrakalikalam- a Reminiscence of
Dhuli Chitra: A study Babu.K -15
Modern and Vedantic Views
on Mental Health Dr.H.Sylaja -38
Cultivation and related income
in the Arthastra Pushpadasan Kuniyil -44
Rmyaa Plays of
Bhsa Dr. N. Vijayamohanan Pillai - 49
The Creative Genius
in Sree Narayana Guru Dr.Asaletha.V -56
Eco Feminism Shamshad Begum.R - 62
Ajitamahtantra:
Treatise on Vstuvidya Soumya. K -70
Historical and Cultural Aspects Reflected In
Ashtamimahotsava Prabandha Krishnaveni -79
Influence of Buddhism in the Social Health
Environment of Kerala Soumya.c.s -84
-.... .|...... :...-. ....+ -
.... .....|.-...
.....-...... .|-.+-. :..-..|.-..+-..|
E&- Ehi M & .E .E -104
-.|.. :... -. +. ... ..|- :. . |.. -. . |.-..+ -..|
+ . -..-..||.. .......-. .|.. . -.|.
SUBSCRIPTION
1 year - `.300.00
5 Years - `.1000.00
10 years - `.1500.00
Life Subscription(15 Years) - `.2500.00
Please send your papers and letters to
Editor
Dr.M.Manimohanan
Professor of Vyakarana
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit
Sankarapuram; Kalady. Ernakulam. Pin 683574
Or to
Executive Editor
Dr.C.S.Sasikumar
T.C. 39/ 37, Somavihar; Vrindavan Garden
Thiruvananthapuram -36
drsasikumarcs@yahoo.co.in
Kiraval 117
Our contributers
Dr V Vasudevan is readaer in Nyaya, Sree Sankaracharya
University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Regional Centre,
Thiruvananthapuram
Babu.K is Assistant Professor of Painting, Sree Sankaracharya
University of Sanskrit, Kalady.
Dr.H.Sylaja is Associate professor and HoD of Psychology,
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady
Pushpadasan Kuniyil is Assistant Professor in Sanskrit
Sahitya, Govt Sanskrit College, Pattambi.
Dr.N.Vijayamohanan Pillai is Associate Professor in Saskrit
General,Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady
Dr.V.Asaletha is associate professor in Malayalam, Sree
Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Regional cen-
tre, Thiruvananthapuram
Shamshad Begam R is assistant Professor in Hindi,Sree
Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Regional Cen-
tre, Thiruvananthapuram.
Soumya K is Research scholar, Sree Sankaracharya Univer-
sity of Sanskrit, Kalady
Krishnaveni is Research scholar, Sree Sankaracharya Univer-
sity of Sanskrit, Kalady
Soumya C.S is Research scholar, University of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram
Dr.Yamuna K is Associate professor in Vyakarana, Sree
Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady
Dr.S.Vijayakumari is Associate Professor in Sanskrit Gen-
eral, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady
116 Kiraval
. |-.|.. . .. |..|-..+ .. +|...-..... ... . . |.+.. . |-.|.. .
. ...--..|., ... ...+.. .. ..-.|. ..|... . |-.. . .--...||., ... - .
...|.a.. . |-.. . . . |..||.+
.- ..-.. ..-.-...|..-... .... -... ..-...-.....
--.+.. | ..-...-... ..|-. :|.+ ... .. -| -.. |-.+.... :|.+ ...
|- -| -.||. -....|.-. . .: .+. -. -....|.-. .a.|-. -.-. -.v. + -.
. |-.+ +.|.. .. -.... , +.|.. . |-.+.. -.v. + -. |.. ... .
+ ... . ..-... .|-. .-... ..-.. ..-.-... :|. . . .+ . .
. ++... .|+. .|. +.|-... -. +.+ .-.--....-.. .|. ..
.. +...|-.|. +.. +..-.... +.-...... + -- |- .... . . -. .
.. ..... -... ...|. +.. +
. - ...... ... -.... -.+.. -..... . + .:.-.-... -.a..-... ..|-.
..|.-.... .. .-. |.+ ... .. -......-.... :|.+ ... |-
... +-.. -.....| . .....|.|-. .. .+ |.-.. . . ..., ..
:..| .... . + a...+. . .-.. ... -.+ -..|., ... : .. |. ... . ..
... -.... -.+. . -.|.. .|. - ..-..|+ + .. ...|..... -.....
-.|- :..-.|. :|. . + .:.- . .-.+ -. .. ..|. |.-.. . :.. |-.-...||.
..||.-.. ..-... - .. .. |. ..|.+ -. -.|-.. .. -... ...a...+- . ..
|.... . + .... ... . ...|..+
Works cited
Udayana, Nyyakusumjali. Vrs: Chaukhamba
Vidyabhavan, 1962. Print.
Editors note
EITHER PUBLISH OR PERISH.
The higher education sector focuses on post graduation
studies, research and publication. Francis Bacon says Reading
maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an
exact man. Education makes man accurate, subtle, objective
and worldly wise. That is education emancipates one from
darkness to light. Reading is to mind what exercise is to body.
Education prunes our thoughts and natural abilities. Our
Universities promote research programs with the view that it
may be useful for the society. It is put forward by our
Universities that a researcher should publish articles in an
authentic journal.
It was in 2009 a group of teachers came up with a unique
concept of launching an ideal journal KIRANAVALI . Ever
since its first publication a wide range of research papers in
Sanskrit and allied Subjects have been published. Thus it has
been a boon for the academic community.
Dr.M.Manimohanan
Kiraval 115
.|. . . |.. -.|-. . . ... + . . .| |... .|+..|.-. .
.|....|+.... . + |....|+..... :... -... ... ...+-. + .
-.. - + -..|.-. . . +.|..|-.. -... :|.+ . ... -. ..|.
+ . . | :..-..+ ... .. ....
... |. -... ..|. . |-.. . . . |... +
-| -.. |-..... -......-....++(...+.-..-..| --)
... |- -. .. -. ... . + -. ..... v...-. .... :.. -...-. +
.. -. ... . +.-... . . |.:.... . .+ .. ........-..-. ...
.... . +.-. ... . +. .||. |.:....-. + .| ... ..|-..-. ... . +.
.. - . .. ..|.++ : .. . |. ..|-... . |.. . + .. . |.... :..
.|-.. -. ...|.|.+.. . . +. -..|.+ . . . |.-+...-.... .. -.
. +.. . .. . +..+ .. .. . |.. . +. |. |.-|..|..||.. . ..
|.-+...-..|.|.+... . +.-.|. :|. ......+-. + .. .. . |..-.|.
|.-..-.|.. , .. |.-+...-..|.|.+... . +. ..|. :|. .......+.
:|. - .. -..|.+ ... -. .. -. ... . + -. ..... v...-. ....
:.. -... -..+.. -..|.+ ... |- .. .. -. ... . +. .. -..+... . +.
......+.-. + ...-. ... . +.. ..-.|.. .. -..+... . +. ...||.
........+.-. + . .. ..|.+... - . .....|.:+
. . .-.:|.|. . ... +.|.+| . ..... , ..... . |. ...-. +
.-.: -.. .. . ........ :.. -..... ..|..-...-. + .| . :.-|.
.... ... |. -... ..|. :|.+
.-. . ... |-.|.. ...--.... ....-... :. - .|. . ..-. + ... |-
a.- .. ..|... . ... . . |. .. +|.:+ . . |.+.. . . . ..| ..-..+..-.....
.+.. . . |-.|.. . .-. .|+.. +-. . . |.+... . ...+... |.
.-....|....-...... . |-.. . .--... .+ . . . . |.+.. :|. -.. .
.||. ..., .. -... .-... .....-.....+ . . .........
.. .. ....--.... .-... |-.|.. . . .--...||. ...-. + .. .. ... . .
-.|...--.... . . ...... .. .|+.. , . .. -. ....... .... ...|-..
114 Kiraval
. |..... . . . .- . .... -. ..-... . .|. :|. ..- . . : .
|.:+ . -.|-...+. -. .|-..|. . .|. |... .....-.....
.|... |..-. |+. ...- ...| -..-..-. . |...-. + .. .
. . . .. . ...|.. .| .. . .. -. .. -..v. . ...- .
.-...+.|.+|.-...|. ..-..-. |. -. |...-. + . -+.. -..|.
. -..-. .... ...|.... .. |++..+. :. |+|.. .....-. .+..-... .
. .- ...... -.. ..|. ... -....|-||. .. -.-. . . ..-...|-.|.+ . .v -
...+.. |. .--.... + .|-..|. -.|-.. .+. ... |-+ v. -. .. |-
-. ... . +. -.. + -. ... v. ..|-.-.. -. ... |- -. ... . + -. .....
v...-. .... , :.. -... . ....-... .... +
...+.. -.|.... . .....-.+.. .+... ...-.|- .. .|+... ,
.. -.|....-. ..-..... + |- |..|-...-.. -. +. ... |. .|.|:+
-+. . -.|.. +-. . . ... +... . :|. |.: . ..-. .. +... ..-.... |.
. .--..|.+ -. .|. +. .+.-.|....... . ... . |-.|.. . ... .
......-.+.|. +-..|. . ...|.: .+...|. |..-.|...++..+...
:.. -...-.|. ....-... ....|.+
|. . ..-... -....|... -.... ..-..|-.|. .. + .|.:-. + ...+..
-.. .... -..... .. ....|. . ... + . . . |+.. -... -.. .. .
..-...| -..|..|-.|. ..-... .... -. . ... + -.. |- .. ....+
-. .|.-.... -... . .. . . -.... . ..|-.|. .. + |.:-. + .
..-..| ..-........| .|-|.-.. .. -..|--... ..-..| ...
:.. -...-.|. ... ...+-. +
|. . ... .|+ . .|. ...|-...-.|.-. .. |. . ... + .. .
.. . :|. ..-. ......-.|.:+ ...... ....-..-...
-.|-:.- .-..... .+...:.- ... .. -...- . -. . ..|.+ .
..|-.a..-.|.-. . ...-.. . + -...-... :.. -...-.|. ...
...+-. +
|. . ...... . . +. ..+..|-....-... . ..||....-...-. .
Ia Upaniad and Rmyaa
Dr.V.Vasudevan
Itihsa, Pura and smti texts are known as Upabhmaas,
which are meant for the correct understanding of Vedas. One could
not understand the true meaning of any part of the Vedas unless
he studies the complete vedic texts. How can one interpret a
passage of a book properly by simply going through that passage
only and not the whole text? But Vedas are countless and we
cannot study them all in our life span. To overcome this problem,
the Upabhmaas texts arose to help us in understanding them.
The ancient great sages, with their mastery over Vedas gave the
essence of them in short form of these kind of texts for the sake of
mankind and with the aid of them only, Vedas should be
interpreted, says Mahabharata (Aadi parva 1-290). Among them,
Smrti texts stand for karma section of Vedas and Itihasa and
Puranas are for later section or jnana portion. Now this paper is
on how Ramayana, one of the two great Itihsas helps in
interpreting Ia Upaniad.
There is enough evidence in Valmikis Ramayana to believe
that he was profoundly influenced by Isa Upanishad. The very
first stanza that is traditionally believed to have poured out of
Valmikis pain-laden heart, stricken by the pitiable sight of the
male kraunca bird killed by the hunter, contains a combination of
8 Kiraval
words contained in the eighth verse of Ia Upaniad.-.. |... .|.-.
.-..-. -....| .-..+ (Ramayana Bala kanda 2-15).. . ..... -....|-.
.-..-.+ (Ia Upaniaad -8)
In Yuddha kda of Rmyaa, Rama is praised as the image
of one Lord, whose body the whole universe is Jagat sarvam
arram te (Rmyaa, Yuddha kda , 120-28). This
corresponds to the first line of Ia Upaniad I vsyam idam
sarvam yat kim ca jagatym jagat (Ia Upaniad 1)
In Rmyaa, Rama and Sita were deceived by a golden deer
with its starry eyes and skin of shining gold. Though it looked too
good to be true, Sita desired it to adorn the royal palace and Rama
went after it to capture it to fulfill her wish. As a result, in Ramas
absence, Sita was carried away and imprisoned in Lanka by the
Demon-king Ravana. The incidence reminds us of the fifteenth
verse of Ia Upaniad. The face of truth, it says, is covered by a
golden disc. The verse is a prayer to Pa (nourisher) to remove
the veil so that the devotee of truth can see the indweller, Purua.
The imageries of the purua in the sun, the golden vessel, the
son of Prajpati and His most auspicious form, described in the
sixteenth verse of Ia Upaniad, are also described in the sixteenth
chapter of the Rmyaa.
. .. +. .-. . . ..-.... . - --.|. .-. - . -..
.-. -. +....-. .-. .-..|-. (Ia Upaniad 16)
The prayer addressed to the sun in this verse means as follows
- o nourisher, one seer of all, controller of the world, attractor of
the souls, son of Prajpati, withdraw thy rays and collect thy
splendour.
... . .-.-.... ...+.. ..-.-. |
a | -||~|e|||c|| i|e|||||-|-|
tt+t-t . .|t
.. ..-.|. .|.+-...|.... -.....-.|. |..... .+..... | +. .
: . .. . :|.+ - .. . .-.., .-.. .+.-. .--. . . |. -. |.
. |.-. ... .-.||... . .|+ .-. +
.. ...-... -..-.|..... ..-... . : -.+.-. + .... .v |-|-.
..+ ..+ .... +.| . . .-..:.. . + + . -..-.|. ..-.+. :.. |.|..+
:.. :|-.. : ..|.. |... . -.. ..|..-. + -...... |..|..|-...+...
.-..... .a.+ ..+ -.. + .|- . .. |..|..|-...+
.. |++. ... +..... -.....
- ...|. ... +...... -...--....
.-..... +.-.... -.....
: .. |. .. .-......
- ....+.-....-..... :|.+ ... :|-.. |..|.|..|..|-. -.|-.. .+...
...|. ... +...... -...--...||.+ -.|-.. .+-..|.. |... : . ... +
...-. + . . -... +-. .. . -..-. . ... + ....|.+ ..-.+-.. . -.... .+.
|... . . .. ..-.... .... -.|-.. .+ +
.. .... -.....-.... .. ..-.... ... ..-..|... .-.+
..|..-. + .... -.. . : .. -.. . . ..-... |.: . . ..+ |. .
... .. |... . .|..-...|... .. . .. | |.|-.... ... .. .-. -. .
.... ....-.|. |..... + -. ..-...-. ...-.+. . ...|...-. +
112 Kiraval
-. +-. .. . ..|-. .. |.+. ..|. .. -... -... -+ +..|. -..|. . ..-.....
..|.. --..|.+ .. . -. .-..-.|.-.... .-... -. .-.. .|...||.
..a... -.+
+.|-.+ ..-.|-+ .|. |+-.|.+ .-..|....... -+..a....
.... -......+
.- ..- .-. -... .|....-..
:|. |... -...|.-.. .-..:.+ .. ..|.:..+.| . -.-.
..... |.....+
..... .... ...-...... ... -.-.-. ...-.. .....|.
.- -.+.. + -.-..-... .. + |.+ ... ... . -.... -....... -..|. -+.|+ . .
|...... .-.... -... .. +... . .|..... . . .:.. .|.-....
...... . +.. .... -.... .......+ -+..-......+-.
|. . .-..|... . - :..... + .. +. + ....-. |. . .
-...|-...-... |.-..+
Kiraval 9
.. -. . -.- -. . -.-..|. -.-...-. ||
|..+.-..+. |....|-... .-.-. |
..-..-. .-..| .-.....|.-. |
|...... . .. ...| ..||-.. |...-. |
..-.... . |.|: -..|-.-.-.... . .|
...| .... . .. .-. |--..|-. |(Ramayana, BK -16-11)
Then emerged out of the sacrificial power, a great form of
incomparable might and splendor, tenderly carrying in his arms a
golden vessel lined with silver, resplendent like the Sun, like the
head of blazing fire. Looking at king Dasaratha, he said these
words: know me as a son of Prajapati The king reverentially
received the golden vessel, full of divine elixir.
The context of the divine person emerging out of the fire of
the king Dasarathas horse sacrifice may be widely different from
the context in which the very same imageries are used in the
Upaniad. But therein precisely lays the spontaneity of valmikis
poetry. The source of inspiration asserts itself without the poet
straining to express or repress it and in a place were it is least
expected.
The allusions combined with the imageries of the person in
the sun, the golden vessel, the son of Prajpati etc. make it a
possible inference that Valmiki was influenced by the Ia
Upaniad. This inference becomes an established conclusion when
we appreciate the fact that the philosophy of life, Valmiki has
explained as the ideal in the Rmyaa, is nothing but the Ia
philosophy of vigorous, lawful and desireless action. In the
Ramayana, Valmiki given sermon after sermon on the supreme
dharma (law), the performance of duty, the adherence to truth
10 Kiraval
etc., but not about Vedantic moksha (liberation) and desirelessness,
beyond the point of restraining natural impulses within the orbit
of law. Valmiki has described his work as abounding in Dharma,
Artha and kama, making no reference to Moksha at all, in his own
words Kamrtha gua samyuktam dharmrtha gua vistaram
(Rmyaa, Bla kda -5-4), though later writers of Rmyaa
like Tulsidas and Kamban have presented Rmyaa as a scripture
of Moka or liberation.
There is no mention of desireless action as a path for liberation
in the whole Rmyaa, which abounds in expositions of law,
and advocates the vigorous pursuit of duty. Rama himself is
presented as a human being with all natural human passions,
attachments, valorous indignations and weakness all governed
by one strong psychological motive to live up to dharma at all
costs. Hundreds are the places where Valmiki describes the glories
and virtues of hero. Rama is repeatedly praised as the upholder of
law, the protector of his people, firm in truth etc., but never as
desireless man aiming for Moka.
We may say that both householder ascetics as well as
renunciation were existing in Valmikis day; but the central
philosophy of life which it was Valmikis purpose to expound is
the early vedic way of lawful, desireless works.
The word desire is used in the Ramayana as in the Veda, not
in the merely degenerate sense, but to denote holy, glorious and
altruist motives also.
1. While receiving the ascetic Viswamitra in the royal court is
Ayodhya, king Dasaratha enquired reverentially, what
great desire of you shall I fulfill? (Bla kda -18-51)
Kiraval 111
-+.. +. +. |... .|.. -.+ |+. .. -..+ -. ... . -... -+..
-..-. .|-.. .... . + .. -.... |. . .-..|... +... .-. :...
. ..|.....
.|-.. ... |. -. ..|. .-.. ... .-.|.+
.. -. . . ..-... ... . |.|-.. .. ++ (: -...... .|...
:|. ..+.-.. -..|.--... .+
|.|-... -.-.....-. -. -..... |-.. .. .. :|. -..... -+. .-. .
:. .-. . +.-... . -. +. -. .-. ....|.-. . ... |- -....... -. . .
..-. .... - :... -.. . + ... -.-.-. . .-. -. |..-..... |.+
... -..... ... +.. .|-. + :. |- .|... -..|.+ ..-. -..+
.. +.. -.. +.. :|. ..|. +-.. . +. +.|. -. ...|. +
.. .-. .-... . .: -...-. . ..-..+ ........ +
.- . |..... . .. -.... -.-.... -+., . + |. -+. :|. -.. ...
.... .-. . -.... -.|..-. . .. +. .|.-....-...+ -+ .. |...
.- .. .|. :|. . -...|. --.. -.-. -. +-. . . .. + +-. -... -.|-.. .+...
+-.. . -..|.-..... -.... .-. .....-.a.. ... , . . .-..-. -. .a. :
|.v.. -. .-.-. . :.... |. .+
.. .|. .- (+ .. .|... - .-.|-. .-.-.|.
(.....|... :..||. ..+..|. ..... .... . +.. -.......
-+.|+... ... |. . .-. . |..-. . -. |-+ . . . ... ... . .
. ... . . .-.... -... +
:. -.|. . .....|. ... . ..-...-..-.|.. .-...|. .... |.+.. .a.. .
:-.....|-. .. :.:. . .-... -....... -..|. -+.|+........+
.-+ .-... .|.-.. :..||. .-..|. ... -..... -+|-..-..
.-.-....+
.. . +.. ...|. -... |. . ..-...:|. |..... .|..|.+
. -. . . . -. . - .. .|-... ..|. + .. .|-.. -... . .-. ..|-...+
110 Kiraval
... ... +..-. |+-.. ..-. :. . |.-.-. . . .|:. . + .. -. + . ..
:. .. .. . ...- -. ... |- --. .-... . .+ :.|-.. |.--... -
-.|. -. |.v.|-. (|.. +.. ..|-. .. .-. :|.++ . .. |.......
-. ..-.| |.. +.. .-.. -.|.-... . +.-..-.. + . . |.--.... ..-..
.-....-. .. .. -... . |.-.-. :|.+ -+ +-.|.-... .-.-...... ..
| .. . . .. . .. .. -... + -. -. +|.:... -. .|a..
...|. -... ........ ..|.+ -... .......... . ...+
-...... +.. a.- .... +...|.+ . |-.+-..+-.. .. .-. .-. + . .
.. |.-...|...+ |.|-....|.. |.|-.... ... . |.-. .. +.-..-....
-....+ ..|.-.-.-... -..|. .-. ... ..|.-. |... |. .|.....-. . . .
|+ .. -..||. . .. + .. .|.....-. .. -. .-.|. . .-. .+ . . .-..|..
..|.-.| .-... |...|.. ....+ -....-.... -+|-.... ...|.
-+... .-. . :-.. .-... .+
..... ..|.|-. ..-..+ . . +. .- -. .. -. . . -. . -.......-. -...
--. .-. - +. ...... .. . .+...-. ...|. -. :|. .- -.+.. + -....
.. . -... . .... .. . ..|... -.-. |. .-.|-. ..-..+. -. .+....-... +
|.. .- |. . .|. |... ...|. |..|..|. .+ |+. -...-.. ..|. +..+ -..|.
+.--.|.. .-. +-. . |. -. .-. .. ..|.+
|--.... ... +-.. -. +. . .-. |-. : -.|-...|. . . -. +.
. .-. -.. -... -. +. .. -..|- : -. |-...|. -. -+-.-. . . ..
. a...|.+
.... .. |.|...|. ......-....|. .-..-.|.-... . -+ -. .-..
.|...|.-... .. ..|. . . .. |.. -... +.|: (: -...... .|...
:|. . -.. ..-..+ . |. -.....+ . . .. . . + -a.+|-.|. |+ . . -..|.+
..|.....- .. -..+... |+.+.. -... ... -..|. ....
-.... -.|.|. |.-.||.+ .. +. |.-.|.-... ..... . :|.-....||-.
..|.+. ..|..-. .. . .-. ::.|.. . -..|.+ |+. ... :.|.+-.|-..
|... .. ...-.+. . -.. +-.. .-. +
Kiraval 11
2. Sage Bharadwaja told Bharata, You shall go to Citrakuta
hills, where Rama is, tomorrow; you live here with your
routine today. O, great knower of Kama, and Artha, fulfill
my desire. Bharadwaja refers to his own wish to entertain
the guests. (Ayodhya kanda -54)
3. As a reply to Jabalis materialistic argument to break the
word given to a dead father and to return to rule the kingdom
for his own and for the sake of people, said Rama, Having
come to this world of action, one should perform auspicious
actions. By the performance of such action, the great sages
of yore attained heaven. (Ayodhya kda -109)
In Valmikis own day, the ideal of renunciation as a means to
liberation had come to prevail. Rmyaa describes parivrajakas
(wandering mendicants) who were held in high esteem by the
people. The two paths of action and renunciation have been
mentioned in Upanishads also, which were undoubtedly prior to
Ramayana. In Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Janaka was presented
as a householder sage and Yjavalkya as the sage who renounced
the world. Both were sages of highest order and the paths followed
by them were distinctly differentiated. The fusion of these two
paths into one path of desireless action is not found in Rmyaa.
If it was Valmikis idea, he would have perfected Rama in its
mould and saved the hero of much of his blemish.
The ideal so recorded in Rmyaa is the distinction between
right desire and wrong desire, the performance of action in
accordance with law and by such lawful action, the attainment of
the highest aim of life, which was as spoken of in the Samhita,
was attained by the great sages of yore. So the Ramayanas
teaching is concurring with the teaching of Samhita and not of
12 Kiraval
Upanishads. The background of Rmyaa is Sahita and the
background of Ia Upaniad also is Sahita only.
Upaniads generally belong to the Brhmaa or raayaka part
of Vedas. The concepts of later vedic movement such as tma,
Brahman, Prakti can be seen there. But Ia Upaniad is unique
by the absence in it of any of these Vedantic terms. Actually it
belongs to the Sahita part of Vjasaneya Branch of Yajurveda.
(The Upaniad that belongs to the Brhmaa part of Vjasaneya
Branch is Bhadrayaka Upaniad.) Ia Upaniad is the fourtieth
chapter of Vjasaneya Sahita. It enjoys the traditional pada-
pha, (i.e., splitting of the passages to words) which is undertaken
for samhita portion only. The Vjasaneya Samhita is mainly
ritualistic in content. So Ia Upaniad cannot be understood without
reference to Vjasaneya Sahita. The Rmyaa helps us in
understanding the real meaning of it.
But the tradition not only considers this as Upanishad but gives
more importance also to it than to any other Upaniads. It is
Upaniad because it fulfils the intrinsic characteristics of
Upaniads; because it reveals the true nature of the self and takes
the soul near to Brahman. Later Upaniads is the whole body of
metaphysical enquiry which yielded various theories of Brahman,
of self and non-self as described in them.
The historical perspective is complete when we understand that
the synthesis of action renunciation in the one path of desireless
action was achieved in Mahbhrata, of which Bhagavad-Gita is
a part, which is subsequent to valmiki. Thus the stages in the
evolution of the path of desireless action are
1. The sahita path of lawful, desireful action.
c|||| e||-| c|s a| |-c|| i|||u
zt . |-t. -t . |t-tt+ -ttt
-.... .......|. -.|..-. :... . |. ..|-. ...|.. -...|....
.-. |.+|.... -..-.|..|. ...-...-|. -.+ -... .|.+..|+ -. . -. ....
. |.. . |.. . .-. +|..-.-... -..+-..... .. + . . .. ...... .
. ... . |-.-.. ..--.-.|-.... :|. .: -. ..|. .. .....-... + .|.+ . . .
-. . . ..-. |..|.-. -..|. . .. ..+ . .. ..+.-. . .-. .
-... -..... .|-. +-.....+ .-... -.. . . |-|.... . :. . ..:|.
.. + .. .. . .-.-....+ ..-..... . . + .-. |.+ --.. -.-. .+||..
. .. .. +.... + . -. |. ...|.:.. ..-.. + -. +-. . -.-. . . . ..
-....|.:..-.|.+. :. ..-. ...+ -....|......-.-...|-....-..
-....|.:.. .|.-.|.. :|.+
..-...|-.|..:. .. ..-.| |.. +.. . |-...|-.... ...... .
:..v. -.- .-... .-.|.. . . . .|.: ... ...-.+ . . . -...
... ... ...-... + -. ..-.......... -.|- . .. ..|.:... ...
:|. . .- -.+.. +
|.|-....-.. .. .. .-.-. . |..|. -.... .|.+-. .:.. |...-.+..
. -+|+. ...-.... ... |..+.. ..|-... .v. -.- .-... .. .
.|.-.-. ..-. .. . . ..|...-.+ . .. . .-. ::...|.... . . -..|.
-.. +-. .-. + ...... -... .. ..|. . ..-..|. ..|. +.... . .-. .
.|+ . . ... .... |.+..-. .+|..... .... + -.. +. .....|.
. ... ... ..... +. |.. +....|-.. . ....+.. -... :|. .. .
108 Kiraval
MLBD, 2003. Print.
Patajali. Patanjalis Mahbhshya. London: India Museum,
1874. Print.
Sastri, P.S.Subrahmanya. Lectures on Patanjalis
Mahabhashya. Vol. V. Tiruchirappalli: n.p., 1957. Print.
Visvanatha Panchanana. Nyayasiddhanatamuktavali-
pratyakshakhanda. Varanasi: Sri Harikrishnanibandha
bhavanam, 1994. Print.
Kiraval 13
2. Isa Upanishad and Ramayana recording a reversal of the
scale in favour of Samhita path of desireful action.
3. The later Upanishadic path of desireless renunciation.
4. The Gita fusion of the two paths in the one path of
desireless action for liberation.
The period of Ia Upaniad was after that of Purua skta and
prior to the emergence of systematic philosophy. This Upaniad
belongs to a period when the priestly ceremonials were popular
and the intellectuals were struggling to discover a new path, the
path of knowledge. The Rmyaa also, from the evidence of its
contents belonged to this period. There is not one word or concept
which is typically Upaniadic in Rmyaa. So the original
meaning of Ia Upaniad should be fixed in the light of sahita
and Rmyaa. The various commentaries of Ia Upaniad are
opposed to explain it with reference to Sahita and hence the
difference in their views became inevitable. The commentators
wanted to fix their own idea of philosophy in this Upaniad. But
Ia Upaniad and the Rmyaa could serve as a bridge between
the two paths on Vedas during the time of transition from faith
and ceremonialism to unimpeachable knowledge.
It is not customary for a writer on Upaniads to refer to the
Rmyaa. But it is quite common in the works of Viidvaita
School. Rmyaa is the sole literature we have which belongs
to the period that lapsed between the Upaniads and Gita. And
the author of Gita was profoundly influenced by Valmiki in
thought and expression. So a study of transition from Upaniads
to Gita, without reference to Ramayana which passed between
the two is historically inaccurate. Aside from that, Rmyaa does
14 Kiraval
come in as a help in understanding ancient ideals and should we
deny it a right place it deserves in the history of ancient Indian
thought simply because Valmiki has not presented it to us as a
philosophic treatise.
Works Cited
Isa-Upanishad ... Edited by Sri Syamalala Gosvami ... With an
English Translation and Commentary.. 52-6. Peoples Press:
Calcutta, 1895: n.p., 1895. Print.
Sukthankar, Vishnu Sitaram,, Belvalkar Shripad Krishna,,
Vaidya Parasurama Lakshmana,, and Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute.,.Mahabharata.: Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute, 1927. Print.
Valmiki.Valmiki-Ramayana : With Sanskrit Text and English
Translation. Gorakhpur: Gita, 1973. Print.
Kiraval 107
... + |+.... +..-.. .-. . . -.-.. . .. ... -. . |.|-.. + .. .
+... |+...|.|-.-.|. ... -. . . .||+.. + |+...|.|-. +...
.:.. a... .+ .-... +.. .. -... |-.. -..-.-.+ -..... -. ....
+..-. - .. | ..-. . -..|.+ :-. . . . -.-.-... .|.. v. .. -.-.
.|.|+.. .v.-. -... ... |.. - -.-.+.... + --. -. . .. ...|..
|+. |. . . ... |.-. .. |.-. . .-a..-.. .....-.|. |.... ,
-....-.|...-.+..-... + |.|-. |.:. :|.|- -..... :|. ..
... . +..-. - .. | ..-.. ..-.. |+-..: . . . |.+
--t-t rt
+..|... . ..+. + .. . -..... |.-.-.|.. .|... + -...|.
..|... .:. |-.. . .. |...-. -.+.|.+ -.. - ..+..|.
... -.-. -...-. .. . ..+.-.. |-... ... -... -.. + |... :|-..
..-.|..-. .... . .. .... .. -.. |..+ . .. ... -.-. . -.. .: . |...
... |...|+.|. .+ .. + .. . ..| |. .. .. -|. +... |..|..|.+|
... .- .. .....-.... .. . + -...|..-. .|+... |.|-.. . ..+....-.
|-.. |... |+-.|. .-.-. :.|. . .. .. .. +.. -. :|.+
Works Cited
Bhartrhari, Harivrsabha, and Raghunatha. Vakyapadiyam :
Vol.1. Varanasi: Sampurnananda Samskrta Visvavidyalaya,
2006. Print.
------------- Vakyapadiyam : Part 3,vol 2. Varanasi:
Sampurnananda Samskrta Visvavidyalaya, 1997. Print.
Misra. Sankara,Vaiecika-stropaskra. Second ed.
Varanasi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, 2002. Print.
Misra, Srinarayana. Kasikavrtti of Jayaditya-Vamana :
(along with Commentaries Vivaranapancika-Nyasa of
Jinendrabuddhi and Padamanjari of Haradatta Misra.
Varanasi: Ratna, 1985. Print.
Panini, and Karte S.M. The Ashtadhyayi of Panini. Delhi:
106 Kiraval
.. . . ... |+.. -.. . + .. |+.... .. -..|. .. +.. . .. . -. +
+...|.-.. |+.. .|... -..|.+
-.. -|.. +...-. -..-. |+.... -...:-. . +.. .|.|+.. +
... . .... -. . ....:...|.|.+
. . .|-.|. . +... . |+...|.++(-.. -| . -:
-. ..+..|. +...-.|..| ... .|.. + .. -.. +
+ t-t-t-t +
-+. |- +... |.|...|-. |+..|-.. a.:. -. ...|-. . ..|.. :|.
-...+.-.. + ...|. . -..-. + +.. . |+.. |.-.-.. + +....-.-. . ....
-.-.-...+.. + .-. -+...... .-. .. . + . .. ..|.+ -. .. .
-. (-.-.-...-. ++- .|. :|. .-.. ....|.+ -.. -|..|. .-. .
.-.. .+.|+... .||+..
||... ... | -. |.-. .. +..
|+..-. . +... , . .. .. . -. |+.++(. --:
||... ... ||-.. .. |-..-. . .. |.-.|.. ... |+.. +.. . |.-.-.
-..|.+ . .. .... .. ..|. -. |+. -.. +
-ttt tt-t-t-t
... -.. -.-.. ..+. .-..-.... . .|.. -...+.-.. .:.. +..
-.....--. :|. .-..-. .|.+. |.+ . ..+. .|+ .. +..|...+.
|.:... .. ...-.-... |.+..+ .+. .|..-.. |.... ..
|.-. . . |.-.. -..... ... +..... ( . ..+ .|.: ..
.. -.-. .... .-
+.. |+.. .. |+..-. +. .. . -.|.. -. - |. :|. ... -.-..-. + |+..
... --. -.. .. ...|..+ .|- .. |.-. ..|.-. .-.. a... :|.... +
+... .| |+... ...-.-. .|+ .-. . . a.. .-.|. +.. a..|... +
-. .-.|... .. -...+..... .|-.. |.-. . ... + .|- -....-. ...
Bhadrakalikalam- a Reminiscence of
Dhuli Chitra: A study
Babu.K
Introduction
In Kerala Bhadrakali kalamis a very popular form of
ritualistic art among the ritualistic form of art performed by all
class of people. Currently it exists as a kind of floor painting
which is generally created by the Non-Brahmin class of people
to satisfy their urge to worship the Shakti, one of the most
important cults in Hinduism. The Bhadrakali kalamwas
basically a kind of art of the backward castes of the Hindus
who were restricted to enter the temples by the upper castes.
The educated village folks who are mostly farmers or labors
by profession found this alternative form to satisfy urge of
worshiping the Gods through this kind of Rituals. Bhadrakali
kalamis most probably originated fromthe mythological story
about Kali, Chandi and Chamunda
1
. It is most interesting to
note that, that worshiping of Bhadrakali had been performed
without any aid from the upper cast people (Brahmins), the
process of this ritual totally simplified for according to the
capability of the existing poor people. The most significant
part of this ritual is the painting that is created on the floor by
some members of lower cast people. Bhadrakali kalamis
widely practiced in some areas of Kerala. It has been told that
the most expertise quality of Bhadrakali kalamis located in
the prosperous village Vailkkam in the district of Alleppey.
The iconographical representation of Bhadrakali, though
16 Kiraval
followed the scripture, but the localized transformation and
deviations are worth noticing
2
. There are several places in
Kerala where Bhadrakali kalamis depicted and offerings to
the Goddess Devi are made. Being an art practitioner and
curious to understand the undercurrents of practicing an art
form which has deep social involvement, in late 1989 it happen
to arrange the ritualistic perfor-mance of local form of
Bhadrakali kalamat my residence. Beginning with this
experience, occasionally I met with several performances and
I made a close study further. In this essay I may try to explain
the stylistic development and social impact of the Bhadrakali
kalamin various angles.
It would be not out of place to mention that Bhadrakali
kalamis a very traditional form of Art which has its mention
in theShilpa Shashtras
3
as Dhuli Chitra, is mainly known
as Rangoli in this age which is restricted in designing of
different kind of motifs on the floor. The uniqueness of
Bhadrakali kalamhas in this fact that there is hardly any
reminiscence of such figurative painting in Dhuli Chitra, with
such a large dimension. The Bhadrakali kalamthus would be
one interesting form of folk art which is still popular and
practiced in India, particularly in Kerala.
To explain simply, kalam
4
is a traditional performing art
form in which the images of Gods and Goddesses are made
with use of color powders during ceremonial occasions like
temple festivals and local festivals of Kavus
5
. Also this a type
of worship which popularly known and used to perform in
devotees residences. Either this form of art is being performed
along with other major performances or separately the form of
kalam in a residence of a devotee. The kalam is known with
the name of deity of whom the image is drawn using powder
colors. There are several types and varieties of kalams exist
in Kerala. kalamezhuthu is a traditional performing art form
which has importance of both a performance and of strong
Kiraval 105
+t-t .-t -t t
. . -. |.-...-. -........ .-.||+. . . -. +.. :|. ..+..|.+.
..-.-. , +..|... ..-.. -..-. . .|.+. .||. |. .. -..-. + ..+..|.
. .-... -|..| .| - .-.
-. .|.. . . |-.....-. -........ . .+ +
.-.. .|..-. . ... .. -. .. |... ++:|.+(-.. -| .
-
-.-. -....... .: . +.. +..|. |.-. .|+... . .|... .. ..
..-.| :|. ..-.. -..|.+ |.|-. |. . ..-.-. |...|-. .. |+.. .|..
.|.-. . -.. + . + .. ..-.| .. -.... ...|..-.|. ..-. . . .
.|.. .. -. . -.. + ... -..|.. . .. .. . . . -.|.. +.. :.-...
+.... +... :. -. . :|. ..-.. -..-.

