Migration and Rural Economies: Assessing and Addressing Risks

WWW.IPPR.
ORG
MigrationandRural
Economies:
Assessingandaddressingrisks
EconomicsofMigrationWorkingPaper6
byLauraChappell,MariaLatorre,JillRutterandJaideepShah
June2009
©ippr2009
InstituteforPublicPolicyResearch
Challengingideas– Changingpolicy
2 ippr|MigrationandRuralEconomies:Assessingandaddressingrisks
Contents
Aboutippr...............................................................................................................................3
Abouttheauthors ..................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................3
Listofabbreviationsandglossary ..........................................................................................4
Foreword.................................................................................................................................5
Executivesummary.................................................................................................................6
1.Introduction........................................................................................................................9
2.Patternsofmigrationtoruralareas .................................................................................12
3.Migrants’experiencesoflifeandworkinruralareas.......................................................19
4.Migrants’impactsonruraleconomies ............................................................................22
5.Futuretrendsandimplicationsforruraleconomies.........................................................37
6.Conclusionsandrecommendations..................................................................................45
References ............................................................................................................................59
Aboutippr
TheInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(ippr)istheUK’sleadingprogressivethinktank,producing
cutting-edgeresearchandinnovativepolicyideasforajust,democraticandsustainableworld.
Since1988,wehavebeenattheforefrontofprogressivedebateandpolicymakingintheUK.Through
ourindependentresearchandanalysiswedefinenewagendasforchangeandprovidepractical
solutionstochallengesacrossthefullrangeofpublicpolicyissues.
WithofficesinbothLondonandNewcastle,weensureouroutlookisasbroad-basedaspossible,
whileourinternationalandmigrationteamsandclimatechangeprogrammeextendourpartnerships
andinfluencebeyondtheUK,givingusatrulyworld-classreputationforhighqualityresearch.
ippr,30-32SouthamptonStreet,LondonWC2E7RA.Tel:+44(0)2074706100E:info@ippr.org
www.ippr.org.RegisteredCharityNo.800065
ThispaperwasfirstpublishedinJune2009.©ippr2009
Abouttheauthors
LauraChappellisaResearchFellowatippr.WhileatipprLaurahasauthoredandeditedanumber
ofpublicationsontheeconomicsofmigrationtotheUKandmigrationanddevelopment,bothfor
ipprandfororganisationssuchastheOECDandUNDP.PreviouslyLauraworkedasanODIfellowat
thePacificIslandsForumSecretariatinFijiandfortheLiberalDemocratPolicyandResearchUniton
Treasuryissues.LauraholdsanMScwithDistinctioninDevelopmentEconomicsfromtheSchoolof
OrientalandAfricanStudies,andaBAinPhilosophy,PoliticsandEconomicsfromtheUniversityof
Oxford.
MariaLatorreisaResearcheratippr.Shespecialisesinquantitativeanalysisofsocialpolicyandhas
contributedempiricalanalysistoseveralrecentipprprojects.BeforejoiningipprMariaworkedwiththe
Colombiangovernmentandresearchcentresfocusedontheeconomicdevelopmentofdeveloping
countries,particularlyinLatinAmerica.
JillRutter isaSeniorResearchFellowatipprandleadstheMigration,Equalities,andCitizenship
team’sresearchonmigrantintegrationintheUK.Shehaspublishedextensivelyonallaspectsof
migrationintheUKandabroadwithwellover70books,chapters,andpapersontheissue.Priorto
joiningippr,JilllecturedatLondonMetropolitanUniversityandwasapolicyadviserattheRefugee
Council.
JaideepShah wasaResearchAssistantatippr.Jaideephasanundergraduatedegreefromthe
LondonSchoolofEconomicsandapostgraduatedegreefromOxfordUniversity,andpreviously
workedasaresearchassistantattheCentreoftheStudyforAfricanEconomies,OxfordUniversity.
Acknowledgements
TheauthorsareverygratefulforthethoughtfulcommentsprovidedbyChrisKolekandAnitaGambie
fromtheCommissionforRuralCommunities.AtipprMichaelJohnsonprovidedimportantbackground
research,SarahMulleywasanexcellenteditorandprovidedimportantsteerstotheresearchand
GeorginaKyriacouperformedthefinaleditandproduction.Thepaperwouldalsonothavebeen
possiblewithoutthegenerosityofthepeoplewhogaveuptheirtimetobeinterviewedandtakepart
infocusgroups.Wethankthemverysincerely.Finally,wearegratefultotheEconomicsofMigration
project’ssteeringcommitteewho,asever,providedimportantinsights.
Foreword:TheEconomicsofMigrationproject
Thisworkingpaperformspartofippr’sEconomicsofMigrationproject.Theprojectaimsto
shapethinkingaroundhowweconceptualisetheeconomicimpactsofmigration,provide
newevidenceabouttheextentandnatureofthoseimpactsintheUK,andprovidenew
insightsastohowpolicymightbestaddressmigrationtomaximiseeconomicbenefit.We
hopethattheprojectwillcontributetoabetter-informedpublicdebateandamoreprepared
policycommunity,betterabletoevaluatemigration’seconomiccontributions,andmanage
themtothebenefitofall.
Thisworkingpaperexaminestheroleofmigrationinruraleconomies.Thissubjectis
importantfortwomainreasons.First,migrationisoftenthoughtofasanurban
phenomenon–andindeed,formostoftheUnitedKingdom’srecenthistorymigrantshave
beenconcentratedinurbanareas.However,morerecentmigrantsfromCentralandEastern
Europehavemovedmuchmorewidelyacrossthecountry–atrendillustratedbythefact
thattheEastofEngland(aregionwithasignificantruraleconomy)hasreceivedmore
migrantsfromnewEuropeanUnionmemberstatesthanLondonsinceMay2004.To
understandthesenewpatternsofmigrationweneednewanalysis.Wecannotsimplyassume
theeffectswillbethesameasthosearisingfromprevious,morepredominantlyurban,
migration.
Second,theUK’sruraleconomiesareavitalpartofournationaleconomy.Indeed,
promotingruraleconomicsuccessandtacklingruraldisadvantagehasbeenmadea
governmentpriority,promotedbytheCommissionforRuralCommunities.However,whileit
isbecomingincreasinglyclearthatmigrationisaffectingruraleconomies,detailsoftheinter-
relationshiparemuchlessclear.
Anumberofquestionsarise.Whatrolesdomigrantsplayinruraleconomies?What
contributionsdotheymake?Whatproblemsmightariseasaresultofmigration?Andwhat
risksmighttherebeifmigrationpatternsweretochange?
Withmigrationtoruralareasincreasing,itisvitalthatthesequestionsareaddressedto
ensurerural,andthereforenational,economicsuccess.
Thispapercannotanddoesnotaimtoprovideafullpictureofallthewaysinwhich
migrationisaffectingtheUK’sruraleconomies.However,webelieveitmakesanimportant
contributionbyreviewingandanalysingmigration-relatedriskstoruraleconomies,aswellas
policiesthatcouldminimisethoserisks.Assuch,itshouldoffernewinsightstohelp
understandandmanagemigrationtoruralareasinordertomaximisebenefitsforall.
WearegratefultothefundersoftheEconomicsofMigrationproject:BusinessforNew
Europe,theCommissionforRuralCommunities,theTradesUnionCongressandtheUK
BorderAgency(HomeOffice).
Theviewsexpressedherearethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseof
theprojectfunders.
SarahMulley TimFinch
ProjectCoordinator HeadofMigration,EqualitiesandCitizenshipTeam
Glossaryandlistofabbreviations
A8 TheeightCentralandEasternEuropeancountriesthatjoinedtheEuropean
UnioninMay2004(Poland,CzechRepublic,Estonia,Hungary,Latvia,
Lithuania,SlovakiaandSlovenia)
A2 BulgariaandRomania,whichjoinedtheEuropeanUnioninJanuary2007
CRC CommissionforRuralCommunities
DCLG DepartmentforCommunitiesandLocalGovernment
DEFRA DepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs
EEA EuropeanEconomicArea
GLA Gangmasters’LicencingAuthority
IDeA ImprovementandDevelopmentAgency
LFS LabourForceSurvey
NINO NationalInsuranceNumber
ONS OfficeforNationalStatistics
SAWS SeasonalAgriculturalWorkersScheme
SBS SectorBasedScheme
TUC TradesUnionCongress
WRS WorkerRegistrationScheme
Executivesummary
MigrationtoandfromtheUKhaschangeddistinctivelyoverthelastdecade,withincreased
immigrationandemigration.Migratorymovementshavealsobecomemorediverse.Migrants
havebeencomingfrommoreplacesthaneverbefore,andarefoundacrossasimilarly
diversevarietyoflocationsandsectorswithintheUK.Importantly,thisincludesmore
migrationtoruralareas,particularlysincetheexpansionoftheEuropeanUnionin2004.