(-..|. +
+t-t tt|+|ttt t
-.. .-|. +.. -.|--. . .. . :|. -.. - |-....+ -.- .-.... .
+..-. -.... + . . |., .. . .-.|.. :|. -...|.+.... +..-. ..
:|. . ... +
..-.+.. .. +..-.|--. ..|...+
-.-.... |.+.. .: -...-. . .. ..++(-.. -| -
-.|-.|.|.... |+..... |.|-.-.-. . +..+ . ..-
-.-.. . |... ..|. |...-. ..|. ....-. +
|.|-.-. +..-. ..- |.-.- ..-... |..-. ++ (-.. -| .
---
.-. . +... .. ..-. -..|.|.-.--.|-. . .|.-. + + ..|..
... , . .. -.|, :. .. ... |.|. -. ...... ..-.|. .. ..-. ...-. .
+.. -.+
|-.. .. + |+.. ... +..|..|-... :|. -.. -|-..-. + ... .. .|.
a|e|-| ||a|-|c| - | ||c|||e|| a-|-|
-ttt tt-t .+ .+
+.. :|., +..|. :.-... :|. .. .... -..|... +.
-....... :|. ....., ..|... +. ... .... . :|.
... .. .., +. | . +.+ . -....-. ( :|. . . . .. ..... -..
+..-.. |.... -..|.+.-.|.+. +.. |+...|.|- :.|.-.. -...
(.|-.... .... |. |-..|-.|. +..|...|.(.-.|.+..-. --+
-..... -..+ +... -....-..... -.. :.|. ...-.. +......
(|..... +
.. |.+-...-.., .-.|..+., .|:.. :|. .. +...... -... -.-.
-. -.. + -....-. -.-.+... . +........-. ... :|.+ |+
.. +...-.-. .|. +... |.......+.|.+ ..+.-...:|.
+..|..|.+| ... ..|... -.. + ..|.|...-.|.-.. -|+ .... -.-. .|
. ..+. +.. +. .|... :|. ... +.-.. |+.. ...-.|.+
-t|-tt|t-t +t-t
..... ..|.. +...|....-..-. +.....-.. . ..-.(-
- (+.....-.. ..|-.. +-.......-...... :|.+ .|-..|..
+.. :|. ..-..+ ..+..-.. +.. .. -.... .+ +...
-.-. |.. .... +..+ ..|..|.-. :.|. |.-.-.. .. + + ..|.. .-.-.
+..+ ..+.-.(-:- :|. +.|-.+.-.... -..-.. ..-. :-..
.-.-. |-...|-+
Kiraval 17
impact of a visual art tradition. It has historical and traditional
importance which prevailing since the Sangha period
(Namputhiri 201). One of these types of most popular image
drawn by the devotees is the images of Goddess Bhadrakali,
which is on discussion in this essay.
Religious milieu of Kerala in past was always a very
orthodox one. (Damodaran 231) The caste system had been
followed with extreme strictness which laid strength rulers on
the Non-Brahmanical caste, mainly the Vaisyas and Sudras from
entering the temples in these areas. The strictness had reached
to that height, this people were not even allowed to cross the
Gopuram or the outer boundary of the temples. Thus large
push of Hindu population was deprived of their right to worship
their own Hindu Gods and Goddess inside the temple. The
society put them into a separate enclave with the stigma of
untouchables. This unfortunate people had found a way out to
worship their Gods and most probably that could explain the
emergence of different forms of Folk ritualistic cult in India,
including the Bhadrakali kalam. The Brahmanical Gods like
Shiva, Vishnu and others were mostly worshiped by Brahmin
priests
6
. But some minor Gods and Goddesses those who do
not find a very important place in this temples, are generally
adopted by this village folks.
According to the Hindu iconography Devi Durga adopted
ten forms to destroy evil forces in the shape of demons (Graves
335). Among these forms, Kali and Durga are most popular in
Hindus. Beside these forms there are some more images of
Kali which are not very often worshiped. Bhadrakali is one of
such forms. The lower caste people of the Hindu Society thus
began to worship the Bhadrakali in their own typical way.
The Socio Religious System in Kerala
The socio religious system of India is mostly oriented by
mythology, most of the iconographical representation of Hindu
Gods and Goddesses are based on the description of Dhyana
18 Kiraval
Mantras- Stanzasin Sanskrit for chanting every day for
prosperity praising the Lords - which have been referred in
the Puranas, Sometime this mythological stories are localized
according to the need and taste of the place. So the forms are
also affected by the caste and taste of the worshipers. In Kerala,
the mythological characters are variously represented through
different kind of Art forms. There are several studies by
different authors in which referred about these kinds of existing
forms. Mrs. Pupul J ayakar has referred some iconographic
representations of this kind of images painted on cloth in South
India. She mentions some of the depiction of representation of
Goddess Bhagavati on the cloth, which is mainly done in
Kalahasti and Nagapatinam of Andhra Pradesh. It is interesting
to note that the Bhagavati is painted with ten arms and wearing
a check patterned cloth (J ayakar 135). The Bhadrakali
kalamof Kerala has a very close resemblance to the Bhagavati
with eight arms and also wearing a cloth.
In Kerala and on the Kanneris coast, Tulue tribe worship
ghost and other spirits which is sometime has some
resemb-lance with the Gods. These Gods or Bhutas are
represented with elaborate ornaments. According to some
author the worship of Bhadrakali, Bhagavati could be
associated with this type of worshiping of mellowalent spirit.
In South India large numbers of Bhagavati images are found
in wood carvings. The vehicle of Bhadrakali in the Bhadrakali
kalamis definitely a descendant of the masked gods and
demons which adorn the walls of the popular village shrines
in Kerala. Mrs. Pupul J ayakar informs that in one such image,
she has found a Goddess with eight arms; the hands are ended
with protruding fengs. Different forms of Bhagavati are
worshipped as per Hindu ideologies all over India. Chamunda
is worshiped in South-India with an Iconography where she is
riding on a human header Vahana. In Kerala, Devi Chamunda
Kiraval 103
+..... . -....|.+ .-..|... .-..+...... .....|.. ...
|.-|...+ .+...|.+. |.. .... ..:.... -.. ... .... |..
..+...-..+-...:. - .|..+ :.- , . |..... .|...v
+..-...-... .. -........ |.... ..+.|., |..|-...
.... ....|. . + .v.. -..-.-..--.
..+....|-.. -...-...-.-..+
..-...|-... |..|. + -..-.-.++
:...:. ..... .+...|...+-........., .. ...|..
..|. |.-..+
Works cited
Namboothiri, Iswaran. Sanskrit Literature of Kerala. Second
Reprint. Trivandrum: College Book House, 1977. Print.
Namboothiri, P.Narayanan. Sugalarthamala. Madras: Ratnam
Press, 1964. Print.
102 Kiraval
.|.... .-...+|.+ .+-..|. +, ..-..-. .- :.. -.... ..-...
.+.|.+ ... -...||-, -...-..|- -. .-. |.-.:. ..-+ ...
|...., -......|. -.-.-.||-. .. -.... -.... + .-.||-. |-, ..
.. :.. . -.-. .. ..|.+ |. .-..:-., -..-. ..|.,
-.....|.+ .. |-.. .-.., -.-. . .-..+ ... .|. -. -...., .-. .
-....+ -.... |... -.....+ .. ... -.... .......+
|....:.. . ....| ..| . -....-... -....+
-...|-...-.... .-.. -... ........++ (1964; 133)
v -. ..-.. .|... .-.-... :.|-. . |+ -. .|. . |+ ..+.-.|.+
.v-.. ... ....|.|.+ -.... .. ..-..v.|.|.+ .|.. .
..| -..|. + . . |: . ..| ..|. .+ ... -. . -. .+ -. . .-. .|-.,
.. |...., +... |... .-....+
|-.. .: .... ..|. ... ... ..:....|. ......
...., . . |+...-.|-.-. .. , .. . |-.. , .. . ..-.. , ...|... ... .
..|-.., .-...:....-., .-... ..-......., |. .:.:.
|., |.. ., -.....-.+..-., . +-.|. . -... ..:+-.+-.
:|. . .+.|....+.|. .....|..+
:t-t-t tttt-tt
||.+.. ..... . -... . .... -...... ...... .| .-.. |...+.
-..|.+ ..+.-..., ...-..., ..|-.-... :..| |..+. .
. ... .. ...|. -.. .. ..+ .-...-..|.... + -. .+..|.|.
.|-....+...|-. ...|.-.. .| .-..-. .||-.. .-... ...-...,
.-.|..+ .|.:..-.. .|.. .-.|...+. ..|-.-... ..:......
...-.+
--t-trt
|.... .....|.-.. ..|. .....-....|-.... |... :..
|.......-.. .v.-... |.|..+ ..+.-....|...+.:|. ..
Kiraval 19
has eight arms. Thus it is very conspicuous that most of the
Devi Murtis in Kerala are with eight arms. In Bhadrakali
kalamDevi Bhadrakali is represented in eight arms. But there
are some examples were they did not confirm strictly to an
eight armed Bhadrakali iconography. In Bhadrakalikalam
the number of arms varied according to this size and taste of
the artist and the patron. At least in one occasion one had
experienced to see a Bhadrakalikalam with thousand and
eight hands. Several years ago Kerala Lalit Kala Academy
organized a visual performance of Bhadrakalikalam, which
composed all those arms in the two sides of the torso with an
immense sense of balance. But such examples are very rare
cases.
The backward section of Hindu Society, there fore had
chosen the Bhadrakali as their Goddess. There is lot of evidence
in Kerala to prove that Bhadrakali was initially worshipped
exclusively by the Brahmins. But a very interesting ritual of
worshiping Bhadrakali in Kodungallur could be a very
important clue to relate it with the tribal or lower caste people.
The abusing filthy words are used as one of the rituals to
worship the Bhadrakali in Kodungallur. The exhibition of the
nakedness of the worshiper is also a part of the ritual. This
ritualistic cult has a significant resemblance to the worship of
Bhutas or Ghosts among the tribal people. Thus it could lead
of tribal worships. The low caste population of Bhadrakali as
their Goddess might have combined some of the features from
the tribal mellowalent spiritual images. The Bhadrakalikalam
was restricted in the Brahmanical temples, but only with the
reformation in the temple rules by King Shri Chithira Thirunal
Balarama Varma in 1936,
7
the Bhadrakali kalamwas allowed
inside the temple along with the lower caste artists. The
acceptance of the untouchables inside the temple made them a
part of the Hindu Society both socially and ideologically. There
is no wonder that they would like to register their right by
20 Kiraval
painting their ritual cult of Bhadrakali kalaminside the temple.
Their acceptance inside the temple gradually reduced the need
of a substitute for the temple deity. The Bhadrakali kalm was
thus gradually loosing its place and importance in the low caste
society of Kerala. The traditional caste system which has the
source of the invention of their art form became almost
meaningless due to the reduction in the strictness of the caste
system in the modern society. The professional Bhadrakali
kalampainters do not find their patrons other than the temple
festivals to do this ritual and thus they are not left with any
other way but to take up some other jobs.
The current scene is that the right of drawing and perform
the related rights are with the people associated with temple
premises. They are belonged to lower casts and known in
various names in different parts of Kerala. It found that the
families dedicated to perform this kind of art are settled near
the locations where this form of art is widely appreciated by
the society. The performers are known as Theeyattu Unnikal,
Kallattu unnikal or as Theyyam Padikal, which depends up on
the location where they are settled.
Mythological Background of Bhadrakali.
The mythological story has variations from place to place
according to the localization and the addition in the story part.
In the South, most of the Aryan mythological stories are given
some Dravidian impact. So the Aryan Gods are also given
some time a Non-Aryan form with its grotesque form. On the
other hand many original Dravidian deities were adopted by
the Aryans when interaction took placed between two cultures.
It resulted to the creation of many more new forms of deities.
For instance the terrible forms of the cult of Shiva in his aspects
as destroyer became very popular in South India
7
. The image
of Natraja is definitely a contribution of South Indian Culture.
The Gopura(m)s of the Dravidian architecture are equally
Kiraval 101
|.-.... ..-..., :|. . .....|..+
..-. .: |.. . -. -. . . -. |.-.-.. |..|.|. .... . . |.-...
. +.. -.-.|. .-... .|. ..:. ..-.v..+ -...|. -..|...
|.-.-... ..-.|..|+ : .. .-. -.... .-.|.. |... .|.
.-...|.+ -. -....|. |..|.|. +..|....+.. -..| -.-..+ ..
. .. .-, ... +.-.-...+ --.... . ... .. ..+ . . . . -.-....
.--. -.-.... ... +.. .. .-..v. -.--.+.. ..-|... .. .|.
+.. -.... . ..|- -.... -.-..... ...|-.... .-...|. + ..-...
+.. |..-. . .|.|. . + ............ |.|..... .-...
..|.... ..- +..+ ...:|-.. ..-+.. ...., ... .-..-.
.. ... .. .. ...., . : .. -.|-... |.v..+ ...-.... ..
... +.. -. |.... + -.... |.|.. .-. .-..| -.... -..
..-.. -.....+ -.... .. .. -.. +., .. -.. -. +..|., ...:|.. -..
-. +..+
-...v-..| |.|.. .-. -.... ..-.. -....-..+
.. ..-.. +., -.. -. +..|:.-, ... -.. -. +.|.-.++ (1964;
118)
. . . . . . . | . :. . . . . | . . . :. | -. . | .
|.|.|.-....-.....|..-..... |., |....-..-|.+, -. ..,
.| ., |.. .|, +...-...... .-.., - +...-., -..|+ |.
., .|-.|. |.:...., -..| ., -..-. .. ., :|. . .+.|....+.|.
....|-.. .: -.|..+
.- .::|. .....-. -. |... + ..- . .. |-.. ...
+..-..-||., ... .. . |. . - |., ... . ... |. -......--..:|.
... .-.. +...|+ .|-.|. |.+ . ..+..v.|.|-... ...
.|-..|. .|.+ ... ..-..:.+.-.|-.. -..|.+ ..| ..-.-..
.-..|.+ .-.. -..|. ..|....:., ..-..||. .-, .-.... :..
100 Kiraval
...|..|-..+ . ... ...-.+.. . ..:.-. .. -.|...+ ..|-..
.--..... |..-.+|.. .-.. .... -.|..|.+ -.-.. .... ..|:.
... .+.|.. .. . -.|..|.+
.... -.|..|. .--..... |.. ..|-... -...:+|..+
. ..|-..- -.-.. .... ...:+|.. .|.|:. ..++ (1964; 86)
.--...-.+..-.|.. +.. .--...|:.+.-..|.. -..|.+ .|-...
. ....-.- .. .| ...., .|- .|.. . .. .+ .-..+.+
.+|.+-. +. ..-... -... . . .. . . -.. .+ ...:. ..|.. . |-...
... -.|... .|. .. ...+ ...... +.. -... |...+
|-... .-..| .. .. .... .. |.|.., .. .-., : ..
|.|.v-. , |....+... + ... |-.. .. .-... . +.. |.-. |..|.,
.|. |.., .. .. |.-.... .... ... -..|.+ .. ..+-.
...:.. .. , .. .....-.+ .- |.v-. . .. ....-... , |.. . -. -..|.
...:+|.. .. |.v-..+ .. .-. .. .... ..-.., .. ..
-... .. |..--..+ .. |-.. .. +.. .. |.|.., . |.v+ .
... .. .. .. . ..|.+ . -.|. .-. . .-.. -...+ . :-.
..|., . -. ...+ . ...+. .| |....., .|- . |.|. ...
....+ . |..-..|+ .|-.. . . |.. . . . . .. . . . -. -.|... +
. -.|. . .-... .....+ . +.....|.|-.. -.. -.+ -....
..... -.. -...:|...-... .+
:.|-. .. .... -... ..-.-....-..|+-.:--.+
..:-|-..|-.-. .|. ... ...-.|.|. . ...++ (1964; 107)
|-.. .: ..... ..|.:... ..|...:....|. |.|.|-..
.. |+..|..-.. -.. ., |.:.., -.... .-....|.:. ...... |+.-.
|. .. . , ..+. .-.. .. |+. -. :|. |+ |+.... . . , -... .. |. ,
......, .-...., |..|+. ., -.. .:.., +.-....:+|.|.,
|.-.... .... .--....... :.|, - . - . -... |. :.. . |. ... . , :.. -..
Kiraval 21
embellished with this kind of demonic forms which have their
roots in the mythology of Hindu sect. The Shakti or Kali,
mythological story started with Sati the daughter of Daksha
who was married to Shiva. Sati was a symbol of feminine
devotion and chastity became the main cause of Shivas
terrifying form of Nataraja
8
. Sati was re-incarnated in a form
of Parvati in the next birth and Shiva and Parvati was happily
married. The creation of Shakti to eliminate the peace of the
heaven is supposed to be from the original source of Parvatis
energy. Thus all the Shakti Murtis(images) are, according to
the mythology the different forms of Shivas spouse to fight to
these evil forces. Shri Shri Chandi there is an elaborate
narration of the mythological stories about the origin of Kali
Chamunda, Chandi and Durga. Many other forms like of the
regional and local characteristic Bhavani, Sheravalli, Shyama,
Bhadrakali and so on have satisfied the demands of Northern,
Eastern, Western and Southern India Respectively (Munshi
433). The mythological stories behind the Bhadrakali to win a
battle over the Demon Darika, is also a regional version of the
original story of Shri Shri Chandi. The story of Bhadrakali
thus correspond the mythological story of Shyama or Kali from
the North and North-Eastern India. Darika was a ferocious
Demon who created panic with the sages who requested Shiva
and the other Gods to save them from Darika. Thus Parvati
rebelled a ferocious form Bhadrakali whose power was
reinforced by other Gods too. In a fierce battle Darika was
killed but as a Raktaviej. (Blood battle). Each drop of the
blood of this demon could give rise to many more demons.
Bhadrakali had to swallow the last drop of the blood of Raktviej
Darika to present the menace. The blood thrust of Bhadrakali
made her almost mad who could not cool down her own anger
and the thirst of blood. This Shiva had to come on the way of
Bhadrakali, who stepped on the body of Shiva which brought
back the sense of ferocious Bhadrakali. Bhadrakali turned again
22 Kiraval
to her sober and beautiful form of Parvati.
Localized Iconography of Bhadrakali
The iconography description of Bhadrakali is available in
different ancient scriptures. The experts in this field like Shri
Gopi Nath Rao has also mentioned and given the iconographic
details of Bhadrakali, in his book, Elements of Hindu
iconography. In this discussion of Devi Murtis he narrates
the story of the Devakis seventh child. According to him the
seventh child who was a girl, was one of the incarnations of
Durga. He quotes a stanza which was used in her pose: Oh
most revered Durga! Womb of Gods, Ambika, Bhadrakali,
Avenger Goddess with many names , the man who repeats at
morning, non evening, the secret names shall assuredly obtain
all his wishes (Rao 136) .
In different parts of India, Shakti or Durga is worshiped as
the killer of Demons. Devi Durga is represented both in South
Indian temples and in Bengal in a calmer and repose posture.
For example the famous relief on the wall of Mandapa in
Mahabalipuram shows Durga without any expression of anger
or fear on her face. But the Kali Murtis or Kali images are
generally represented in grotesque forms. According to Gopi
Nath Rao, the destruction of Mahishasura is allegorical. The
Padma Puran
8
says in the Swayam Bhava-Manvantara,
Mahishasura was killed by Vaishnavi on the Mandra Giri.
But the representation of iconography of Bhadrakali is
different from Durga. According to the scriptures, Bhadrakali
has eighteen hands and fierce appearance. She has three eyes.
The attributes for Bhadrakali are the Akshamukha, Trisula,
Khadga, Sruva, Chandra, Bana, Dhanus, Shamkha, Padma,
Khamandalu, Dandu, Shakti, Agni, Krishnagina, and Water.
Other hands expressed some traditional mudras adapted from
sculpture tradition. In the scriptures it has been described that
she is seated in a chariot drawn by four lions. It is very
Kiraval 99
.....|......., |.-....+.+-., |+.-. |.....-., |..-...|.:.
., ..:..-.. ., |.:. ...-..-|.+, . -.. ., .v.. ., :|. .
.+.|....+.|. .....|..+
... .- ..- .... |.. . .|. -.... ..|. .: |...+
|... ... ..|..-..... +. .--.-.|.....+ --.... ......
+., -. .- -.+-...:.-...:.. -.|...||. . ... .+
. . -. .. -. . . . |... . |-....:...|.. . -.-.. ..+ .. |... . ..|. .
...-.. .-.|.-. .|.|-. .-..-..||. ....-.-.. -.. .|.
+.|.. :|. . .|.+
.|.| .-.. ..|....:.|..-.|.-.+
-.-..-....|-..-.|.-....|-. -.--. .|.-...-..-.++ (1964; 64)
... .-.....|+...... .... |...-..|.+ +.. .|+.,
. |-.. -. ... .. .-.... |+.-.... -.+. +..|.-.. |-..-.. . :.....|
...-.||. . ....|.+
|-.. .: ..... . .|. ... . .|. .. :.. ..|. .. -.....-.|.
.. -...... .-. .... -. ..., |-..... . , .-. ..... |. , |. |.|-.-.
. . |+..|.... , ...v...|+.......-.|... , -.|..|.
-.......:.|-.., +..|.-... ..:.-......-., .|-.. |.-...., :|.
. .....|..+
:..-..:|. -....... .-... :..+. ....: ..-.
. -. .-. . .. |--. .. - . |... . . .|. + .-. . -.
..|.|.....-.-.. .-....+ .-....|-... .-...-... .-.+.
.-..|.. . ..-..-...+ -..-. +.:|. ........ . . |..+
+|...|:. ..|. . |.|.|.+ +|-... .. .. . ...+
........ ... -.. . +.:|. ..... ..+ .-.. -.|..|.+ . ...-....
|.|.., . +.:|. . -...+ ...-.|.. . +.:|. .|... ....|.+
.+. .:...|. -.. ..-.|. -..|.+ -.. |..|.-... |.v., .|.
98 Kiraval
..|..|.. ..|...|... .+.... . -.|-.-|. :. .+. . .. . :.-.. -....
:... |.|...| .-.... ..-. .: . .. . . . .- ..| .
-...-...|.+ ... |-....:-....-.... -... . :... |.|-..
:|. :....... |.|-.-. +.|. +|.+ .+...|.+. |.. .... .
.. .. -. .... ... . |.. .. ..|. .+-. . |. -. .
|-....-....-...+
...... .. .-... .+.
....-... +-.-.|..+
.- |- ..-..-..|. ..+,
...:-..v .|-... |+.....++(: .
|-.. .: ..... ..|. ... |..|. ..:....|. |.
|., .,.v.. ., |-.-..... ., . .| |.-.... ..+...-.,
..-. |., ....-.. ., --..... ., .-. ....+.., . -.,
..-. ., ... ...|...., ...|.-...., .| .: ..-., ..-... .
:...|. ....|-.. .: -.|..+
|..|. .: ....+...+.. |.-..|. :..+.+ ..:|-..
..+ .-. -.... . -.|..|.+.. ..+ -..... ..-..+ ......
.|.. .. v ... . -. |..|. . -....|..-.+ ::. .... ... +
..... ...+.. . -.. . - . ..-.-.|.. |+.. . . |.|. ... .-.|.-.
... ...+
|..|. . .|...:v ...
|-...|:. . ....-.+
+-..|. ... .....-.|..
...|. .... |.|. ...++(1964; 7)
... .|.-.... .-.....|. ... .. .| v -. +..|.+ -. |...
..-..|-..|.+
|-.. .: ..... . .|. ... . .|. .. :.. ..|.
Kiraval 23
interesting to note that the iconography of Bhadrakalikalam
in Kerala is not created on the above prescription of the
iconography. The painters of Bhadrakali kalam generally
follow the local mantras which is sung by the singer at the
time of the ritual of painting.
hmfm hbdp]nfp ]nfpw
IpSamesbSppSeneWnpw
FpISnp \pdpn \pdpn
DmksmSpsNptcw
hnsmcpIn icsamcpIn
hnfniwJv N{IsamcpIn
hmsfmcpIn \tmcpam\pj\psS Xesbcp In
\mcmbWnfbs]s
Bhadrakali has been described in this with three eyes and
the mother symbol of the Heaven, Mirth and Earth. She has
taken the form of Bhadrakali only to punish the Demons and
save the worshippers from the tyranny of the demons. The
attributes are not exactly corresponds to the description of the
ancient scriptures. In the localized version of iconography,
she has an arrow, a Bow, A Shankha and Shri Chakra in her
four hands. Other four hands hold a sword, the trishul, the
trunketed head of Darika and the eighth hand is holding a Bowl
to prevent the dropping the blood on the ground. Thus the
variation of eighteen handed to eight handed Bhadrakali image.
Though in the scriptures Bhadrakali is described to have a
beautiful face, in Bhadrakalikalam she is represented as
fearsome to correspond the song they sing at the time of
Bhadrakali kalm. It describes as follows:-
ZmcnIhocm t]mcn\phmSm
Fedn hnfnpw
apneWsmcpXeI
shnsbdnpw
hmfm hbdp]nfp ]nfpw
24 Kiraval
IpSamesbSppSeneWnpw
FpISnp \pdpn \pdpn
DmksmSpsNptcw
Here fearful battle with Darika is described with the almost
violence in this song. Her battle cry, her ruthless killing of the
Darika, by putting her sword in the stomach and lastly to
decorate herself hideously with the intestine of the victim. The
Bhadrakali of Bhadrakali kalamturns to be almost into a
Pishachini (witches) who also had eaten the bones and flesh
of Darika. The Bowl which is storing the blood of Darika was
also drunk by her.
In the scriptures as a Vahana
9
or vehicle, lion driven chariot
are mentioned. On the contrary Bhadrakalikalam represents
Vetal as the Vehicle of Bhadrakali. Vetal is one of the Bhutas
and on attendant of Shiva. Some other noticeable icono-
graphical details in the Bhadrakali kalamis two very long
teeth in the shape of the tusk of the Vahana. She wears a very
colorful cloth to cover her waist to the feet, but remain naked
on the torso. The protruded tongue is red with the color of
blood; the flowing unbound hair shows her anger and vigorous
movement at the same time.
Though, the whole painting is treated in flat plane except
the conical projection of two breasts. These projections are
achieved by use of rise and refined rise which become a very
new addition to the iconographic element of Bhadrakali
kalam. In spite of her fearful appearance she is decorated
with enough of jewelry. The figure of Vetal
10
is also equally
interesting in character. That is also represented in the same
velocity as the image of Bhadrakali. Wild eyes of Bhadrakali
express anger, the eyes of Vetal are mainly impassive. Her
non divine species is symbolized by two horns over her two
ears. She is carrying Bhadrakali on her shoulder at the same
time holding a club on her hand. The surprising element is the
use of the complexion of Bhadrakali and Vetal is that while
Kiraval 97
-ttttttt-t-tzttttt-t-t
.... .....|.-... ...|.-.-.-......-. ..-. |+-.|. ...+..
|.|..-.+ ....|-..|..|-. ...+.. +.|....+... -.|-.
...-.. +. |.+ +..|-. . . ..|. . .-. .. .|.:|+ .-. +(.-. |.|,
.. .
-tt-ttt-tt-tt
+ .|.-...+..... -.. . ... ..... |.-.. . |... . .... -....
. .. ...-.. +. |.+ . |-. .: -.. + ..... . .|. :...
|..|. , . .|. , .. . . .. :.. ..|. .+.|....+.|. . ... .-. :... :.
.....-.. .v.-... |..+ |-......:...-......:. :... |..
:|. :..+. ...|.+ ...
v..-.-.|. .. |-..
... ..-. .-.:..-.+
+..|. .-..:....-..
.. ..-.|.|. .-... .++(.-.|.|, : -
|-...... +.. |...:. :..:...-.|. ...-.+|-... :|.
:..+..|-....+ ...
.-..|..... .. -......|
.-.|-. +|.|-.|-..+
+.| ... .....-....
|-.-.. .. .-.. ..+.:|.++(: -
. .....-.... :|. . -.... ..-..+ ... ... ..-....
-.+.. .., .... |.:.|.. .+.... .. ... -.... ... .|...v...
|.v. .. .....-.... :|. ...:. ..|-.+ ... ....-... -..-..
.. +- ....-.+.... -.... ..|-. |... .. -.... .. :|. .
..|-. .- -.+..+ -...... ..|..+.. ..||. .+.-.. .-.+|-.|.
. .-..+
|-c||-| -||||||<|||
||e|||-||e|||| ||c|cn-|
zt.-t.|t-tt+-tt|
..+.-., -.|-....,...-.,-..|..-. :.. |.., -.....-.....
|....|+..., |..|-... .......... . ... -...+..|-.|.
..-.... .|.: +...|.+ + . -.. :|.:-.. +.. -.... . .. .|.. ..|.-.+
|-.. +..|.-... . + .|.... .. ... .|...|. -..|.+ .--...... .
|.|.. -- -, ... .+|... |.|.. - '-, :.-.
.-...|-.-..|... |.|.. ---, -..-. ..... -.. |.|..
-- , +. . |.. .. :...-. .. -.- . . . |. |..
----, .... .....|.-... |.|.. ----
:... :... +.. |.-...:|-.. ..-..-.-|.+
.....-......-. ..+.-...+... +.. .|:..-. ....
.....|.-.. .-. .. .... ..-. -.-.|.-..-..+ .. |...
.....|. -.. -.... .||. .: .| ..:-...-.+ .-.|.||. .|..
-........|.|-. ...|-.-..-. .|.|-.... ....|.|..-.-......
. + ...- -...... :. ... .-. |. - .-. .. .. . .
......+.....+. -..+.|.-.+ -..| +|..+ .|: ..-..|
|.-..-. .| -.+.....-..|. -.-.... . ..+..| -...-..+
.|.-.....:. :..+....|.-. -.-......-., .....-.... :|. .. :...
|.|.....+
Kiraval 25
Vetal and Darikas head was a more natured complexion of a
human being. On the other hand Bhadrakali image is coloured
with non heavenly green color. Further it would be worth while
to mention that in the state of Bengal, Durga images has the
color of the Vetal and Darika, in contrast the Mahishasura is
always represented in the same green color used as the
complexion of Bhadrakali in Bhadrakalikalam. It would
not be wrong to guess the tribal or non-Brahmanical by
interchanging the complexion of the Goddess and the demons;
the tribal and Non-Brahmanical people have tried to overcome
the inferiority complex of their dark complexion. The localized
iconography of Bhadrakali could be traced in the aboriginal
deities of these ages. In and around Kerala there were different
kinds of aboriginal Non-Brahmanical population who mainly
used to worship their own God as they were never allowed to
worship Brahmanical Gods which remain always an allurement
for the lower caste people. Thus it is no wonder that they tried
to combine the iconographic elements of the both sides into
one.
The Rituals
A customary ritual is preceded by the Bhadrakali kalam.
In the room or on the courtyard a ceremonial lamp used to be
placed before the starting of the painting and which is followed
by the blowing of Shamkha
11.a
While the pattu of the Ganapati
Paducka are being performed and accompaniment of Chenda
11.b
and Thimila,
11.c
the two percussion musical drums of Kerala
are used Ganapati Paduka,
12
the ceremonial placement of the
coconut, decorated along with some offerings. After the playing
of Chenda and Thimila, the Shamka is again blows which is
followed by the Ganapati pattu in the form of a song.
13
In the Ganapati Pattu, the prayer of Ganapati or Ganesh is
generally narrated in Malayalam. This is a typical Hindu Ritual
to be performed before any auspicious activity. After the
26 Kiraval
Ganapati pattu, the Guru or the master starts the Bhadrakali
kalam. He begins with a Brahmasutra or plumb line in the
middle of the upper part of the space. First the base color of
the face is spread over the floor which is marked by the basic
forms of the circle for the three eyes -Convex lines for eyebrows
and upper lines of the eyes and two red spots for the nose which
is small pyramidal projection, is made with the powdered color.
The upper lip and the toung is painted with red and which is
again painted with white lines to depict the shape of the teeth
and the two molar are drawn like two curved moustaches at
the end of the upper lip. After this the color of the face is drawn.
The back ground of the face is made more clear with the black
hair at the two sides of the contour and the hallow disc around
the head. In the same process the artist or the master painter
gradually keeps on covering the different parts of the painting
from top to the lower part. It is very interesting to note that
only after finishing the detail works and intricate designing of
the face he continues painting in the lower part but leaves the
three circles for the eyes unfinished.
Though the whole painting is flat in treatment except a small
protrusion on the nose, the Bhadrakali kalampainter always
give elevated relief on the two breasts of Bhadrakali. The
projection are made by stuffing of raw paddy in the right side
and rise on the left
14
(from the viewers side). Thus projection
of the breasts is more religious in nature than aesthetic
accomplishment. The artists follow the Brahmasutra all along
to maintain the phonology of the organic structure. The whole
process of painting takes more than twelve hours. It has been
all ready mentioned that the Bhadrakali kalamhas varied
motives of designed and also painted in different sizes. The
above mentioned painting is 15 foot x 10 foot and painted
inside the room. There is lot of examples of Bhadrakali
kalammeasuring more than 64 x 64 foot and shows more
intricate and skillful handing of colors and design. The Vehicle
Kiraval 95
-.-. . . .|.+ .-. + -....-.... +..-.... . |.-..-... . - .. |..... +
-....|.-... +..+.... |.-.... -...-... |... .. -..|. ...||. . .
|.:.|..-. + -...... +...-.+.-. -.... -.....|:. -....-....-.|..
.-. . |.-. . +..-...+.-. ...|.. :|. .. -..-. + ..++. ... -.-. . .
-.|....-..-..... ... |.-.|..-.-..+. ..--. .|.-. .. ...... . .-... .
-..||.-...-. ..-..-.+ .. +.. .-.+.+.|. -........., .|....
(phonostylistics), .... (lexis), ..+.... (syntax), |.-....
(imagery) :..||.. . .++ . |.-.. + ... ... (synonymy) , ..... ..
(polysem,.-.-... (homonymy) :..|.. . .. . ... . ......
.|.-. ... i* ..+...... . |-.+. +-. |+-. |. .. ..-. ..|+..|.
... . . .-. . + .|...... . -...... .... .. .. :..||. ..-. . + -.
|.. -. .||.-.... +.... -.|...:.. |.-. .|.+
-. ..-.....|-.|.-.-. ..:|.. -....-...-.|.+ . |.+|... -. .||.-...|..
-...|.+..-.....-.. . . .-..... : -.+.. + + ..-. ..-. . .:..
-....-. .. ... .. . |.-.. +.......|-.|.. . ..|-.|. .-..-. +
-. .-....|.. .|. +......... ..+.|..-...|.+. ..|..
-.... .|... -..-.-..-...|. .. +.|+ . ... . ..+. . . ..-... .
.. -.+ .... ... . .. .|+. . . -. :|. -.. + +..... -..-..|.. .
+.. -.... . |.-..|.-. :|. . . -.+.. . .|+. . . -.-. +
-.|--.-. . +.. -.|.-...-... |..... .-. |..|. .. .. . -.... .
... .. .. + . -..|-.. .. +.|+. -.--.|....... -.... .|...
-.|--.-. . |-.. -... -.. .|.+ ..-.....|-.|.-.-. . -..-. -.... ..
+..-...|... ... . ..|.+ ...|. :..|..+.. -....-...-.|.+ . |.+|..
-. .||.-...|. -..-..|. .|-...|. .|.+ . .. .. . -.... .|...... : ..-.. +
94 Kiraval
. .+ ... |-.+.+ .| :...|. |-.+... .. ..... .. + -| ..
.-.... .|-.|. ...|. . ..+ -. .+-.-. .| .|. .... ..+.
|..-....-..... . . . .. .. ..-...-.. +
. -..|-.. .. +.|+. .v|. -.|--.-. . . -..... |..+ . |. ...:|.
. .. .-....|. .. |...|. .|+ . |.+ ... . -.--. |.. ..|.-.-.-.
|.-. |.. .. -.|-.|. .|+. |.+ -. -.--..... . -...+-.. .+-.-. . +-..
+-.-. . . .-..... -.. + |...... :|. |.-. |.. .. -., -...+-., +-...,
. .-.., ......|-....|-.|. ... . .. |...+... .|+. |.+
-. . + ...|-.|.-.-. . . -.... .|... . .. . . . -.. :|. : -.+.. +
.. .+.. +....... ...+..|.:.....-..... ..-v..... .
....-.. .-. . :.|. .-. +
-ttt-tt-t-tt|r-t|t-ttt -t t tt+-ttt -t|t-tt
..-.....|-.|.-.-. . ..+.|.- -.... .|... ..-... . ...|. .
.- -.+.. + ...|. |+. .. . .-.|.-. . ..-.-. . -.. |-.+ -. . :|. .|:.