Theexpansionofmigrationtoruralareashashadarangeofimpactsonruraleconomies.
Migrantshavemadesignificanteconomiccontributions:fillingvacanciesandskillsgapsand
promotingjobcreationandproductivity.Migrantshavebeenparticularlyimportantin
supportingsomekeysectorsincludingagriculture,foodprocessingandhospitality.
Futuretrends
ThecurrentglobalrecessionappearstohavethepotentialtoradicallyreshapeboththeUK’s
economicstructureandperformance,andpatternsofmigration.Althoughmostofthe
researchforthispaperwascarriedoutbeforetheimpactsofthecurrentrecessionhadbeen
widelyfelt,wehavebeenabletoconsiderthelikelyimpactsofrecessiononmigrationand
ruraleconomiesaspartofourfuturesanalysis,aswellasconsideringlonger-termtrendsand
risks.
Ourworksuggeststhatintheshortterm(thenextonetotwoyears–so,duringthecurrent
recession)suppliesofmigrantlabourtoruralareaslooklikelytofall.However,demandfor
thislabourisalsoexpectedtodropduringtherecessionsoanyshortagesarenotlikelytobe
chronic(thoughtherewillbesectoralandgeographicvariationswithinthispicture).Further,
becausemigrationrespondstoeconomicconditionsitcanhelpbusinessesexpandduring
periodsofgrowth,butitprovidesflexibilityduringadownturn.
Inthemediumterm(nexttwotofiveyears)astheUKandruraleconomiesrecover,demand
formigrantlabourisexpectedtoriseinruralareas,whileatthesamethereisariskthat
migrantlabouravailabilitywillfall.Thisdisjunctionseemslikelyfortworeasons.First,
migrationisnotonlydrivenbyeconomicfactors.Otherfactorsthatareimportantto
migrants,suchastheavailabilityofaffordablehousing,couldmakeruralareaslessattractive.
Second,immigrationpoliciesthatarenotflexibleenoughtorespondtotheneedsofthe
economy,includingruralareas,maypreventmigrantlaboursupplyfrommeetingdemand.If
migrantsaretocontinuetomaketheimportantcontributiontoruraleconomiesthatwe
haveidentified,policiesmustbepursuedtoreducethelikelihoodofthiskindofmismatch.
Recommendations
Ourkeyrecommendationsforpolicymeasuresthatcouldhelpruraleconomiesmaximisethe
benefitsofmigrationareasfollows:
•Continuetofacilitatethemovementofagriculturalworkers
Migrantworkersarecrucialtosomepartsoftheagriculturalsector.TheUK’snewmanaged
migrationsystemmustincorporatearouteforthosemigrantstocontinuetocometoworkin
theUK.WerecommendthistaketheformofanewversionoftheSeasonalAgricultural
WorkersScheme(SAWS),whichshouldbeincorporatedunderTier3ofthepoints-based
system,andopenedtonon-EUmigrants.
Theagriculturalsectorhassufferedfromlabourshortages,particularlyforseasonalwork,for
someyears.ThereappearstoberelativelylittlescopeforincreasingthenumbersofUK-(and
evenEU-)bornworkerscomingintothesector.Thepotentialforraisingpayandimproving
conditionstomaketheworkmoreattractiveisalsolimited.Bringinginmigrantworkersfrom
outsidetheEUonatemporarybasistoundertakethesetaskshasworkedwellinthepast
andweseenojustificationforabolishingtheschemewithoutreplacingitwithanalternative
entryrouteforlow-skilledlabourforthesector.Itislikelythatcertainpartsofthe
agriculturalsector(inparticularintensivehorticulture)wouldbeveryhardhitwerethis
labournotavailableinthefuture,anduncertaintyaboutthisislimitingthesuccessofthe
sectorevennow.
•Makeamoreconcertedefforttodevelopaffordableandhighqualityhousinginrural
areas
Theavailabilityofaffordableruralhousing,bothforlocalpeopleandformigrantworkers,is
criticaltoensuringasustainablesupplyofworkersforruraleconomies.Therelativelyhigh
costofaccommodationwashighlightedasakeyfactorthatmightdrivemigrantworkersout
ofruralareas.Thisisaparticularissueforseasonal,temporaryandlow-paidmigrants.
Government,housingassociations,employersandtheNationalHousingFederationshould
worktogethertodevelopmoreaffordableandbetterqualityhousing(andinparticular
rentedhousing)forpeople,includingmigrantworkers,inruralareas,andimproveprovision
fortransientmigrantworkers.
•Reviewtheroleofrecruitmentagencies
Whilemigrantworkersaregenerallyhappytoworkthroughanagencyinordertoenterthe
labourmarket,inthelongertermtheywantdirectemployment,andtheyhighlightthisasa
keypriorityintheirdecisionsaroundwheretoliveandwork.
WerecommendthattheGovernmenttakeacloselookattherolethatrecruitmentagencies
playthroughahigh-level,comprehensivereviewthatexaminesboththecostsandbenefits
thatareassociatedwiththisapproach.Theeffectsonmigrantworkeravailabilityinrural
areas(andassociatedrisks)shouldbeanimportantpartoftheremitofthisreview.
•ExtendtheremitoftheGangmastersLicensingAuthority(GLA)tocoverallsectors
characterisedbyvulnerableemployment
Adifferentsetofrisksariseinrelationtothesmallgroupofagenciesthatareoperating
outsidethelaw.PartlyinresponsetothetragedyoftheChinesecockle-pickersin
MorecambeBay,theGovernmentsetuptheGangmastersLicensingAuthority(GLA)butat
presenttheGLAonlyregulateslabourprovidersinagriculture,forestry,horticulture,shellfish
gatheringandfoodprocessingandpackaging.Werecommendthatitsremitbeextendedto
coverallsectorscharacterisedbyvulnerableemployment–asinvestigatedandsetoutby
theTradesUnionCongressCommissiononVulnerableEmployment.
Aswellassafeguardingtherightsofmigrantworkers,andprotectinglegitimateagencies
fromunfaircompetitionbasedonexploitation,thiswouldalsoreducetherisksfacingrural
economiesbyimprovingthesupplyandlong-termsustainabilityofmigrantlabour.Bringing
moresectorsundertheremitoftheGLAalsoreducestheriskthatruraleconomieswillcome
todependonlabourprovidedbyagenciesorgangmasterswhobreakthelaw.
• Ensuremigrationissuesareontheagendaathigh-profileruralevents
Thereismuchtobegainedfromfurtherthoughtandexaminationoftheseissues.The
impactsofmigrationonruraleconomiesandtherisksassociatedwithchangingmigrant
workeravailabilityshouldbeontheagendaathigh-profileeventssuchastheongoing‘rural
summits’onunlockingthepotentialofruraleconomies.
• Embedmigrationconsiderationsinongoingplanningandpolicymakingprocesses
Werecommendthatlocalandregionalgovernmentsensurethatissuesaroundmigration,risk
andruraleconomicperformanceareincorporatedintoLocalAuthorityEconomicAssessments
andIntegratedRegionalStrategies.Inmanycasesthiswillneedtobeprecededbyan
assessmentoftheextenttowhichrisksassociatedwithmigrantworkeravailabilityarean
issuefortheperformanceofparticularrural(andindeedurban)economiesandsectors.
Doingsowouldhelptodevelopthethinkingpresentedhere,generatemorenuanced
analysesatlocalandsectorallevels,andensurethatspecificandappropriateregionaland
localstrategiesandresponsescanbedeveloped.