+.|.. .... . .. .|.-. ..-.+

:|. |-.. |.+ |+.. .. . .|.-..+
-.||..... -..|. .. |... :|. .|:.+ +..|.:.. . .... -.-... . .-....
.|.+ .... .+ .v|. +....... -.-.. -......., .|.|.+......,
.-...+.-..-.- -. - . . . ... -... ...|. +... -.-..... -...... . . ..
. ... |...-... . |.|-. .* (The subIime consists in a certain
loftiness of language) ..|-. |..... -......-. .... . ..-. -..|.
.+ -. |+.. .. ... -.-... -.||..... :. -.-. . |. +. ..+.... .
.:.: ..|. + (Poetry and language proper for it are an elaborate
and painful toil)
-. .. .. -+. .. . .. .. +.. -...... ..... |.| |+.
..|-.|. ...:|.. ..-. .-.. ..-... . . .. -.+ ...|. |+.. ..
|.-.|..-.-..+. |.-. . .. . . ... -. |+...|-.|.-.-. .-.:. .|.-. ..
+....:|. -..|. -. .||.-...-. + .. +.. -....... .-. .. (stylistics .....-.
-.....+ .. .. |.-.|.-..+. -..:|. -....-...|.:.....-.....
..|-.|.-.. -.| +.-. |. (Russian Formalist) . -.. ..++. ...
Kiraval 27
of Bhadrakali the Vetal is painted following the same process
and which shows almost the same methodology The projection
of the nose is also made like that of the Bhadrakalis. The
drawing of the breasts shows one interesting variation as it is
painted in a profile and in two different sizes. Most probably
two indicate the different of species in this case. After the
completion of the figures of Bhadrakali and Vetal, the rectangle
empty space is covered with a color generally white rise
powders. The rectangular space again demarked with straight
lines to give it an illusion of frame. Some times the interior
part of the margin is decorated with spiral motives resembling
the size.
The Shilpa shastras and the prescription of religious
performance in Hindu tradition always says Chakshudan
15
or which though literally means the putting of the sight in the
eye but it carries a metamorphic implication of life. It is
believed that after Chaksudan or Kannauthurappickal
(opening the eyes) the picture transform into an image. The
Bhadrakali kalampainter follows the same tradition by putting
three black spots as the pupil of the eyes as the finishing touch
of his all creation.
Bhadrakali kalampainters prepare colors themselves from
difficult indigenous sources. The pigments are mainly collected
from earth and vegetables which had their mentions also in
the Shilpa texts the white color is prepared from rise due to its
auspicious nature. Kerala being the rise eater as staple food
and rise is regarded as a symbol of prosperity. After grinding
of the rice, then it is stained thoroughly to avoid larger particles
in it. Turmeric is the main source of yellow color. Same process
is followed to get yellow. The red color is achieved by mixing
lime juice (Calcium Carbonate with water) with the turmeric
powder and left some time in the sun. The sun heat give lime
diluted turmeric, a reddish tint. But it doesnt turn into totally
red until the pigments are pressed thoroughly by two hands.
28 Kiraval
After this it becomes almost dark red. For Indian red the brick
or roof tiles are ground. Fresh leaves are dried in the sun and
powder is made out of these green leaves for the green pigment.
For the outline and contour black color is used. The rice husk
is burned to certain temperature to turn into a carbonic state.
This carbon is thoroughly ground to get black pigment. Within
these six basic pigments Bhadrakalikalam painters also
develop some other color by the mixture of two or three
pigments. Among the mixed color pink pigment is generally
used by the artist who is achieved by mixing white and red.
This is very interesting to note that these colors are generally
symbolic in nature rather than representative. The use of green
for the complexion of the Bhadrakali image is definitely an
anti Brahmanical approach which doesnt conform to the
iconographic description of scriptures Green complexion is
generally attributed to the demons. It would be worth while to
refer the Mahishasura Mardini images of Eastern India always
show the Mahishasura with green complexion (Mukherjee
221).The iconography of Devi Murties also describe the whitish
or Pinkish complexion of Devi (Rao142). The Bhadrakali
kalam painters use just the reverse showing the Vetal and
Darika in Aryan complexion and the Bhadrakali is green. Red
is very predominant colour in the whole composition beside
white. The cloth which is covering the lower part of Bhadrakali,
is painted in red by accentuating the redness with pink pole-
ka-dots (round dots). The red is also carefully balanced on the
lips, tongue of Bhadrakali and Vetal and the round disc behind
the head of the Bhadrakali image (Devine hallow). The
unbound flowing hair of the Bhadrakali image is not only
heightening and projecting the figure but also it symbolically
communicating the fierceness and destructive aspects of
Bhadrakali. The whole background of the painting is covered
with white rice powder, which is playing a role both aesthetical
and ritualizing painting. It was already mentioned above the
Kiraval 93
. --..... .|.. . ...
. .. :. + |--..-. .-.-. --.... +
-. ...|..-. |-. -...-. .
|.-. .. |.|.... .- . . |-. . ++ (.....|.-. -:
..-....:|. -.-.|:-.|.+. .-|.-|..-.+ .. +....+....-..
..-..|.+.. ..-..... +.. -.... ....-. . |..... |..... + ..+
|..|..... |.-. .. + .... -.... ..|..|...+.|..-....-.... . ...... |...
|. + ..+ .. ..-.. -.-.|-.. |. .. .|.. ... . |-.+-. . .|....|.
.. .

. -... |...

(.. . -. :|. . . ... . + ... . - .| . - .-. - ..

:|. ... + |+. ::-. ::..| . .. . .. ...|. .-... -... :: :... :|.
-.|-... . . ::. :. +-. .+ -..-.- . . . ::. :|.. +-. . .|+ .+ . .-.
. .:.|.+ -.

-... .. --..

|-... -... .... .-. .|... .-.. .

... . ... |. --. + .. -.. ..|..|... .. |-.-..-. .+ :|. -.-...-..
.-. . + ..|..|...+... .. .- .. -.... ... .|... .. + .. .-. . +
. -. .|-... .. .. . . -.-.... .|.|.: ... .|.-.. . .
-.... .|.....|. .|+. .-.. :|. -... + . + .. ..+..|.. |+.
+..... -.... . . . -.... . +.. :|. . .|+.+ ... . +..... . . . .
.. .. +.. -.... . |.-. ..-. + -. -.... .|-.|. . +. +.....|.
-.|...+.|. .. |...|. :|. . +.... .|.. :.|. |.... . + (.. |....
~. .... .-... +..-.+ .|.: .|..a... ....|... ..
..... +-. ++ ..... + .... . . .. |.. . . +. -.|. . .
. |... . .|-.|. .. -... .|- ... |.. ..|.-.-.. |. -.|.-.. .. |....
....|. -.|--.-. .+ .. .|-|.. + + . . |.. ..|.-.-. , .+-.-. , +-.-. ,
.. .+. , ....... . |.+
. --. +|+|-. .-.+.. -. . |.-. .
.. . . . -..|.-...|.... - ..+. -. |+.+
:..-..|.-...-. .... :.. .....
.. :.. + . .-.+ . |.-.. ..|-.+.+ .|++
:.. .. - . ...|.|. . ..-... .. .... . ..|.. |.. ..|.-.-.
92 Kiraval
.-. . :|. -. .-. ....-. :.... ... -.+.. + .. :..+.. . + ... .
-..-.-..-...||-. ... ||. -. |...-..|.. |.. .:-.. -..|..+.-..|..
... + .+ |. .,

... -. -. .|.. ..-...

|-.|. ... . + .. ..-.|... .

|+. . -..|-.. . ..+. .|. .. .-. . :|. .. -..-. + ... .

|.-...
..+....

:|. -.. -|... ...

. ..... ..-.-...

:|. ... :|. . |-.. |.+

-. -.|... +|........ ....|... .-.. :|., -..|-.||-...||-.
-. |..... . . . ... .|... . .|-... :|., .....-. .. . +|.... .... ...-...
... .-....... |-.. .|-.|. ..... -.+.. +
t-tz +t|+ttt tt+-ttt -t|t-tt
..|. ... +. . (..|. ... +. .. ..+. .. .. -. ..+ .. .....|.
..+.. .-..|. |-++ .. -.. :- :|. |.|-... -..-. |... ..|.+.|-....
.+. ..... ..-.........|.. -.... |... + .+ : -.... . |...
..|-..... + . ..-. ....-. + ...|-... -..-.- . .:.. -.... .-.|.+ . +
.+. :.|..-. + .. ..|.|.+.......-.|.|-.|-.-... -.. -. ... ..-.
. ..-.. (|.: . .-........| +. .-.....|. .-..|: .. ....
(+.... +. -, . .+ . ..+. ... .. .. :... -.. . + ..-......+.|.:
-.-|. |. . ..++ (+.... +. :-- :|. -.. -.... .|... . . .+|.-. +
|+. ..+. |.: +-.. -. .. --. . .. :|. .-. :|. -. ... . .-.
.|...v. +

-. |-.....

:|. ... + -|. :.. .|. |-.. :|. . ..-.|.

-..-.. . |. ... .. ... ... .|-... . . ... -.+ -. .. ....
. |.+ .. :..-.... . -.... +.. |.+. . . + .+ -.-.. + -.. ... ...-.
:|. . . |.-|.. . .-.. + . .. ... . -.. -.. ..|.. ,. ..-.|. .|.... +.... +.
+ . .-. . + -. .., .. . |: . +|.+| .. . |:.-. .|+ .+ |.-..-....
... ..... .-.|...+ .|:.... ... . . ... . |.|+ -.-.. ... . .|+. .
. . .|+ ., . ... . -..-..|. +... |. ....|..|. :..||..-... +. |.
.+ |+.. .. . ..|-..|. .- . -.+.. ... .-... .... .-.... :|.
.. .... ..|.|... |.|-..+ .. ...... +...-.+.- . . . .||+. . +
-.... . ... :|. |-.. |. .+ |+. ......|. -.... ... .. . |... . .
.- . + . -.. + ...
Kiraval 29
symbolic auspicious quality of rice in the like of Keralites which
must have been conformed in the background of the Bhadrakali
kalam.
Musical Accompaniment
These are basically three types. Namely Drums, Symbols
and blowing instruments. The first group includes the Thimila,
Chenda and Veecku Chenda. Chegila and Ilathalam are the
cymbals to accompany drums. Kombu and Kuzhal come under
the blowing music. All these instruments are harmoniously
played after the completion of the painting. This is known as
Panchavadyam
16
Bhagavatipattu follows the Panchavadyam
with the Shamkha announces the end of the song and the start
of the Bhadrakali pattu. In the Bhagavati and Bhadrakali pattu
mainly praises are sung. The last part of the song, the singer
begs the blessing of Bhadrakali for the benefactor and mankind
in general. After the ritual of blessing, starts the removal of
the Bhadrakali kalam. The shamkha is again blown and
followed by Panchavadyam, while the painter removes the
colored powders with the help of a broomstick made up of
Supari flower (Arakkanut flower). The removal begins from
the lower part and ends with the removal of three eyes, top
part of the Bhadrakali kalam. The collected color pigments
are regarded as the good sign for the family or the benefactor
and are put on the forehead as tilak (ceremonial mark of sandal
wood paste).
Conclusion
The Bhadrakali kalamis just one of the numerous folk
forms of paintings in India which is being followed the tradition
from the unknown period. We have the mention of Dhuli
Chitras in our old Shilpa texts but hardly any reminiscence of
a full form of paintings at that style is found anywhere except
in Kerala in the Shape of Bhadrakali kalam. The traditional
Dhuli Chitra is mainly remained as floral design on the
30 Kiraval
doorsteps or on the courtyard in some parts of India. But a full
fledged iconographical representation of this dimension we
can see only in Bhadrakalikalam. Besides its religious and
ritualistic importance we have seen its importance in
determining a social position of a group of people who are so
much appeared by the higher class of Hindu society. One could
even a judge the depiction of Bhadrakali kalamas a challenge
to the Bourgeois society of India. Thus Bhadrakali kalamhas
different aspect as a painting other than its aesthetical quality.
As a painting form it deserves an appreciation for its free
hand handling of the pigments which sometimes covers the
area of 3600 square foot. The painters uses only a Brahmasutra-
Central line as the basic structure of the Drawing, But the rest
come spontaneously and freely in their hands. Sometimes
intricate designs are used with enormous skill and with the
sense of design. Though basically the painting is linear in
treatment, but also it shows on immense sense of color in
organizing the space in terms of colored planes. The forms
though repetitive thus discursiveness of the symbols are lost
but sometimes some creative artiest of this group of painters
could add some new things in these symbols. Bhadrakalikalam
therefore is a superb example of religious and aesthetical
expression of a class, who were not allowed to express their
religious faith or religious creativity with the same kind of
permissiveness of the higher class society but ultimately they
found their own way to expose themselves to the world of
Rasika.
Notes
1. Kali, Chandi and Camunda -Three different versions of ferocious image
of Devi Durga.
- Kl also known as Klik is the Hindu goddess associated with
empowerment, shakti. The name Kali comes fromkla, which means black,
time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Since Shiva is called Klathe eternal
timeKl, his consort, also means Time or Death (as in time has
Kiraval 91
.-..|.-.

:. .-. .|-..-. +(|.:..+. -. | ..|.|..+. .. .

:. ..-. . ~+.. -. :.-. :|. ..-.. . |-.. .-. + ...|. .. |++ :|.
... .-. ... |.-. . . .. +... :|. . -. :|. . .. -.. -. . |-.||-.. .
.|+ .-. + -. ..|..|... . . . ...+. ... . ||-....|-.-..-. + -.|--.-. .
... .+ . . +.......-... |..... |.... .... -. |... -..-.+... .. . ...
-.. :|. .:.... .|...|.-. + ... . -.|--.-. . |.. ..|.-.-. |.-..

.-..
.|.|.||.

. .-. | :... + |-.. . . .-.. . .. |..|.. .... .-... .

-.... , .. .-... . +. . :|. . -. |-. + .|-.|. -.. . ..|..-. + ..-.. .
-+..|-...-.-. +-. ... .|+ ... . ...... . ...-... ..-. ..
:.|. . .. -..-. + .+. :|. -.|--.-. . -.-..-..-.. -..

.-+. .+. -.

:|.
. . . . . ... .|.. . . |.. .. ....... ... + . :|. |-.. |.+ ... .

..|. .

:.. + ..-.

. ... . . -..|.

:|. ..|.. + ... . . :..
. ..|. |.-. ... .. -|-.|. ..+. .. ..... .. .., . .. ... . ... .
+ . :|. . ...-..+ -.

.|- -..|. ... ..-.| . . .

:|. -... ... .
|.-.|-|.-|...+-.-. . .|+. ..-.|... + . :...-.. :.|. .+-..-. +
+-.-. -.. .-.... . +..... . .... .|-. + ..|.. . ... ....

|.... .|.. ..
..

..|-.|.. -.. .

:. --. + -. . -...+. . : -. .+ :.-. .+ : -. |-.|.

-.. -.., :- .

. -.-.+ :.|. -.. -.. :|. ..|.+. .-.|. - .|..+

.. .|--.-... |..-.|. +..... ..|-.-...|-.|. .+ .. .. + -.. ..+-. ..... -...
.- .||-. |-.|. .. ..|-.++. ... -... .. .. .+-. +
.v|. -..-.. .-... ...|.|-.. :.. -.. -.+.. , ...|. ....
|.. .. |.-.-. |-.+... ....-.. -... -.... .|... ..|...||-. + . :|.
.- . -.+.. + .... ...... . . +..-...a.. . ..|.-. . -... , ....-. |-.
:..| ..-.|.. -. |.... |.-.. :. ... .+
. .....-.+. .|+..... ..|..|...-.......|-.|. +.:.. .
-.... .-.|.+ . .. -.. |.|-. .-. . + +|.... .... ... .|.:. ..|..|. . ..
.:-.. -..|..-.|. ..-... . . +.. + |+. -.-.+.|.. ... .. ..-. . .-...-. ..
:.|. . .. .||+.. + -. ... ....-. . .-... -.... -..|. -... -....|-.|.
- .. ... .-. . .....-. + -..|-. -. .. . . -.|. + .|.. ..+.... -..
c| ||r| c|||-c||r||| - ca |-||e|| a-|-|
zt.t-t -tt. +
..-. -...|... . ..|-. .. .. -... -.... ... . .. |.. + .. |.. ..
. ..+.. . + |+. .. +.|+ +|.... .... ... .|... + .. -.. + ..
|..... +..+-. . .|.|.|. |... .-. . + -. +.... -... -.... ... .|.....
+|-. .|..-. :.|-.. ... .-.... .. +
+|.... .... ... .|... ..... . -....-... .-. . -..-.-..-...-.. +... ....
|.-.. + .. -.... .|... ... :.... |.v. + . -..|-... -.|--.-.
-.-.-.|........-.|. +|.. -. ..... |.-... |.|.|...+ . +..
.. +.|+ , . ..+. |. ....-. +|.... ... : . . .. ... .|.-.-. + .+
... ..+.|+... |........ .|.:....... .|+. .-.. ...
...+....-.|. +-.. -..-. -..+ ...+. +|........ +| -.|
-.... .|... .. -.. :|. ..-.-.... +.. +
t tt+t + -tt +|ttttt t-ttt -t|-t--tt+
-. . |-.||-.. . |.:..+. -. v. ... -.+. . -. . ..|..|.. ... .|...v
+. .|- . ... .. ... .|-.|. +-.. +|....-. : . |.... . +...

.. .-.-.:|. . . . |.|-...-.. .. .. .+-. +.. |. .-.|-.|. ..|.+.

|.....-. +.. .-.-..... . -. . |-.||-.. . +. .|-

.-.-. |..-.|... ...

.-. :|. -..|.+ .-. -.. .-.-.|-.|. -.|-.

+ ... .-...|.. .