1.Introduction
MigrationischangingthefaceoftheUK.WhilehistoricallytheUKhasoftenbeenacountry
ofnetemigration,inrecentyearsastrongeconomyandtheexpansionoftheEuropean
Unionhasledtoasubstantialriseinthenumbersofmigrantscomingheretolive,whether
permanentlyortemporarily(Chappelletal 2008).
Anincreaseinthenumbersofmigrantsarrivingisnottheonlychangethatistakingplace,
however.Migrantsarearrivingfromawiderrangeofcountries,andsettlinginagreater
diversityofplacesacrosstheUKthantheywerebefore(Kyambi2005)–inparticular,the
numberssettlingandworkinginruralareashaveincreasedsubstantiallyinrecentyears.
Ruraleconomiesareanimportantpartofthenationaleconomyalready,andunlockingtheir
potentialfurtherbyensuringthattheycanmaximisethebenefitsofmigrationwouldbe
positiveforpeopleinbothurbanandruralcommunities.
Researchaims
Thispaperexaminestheimplicationsofincreasingmigrationtoruralareas,lookingin
particularattheeconomicsofthisphenomenon.Weexploretherolesmigrantsareplaying,
theeconomicimpactsofmigrationonexistingpopulationsandbusinesses,andwhatfuture
migratorytrendsmightbe.Inparticular,weconsiderwhetherrecentmigrationtoruralBritain
hasledtoanyrisksforruraleconomies;andifso,howtheseriskscanbemanaged.
Thepaperaddressesthefollowingfourresearchquestions:
•WhatisthescaleandnatureofmigrationtoruralareasoftheUK?
•Whateconomicimpactsismigrationcurrentlyhavingonruraleconomies?
•Howismigrationtoruralareaslikelytochangeinthefutureandwhatbenefitsand
risksmightthisbring?
•Whatmeasuresareneededtorespondtolikelyfuturetrends,toensurethebest
possibleoutcomes?
Whatdefinesruraleconomies,andwhydotheymeritspecificanalysis?
Since2004,ruralareasinEnglandandWaleshavebeenofficiallydefinedaccordingtoa
classificationbasedonpopulationdensity(CommissionforRuralCommunities2007b).
Sparsepopulationisadefiningfeatureofruralareas,andalsohassignificantimplicationsfor
ruraleconomies.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatruraleconomiesarehighlyvaried–we
shouldthinkof‘ruraleconomies’not‘theruraleconomy’.
Ruraleconomiesareoftenbasedondifferentsectorsandindustriesthanurbaneconomies.
Butalthoughruraleconomieshavesomeparticularfeatures,manyofthechallengesthey
facearesharedwithBritain’surbaneconomies.
Ruraleconomiesalsofaceparticularchallengesthatspringdirectlyfromtheirrural
characteristics,andtheyhavespecificneedsthatrequireconsiderationbypolicymakers.
Sparsepopulationcanmeanthatemployersfacealessflexiblelabourforce,particularlyif
travelcostsarehigh–thiscanmeanthatvacanciesarehardtofill,andmayinhibit
enterpriseandinnovation.Problemswithaccesstopublicservicesincludingeducationand
traininghaveimplicationsfortheskillsandqualificationsoftheruralworkforce,andcanlead
toskillsgaps.Andfirmsmaysufferdirectlyfromlimitedaccesstoinfrastructure,whichmay
influencetheirchoiceofproductionmodels.
Itisimportanttoconsiderruraleconomiesaspartofanystudyoftheeconomicsof
migrationintheUK.Inrecentyearsmigrationhasincreasedmorerapidlyinruralareasthan
inurbanareas–thischangeisworthyofstudy,andhasbroughtwithitparticularbenefits
andchallengesinruralareas.Also,theparticularcharacteristicsandchallengesofrural
economiesmeanthattheimpactsofmigrationaredifferentfromurbanareas.
Methodology
Thispaperusesamixedmethodologyofquantitativeandqualitativetools,including:
•Literaturereview
•Analysisofnationalpopulationandeconomicdatasets
•SurveyofPolishmigrantslivinginruralareas
•Twofocusgroupinterviewswithruralmigrants
•Keyinformantinterviewswithemployers,industryspokespersonsandpolicymakers.