.-..-. ...|-.|. -.... |-.+ ... ...-.. ..+ ... . ..-.||. . ... |.. .
... ..|.. . .|...+-. + -. -. |-...| . -. .....-.. ..:. , .-.|.-. . |. ..+
(|.:..+. -. | .-.. ..+.-. .. .-.-. - -. .- . ... + ..
-.. + |.:..+. -. v. , ... ... . :|. -...... .. .. . ..-. .+-. .
+. -.- |. :.. +.

.. :|. .. . . . ... .

|-.|. . .. . .....

. ..
Kiraval 31
come). Hence, Kli is the Goddess of Time and Change. Although
sometimes presented as dark and violent, her earliest incarnation as a figure
of annihilator of evil forces still has some influence. Various Shakta Hindu
cosmologies, as well as Shkta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate
reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatrini (literally redeemer
of the universe). Comparatively recent devotional movements largely
conceive Kli as a benevolent mother goddess. Kl is represented as the
consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing. Shiva
laid in path of Kali, whose foot on Shiva subdues her anger. She is time
manifestation of other Hindu goddesses like Durga, Bhadrakali, Sati,
Rudrani, Parvati and Chamunda. She is the foremost among the Dasa
Mahavidyas, ten fierce Tantric goddesses.
Chandi - or Chandika is the supreme Goddess of Devi a (Sanskrit:
Devmhtmyam, also known as Chandi or Durga Sapthashati. Chandi is
described as the Supreme reality who is a combination of Mahakali, Maha
Lakshmi and Maha Saraswati. Later in the Murti Rahasya she is described
as Maha Lakshmi with eighteen arms (Ashtadasa Bhuja Mahalakshmi)
bearing weapons.
Chamunda also known as Chamundi, Chamundeshwari and Charchika, is
a fearsome aspect of Devi, the Hindu Divine Mother and one of the seven
Matrikas (mother goddesses). She is also one of the chief Yoginis, a group
of sixty-four or eighty-one Tantric goddesses, who are attendants of the
warrior goddess Durga. The name is a combination of Chanda and Munda,
two monsters whomChamunda killed. She is closely associated with Kali,
another fierce aspect of Devi. She is sometimes identified with goddesses
Parvati, Chandi or Durga as well. Thegoddess is often portrayed as haunting
cremation grounds or fig trees. The goddess is worshipped by ritual animal
sacrifices along with offerings of wine and in the ancient times, human
sacrifices were offered too. Originally a tribal goddess, Chamunda was
assimilated in Hinduismand later entered the J ain pantheon too. Though
in J ainism, the rites of her worship include vegetarian offerings, and not
the meat and liquor offerings.
2. There are several places in Kerala where Bhadrakali kalamis depicted
with influence of local gods and goddesses. The population of Hinduism
developed a culture to produce methodology to connect their beliefs with
their requirements on day to day requirements. There are parables and
local transformations of the major and popular formof the image related
with the deity they are praying. Mainly the performance is made in Shiva
Temple premises during festivals but it has place in temples of other deities
during ceremonial occasions and residences of devotees as it a public art
32 Kiraval
and method for worship.
3. Shilpa Shastras-Shilpa Texts- is a general termused to note various
Hindu texts that describeart forms, through which thestandards for religious
Hindu iconography been made, prescribed other things such as the
proportions of a sculptured figure, as well as regulatory measuresof Hindu
architecture. Sixty-four such arts or crafts, sometimes called bhya-kal
external or practical arts, are traditionally enumerated, including
carpentry, architecture, jewelry, farriery, acting, dancing, music, medicine,
poetry etc., besides sixty-four abhyantara-kal or secret arts which
include mostly erotic arts such as kissing, embracing, etc. (Monier-
Williams s.v. ilpa).While the fields are related, Shilpa Shastras explicitly
deal with sculpture - forming statues, icons, stone murals, etc. Vastu Shastra
are concerned primarily with building architecture - building houses, forts,
temples, apartments, etc.
4. Kavu- Kavu is a place of worship other than Temples for Hindus in
Kerala. The selected area of the house hold land is permitted for natural
growth of vegetation like a forest and the idols of favorite deities are
centrally placed there. Majorly theidols areof Nagaimages. Yaksha, Yakshi,
and some other aboriginal known deities are placed over there but Naga
images are popular among them. Kavu has a social relevance in the life of
Kerala.
5. Kolamis the popular name of Rangoli in general public and it a popular
folk art fromIndia. Rangoli or Kolamare decorative designs made on the
floors of living rooms and courtyards of homes during Hindu festivals.
They are meant to be the areas to welcome and place for the Hindu deities.
The symbols and centuries old have been passed on through the ages, from
one generation to the next, so that kept both the art formand the tradition
alive. The patterns are typically created with locally available materials,
including colored rice, dry flour,(colored) sand or even flower petals and
dried and powdered leaves. Rangoli is practiced in various states in India
and popular I names-in Tamil Nadu it known as Kolam, Madanae in
Rajasthan, Chowkpurna in Northern India, Alpana in West Bengal, Aripana
in Bihar, chowk pujan in Uttar Pradesh and many more.
The purpose of Rangoli is decoration, and it is thought to bring good luck
to the bearer. Design-depictions may also vary pace to place as they reflect
traditions, related with folklore and practices that are unique to each area
or society. As a traditional practice it is done by women, but often it seen
that all people involve generally. Practice is of drawing showcased apart
fromwelcoming of morning time in front the house gates, during occasions
such as festivals, auspicious observances, celebrations of marriages and
Kiraval 89
researchers through newspapers, television, radio, etc. analyzed and
were alarmed on the serious adverse impacts of toxic substances on the
living environment of human, animals, and vegetation. It is ironic that
man is the one who pollutes his own health, and kill the life of all
beings in this Earth. The risk threatening our ecology is not minor. It
leads to many measures to prevent or minimize the pollution, of world-
wide scale, including the ten important International Conventions to
protect the environment.
Buddhism had made immense contribution and influence to Indian
life and thought. Buddhas teaching like his heart was all-expanding
and all-embracing, so it has survived his body and swept across the
face of the earth. Although Buddhism was forced to disappear from
Kerala as a religion its spirit could not be eliminated from the life of
the people. Caste and untouchability have reduced the state to an evil
den for three centuries from the seventeenth, but the teachings of the
Buddha lived in the mind of the masses and in the humble and peace
loving, and Buddhist system of knowledge and medicine devotedly
carried on by their unostentatious and dedicated votaries to the benefit
of the people.
88 Kiraval
was the product of Buddhist influence. The woks of the poet Kumran
n like Karua, Canlabhikuki and Sr Buddhacaritam also show
the profound impact of Buddhism o Malaylam literature. Sr
Buddhacaritam is a free rendering of Edwin Arnolds The Light of
Asia in to Malaylam.ns Karua and Canlabhikuki are based
on Buddhist doctrine. Nalappat Narayanamenons translation of The
Light of Asia entitled Pourastyadhpam is an important work.
Aswaghoas Buddhacaritam, the Jtaka stories, etc., were also
translated.
Expansion of Buddhism in Kerala cannot be explained in terms of
monuments as found in places like Sanchi and Ajanta. Hardly there
was a need of raising imposing sthupas or towers and architecture
marvels in Kerala. In the land of flourishing vegetation and multiplicity
or rivers, the creation of a spacious Sang rma or vihra was a matter
of marking out its boundaries on a selected spot.
Main Buddhist centers in Kerala
Some of the major temples of Kerala today like the Kurumba
bhagavati temple ,Koungallur and the Vaakkunnatha temple ,Trichur
seem to have been Buddhist shrines in ancient days. Buddhist images
have been discovered from a number of places like Mvelikkara,
Pallickal, Karumi, etc. in the Quilon-Alleppey territorial belt. The
great Buddhist pilgrim center of Srmlavsam must have been located
somewhere in the region between Ambalapuzha and Tkkunnapuzha
in Alleppey district. Evidences of Buddhist influence are available from
different fields life and culture in Kerala even today.
Conclusion
Environmental protection is one of the urgent problems facing
mankind today. The awareness of protecting life and living environment
has been generated in recent time. However, in Buddhism, it is one of
the main basic laws which were set out by the Buddha some 25 centuries
ago for his students to follow. All scientists, economists, philosophers,
Kiraval 33
other similar milestones and gatherings.
Rangoli designs can be simple geometric shapes, deity impressions, flower
and petal shapes (appropriate for the given celebrations), but they can also
become very elaborate designs crafted by numerous people. The base
material is usually dry or wet granulated rice or dry flour, to which Sindoor
(vermilion), Haldi (turmeric) and other natural colors can be added.
Chemical colors are a modern variation. Other materials include colored
sand and even flowers and petals, as in the case of Flower Rangolis.
6. The termBrahmana is described in encyclopedia is described as follows
Brahmin also called Brahmana; is a termused to designate a member of
one of the four varnas (castes) in the traditional Hindu societies of Nepal
and India. Brahman, Brahmin, and Brahma have different meanings.
Brahman refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin (or Brahmana) refers to an
individual, while the word Brahma refers to the creative aspect of the
universal consciousness. The English word brahmin is an anglicised form
of the Sanskrit word Brhmana. In the Smriti view, there are four varnas
or classes: the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and the Shudras
(outcastes, chandalas).
7. The meaning of Shiva-Siva, is auspicious one. Shiva is a major Hindu
deity, worshiped by all Hindu Society and considered as the Destroyer or
Transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects
of the divine. Lord Shiva is considered as the most powerful god in
Hinduism. According to the Shaiva tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is the
Supreme God and has five important duties: as creator, preserver, destroyer,
fact of concealing, and revealing (as to bless). He is regarded as one of the
five primary forms of God in smarta tradition. Who focus their worship
upon Shiva, among followers of Hinduismare called Shaivites or Shaivas
(Sanskrit aiva), one of the three most influential denominations in
Hinduism. Shiva is also commonly known as Rudra. Lingamis the iconic
representation for the worship of Shiva. Rudra is described as an omniscient
yogi (Sanyasi), who follows an ascetic life on Mount Kailash, as well as a
householder with a wife familiar as Parvati. He has two sons- Ganesha
(Ganapati) and Kartikeya(Muruga). Shiva is worshiped in many benevolent
as well as fearsome forms. His image is visualized as immersed in deep
meditation, some other times with his wife and children or as the Cosmic
Dancer in occassions. Also he was portrayed in fierce aspects and he is
often depicted as slaying demons and evil forces.
8. Nataraja or Nataraj,The Lord (or King) of Dance; is a depiction of the
god Shiva as the cosmic dancer who performs his divine dance to destroy
a weary universe and make preparations for the god Brahma to start the
34 Kiraval
process of creation. A Telugu and Tamil concept, Shiva was first depicted
as Nataraja in the famous Chola bronzes and sculptures of Chidambaram.
The dance of Shiva in Tillai, the traditional name for Chidambaram, forms
the motif for all the depictions of Shiva as Nataraja. He is also known as
Sabesan which splits as Sabayil aadumeesan in Tamil which means
The Lord who dances on the dais. The formis present in most Shiva
temples in South India, and is the main deity in the famous temple at
Chidambaram.
The sculpture is usually made in bronze, with Shiva dancing in an aureole
of flames, lifting his left leg (or in rare cases, the right leg) and balancing
over a demon or dwarf (Apasmara) who symbolizes ignorance. It is a well-
known sculptural symbol in India and popularly used as a symbol of Indian
culture.
The two most common forms of Shivas dance are the Lasya (the gentle
formof dance), associated with the creation of the world, and the Tandava
(the violent and dangerous dance), associated with the destruction of weary
worldviews - weary perspectives and lifestyles. In essence, the Lasya and
the Tandava are just two aspects of Shivas nature; for he destroys in order
to create, tearing down to build again. Encyclopedia.
8. Padma Puran- Padma Purana. One among the major eighteen Puranas, a
Hindu religious text, which hasto five parts.
Sage Pulastya explains to Bhishma about religion and the essence of the
religion in the first part of the text followed by the second part describes in
detail about Earth (Prithvi). Description of the cosmos is given, including
creation, and description of India (Bharata Varsha) in the third part. The
fourth part explains the life and deeds of Rama. The fifth part is in the
style of a dialogue between Shiva and his consort, Parvati which deals
with the unavoidable knowledge about religion.
Dating to roughly between the 8th and the 11th centuries, the Padma Purana
is considered as one of the Mahapuranas. It is noted that there are a number
of later J aina works also known as Padma-purana, and also dealing with
the life of Rama. These include the Padma-purana (Balabhadrapurana) or
Raidhu (15th century), the Padma-purana of Somadeva (1600), the Padma-
purana of Dharmakirti (1612), the Padma-purana of Bhattaraka Candrakirti
(17th century).
9. Vahana- Vhana is a sansskrit word means the mechanismor living
organismthat which carries, that which pulls or moves denotes the being,
typically an animal or mythical entity, a particular deva is said to use as a
vehicle. In this capacity, the vhana is often called the deitys mount.
Upon the partnership between the deva and his vhana is woven much
Kiraval 87
and fighting against the nature as seen in the West and also in an
increasing number of countries in the East, which tend to destruction
for selfish gains.
Education
An unforgettable gift of Buddhism to Kerala is that the Education
and literacy. The Buddha vihras are also educational institutions. In
small sheds, unselfish monks taught every child to write on a spread of
soft sand with the index finger the alphabet of Malaylam. With the
vanishing of Buddhist ascetics, their place was taken by the village
teacher called n equally unselfish and entirely devoted to the task
of removing ignorance from the mind of the populace. Even after the
monastery of cast has become ubiquitous ,on a rough estimate ,there
were about 20000 n pallikams or Kuipallikams all over Kerala
of which more than half was run by ns belonging to communities
which suffered the oppressions of caste. The ezhuthupallis of Kerala
were based on the schools attached to Buddhist Vihras. The part played
by Buddhist monks in the spread of learning in Kerala deserves special
mention. The Buddhist monks appear to have been pioneers in the field
of education. They had numerous charity establishments associated with
their vihras and these served as centers for the spread of learning
.Monasteries became cultural centers both for the monk and laity. It
was the monastery that arranged for the enlightenment of the general
population. It was the monastery that possessed the biggest library and
helped the cause of the multiplication of books by getting them copied.
The part played by Buddhist monks in the spread of learning in Kerala
deserves special mention. The Buddhist monks appear to have been
pioneers in the field of education. They had numerous charity
establishments associated with their vihras and these served as centers
for the spread of learning.
Literature
The large admixture of pli , words which are find in Malaylam
86 Kiraval
surgery Suruta and Caraka.the physician par excellence were both
devout Buddhist and had sent during their times , medical teams to
Kerala for exchange of knowledge with the Ayurvedic experts and
herbians.
Buddhism and Environmental Protection
Living in contentment does not mean the elimination of desire of
knowledge and truth, but to live in harmony with all beings and with
nature. On that basis, those who understand the Buddha s teaching
will limit their selfishness, to live in harmony with nature, without
harming the environment. They will see what should be explored and
to what level, what should be protected for future use by the next
generations and other beings. Excessive greed to possess everything
for themselves, or for their own group, has make men becoming blind.
They are prepared to fight, make war, causing deaths, disease, starvation,
destruction of life of all species, gradually worsening the living
environment. By all means, they try to maximize their profits, without
being concerned of the negative impact of unplanned exploitation
leading to depletion of natural resources, discharge toxics into the air,
water, earth, leading to environmental pollution, destroying the
ecological balance.
For thousand years, the Buddhist forest monasteries have manifested
a harmonious living with nature, being established in the mountains, in
the forests. Tranquil life in the forest helped Buddhist practitioners to
improve their inner mind, and at the same time, they also worked for
the protection of animals living in the area. With loving and tolerant
heart, the Buddhists live with natural vegetation, wild animals in the
forest in harmony and for mutual survival. Men used oxygen partly
discharged by trees, live by their shadows, and in return, men looked
after the trees. Wild animals may come to eat crops planted by the
temple without running the risk to be killed. The harmonious living of
Buddhism is completely different from the competitive, opposing living
Kiraval 35
iconography and mythology. Often, the deva is iconographically depicted
riding (or simply mounted upon) the vhana. Other times, the vhana is
depicted at the deitys side or symbolically represented as a divine attribute.
The vhana may be considered an accoutrement of the deity: though the
vhana may act independently, they are still functionally emblematic or
even syntagmatic of their rider. The deva (or dev, who will have her
own, unique vhana) may be seen sitting or on, or standing on, the vhana.
They may be sitting on a small platformcalled a howdah, or riding on a
saddle or bareback. Vah in Sanskrit means to carry or to transport.
10. A vetala (Sanskrit vetla - a ghost-like being fromHindu mythology.
The vetala are defined as spirits inhabiting corpses and charnel grounds.
These corpses may be used as vehicles for movement (as they no longer
decay while so inhabited); but a vetala may also leave the body at will.
Gray (undated: c2009) provides a survey of chthonic charnel ground
accoutrement motif such as skull imagery in the textual tradition of the
Yogini tantras and discusses vetala (Sanskrit).
11. Musical Instruments related with Bhadrakali kalamperformance,
a. Shankha. also spelled and pronounced as shankh and sankha, is a conch
shell which is of ritual and religious importance in both Hinduismand
Buddhism. The shankha is the shell of a species of large predatory sea
snail, Turbinella pyrum, which lives in the Indian Ocean. In Hinduism, the
shankha is a sacred emblemof the Hindu preserver god Vishnu. It is still
used as a trumpet in Hindu ritual, and in the past was used as a war trumpet.
The shankha is praised in Hindu scriptures as a giver of fame, longevity
and prosperity, the cleanser of sin and the abode of Lakshmi, who is the
goddess of wealth and consort of Vishnu.
b. The Chenda is a cylindrical percussion instrument used widely in the
state of Kerala, and Tulu Nadu of Karnataka State in India. In Tulu Nadu
it is known as Chande. The chenda is mainly played in Hindu Temple
Festivals and as an accompaniment in the religious art forms of Kerala.
The chenda is used as an accompaniment for Kathakali, Koodiyattam,
Kannyar Kali, Theyyamand among many forms of dances and rituals in
Kerala. It is also played in a dance-drama called Yakshagana which is
popular in Tulu Nadu of Karnataka. It is traditionally considered to be an
Asura Vadyam which means it cannot go in harmony. Chenda is an
unavoidable musical instrument in all formof cultural activities in Kerala.
c.Thimila- Timila, thimila or paani, is an hour-glass shaped percussion
instrument used in Kerala, South India. It is made of polished jackwood,
and the drumheads made of calfskin (preferably taken from1-2 year old
calf) are held together by leather braces which are also twined round the
36 Kiraval
waist of the drum. This mechanismhelps in adjusting the tension and
controlling the sound, mainly two: tha and thom. It is one of the
constituting instruments in Panchavadyam. It is also a major percussion
instrument used in sree-bali, sree-bhootha-bali and related temple rites. A
Panchavadyamperformance is begun with Timila Pattu and ends with the
Timila Idachal thus making timila a very important component of the
traditional Kerala percussion ensemble.
d. Other instruments- Veekku Chenda, Ilathalamand Chengila.
12.Ganapati Padukka-The ceremonial placement of offerings- decorated
coconut, Flowers, Fruits, dry fruits, rice scales, Sweets, Sugar cake etc.
13. Ganapati pattu is the song sung by the performer during in the beginning
of the performance to invite presence of Lord Ganapati while praising
him.
14. This is a symbol of fertility, Kali is the mother of the Mankind, and she
feed her children through her breasts. Raw rice means the fertility. The
refined rice means it is ready to feed her children- the legend says. As per
some artist some time the Bhadrakali Kalmartists used approximately up
to 50Kg of Paddy to make the mounts of breasts of the image themdraw
according to the size of the image they draw.
15. Chakshudan- Giving of eye. Chakshu is the synonym of Eye in
Malayalamand Dan means offering, giving etc. Similar practice conducted
in the traditional set up of Mural Painting in Kerala. The eye is drawn at
the end of painting which is known as kannuthurappickal.
16. Panchavadyam- (Malayalam), literally meaning an orchestra of five
instruments, is basically a temple art formthat has evolved in Kerala. Of
the five instruments, four timila, maddalam, ilathalamand idakka
belong to the percussion category, while the fifth one, kombu, is a wind
instrument Playing of all five rhythmically is known as Panchavadyam.
Sime times the performers replace one or two instruments (Veekku Chenda,
Chenda or Kuzhal) depends up on availability of instrument and artists.
Works Cited
Graves, Robert. New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology.
London: Hamlyn Pub., 1968. Print.
J ayakar, Pupul. The Earth Mother. New Delhi, India; New
York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Penguin, 1989. Print.
Majumdar, R. C., Pusalker A. D., Majumdar A. K., and
Munshi Kanaiyalal Maneklal,. The History and Culture of
Kiraval 85
towering intellectuals for the cause of whom were the sons of Kerala.
Health Environment
One of the greatest contributions of Buddhism to mankind is the
organization of medical services on altruistic values. The blessed one
entrusted to Jvaka, the most famous physician of his time ,the task of
under taking medical relief to the needy, later on ,the Buddhist