Datasets
TomapthescaleandnatureofruralmigrationweuseddatafromtheCensus,theLabour
ForceSurvey(LFS),theWorkersRegistrationScheme(WRS)datasetandtheNational
InsuranceNumber(NINO)dataset.Theserepresentthebestquantitativedatacurrently
availableonruralmigrants,butthereareanumberofinherentproblemswiththisdata,an
issueweexaminelaterinthisreport.Importantly,theLFSdoesnotincludesomegroupsof
people,includingthoselivinginbusinessaddressessuchasfarmsandhotelsandnon-private
communalaccommodation.
Survey
WecommissionedtheCentreforResearchonNationalism,EthnicityandMulticulturalism,
basedattheUniversityofSurreyandRoehamptonUniversity,toundertakeasurveyof500
Polishmigrants,ofwhom300werelivinginruralareas.Thesurveycollecteddataabout:
•Householdcompositionandotherdemographicdata
•Educationalandemploymentprofiles
•ReasonsformigrationtotheUKandintentionsforreturnandremigration
•ContactwithpublicservicesintheUK.
ThesurveywasconductedinPolish.Afteraninitialpilot,300face-to-faceinterviewswere
conductedatfivedifferentrurallocationsinEngland(anadditional200interviewswere
conductedinurbanlocationstoactasacomparison),startinginMay2008.Interviewees
wererecruitedinlocationsfrequentedbyPolishmigrantworkers:workplaces,Polish
groceries,barsandRomanCatholicchurches.Theselectionofintervieweeswaspurposive
anddesignedtoreflectthe60:40maletofemalegenderbalanceofPolishmigrantintheUK
thatisindicatedinWRSdata(Pollardetal 2008).
Focusgroupsandkeyinformants
TwofocusgroupinterviewswerecarriedoutinOctobertoNovember2008withmigrants
workingintheagricultureandfoodprocessingsectorandthehospitalitysector(bothof
whichareimportanttoruraleconomies).Theintervieweescomprisedabalanceofmenand
womenanddifferentcountriesoforigin,includingPortugal,Poland,Latvia,Lithuania,Brazil
andIraq.TheagriculturefocusgroupwasconductedinEnglish,andtwointerpreters(Polish
andPortuguesespeaking)wereusedforthehospitalitysectorfocusgroup.
Althoughmostoftheresearchforthispaperwascarriedoutbeforetheimpactsofthe
currentrecessionhadbeenwidelyfelt,wehavebeenabletoconsiderthelikelyimpactsof
recessiononmigrationandruraleconomiesaspartofourfuturesanalysis(seeSection5).
ThefocusoftheresearchisontheUKasawhole,asmostofthedataisavailableataUK-
widelevel.However,someofthepolicyrecommendationsarespecifictoEngland,asa
numberofkeyactorsinthisarea(suchastheCommissionforRuralCommunities[CRC])
havemandatesthatcoverEnglandonly.Wedidnotcomeacrossanysignificantreasonsfor
thinkingtrendsinScotland,WalesandNorthernIrelandweresubstantiallydifferenttothose
affectingEngland.However,thereareobviouslygeographicaldifferencesbetweendifferent
areas,whichwetrytoaddressbyprovidingsectorallyandgeographicallyspecificanalysis
whererelevant.
2.Patternsofmigrationtoruralareas
ChangingmigrationtoandfromtheUK
MigrationintheUKishighlycomplex,withalongandvariedhistory.WhiletheUKhas
recentlyexperiencedhighlevelsofnetimmigration,untilthe1980stheUKwasoftena
countryofnetemigration,andinbothperiodssubstantialnumbersofpeoplehavemovedin
bothdirectionsacrossourborders.TheseoverallmigrationtrendsareshowninFigure1.
Figure1.Total 600
migrationtoand
500
fromtheUK,
400
1975–2007
300
Source:International
200
PassengerSurvey,
Thousands
100
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OfficeforNational
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Inflow Outflow Balance
Inthelastdecadeorso,migrationhasincreasedinscalesignificantlyrightacrosstheworld
(InternationalOrganisationforMigration2008).Thishasresultedinanincreaseinboth
immigrationtoandemigrationfromBritain,withtherecentriseinimmigrationtakingplace
againstthebackdropof(untilrecently)astrongUKeconomy.TheexpansionoftheEU,with
12newmemberstatessince2004,hasalsoplayedapart.Withsomerestrictions,theUK
openeditsbordersandlabourmarketstocitizensofthesecountries.