dispensation of medicine centered round the Vihra or Caitya and
services to the sick, the injured and the invalid had become a matter of
faith to every Buddhist. Precious herbs and rare medicinal plants grow
all over Kerala and the adoption of Buddhism has led to a new search
and new valuation of them in the Sahya ranges of South Travancore.
There is the Maruthvmala which is renowned for its medical herbs.
Studying and researching the properties and efficiency of various plants
,Bhaanta Ngrjuna, a great Buddhist monk and physician ,spent
more than 18 years in Thiruvizha in Cherthala teaching, prescribing
and writing on medicines .Young members of the Buddhist families in
Cherthala with the aptitude to learn medical science became his
disciples and the Taluk later on ,has produced great physicians and
herbalists of rare eminence. The most conspicuous contribution of
Bhaanta Ngrjuna is Rasavaieika sthra , an illuminating
commentary on which is written by his illustrious disciple Narasimha
who was a native of Cherthala .It was by the untiring effort of
Narasiha, the preaching monk ,almost every family in Kerala has
come to possess knowledge of some herbs and their various usages.
During the Buddhist period of Kerala, Kodakkarapalli, five kilometers
west of Cherthala town was a famous Buddhist centre of medical
knowledge where renowned physicians and herbalists periodically met
to exchange and enrich their knowledge. distinguished Buddhist monk
to rise as an original genius in medicine was Vagbhaa , the celebrated
author of Anghahdhaya which is religiously learned and faithfully
followed by all Ayurvedic physicians of Kerala. The father of Indian
Influence of Buddhism in the Social
Health Environment of Kerala
Soumya.C.S
Buddhism represents the way of compassion. The Buddha
manifested a complete compassion and is respectfully seen as the
compassionate protector of all beings. He taught that for those who
wish to follow his Path should practice loving-kindness, not to harm
the life of all beings - not only to protect mankind, but also to protect
animals and vegetation. As in the other parts of India, Buddhism had
penetrated in to Kerala also. The records reveal not only the existence
of Buddhist shrines but also the real patronage of the creed by the kings.
It is very difficult to comprehend the nature of the dissemination of
Buddhism in to Kerala owing to the inadequacy of evidence. However
the first wave of Buddhism might have come to this land through traders
since most of the Buddhists were from this class. Buddhism must have
been introduced in Kerala in the third Century B.C itself during the
reign of Aoka. In addition to the Buddhist missionaries sent by Aoka
those from Ceylon also seem to have come to Kerala and other South
Indian kingdoms to spread Buddhism. The script of inscriptions of the
rocks also shows similarly to the Ceylonese cave records of the same
period. It is not from Ceylon alone that Buddhism had come to Kerala.
Scholarly Buddhist monks reached Kerala through the coastline of
Gujarat and Maharashtra most of whom were disciples of
Mahsangharakitha who was deputed by Aoka to preach Buddhism
in the Maratha region .Besides South India has contributed many
Kiraval 37
the Indian People. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1990.
Print.
Mookerjee, Ajit. Folk Art of Bengal,. [Calcutta: University
of Calcutta, 1939. Print.
Rao, Gopinatha T A ,. Elements of Hindu Iconography,. New
York: Paragon Book Reprint, 1968. Print.
Visnunamputiri, Em Vi. Phoklor Nighantu.
Tiruvanantapuram: Kerala Bhasa Instittyutt, 1989. Print.
Mental Health:
Modern and Vedantic Views
Dr.H.Sylaja
Introduction
According to certain statistical accounts eighty percent of
the mental illnesses are psychogenic. Because actual cause of
the trouble is in the mind, it often cannot be reached by purely
physical treatment. The cause has to be determined by
psychological analysis. Our joy and suffering, wisdom and
folly, strength and weakness, depend very much on the
condition of the mind
Mind according to Vedanta is something distinct from the
physical body on the one hand and the spiritual self on the
other. The spiritual self is the knower; the mind is not the
knower, mind is an object of knowledge, mind is called
antakarana, an internal instrument. Mind is not an integral part
of the body but it is an integral part of the spiritual self. They
are connected but yet are distinct. Similar observations can be
seen in Vedantha.
Attitude towards the self and the Object
Psychology stressed the need for a positive attitude towards
self, the three important aspect of Positive attitude as explained
by J ahoda (1958), are self-acceptance, self-confidence, and
self-reliance. Self-acceptance implies that a person has learned
to live with himself ,accepting both the limitations , and
possibilities he may find in himself .Self-confidence expresses
Kiraval 83
near to Lord Siva with the harmonious sounds of musical
instruments. Latter together with the Skanda, Lord Siva
occupied the bottom of the two Asvattha on the eastern side of
the temple. Dances and songs were provided to honour the
deities. People worshipped Siva under the tree in various ways.
A Dandaka was addressed to Him. Then Skanda left Siva. And
the procession of Lord Siva was ended at the door of the temple.
He vanished from elephants back and entered in to the
sanctuary. The next day He took bath at dawn in a lake on
northern side of the temple.
On hearing this account Indra was pleased with the Vidyadhara
Sangeethedesika.
Conclusion
The Ashtamimahotsava prabandha of Melputtur Narayana
Bhatta is the narration of the Astami festival celebrated at
Vaikom Mahadeva temple. Splendid and fresh thought of
substance, most brilliant and majestic vocabulary, beautiful
narration, naturality, rhetorical embellishment etc. are perfectly
shining in the Ashtamimahotsava prabandha. It is not only a
narration of a festival but an outstanding description of the
society also. Customs, culture, lifestyle etc also reflected in
this Champu. Historically it is priceless. This prabandha is one
of the everlasting, ever shining jewel of the Prabandha
Samuccaya of Melputtur.
Works Cited
Kvydara of Mahkavi Da,. Ed. Rmacandra Mira. Varanasi:
Chowkhamba Vidyabhawan, 1972. Print.
Nampootiri, Narayanan T.D. Vaikom Mahadevatemple History
and Legend. Vaikom: Malayalarajyam Book Depot. Print.
Unni, Dr N.P, ed. Prabandhamanjari (Selected Prabandhas of
Melputhur Narayana Bhatta). New Delhi: Rashtriya Sanskrit
Sansthan, 1998. Print.
82 Kiraval
procession of Lord Siva for the Deepotsava with the escort of
colorful umbrellas and venchamaras. After the three
pradakshinas they reenter to the temple. Ten days was finished
following the seeveli at morning, Brahmin feast at mid-day
and at the night Deepotsava. After these ten days there comes
the day Astami.
Here the author creates a vast and interesting narration of a
festival place. We can see a beautiful and vivid explanation of
the people assembled, transactions occur there etc. People use
this time to sale and buy the precious stones, the ornaments
such as necklace, bangles etc. fragrant substance like sandal
wood, akil, devatharu etc. grocery items like rice, fruits, coconut
etc. The author narrates interestingly the deceptive manner of
businessmen and their tricks to attract people to them. And
also narrate other sights from there - the preceptors who abuse
other religions, the noble women who came to see the festival
with their husbands etc.
At the dawn a drum was beaten and people assembled for the
procession. There came various types of people who wear
variety dresses, ornaments, speaks various languages and had
various cultures. There came the prostitutes who contain the
essence of the theory of Kamadeva, the people who came from
Kalinga, Neppal, Turki, Chola, Bengal, Andhra etc and the
scholarly Brahmins etc. Wearing a turban made by red silk
cloth and a shining sword in hand, the Sastra nampoori
sangham enter to every houses.
Then two handsome men came from the temple with a rattan
cane. According to the customs of that time, may be these are
the people who escort the procession. Then the image of Lord
Siva being placed on an elephant named as Chandrasekhara,
escorted by a king who look like the J upiter who came to earth
to see the Utsava and the devotees. After the pradakshina the
procession went to the northern side of the temple, where a
procession of Skanda joined it. And Lord Skanda is reached
Kiraval 39
the judgement that in balance, the self is good, capable, and
strong. Self-reliance carries the connotation of self-confidence,
and in addition, of independence from others, and of initiative
from within.
Vedantic psychotherapy aims to cure mental and functional
disorders due to fear, anxiety, frustration, internal conflicts
,guilt, suppressed desire, and so forth, by rectifying the patients
inner attitude towards the objects concerned things , being
, or events , as the case may be and there by transforming his
reactions to them. He is taught how to adopt himself to the
varying conditions of life, since the stress due to social
maladjustment contributes to neurosis and to psychosis as well.
But to effect a permanent cure, Vedanta recommends changing
ones outlook on life ,because the root cause of mental ailments
is a wrong view of life .All the while the patient is to be
treated with due consideration of his capacities; he who feels
for the patient heals his heart.
Perception of reality and suppression of over indulgence
According to Kaplan (1969), the way an individual perceives
the world around him depends upon his mental set. This
perception of reality determines What, When and how an
individual sees corresponds to what is actually there.
Perception, free fromneed distortion, and perception, free from
empathy or social sensitivity are the two aspects of reality
perception .The former reveals itself in a persons concern
for evidence to support what he sees and anticipates .A
mentally stable person will seek objective evidence, and
accept it even if it goes against his wish. The latter, the
perception of the feelings and attitudes of others or social
sensitivity has been suggested as a separate criterion for positive
mental health. The mentally healthy person treats the inner
life of other people as a matter worthy of his concern and
attention.
40 Kiraval
According to Vedanta as long as one looks upon pleasures
and possessions as the primary objectives of life, one cannot
be free from emotional involvement. One who is attached to
his riches must have the fear of losing them and the consequent
cares and worries. He will be envious of those who have more
than he has, contemptuous of those who have not enough, and
proud of what he has. Greed invariably takes hold of him.Sense
desires are insatiable, while the means of their fulfilment are
inadequate. The objects of desire, transitory as they are, cannot
be easily acquired. The body and the organs, the instruments
of sense enjoyment, give way before the mind is satisfied. The
baneful effect of modern living constant tension , discontent,
competition, conflict are inevitable, in as much one and all
clamour for maximum power and prosperity as the very goal
of life .Vedanta does not condemn the search for pleasure
and possessions, but urges the seekers not to look upon them
possessions, but urges the seekers not to look upon them as
ends in themselves. This draws mans attention from the lower
to the higher ideals until he finds the highest. When the mind
turns to the higher values it invariably becomes detached from
the lower. This is the way to outgrow sense desires. That
Vedanta recommends suppression and repression no less than
over indulgence.
Autonomy and Power of Discrimination
Another characteristic of stable mind is autonomy. Foot
and Coltrall (1955) describes autonomy as referring to the
clarity of the individuals conception of self (identity), the
extent to which he maintains a stable set of internal standards
for his actions, the degree to which he is self-directed, self
controlled in his actions, his confidence in and reliance upon
himself, the degree of self-respect he maintains and the capacity
for recognizing real threats to the self and of mobilizing realistic
defences when so threatened. Maslow (1951) says Autonomy
means a relative independence of the physical, and social
Kiraval 81
poet salute Lord Siva and through another one he describes
the greatness of festival and his inexpertness to narrate it.
-t +tt-tt tt -t-t-t|+-tt-t|-t-tt +tt-tt -t-t -tr-t -trt--ttt.|-t+
-t-t -t+t -t|rt-t-t-tt -tt -ttt|-tt+-tt-tt -t-tu-tt --t(1)
Here the humbleness of the poet becomes clear. After that the
story begins. Sangeethadesika is gone to Indrasabha with his
wife. Then Devendra wants to narrate the incident which creates
astonishment in him. Then he begins to tell about the Astami
Mahotsava celebrated in Vyaghrapadapuri. Sangeethadesika
narrate it in a very interesting manner. He says that the man
who did not see the Astami Mahotsava is not a man.
-t -t-tt-t |+ -t t--t-t tt-t-tt-tr-t +
Then he told about the temple named as the
Mahavyaghrapuram. Here always reverberate the Vedic chants
of Brahmins. At the courtyard of the temple, the golden flagstaff
is shining as a ladder to enter the Heaven for devotees. The
residence of Kailasa is only like a skyflower for Lord Siva,
when he resides here. At the southern part of the temple,
Bhagavathy Bhadrakali is situated with showering her blessings
on devotees. And here an excellent picturization of Bhagavathy
is done by Melputtur.
Then he begins to describe the celebration. The Utsava begins
from the day of Sukladvadasi in Vrischika month. At the
afternoon of that day, the maid servants cleaned the base floor
of the flagstaff as a shining mirror. They decorate there with
flowers, hang the garlands and placed the auspicious objects
like Nirakudam, Nilavilakku, Nirapara etc. At that time, the
priest was came from the temple and offered some special
worships there. After that the flag was raised indicate the
beginning of Utsava.
In the evening of that day there reverberating the sound of
kettle drum. Hearing that, all people were coming to the temple.
Large numbers of lights are shining around the temple as the
burning of wild fire around a mountain. Then there occur the
80 Kiraval
prabandha and Kotiviraha are the exceptional cases of that. At
the temples, Chakyars used most of the Prabandhas to perform
Koothu. But Ashtamimahotsava prabandha is probably not
used for performing arts.
Vaikom Mahadeva temple
Vaikom Mahadeva temple is cituated at Vaikom in Kottayam
district. And the temple is near by the Kottayam - Ernakulam
rout. The temple is looking to east and is pervading at an eight
acre land. Here Lord Siva gives his blessings to the devotees
in three bhavas or forms. In the morning he assumes the form
of Dakshinamoorthi, the Guru of gurus. in the noontime he
assumes the form of Kiratamoorthi, who gave Pasupathastra
to his noble devotee Arjuna. In the evening Lord Siva assumes
the bhava of Sambasiva with his wife Parvathy and sons
Ganapathy and Karthikeya.
The important festival that exists here is Vaikkathashtami,
celebrated at the Krishnapaksha Ashtami day of Vrischikom
month. And the main coustoms of this festival is
Kopputhookkal, Sandhyavela, Rushabhavahana procession,
Ashtami darsana, Valiyakanikka, Despatch of
Udayanapurathappan, Koodippuja etc.(Nampootiri 18)
Origin of the name Vaikom
In olden times this place was a thick forest inhabited by wild
animals. The ancient Sanskrit books Bhargavapurana and
Sanalkumarasamhitha mention this place as Vaiyaghrageham
and Vaiyaghrapuram. As per legands Vyaghrapadamaharshi got
Sivadarsana here, so it was fittingly called Vyaghrapadapuram.
Later,when Tamil spread, the word Vaiyaghra got transformed
as Vaikom(18).
The content of Astami Mahotsava Prabanda
The Astami Mahotsava Prabanda is described as in the form
of a travalouge. A Vidyadhara named as Sangeethadesika share
his travel experience to Devendra. Through the first verse the
Kiraval 41
environment.
According to Vedanta human desires and emotions are not
wrong in themselves, otherwise they could not be sublimated.
They have to be given higher and higher directions until they
turn to God, The self-control implies uplifting oneself. It will
lead to power of discrimination between the self and not self.
The power of discrimination will develop the will power and
that enable to control the emotions.
Integration of body mind and spirit
Psychology advocate the need for an integrated personality.
Integration is the relatedness of all processes, and attributes in
an individual. The mentally strong individual has a unifying
outlook on life which guides his actions, and feelings so that
he shapes the future accordingly. The unifying philosophy of
life results in the individuals feelings that there is purpose and
meaning to his life. Balance of ego, superego and id or of
unconscious, preconscious and conscious psychic events are
treated as a criterion of mental health status. The mentally
healthy individual shows resistance to stressful situations.
Vedanta agrees with psychology on the point that man
should be viewed as an integrated whole. But the difference is
this Psychology conceives man as a psychological organism
of which the physical system is the prime factor, and ignores
his spiritual self. Vedanta recognizes, as religious generally
do, three distinct factors in human personalities body mind
and spirit, among the spiritual self is the basic unifying
principle. So the real man is not the unity of the three factors,
but the central principles of consciousness that integrates the
body and the mind functions as the knower and as the doer in
association with them.
The mind has the capacity to transmit consciousness that
belongs to the knowing self .In addition though distinct, the
body and the mind are closely associated and influence each
42 Kiraval
other .A mans problems cannot be solved effectively unless
he has a correct view of himself. Truer the view, the better is
the life. Until he knows the true meaning of life no inner
stability is possible. The root cause of mans troubles is the
ignorance of the true nature of the self.
Self-Actualization and Self-Realization.
It is the ability to utilize his potentialities, and his
orientations towards the future. Further, as Maslow (1950)
observes, Self-Actualizing people, in general focussed on
problems outside themselves and they have feeling for
mankind ... a genuine desire to help the human race. They are
capable of deeper and more profound interpersonal relations
than any other adults. They are strongly ethical, and they have
definite moral standards. Self-actualizing individual has the
capacity to evoke an empathetic warm or compassionate
response fromothers (Mayman, 1955). Self-actualizing people
seem to attract friends and others. Self-actualization means
the fullest, most complete differentiation and harmonious
blending of all aspects
Mans self-fulfilment is not in physical intellectual aesthetic,
or moral well being, but in spiritual enlightenment. Because it
is conducive to the highest good, spiritual life is not supreme
important in vedantic thought and culture. Moral goodness is
a pre-requisites for spiritual awakening. The part of the mind
that is open to the waking ego is conscious level, below this is
the subconscious, and beyond this is the super conscious. The
super conscious experience that reveal the truth regarding the
self and the universe and its ruler, removes his bondage forever
and reinstates himto his native purity, freedomand blissfulness.
The basic urge in man is the urge for perfection. This he attains
by self-realisation which is the same as the realisation of God.
Conclusion
In the Vedanta view the subsoil of the mind is the repository
Historical and Cultural Aspects Reflected In
Ashtamimahotsava Prabandha
Krishnaveni
Ashtamimahotsava prabandha is a narration of
Ashtamimahotsava celebrated in Vaikom Sri Mahadeva
Temple. This prabandha is one of the most beautiful Champu
Kavya among the Kerala Champu literature. The name of this
Prabandha is somewhere denoted as Ashtami prabandha and
somewhere as Ashtamimahotsava prabandha.As the definition
of Champu kavya, this one is also in Champu style ie; in the
order of a mixture of prose and verse.(Dandin 94)
The Ashtamimahotsava prabandha contains 41 verses and some
prose parts. The Vyakhyanas of this grandha is very rare. One
of these is written by Sri.Chunakkara Unnikrishna varrior in
Malayalam language. Another one is written by Sri Punnaseri
Nilakanta Sarma in Grantha lipi. And another one is written
by Harippad Chemprol Ambadevithampuratti.
The author of this Prabandha is Sri Melputtur Narayana Bhatta
[1560 A.D to 1666A.D]. He was a Nampootiri Brahmin
belonging to the family of Melputtur near the temple
Chandanakavu,about two miles to the north of the Thirunavaya
temple, on the northern banks of the river Bharathapuzha. His
father was Matrudutta and teacher Trikkandiyoor
Achuthapisharoti.
Most of the plots of the Prabandhas of Narayana Bhatta is based
upon the Purana or Epics. But the Ashtamimahotsava
78 Kiraval
Thus the twelfth Paala of Ajitamahtantra deals
exclusively with the temple architecture.
In this way, the text is highly valuable and resourceful as far as
ancient Indian architectural system is concerned. Further studies
on these subjects need to be based on the possibilities of carrying
out effective dialogues with similar modern branches of learning.
Notes
1 Scholars have referred to 28 gamas, but there are variations in the
titles.
2 Three kinds of Agulas are described in Vstustra. They are
Mngula, Mtrgula and Dehalabdhgula.
Mngula: - This is the basic unit taken. It is the prescribed number
of Yava grains (8 Yavas).
Mtrgula: - This is the measurement taken by the middle finger of
the master who makes an image or building.
Dehalabdhgula: - This is the measurement equal to one of the
equal parts into which the whole height of a statue is divided for
sculptural measurement.
3 There is no reference to the existence of individual antechamber in
the early instances of Pallava and Cola temples. The pavilion is
generally much larger and longer than the temples though the
Clukya instances have antechambers.
Works Cited
Bhatt, N.R, and Jean Filliozat, eds. Ajitamahtantram = The
great tantra of Ajita Vol. I, Vol. I,. Trans. Pierre-Sylvain
Filliozat. New Delhi; Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for
the Arts/ ; Motilal Banarsidass, 2005. Print.
Kiraval 43
of both good and evil elements; it is not dreadful abominable
as the conscious described by Sigmund Freud. it cannot be
said that only suppressed urges dwell there . what ever thought,
emotions, and propensities prevail in the conscious mind
naturally gravitate to the subconscious level. Necessarily,
endogenous cause of mental ailments has to be traced there.
An individuals happiness or misery depends not so much on
his material possessions or mastery over external nature as on
the way his mind responds to life challenges .so it is very
much necessary for us to understand the nature of the mind
the mode of its functioning .and control it if necessary mental
health.
Works Cited
Foote, Nelson, and Cottrell Leonard S. Identity and
Interpersonal Competence : A New Direction in Family
Research. [Chicago]: University of Chicago, 1955. Print.
J ahoda, Marie. Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health;.
New York: Basic, 1958. Print.
Kaplan, HB, and Pokorny AD. Self-derogation and
Psychosocial Adjustment. The Journal of Nervous and
Mental Disease 149.5 (1969): 421-34. Print.
Maslow, Abraham H. Self-actualizing People: A Study of
Psychological Health. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1950.
Print.
Mayman, M. The Diagnosis of Mental Health. N.p.:
Menninger Foundation, 1995. Print.
Narayana, Rao S ,, and Sahajpal Prem. Counselling and
Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2013. Print.
Cultivation and related income in the
Arthastra
Pushpadasan Kuniyil
Kauilyas Arthastra discusses how to utilize the required
resources for the welfare of the people and all in all prosperity of
the state. Arthastra puts forward the cultivation as the most
important livelihood of the society.
Agriculture and other related concepts are discussed in the 24
th
chapter named Agriculture officer (Sitdhyaka) of 41
st
prakaraa
in Adhyaka Pracra of 2
nd
Adhikaraa in Arthastra.
According toKauiilyas Arthastra, in the ancient period,
the people mainly depended agriculture growing cattles and
business as the profession for their chief livelihood. Apart from
the then they were also indulged in arts and man power activities-
handy works. Agriculture, growing cows, and trade are known as
vrtha. Kii pauplye vijya ca vrtha (Arthastra 1-4-1)
It was the people who belonged to the low caste level indulged
in agriculture. They turned the infertile land in to the most fertile
land by their studios toil and had good harvest. The agriculturists
had to bear the expense of the seeds, the cattles, and the workers.
The most important revenue of the state was from the agriculture.
But Kauiilya considered agriculture not only a device for tax,
Kiraval 77
The height of the door also in discussed in this chapter. It is
prescribed as the distance from the Prati to the limit of the
architecture.
The text then also prescribes the height of the door, the
Adhina (wall-base), the Pda, (wall), the Prastara (entablature),
the Grva (neck), the ikhara (crest) and the Stpi (finial). The
details about the different levels of temples are also given in this
chapter.
The chapter also provides information about temples names
and ornamentation. According to the text there are three variations
of temple by the names Ngara, Drvia and Vesara.
....|.|.. .. +.. |..-.|. +.. +(verse 60)
... :.|.: . . . . . |. ..-..++
The Ngara temples, which are said to be common in the
Pallava and Coa period, are a square from the ground level to the
finial. The octagonal from the neck to upwards is the characteristic
feature of the Drvia temples. The Vesara temples are generally
round from the neck upwards.
-.. -..|. |... . ... .. .+-. +
+-..-. |. .... :.|.: .|+||-... ++
+-..-. |. . -. .. . ..-. +.. +(verses 6668)
Further varieties such as Saubhadra, Svastibandhana,
Sarvatomukha, Srvakrmika are also mentioned in this chapter.
.-.: .|.-... ..+. + .-.|..-. ++
... |+.. +.-..-.. . .-. +
.. -.: -.. . .. +. ..-. .. . . |..-. ++
.. .... . . . |....-.|..-. +
.-..||.-|. ..|....-. .. ++
..... |... .. - .-.. . .-.|..-. (verse 68-71)
76 Kiraval
.| . . |.. |. . .-.... .-. -. .. ++
|.. . |. .... .|-.. |..|.. +
.|-|.. |.. .-. |-.|-. .|-.-.. -.. . ++
... ..-..-. . -.. .|-.. . .-. +
.-.. . -..... |-.|-.-. . :.-. .-...++ (verses 25-27)
Pavilion
Construction of the pavilion or the -.. is described next.
:... -.. .....
.....-..|..-. ++ (verses 2831)
Pavilion should be of same size of the temple and is constructed
in front of the Sanctum. There will be nine kinds of pavilion and
among these varieties, one can be built in accordance with once
choice. An antechamber should be built of four, three, two or one
Daa between the temple and the pavilion (Daa here refers to
the pillars breadth). The temple and pavilion should be of the
same breadth. An alternative is that the breadth of the pavilion
can be that of the temple reduced by one fourth or one fifth.
The text also gives prominence to the beauty concept, as part
of the construction. It prescribes a projection of one and half a
Daa or one Daa, to be done either on the side or at the back
of the temple. Then the height of the temple (|.-.... . . is discussed.
In the case of inferior temples one should make a height of two
times the breadth; for the ten medium temples, a height of twelve
parts when the breadth has been divided by seven is prescribed. A
height of eleven parts when the breadth has been divided by seven
has been prescribed for the ten superior temples.
.-.... |.-......-.... .....
........ . .-... .. +(P 134)
Kiraval 45
but also food security as an aim for social livelihood.
Many dra farmers lived in harvests without own land. Non
utilized lands were under the custody of King. The land was
given to the tax payers for cultivation.
drakarakapryamkulaatvaram pacakula atapara
grmakroadvikraoa smna anyraka niveayaet
(Arthastra 2-1-2 )
nad ailvanabhrtidar setubandhasam salmalkaira
vrkaananteau smnam sthpayet (Arthastra 2-1-3)
The families utilized these lands to maintain their families.
Those who did not pay the land tax had to give back these rented
land. These were many rules and regulations to sell the property.
The land exchange was restricted to the people of same race. The
land taxes have to be pay to the sold land. In the state they did all
their agricultural activities under the supervision of supervisor of
agriculture. There were implemented a many responsibilities under
supervisions of supervisor of agriculture. Science of cultivation,
tree management, collect of the seeds, arranging the fields, sowing,
watering and plants protection were mainly implemented.
Bahuhalaparikriattym svabmou dsakarma
karadadaprati kartrebhirvpayet(Stdhyakah-2)
Administrative set up in Agriculture
Duties of the Chief Superintendent
1. Seed collection: Collecting the seeds of different types of plants
and also collect the flowers, fruits, roots, and stems.
2. Land preparation: They arranged the agricultural works
according to the change of season. They would plough the
46 Kiraval
land many times to make the land fertile before sowing the
seeds.
3. Seed preparation: As they arrange the agriculture according to
the change of season, they had to select different types of seeds
suitable to different season. They would select the seeds in
accordance to the water facility, season and type of land.
4. Manure and protection: During the different stage of the growth
the plants needed be leaf-juice and dry fish powder.
5. Work force: Servants and labors indulged in agricultural works.
They were paid a wage 1 . The same laws were followed in
other works like gardening vegetable farming and fruit farming.
6. Water tax: The Chief Superintendent had to collect the water
tax from the farmers.
7. The Chief Superintendent did not conduct agricultural works
directly in the lands given on the rent basis.
In the chapter called Agricultural Officer (Stdhyakah), there
is described vividly the agricultural related jobs like seed collection
sowing, watering and other related functions. Agricultural officers
are appointed by the King who has to supervise cultivation and
other agricultural related jobs. He must have complete knowledge
abut in agriculture and forestry. Moreover he must have the ability
to collect the flowers, fruits, seeds etc.
Style of Agriculture
In Arthastra, there is suggesting different kinds of yields of
different seasons. There is also the reference about some yields
give good harvest.
Following the particular agricultural system according to the
seasonal change they grow li (a kind of rice), Vrhi (rice), tila
Kiraval 75
The text further describes the different temples which go by the
number 28.
|.+...-... ..
....... +.-...|.-.|.. ... ++(verse 1620)
Inner chamber
After discussing the size of Prsda the text provides knowledge
about the making of inner chamber (.-. . --. and the placing of
the sanctum.
.-.|...-... . .-. . - .....
......-. |-.|-.. -. .+ +(verses 21, 26)
One should make the sanctum only with reference to the
measures of the extent. When the extent of the temple is divided
in to sixteen parts by five cords, stretched five towards the east
and five towards the north, the sanctum is four squares in the
middle and the remaining area is told to be for the walls. When
twenty five squares are done with in which six cords stretched
towards the east and six towards the north, the sanctum is nine
parts in the middle. When forty nine square are made with eight
cords stretched towards the east and eight cords towards the north
the sanctum is seven half squares around nine squares in the middle.
The walls are made with the remaining area.
In the cases where Linga has already been installed, then the
sanctum should be constructed with reference to the size of Linga.
The breadth of the pedestal is prescribed as three times the breadth
of Linga. The sanctum should be three times the pedestal, the
wall equal to it. Another possibility is that the sanctum can be
constructed four times bigger than the pedestal. Then the walls of
the temple all around should have the same size of the half of the
sanctum.
74 Kiraval
|-.|a.+....|+ .. |++ -... . +.. . ++ (verse 7-8)
All the tools and equipments related to rituals and religious
practices should be made with Mtrgula. Different types of
Mtrgula can be seen in this Paala.
.... .+. .. -. . -.... . . . . +
-.... . . . |.|.. .. .-..-. .. ++
.... |-.. -. -..-.. . |.-...+
... .. . . |... ..|. . |-..-. ++(verses 11,12)
This charecterisation is given as: the size in length or in breadth
of the finger joint which is in the middle of the middle finger in
the right hand of the crya.
When one divides the height of an icon with the unit of Tlas
(a Tla contains twelve Agulas), the digit will be digit obtained
from the body ( -.a.. . .-. .(P 129). These digits are being
used in the construction of icons.
.|.-.... .-. . . ..... . -..|-.. +
. . . -.. -.-. -.a.. . . -.. . ++
.|.-..... |.-.. . |.|... .. -.. + (verse 13-14)
Tla is the standard measurement used in iconography. A Tla
length is equal to twelve Agulas. Agula, a finger, a finger
breadth, is a measure of about three-fourths of an inch; one of
some equal parts, into which an architectural or sculptural object
is divided for proportional measurement.
Ajitamahtantra talks about three kinds of temples: inferior,
medium and superior.
....|.|.. .. - +... -..-.... +
--.-.-..|. . -. :..| .-.. -... ++
(tr: Three types of temples are referred to. They are inferior,
medium and superior).
Kiraval 47
(sesamum), priyangu (Panic seeds), draka and varaka (Phascolus)
in rainy seasons.
Mudga (Phaseolus mungo), Ma (Phaseolus regiatus) and
saimby are cultivated in middle seasons. Kusumbha (sufflowe),
Masra (ervum hirsutum), kulattha (dolichos uniflorus), Yava
(barely), godhum (wheet), Kalya (legynubes seeds), atas (lin
seeds), arap(mustard) are cultivated in the last season.
They would utter the following hymns when they start the
agriculture adding the gold with seeds.
prajpataye kyapya devya namah sad
it me rdhyatm dev bjeu ca dhaneu ca II (2-24-41-36,37)
The people are suffering the most in the society like servants,
convicts and are always appointed for the agricultural works.
Moreover there is suggested to take away scythed crops from
the fields very urgently. There were the reference about using
pesticides and good harvest.
yathklam ca sasydi jtam praveayet na kaetre sthapayet
kincit pallamapi pandith(Stdhyakaah-26)
During the period of Kauilya the agricultural system was
implemented not avoiding the western style of cultivation. Though
the farmers were targeted the high growth in agricultural
production they were recommended to use pesticides, but they
were not permitted to use very dangerous pesticides, as Endo-
sulfan of modern age. Herbal insects-killers were used, which
was prepared in a traditional way, mixing honey, ghee and milk.
They also practiced anther kind of insect killing. Smoking the
tender fruit and leaves was their practice to destroy harmful insects.
48 Kiraval
Irrigation
The agricultural lands are divided in to according to the facility.
The lands, where cultivations can be done depend the rain and
none depended. There were built bigger and smaller dams to
provide water for the cultivation. As the part of agriculture
promotion water reservoirs were constructed. In private sector
too, these plans were instituted.
Priority was given to agriculture in vrtha of Kingdom
(Janapatha). Commonly they followed a common style to increase
the productions. That was not depending to the God (rain). Under
the responsibility of the state they constructed wells, water tanks,
dams etc, to get water from natural resource like lakes, river and
streams.
Under the supervision of agriculture supervisor (Stdhyakah)
private people were also appointed in agricultural activities. People
were permitted to cultivation on rented lands. They had to give
(half of the harvest), or 1/5 of the total harvest.
vpatiriktamardhastikh kuryuh, svavryopajvino v
caturtha pacabhgikh (Arthastra-2-24-16)
Thus Kauilyas Arthastra the most relevant book deals with
the agriculture. Kauilyas Agricultural thought thus declares that
India is an agricultural country of Vedic cultural heritage.
Works Cited
The Arthasastra of Kautilya Ed. R. Shama. Sastri. Mysore:
Government Oriental Library, 1909. Print.
Kiraval 73
.-..:..-.... :.-. .. :. -... . .+
-....||...|. .|. .-.. -. . -.|.++
. -. . .. . -.. .:-.. . +
.. .. -.. .. +.. -.. ..-. .+-. ++
.+ . ....:. .|-... . .+-. +
.+-. . . +.. ... . +.+. -.. . ++ (verses 2-4)
A digit called Mngula is made by a grouping of eight barely
seeds. The digits given in this text are said to be made up of eight
or seven barely seeds. Three sorts of Mngula have been
mentioned in the current chapter. One can see that in the due
course the size of the cubit is explained with reference to
Mngula.
. . ..|-.. . .-.... . .-. .. +
..|-. .|: -.. - .. .. +.-. . .-. ++
-. |.|..-. | -.... . .-.. .-. +
. . -.-... . +-. . .|.-+. ++ (verses 5-6)
The details of different sizes of cubits are also given in the
following verses. A unit which has been made of 24 of this
Mngula s is called Kiku-hasta. Another unit made of 25 digits
is called Prjpatya. When it is with 26, then one has another unit
called Dhanurmui. A unit of 27 Mngula s can be termed as
Dhanurgraha. Kiku measurement is used for the construction of
palanquin, throne etc. Prjpatya measurement is used for the
construction of temples and pavilions. For the construction of
palace, towns, tank and ponds Dhanurmui cubit is used.
Construction of rivers and roads needs Dhanurgraha cubits.
.. |.-. . . .. +. |++ -. . |.|-.. +
..-.... :|. .. +. ..|.-.. . . .. ++
.: |. -. . .. -. | ..|.-. . . :. -+
72 Kiraval
The construction of Prsda needs, first of all, a proper area.
Therefore the selection of site involves high importance in both
residential and temple architecture. In the Vstustra treatises,
the suitable and unsuitable place for the erection of temple has
been discussed. The sixth chapter of Ajitamahtantra deals with
the description of sites ( -.|. -.). After giving a detailed account
of various steps like the rite of ploughing (+. .|.|.:), the process
of worshiping the site spirit (... . -..|.|.), the process of installing
the gnomon (-. + ....|.|.:), the process of placing the first bricks
(v +.|.|.) and the rules concerning the temple base (-..|-|.|.),
the process of charecterising the temple (.....-..|.|.) has been
discussed in the twelfth Paala.
Measurements used in the construction of Prsda and icons
The characteristic trait of Prsda is determined on the basis
of the difference in measurements. For the making up of temples
the cryas adopt the measurements from the nature itself. In
Ajitamahtantra the crya describes the Hastaprama at first.
The crya declares that the basic unit of Prsda is Hastaprama.
The increasing order from the minute structure of the
measurements and the use of the measurement has been described
here in detail.
-. . . |-.. .. +. .... ..--... .++(Bhatt and Filliozat
129, verse1)
According to the details given in this Paala, temples can be
measured only in cubits. The size of the cubits is defined as: the
light of the Sun enters through hole of a net or the particle of
dust which one can see only in atomic forms, eight of these lies
are called dust, eight of these point of a hair , eight of these
nit, eight of these louse, should be a barely seed(P 127).
Rmyaa Plays of Bhsa
Dr. N. Vijayamohanan Pillai
Rmyaa is a brilliant blend of poetry, myths, history, fables and
inspiring thoughts. This unparalleled epic of the world contains the
insight of ancient great thinkers of India which direct a person in
achieving the ultimate aim of human life. Rmyaa plays down the
technique of attaining the four pururthas - dharma, artha, kma and
moka - which enable human beings to attain pleasure and perfection
of life. The narration revolves around the life and character of Rma
who upheld the highest ideals of humanity. Though Vlmki, the first
poet mentioned Rma in some verses as the incarnation of Viu, he
mainly illustrated him as an absolute powerful human being. It brings
out the qualities of Rma like kindness, purity, bravery, composure of
mind, dedication to responsibility and selflessness that make him
magnificent and great figure. The story of his life gives out as a guiding
light for anyone in the path of principles, spirituality and moral values.
Its beautiful description sometimes catches the reader to the utmost
stature of pleasure, and sometimes throws in the deepness of sorrow.
Rmyaa has stayed behind as a permanent and stable basis of
motivation down the centuries to the writers in all the literatures in
India. Bhsa, the earliest and most celebrated dramatist in Sanskrit
Literature was also greatly influenced by the first Indian epic poetry,
Rmyaa. Though, Bhsa is one of the most distinguished names in
Classical Sanskrit Literature we have got very little about his life history.
There are a lot of deferential indications about the greatness of Bhsain
50 Kiraval
the works of a long line of later eminent poets like Klidsa and Dadi.
Among the thirteen plays attributed to Bhsa, Abhiekanaka and
Pratimnaka are dealing with the story, characters and situations of
Rmyaa. Bhsadidnt narrate the whole story of Rmyaa in his
dramas. He found out certain dramatic situations from the dikvya
and developed it carefully and successfully as a drama.
Later, another drama of seven acts named Yajaphala was also
ascribed to Bhsa. But most of the scholars refuse its authorship by
Bhsa. It deals with the Rmyaastory up to the meeting of Paraurma
and rrma after the breaking of the bow of Lord iva by the latter as
the wager of getting St. Daaratha, his wives and sons, Sumantra,
Vasiha, Vivmitra, Janaka, Manthar, St , Paraurma etc. are
the charecters in the drama. The play describes three types of yajas
putrayaja, vivha and the yaja of Vivmitra. Kaikey appears as a
spouse of great traits who stands along the wishes of her husband, in
the drama. The seethe of the common characters through a variety of
incidents make the drama a great success. But some of the scholars
have different opinion about the authorship of this drama. They did not
accept Bhsaas the author of Yajabhala.
Pratimnaka
Pratimnaka is a drama of seven acts. The first act describes the
story of the journey of Rma, St and Lakmaa to the forest. The
last act ends with the story of their returning to Ayodhya. Bhsadid not
narrate the whole Rmyaastory in the drama. He took certain striking
incidents from the Rmyaaand developed it as some interesting
dramatic situations. The name Pratimnaka is given by T. Gaapati
astri, the first editor of the play on the basis of the colophon at the end
of the manuscript.
Pratimnaka starts with the depiction of the coronation of Rma.
Bhsaskillfully incorporate the story of a tree bark there. St is
confabulating with her friends in the first act of the drama. She brings
Kiraval 71
unconquered.(Introduction, Bhatt and Filliozat 19)
Ajitamahtantra provides a good and wide account of aiva
system of worship. A close reading of the treatise provides the
architecture and the system of worship of the aiva temples,
prevalent in this country. The text is of high importance because
of its authenticity, consistency and readability.
Content of Ajitamahtantra
The text of Ajitamahtantra used for the present study
comprises five volumes. The first volume contains eighteen
chapters offering a systematic account of the installation of Linga
worship from the carving of the Linga and the construction of the
temple to the great ceremony of installation of the deity.
The second volume gives details about daily worship the
festival and number of occasional rituals, information on the
substances preparatory rituals etc. The third volume talks about
iconography, additional chapters of architecture, and rituals of
installation of subsidiary deities. The fourth volume of the text is
dedicated to subsidiary rituals, occasional festivals and rites of
atonement of false and failures. This last portion will introduce
some later practices and features of religion, which may not belong
to the original period of redaction and some other subject which
are not touched in the previous parts. The fifth volume contains
the illustrations referred to in foot-notes of the translation.
Ajitamahtantra, a complete treatise on temple architecture, is
a monumental work among other gama works. The present work
is a comprehensive study of the Prsdalakaavidhi discussed
in Ajitamahtantra. In this the twelfth chapter is a description of
Prsdalakaavidhi. It declares the parts and different style of
Prsda with examples.
Ajitamahtantra: Treatise on
Vstuvidya
Soumya. K
Sanskrit is rich in secular literature. Technical sciences in
Sanskrit are generally embedded in the six Vedngas and the
Upavedas. Vstuvidya or Sthapatyaveda, the ancient Indian
architecture is taken to be an Upaveda of Atharvaveda. This branch
of ancient Indian science has got a rich literature including the
gamas.
gamas are the texts dealing with iva and akti worship. They
contain various subjects such as architecture and sculpture.
The twenty-eight aivgamas are the chief authority of the aiva
Siddhnta system. Their names and extent are mentioned in
different works though there is no unanimity among the names
mentioned. They are believed to have emanated from the five faces
of iva. They are: Kmika, Yogaja, Cintya, Kraa, Ajita. Dpta,
Skma, Sahasra, Amumat, Suprabheda, Vijay, Nihvsa,
Svyambhuva, gneya, Vrabhadra. Raurava, Mkua, Vimal,
Candrajna, Mukhabimba, Prodgita, Lalita, Siddha, Santana,
Sarvokta, Pramevara, Kiraa and Vtula.
In these aivgamas Ajitgama is the fifth one. When one traces
the transformation of the name Ajitamahtantra from Ajitgama
he will reach in the slogan the great Tantra of be
Kiraval 51
a tree bark from Avadatika, the servant and wears it for a fun. It is the
time she hears the news of Daarathas decision to coronate Rma and
then the obstruction of the same by Kaikey. She accompanied Rma
along with Lakmaa to the forest wearing the same valkala.
Bhsacreate such a dramatic situation there by making a slight deviation
from the original Rmyaastory. Lakmaa decides to accompany
Rma because he considers himself as Rmas right leg and St as
left leg.
gurorme pdaurum tvamek kartumicchasi
tavaiva daksiah pdo mama savyo bhaviyati (I. 27)
Before wearing the tree bark St enquired Avadtik -hal! kim nu
khalu mampi tvat obhate.(Bhasa 2007) She replies -Bhaini!
sarvaobhanyam surpam nma. alaakarotu bhain.(5) Later, the
tree bark also beatifies St during her existence in the forest. We can
see a similar usage in Klidasas Abhijnakuntala -kimiva hi
madhurm madanam nkrtnm.(I. 20) The king Duyanta utters
these words while seeing akuntal at first in a tree bark dress.
Sumantras narrations to Daaratha about the journey of Rma to
the forest, the kings lamentation, Dasararthas death due to the sunder
of his beloved son etc. are the subject of the second act. Daarathas
expression of grief because of the exile of Rma is the central description
of this act. Daaratha laments by calling Rma his son as Sun, Lakmaa
as day and St as shade.
srya iva gato rmah sryam divasa iva lakmaonugatah
sryadivasvasne chyeva na dyate st

(Pratimnaka, II. 7)
Seeing the returning of Sumantra alone without Rma in the chariot
from the forest, Daaratha says that it is the vehicle send by Yama to
bring him. At the time of Daarathas demise Bharata was not in
Ayodhya. He was in his uncles palace at Kekaya. A Messenger was
send to Kekaya to bring him back. Though the messenger brings Bharata
from his uncles house, he doesnt reveal the tragic incidents that
52 Kiraval
happened in Ayodhya. The entering of Pratimgha by Bharata on the
way to Ayodhya along with the messenger is described in the third act.
Bharata infers the tragic death of his father on seeing the statue of
Daaratha along with the forefathers in the statue house.
Though Bharata vituperates his mother Kaikey acrimoniously as the
reason of the exile of his elder brother Rma and the death of his beloved
father Daaratha, she responds in a calm and cool way as a portliness
mother. She hears Bharata patiently and replies that she only motivates
her husband to keep his rectitude. But Bharata decides to go to the
forest for requesting Rma to come back. He says -
tatra ysymi yatrsau vartate lakmaapriyah
nyodhaya tam vinyodhy sydhy yatra raghvah(III. 24)
The fourth act describes the meeting of Bharata and Rma along
with Sumantra in the forest. Though Bharata requests Rma to come
back to Ayodhya repeatedly, he rejects. Rma advises Bharata to rule
the country on behalf of him. The significant incident describes in the
fifth act is the abduction of St by Rvaa. The returning of Sumantra
from the forest, Sumantras description of the life of Rma in the forest
to Bharata and Kaikey etc. are the subject matter in the sixth act. Here
also Bharata blames Kaikey bitterly.
yah svarjyam parityajya tvanniyogadvanam gatah
tasya bhry ht st paryptaste manaorathah.(VI. 13)
Then Kaikey elucidates the incident how Daaratha was cursed by
a sage earlier whose son was died by the hands of Daaratha. In
continuation of her words Sumantra explained the story of the cuss in
detail which reduces the culpability accused on Kaikey by Bharata
and also it dignifies her character. The destruction of Rvaa by Rma
and the coronation of Vibhaa are described in the last act of the
play. While they were enjoying the victory of the battle, Bharata and
Satrughna along with their mothers reached the forest to call back Rma,
Lakmaa and St and they all returned to Ayodhya.
Kiraval 69
17. Vindhya U (1990) The SrikakulamMovement.
18. Bahuguna Vimla (1990) The Chipko Movement
Works Cited
Dankelman, Irene. Women and Environment in the Third World:
Alliance for the Future. London; Wolfeboro, N.H.: Earthscan
Pub. in association with IUCN; Distributed in the USA by
Longwood Pub. Group, 1988. Print.
Ekins, Paul. A New World Order/ : Grassroots Movements for
Global Change. London; New York: Routledge, 1992. Print.
J acobs, Nancy J . Environment, Power, and Injustice: a South
African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Print.
Khullar, Mala. Writing the Womens Movement: a Reader.
Zubaan, an imprint of Kali for Women, 2005. Print.
McNeill, J ohn R. Environmental History: As If Nature Existed.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Mies, Maria. Ecofeminism. Halifax, N.S.; London; Atlantic
Highlands, N.J.: Fernwood Publications; Zed Books, 1993. Print.
Ortner, S. Is Female or Male as Nature to Culture? Women,
Culture and Society. Ed. M Rosaldo & M.Lamphere Zand.
Standford: Standford University Press, 1974. Print.
Sen, Geeti. Indigenous Vision/ : Peoples of India, Attitudes to
the Environment. New Delhi: Sage Publications/ : India
International Centre, 1992. Print.
Sen, Ilina. A Space Within the Struggle: Womens Participation
in Peoples Movements. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1990. Print.
Shiva, Vandana. Fight for Survival -Interview with Chamun
Devi and Itwari. The Illustrated weekly of india 15 Nov. 1987
: n. pag. Print.
. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology, and Survival in India. New
Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2010. Print.
68 Kiraval
only guarantee that life in its fullest sense can continue on this
planet. These fundamental needs; for food, shelter, clothing,
for affection, care and love; for dignity and identity, for
knowledge and freedom leisure and joy, are common to all
people, irrespective of culture, ideology, race, political and
economic system and class. The Ecofeminist perspective as
expressed by women activists recognizes no such division
culture is very much part of their struggle for subsistence and
life. They identify freedom with their loving interaction and
productive work in co-operation with Mother Earth(Shiva,
Fight for Survival -Interview with Chamun Devi and Itwari).
Eco- feminism has held greater appeal for historians thus has
world system analysis, and to date is perhaps more
successful(J acobs).
Notes
1.Ajitha K (1990) Reminiscences fromWynad.
2.Datar, Chhaya (1990) Bidi Workers in Nipani
3.Everett, J ana (1986) We were in the Forefront of the fight: Feminist
Theory and
Practice in Indian Grass Roots Movements.
4.Gandhi Nandita (1990) The Anti- Price Rise Movement.
5.Geetha (1990) The Tamil Nadu Construction Workers Union
6.Kelkar, Govind and chetna Gala (1990) The Bodhagaya Land
Struggle.
7. Kishwar, Madhu (1998) The Nature of Womens Mobilization in
Rural India.
8.Omvedi Gail (1990) The Farmers Movement in Maharashtra.
9. Nayak, Nalini(1990) The Kerala Fisher Workers Struggle.
10.Barthakur, Sheila and Sabita Goswami (1990) The Assam
Movement.
11.Omvedt, Gail (1990) The Farmers Movement in Maharashtra.
12. Raman Vasanthi (1986) Nari Mukthi Movement in Assan.
13.Ranadive. V (1987) Feminists and the Womens Movement, Delhi.
14.Sathe, Nirmala (1990) The Adivasi Struggle in Dhulia.
15.Sen, illina (1990) Workers Struggle in Chhattisgarh.
16. Sree Sakthi Sangathana (1989) We were making History: Life
Stories of women in the Telangana Peoples Struggle.
Kiraval 53
Kaikey in the Rmyaaappears so cruel in her debars and benefits
due to the toxic admonitory of Manthara. Thus she pleads her husband
to put in practice of the two boons that he promised her in the past. She
demands the deportation of Rma to the forest for fourteen years and
the coronation of Bharata in Ayodhya. But in Pratimnaka, Kaikey
demands the expatriation of Rma to the forest and the coronation of
Bharata, her son as the kanyulka that Daaratha promised her earlier.
Kaikey reveals this to Bharata in the third act of the drama Jta!
ulkalubdh nanu praavy.(Bhasa 2007 p. 34).

The significant
point appears here that the king really offered the kingdom to the son
of Kaikey if she married him. Such a diversion in the story brings in
by Bhsadignifies the character of Kaikey in the drama.
Abhiekanaka
Abhiekanaka deals with the story of Kikindhkda,
Sundarakda and Yuddhakda of Rmyana. The drama consists of
six acts. rrma, St, Laksmaa, Sugrva, Bl, Tr, Rvaa,
Vibhsaa, Lord Varua, Lord Agni, Vidydharas, akukara and
other rkasas, Hanmn and other vnaras etc. are the characters
appeared in the drama. The first Act of the drama describes the fight
between Bl and Sugrva. While they are fighting each other Rma
kills Bl with his arrows as agreed with Sugrva. After the death of
Bl, Sugrva becomes the king of Kikindha and the leader of vnaras
as per the direction of Rma.
The story in the second act happens in Laka. Hanmn reaches
Laka in order to find out St. The conversation between Rvana and
St, meeting of Hanmn and St etc. are the subjects here. The
avocations of Hanmn in Laka are described in the third act. He
destroys the Aoka garden and kills Aksakumra. At last he is defeated
by Indrajit and put before Rvaa. Hanmn discloses the aim of his
arrival to Rvaa. He is released by igniting fire on his tail. Dialogues
between Rvana and Vibhsaa also count in here. Hanmn informs
54 Kiraval
the condition of St in Laka to Rma, Lakmaa, Sugrva and others
in the fourth a Act.
During their debate, Vibhaa who is afraid of his brother, Rvaa
reaches there and takes refuge in Rma. Hearing the words of
Vibhaa, Rma asks Varua to give a way to Laka through the
ocean. Varua appears before him and accepts to give his requirement.
They are all along with vnaras go to Laka through the path given by
Varua along the ocean. Fifth act of the drama is the conversation
between Rvaa and St. Rvana requests St repeatedly to accept
him and to refuse Rma.
ste bhvam parityajya mnusesmin gatyui
adyaiva tvm vialki! mahatm riyamavpnuhi.

(V. 9)
The war between Rma and Rvaa is presented in the drama
through the words of two vidydharas in the last Act. St enters in
fire to prove her chastity at the end of the play. But Lord Agni gives
back her to Rma. Abhiekanaka says the story of two coronations
made by Rma the coronation of Sugrva in the first act and the
coronation of Vibhaa in the last act. The character Bl comes in
the first act of the drama. The questions rise by Bl prior to his death
and the replies of Rma are enthusiastic thought provoking.
Bhsa gives much importance to the character of Bl in
Abhiekanaka. He is described as a tragic character in the play. Rma
decided to kill Bl because of the agreement done with Sugrva in the
presence of Hanmn. While Bl questions Rma in the last moments
of his life, he replies some other reasons based on dharma.
bhavat vnarendrea dharmdharmou vijnat
tmnam mgamuddiya bhrtdrbhimaranam(I. 20)
But Bali doesnt satisfy with his reply. He points out that Sugrva
also did the same deed. But he was not punished. Rama replied that
daditastvam hi dadyatvd, addyo naiva dandyate.
11
By
incorporating such a discussion Bhsahighlights the character of Bl
Kiraval 67
to production; and the local to the global, and so on. Feminist
have long eriticized this dichotomy, particularly the structural
division of man and nature, which is seen as analogous to that
of man and woman(Ortner).
Diversity, of life and cultures, which instead are experienced
as divisive and threatening. An ecofeminist perspective
propounds the need for a new cosmology and a new
anthropology which recognizes that life in nature (which
includes human beings ) is maintained by means of co-
operation, and mutual care and love. Only in this way can we
be enabled to respect and preserve the diversity of all life forms,
including their cultural expressions as true sources of our well
being and happiness. The concept of emancipation necessarily,
implied dominance over nature including human, female
nature, and, that ultimately, this dominance relationship was
responsible for the ecological destruction we now face. Modern
chemistry, household technology and pharmacy were
proclaimed as womens saviours, because they would
emancipate them from household drudgery.Today we realize
that much environmental pollution and destruction is causally
linked to modern household technology. The preservation of
the earths diversity of life forms and of human societies
cultures is a precondition for the maintenance of life on this
planet.
To find a way out of cultural relativism, it is necessary to
look not only for differences but for diversities and
interconnectedness among women, among men and women,
among human beings and other life forms, worldwide.
The universalism does not deal in abstract universal human
rights but rather in common human needs which can be
satisfied only if the life- sustaining networks and processes
are kept intact and alive. These symbiosis of living
interconnectedness both in nature and human society are the
66 Kiraval
Chamun Devi and Itwari) the activities of the Green Belt
Movement in Kenya(Dankelman) and of J apanese women
against food pollution by chemically- stimulated, commercial
agriculture and for self- reliant producer- customer net
work(Ekins) poor womens efforts in Ecuador to save the
mangrove forests as breeding- grounds for fish and
shrimp(Mies 3), the battle of thousands of women in the south
for better water management, soil conservation, land use, and
maintenance of their survival base (forests, fuel, fodder) against
the industrial interests, confirmed that many women,
worldwide, felt the same anger and anxiety, and the same sense
of responsibility to preserve the bases of life, and to end its
destruction. Irrespective of different racial, ethnic, cultural or
class women together to forget links in solidarity backgrounds,
this common concern brought with other women, people and
even nations . In these process of action and reflection similar
analyses, concepts and visions also sometimes emerged.
The contemporary womens movement in India spans a large
canvas. Many smaller and larger movements originated in the
generalized economic and political crises that gripped the
country towards the end of the nineteen sixties.(I. Sen
Introduction)
1
According to the different action groups and the feminists,
the origins of the exploitation of women is inthe patriarchal
system of society[ in] the writings of the feminists
in India the Political and left parties as well as trade unions are
partiarchal(Khullar 81).
The concept of womanhood , of mata (mother)has
automatically got connected with this whole movement,
although the concept of Narmada as mata is very much part of
(it. ) So the feminine tone is given, both to the leadership and
the participants- then (it all) comes together(G. Sen 294).
Nature is sobordinated to man; women to man; consumption
Kiraval 55
in the drama.
Bharata and Kaikey are the two shining characters in the
Pratimnaka. Considering Kaikey as the reasons for the two evils,
ie. Rmas sojourn and Daarathas death, Bharata scolds her angrily.
He calls her as a river of polluted water in between the holy rivers
Ganga and Yamuna, ie. the other two mothers, Kausaly and Sumitr.
mama mtuca mtuca madhyasth tvam na sobhase
gagyamunayormadhye kunadva praveit. ( III. 16)
Bharata questions Kaikey for connecting rjyaulka and the
expatriation of Rma to the forest in the third Act of Pratimnaka.
Then Kaikey replies that she will say the reason in the correct place
and in the correct time. She discloses the curse story of Daaratha in
the correct time in the sixth act and in the correct place in the presence
of Sumantra, the other person who knows the details of the curse.
Abhiekanaka and Pratimnaka were performed in the Kerala
stage as a serial by professional actors called Ckyars. These two plays
along with the caryacdmai of aktibhadra are referred to as
Rmyaatrilogy in Kerala.
Works Cited
Bhasa. The Abhishekanataka of Bhasa. Ed. Sastri T. Ganapati.
Trivandrum: TSS, 1913. Print.
Bhasa. Pratimanatakam : Ed. Rupanarayana Tripathi and
Manikya Lala Sastri. J ayapura: Hamsa Prakasana, 2007. Print.
Kalidasa. The Abhijnanasakuntalam. Ed. M. R. Kale and
Raghavabhatta. Bombay: Gopal Narayan &, 1920. Print.
The Creative Genius in
Sree Narayana Guru
Dr.Asaletha.V
Sree Narayana Guru is a great soul who opened the gates
of freedom for the oppressed and downtrodden sections of the
society by establishing revolutionary changes in the social back-
ground of Kerala then. In this modern age, we see the grace of
a sage and the greatness of a Guru co-existing in Sree
Narayana Guru. He transformed the society with the help of
his asceticism and lofty thinking. His messages rose out of his
benevolent heart and helped many in attaining spiritual libera-
tion. Materialist, Social revolutionist, Philosopher and Poet,
Sree Narayana Guru combines within himself such powers
that could inspire people of all ages.
Contemporary Malayalam literature abounds in works on
Guru such as biographies, interpretations, critical commentar-
ies and annotations. Though the growth of literature on Gurus
works has been phenomenal , he is mostly considered as a
social reformer. Similarly, there is lot of ambivalence about
Gurus prolific literary output of around sixty works in Tamil,
Malayalam and Sanskrit. His works include hymns, instruc-
tions and philosophical works in both prose and poetry. His
major philosophical works are Atmopadesasatakam and
Darsanamala. His instructions such as Jathinirnnayam and
Jathilakshanam give little importance to philosophy or poetic
Kiraval 65
growth mania of the industrial system and the exploitation of
the Third World(Mies 91). This connection was also most
clearly spelt out by a Russian woman after the chernobyl
catastrophe in May 1986. Men do not think of life they only
want to conquer nature and the enemy. whatever the costs
may be the chernobyl disaster in particular provoked a
spontaneous expression of womens outrange and resistance
against this war technology and the general industrial warrior
system.
The new developments in biotechnology generic
engineering and reproductive technology have made women
actual conscious of the gender bias of science and technology
and that sciences whole paradigm is characteristically
patriarchal, anti- nature and colonial and aims to dispose
women of their generative capacity as it does the productive
capacities of nature. Those involved look not only at the
implications of these technologies for women, but also for
animals, plants for agriculture in the Third world as well as in
the industrialized North. They understand that the liberation
of women cannot be achieved in isolation, but only as part of a
larger struggle for the preservation of life in this planet.
The common ground for womens liberation and the
preservation of life on earth is to be found in the activities of
those women who have become the victims of the development
process and who struggle to conserve their subsistence base.
In the final outcome of the present world system is a general
threat to life on planet earth, then it is crucial to resuscitate and
narture the impulse and determination to survive, inherent in
all living things. A closer examination of the numerous local
struggles against ecological destruction and deterioration, for
example against atomic power plants in Germany(Mies 3)
against chalk mining and logging in the Himalayas(Shiva,
Staying Alive)(Shiva, Fight for Survival -Interview with
64 Kiraval
the earth and her beings by the corporate warriors, as feminist
concerns . It is the same masculinit mentality which would
deny us our right to our own bodies and our own sexuality and
which depends on multiple system of dominance and state
power to have its way(King 10). Women were the first to protect
against environmental destruction. Wherever women acted
against ecological destruction or/and the threat of atomic
annihilation, they immediately become aware of the connection
between patriarchal violence against women, other people and
nature: In defying this patriarchy we are loyal to future
generations and to life and this planet itself. We have a deep
and particular understanding of this both through our natures
and our experience as women(11).
As feminists activity seeking womens liberation from male
domination, we could not however ignore the fact that
modernization and development processes and progress
were responsible for the degradation of the natural world. Thus
women in Switzerland demonstrated against the seveso(Mies
14)poisoning. In India women have most severely affected by
the Union Carbide pesticides plant in Bhopal. Again the
Chipko(Bahuguna) women in India, women and men who
actively oppose mega dam construction women who fight
against nuclear power plants and against the irresponsible
dumping of toxic wastes around the world, and many more
worldwide. The women of Sicily who protested against the
stationing of nuclear missiles in this country stated-
Our no to war coincides with our struggle for liberation
It is no co-incidence that the gruesome game of war- in
which the greater part of the male sex seems to delight- passes
through the same stages aggression, conquest, possession,
control of a woman or a land, it makes little difference(Mies
15). Nuclear power plant at Whyl in South- West Germany
also saw the connection between technology, the profit oriented
Kiraval 57
beauty but to the social perspective. His notable translations
are Thirukural, Isavasyo Upanishad and Ozhivilodukam. Works
such as Atmavilasom proclaim his visionary nature. Guru
started writing in Sanskrit but with the progress of his writing,
he abandoned Sanskrit and began writing in Tamil and
Malayalam. This shift in language also marked a shift in his
thought, a realisation that one need not be a Brahmin to achieve
spiritual beauty.
The commentaries on Gurus works are innumerable though
they cannot be strictly classified as commentaries. Instead they
fall into the category of personal appreciations of Gurus writ-
ings. This article explores how the myriad biographers of Guru
have differently viewed his writing career and his creative out-
put. The views of these biographers were coloured by their
own perceptions of Guru.
The poet Kumaranasans biography of Guru focuses more
on Guru as a social reformer rather than as a creative writer.
Asan only makes a passing reference to Gurus attempts at
writing literature as a respite from his social reforms. He calls
Atmopadesasatakam as the condensed form of Gurus wisdom
but fails to consider his other works as of any literary value. It
is surprising that Kumaranasan who was a poet himself would
neglect Gurus literary output in his biography that was writ-
ten during the lifetime of Guru.
Several references are made of Gurus works in Kottukoyikal
Velayudhans biography Sree Narayana Guru published in
1983. He calls his biography as a sign of his devotion to Guru
and reveals that the usually reticent Guru had started writing
poetry at the request of his followers. These poems of Guru
were widely read in his circle of disciples and underwent sev-
eral transformations before they were compiled together by
his disciple Sanyasi Sree Kumaraswami and published as
Divyastotraratnavali. He also makes references to Gurus
works such as Atmopadesasatakam, which was published in
58 Kiraval
the first few issues of Vivekodayam and Darsanamala, which
is also called by the names Adwaitadeepika and Adwaitasiddhi.
He also adds that Svanubhavageethi was known as
Vibhutidarsanam in some of the old publications.
Vadayil Sadasivan in his Sree Narayana Gurudevan, men-
tions that Guru had written around 58 books. He credits
Vinayakashtakam, hymns in praise of Lord Ganapathi as Gurus
first work. He points out that the all-pervading philosophy in
Gurus writings is advaita and that
the ascetic philosophy of Guru as the specialty of his writ-
ings. He also pays minute attention to Gurus use of language,
and his composition . Guru could also point out a logical error
in Kumaranasans Karuna, where he describes
Vyalimukham.
Koyikal K. J acob in Sree Narayana Guru classifies Gurus
works into hymns and philosophical works. He focuses on the
hymns in Malayalamas they are more solemn in tone. He draws
attention to the similarity between the Lords Prayer of the
Christians and the following lines from Daivadashakam:
You are our Lord, who saves us and blesses us
With our daily needs of food and clothing.
He sees this similarity as unconscious and originating from
Gurus mind that absorbed the
goodness of all religions and all religious texts. He contra-
dicts Vadakumkoors observation that Darsanamala refers to
all existing and prevalent philosophies in India at that time.
He also rejects Vadakumkoors view of Guru as a contributor
and nourisher of Sanskrit language rather than as a creative
writer. He points out that only through much spiritual labour
can a person understand works such as Arivu, Darsanamala
and Athmopadeshashatakam. However, he makes an observa-
tion that for an unimaginative and uninitiated reader, unaware
of the breadth and depth of spiritual philosophy, Gurus works
will remain inaccessible and elusive.
Kiraval 63
There is an acceleration in the rate of construction of large
dams built to service the mining and smelting processes. These
changes have been characterized by an increasing level of
state violence accompanying attempts to vacate tribal land for
mining and dams. These have frequently involved since 1998
mass shooting and related incidents, arguably genocidal in
effect and intention along with unregulated and illicit
environmental impacts involving deforestation, pollution and
species decline. This undermining of the law by state
mechanisms posess greater threats both to human rights and
to the implementation of environmental protections. The
historical causes and environmental consequences of these
developments have been very little researched to date but need
to be understood if local cultures and heritages are to be
sustained a long side biodiversity protection(McNeill 18).
Eco-feminism a new term for an ancient wisdom grow
out of various social movements- the feminist, peace and the
ecology movements- in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Though
the term was first used by Francoise D Eaubonne(Mies and
Shiva 13). It become popular only in the context of numerous
protests and activities against environmental destruction,
sparked off initially by recurring ecological disasters. The
meltdown at Three Mile Island prompted large members of
woman in the USA to come together in the first ecofeminist
conference- Women and life on Earth : A conference on Eco-
feminism in the Eighties in March 1980, at Amherst. At this
conference the connections between feminism, militarization,
healing and ecology were explored . As Ynesta king, one of
the conference organizers, wrote. Eco- feminism is about
connectedness and wholeness of theory and practice. It asserts
the special strength and integrity of every living thing - We are
a woman identified movement and we believe we have a special
work to do in these important times. We see the devastation of
Eco Feminism
Shamshad Begum.R
Nature is only valued in terms of its usefulness to us. It is
the nature of Humans to interfere with the environment and
economic activities are responsible for long scale alterations
for natural eco systems. Natural resources are very important
for development and human progress. The study of
environment has been given inadequate attention in the study
of history with the growth of environmental history as an active
field; it become necessary to revisit the question of the role of
human initiative in history As J ohn R Mc Neill defines it
Environmental history is the history of the mutual relations
between humankind and the rest of nature. Human kind has
long been a part of nature , but a distinct part Human
history has, and will always unfold with in a larger biological
and physical context, and the context evolves in its own
right.(McNeill 87)
The first citation of the modern sense of pollution in the
Oxford English Dictionary is from Francis Bacons The
Advancement of hearing 1605, a founding text of modern
Scientific methodology.
The new organic pesticides such as DDT, Aldine and
Dialdine that had been introduced after the Second World
War and had already proven highly successful in controlling
pests insects constituted a serious threat both to wild life and
human health.
Kiraval 59
Dr. T. Bhaskaran in his biography of Guru named Maharshi
Sree Narayana Guru devotes around twenty pages to the analy-
sis of Gurus poetry. He is dissatisfied with the literary histori-
ans who have ignored Gurus literary output. Bhaskaran clas-
sifies Gurus output into hymns, philosophical works and in-
structions and also states that some of these cannot be given
clear cut labels. His hymns were not just aimed at praising
God for his blessings but attempted to bring about a social
transformation in the lower caste people of society, who were
denied the right to worship God. True to its spirit, these hymns
were chanted by the avarnas and became widely popular. The
key influences on Gurus perspective and literary output were
the Tamil Bhakti literature and his friendships with Chattambi
Swamikal and Thaikkattu Ayyavu. This period marks a change
in Gurus writing with the increasing influence of the Shaivite
tradition and the decreasing power of the Sanskrit literary tra-
dition, leading to the composition of hymns in his mother-
tongue Malayalam.
According to Bhaskaran, Guru aimed at social reformation
as was evident in his hymns and his temple consecrations. The
avarnas were allowed to worship only inferior local deities
and they were ignorant and inferior. Guru wanted to uplift these
ignorant people and increase their self-esteem and for this, he
installed Gods such as Siva, Subramanian and Ganapati for
the avarnas. He was of the view that the Gods of Aryan pan-
theons were not restricted to the Brahmins and belonged to the
non-Brahmins as well. He proved by his own example that an
avarna can also compose hymns in the Sanskrit language. In
Navamanjari , written in praise of Lord Subramanian, each
poem is supposed to be a flower.
Gurus philosophy of one religion forms the essence of
Atmopadesasatakam . Bhaskaran points out that though
Atmopadesasatakam might look like an ordinary book that
deals with advaita, in reality it is written in the very rarely
60 Kiraval
used metre in Malayalam poetry called Mridendramugham.
He is of the opinion that Guru could spread the unifying prin-
ciple of advaita to all walks of life. Guru starts the poem by
praising knowledge:
Rising even above knowledge, what within the form
Of the one who knows, as equally without, radiant shines,
To that Core, with the eyes five restrained within,
Again and again prostrating in adoration, one should chant.
Atmopadesasatakam is considered to be the essence of the
Upanishads but its language is simpler and easier to follow.
Dr. T. Bhaskaran praises Gurus ability to express profound
thoughts in the simplest language possible and recalls that
E.M.S. used to view Guru as only a little lower than
Vagbhatananda in his scholarship and eloquence. He is also of
the view that Gurus philosophical works have to studied and
taught in depth to prove that Guru did not follow Sankaracharya
as it is commonly believed.
Dr. T. Bhaskaran also describes how Guru advised
Kumaranasan against writing amorous verses. This was be-
cause of his distaste of Venmani poets who specialised in writ-
ing amorous verses. The hallmark of Gurus poetry was its
simplicity as he consciously tried to avoid using Sanskrit words
while writing in Malayalam, unlike many of the Malayalam
poets who refused to do so. However, Bhaskaran attributes the
depth of Gurus poetry as the factor that has alienated both the
common reader as well as the scholars.
In the chapter titled The Lone Poetic Genius in Narayana
Guru Swami, M.K. Sanu makes several comparisons between
Gurus works in Sanskrit, Malayalam and Tamil. He is of the
view that Gurus use of Tamil was effortless and easy like that
of a native user. He also comments on the harmony between
sounds and meanings in Gurus Sanskrit works. Gurus
Malayalam works are noted by Sanu for the beauty of spiritual
philosophy. According to Sanu, only those who are well-versed
Kiraval 61
in literature as well as in the language of the spirit can under-
stand the value of Gurus poetry.
In his Guruvarul published in 1943, Nataraja Guru
emphasises that Gurus greatest message was his silence, which
could interpret secrets better than words. This silence is that it
is ambiguous and drowns all his other verbal messages.
Nataraja Guru makes minute observations of Gurus magnetic
personality and his writings, which he considers to be full of
allegories and hidden meanings.
In Dr. N.V. P. Unithiris Sree Narayana Guru, he describes
how Guru has included the burning social issues of his time in
Atmopadesasatakam. He is of the view that it reveals the full
magnificence of Guru as an advaita philosopher, social reformer
and visionary. Unnithiri , makes a review of previous studies
on Gurus writings in studies.
It was the first time in the history of Malayalam literature
that a saint attained the status of a poet . According to Vishnu
Narayanan Namboothiri , even when writing in Malayalam,
guru adhered to the tradition of Dravidian literature and could
imbibe its essence. Among his many biographers, it is Dr. T.
Bhaskaran who has made an in-depth study of Gurus writ-
ings. M.K. Sanu , though he has not explored the philosophi-
cal or aesthetic aspects of Gurus writings, at least views them
from the perspective of an ideal reader. Most of the biogra-
phers view Gurus literary output with wonder and realize
that in order to understand his poetic genius, they need to com-
bine philosophy and poetry in their readings of his works.