Aswellasincreasingthenumbersofmigrants,this‘globalmarket’forlabour,andtheUK’s
placeattheheartofit,hasledtoanincreasingdiversityofmigrants–bothintermsofthe
countriestheycomefromandthelocationstheymoveto(Kyambi2005).Migrationnow
affectsthewholeoftheUKinawaythatithasnotbefore.
Changingmigrationpatternsinruralareas
ThesechangingtrendsinUK-widemigrationhavehadimportantimplicationsforruralareas.
Inparticular,thenumbersofmigrantslivingandworkinginruralareashavebeenrising,in
somecasesquitedramatically.ThisisnottosaythatruralBritainhadnotexperienced
migrationbeforethelastdecade–internationalmigrantshavealwayshadapresenceinthe
Britishcountryside,withsomelongsettledforeign-borncommunitiesinruralareas–butin
manycasestheyhavenotbeenveryvisible.Duringthelast10years,however,theUKhas
seensubstantiallyincreasedinternationalmigrationtoruralareas.
Table1showstheforeign-bornpopulationsofruralandurbanlocalauthorities.Whilerural
areasstillhavealowerforeign-bornpopulationsharethanotherpartsoftheUK,itisnot
muchlower.WhilethemosturbanisedareasoftheUK(‘majorurban’)havesignificantly
Table1.Foreign-bornpopulationsbyrural/urbanlocalauthorityclassification
DEFRARural/urbanlocal Foreign-bornpopulationas%of NewEUmemberstatemigrantsas%
authorityclassification totalpopulation,2006 oftotalpopulation,2007
Majorurban 18.2 1.1
Largeurban 6.9 0.6
Otherurban 8.1 1.0
Significantrural 5.9 0.8
Rural50 4.3 0.7
Rural80 4.2 0.9
Thecategoriesarelistedinorder,fromthemostdenselypopulated(‘majorurban’)totheleast(‘rural80’)
Sources:ipprcalculations,ONSmid-yearpopulationestimatesbylocalauthority2006andPollardetal (2008)
highernumbersofforeign-bornresidents,thedifferencebetweentheothertwourban
categoriesandtheruralcategoriesisnotsubstantial.
Table1alsoshowstheproportionsofmigrantsfromnewEUmemberstatesineachtypeof
area,providingsomeideaofhowthetrendhasbeenchangingsince2004,whenthecitizens
ofthesecountriesgainedfreeaccesstoUKlabourmarkets.Whatisstrikingishowsimilar
theproportionsofnewEUmigrantsareacrosseachtypeofarea.‘Largeurban’areasactually
havethelowestproportionsofnewEUmigrants,withgreaterproportionsineachkindof
ruralarea.Table1demonstratesthatnewEUmigrantsarejustasmuchafeatureofrurallife
andruraleconomiesastheyareofurbanones.
Figure2showsgraphicallythat,althoughmanymigrantsareconcentratedinurbanareas,
manyrurallocalauthoritiesalsohaveasignificantpercentageofforeign-bornresidents.
Figure2:Place
ofresidenceof
England’s
foreign-born
population,by
localauthority
Source:ONSmid-
yearpopulation
estimatesandippr Percentageof
calculations foreign-bornby
localauthority,
2006
Figure3.
Population
estimatesof
migrantsfrom
theEU’snew
membersstates,
bylocal
authority
district,2007
Source:Pollardetal
2008
Figure3showsthesettlementpatternsofmigrantsfromtheEU’snewmemberstatesby
localauthoritydistrict.ThisshowstheconcentrationsofnewEUmigrantsacrosstheUK,
notablyinsomeruralareas,andhighlightsthedifferentgeographicalspreadofthisgroupof
(mostlyrecent)migrants.Areaswhereintensivehorticultureandfoodprocessingarelocated
–theEastofScotland,HerefordshireandtheFens–havehighpopulationsofmigrantsfrom
theEU’snewmemberstates.Thisgivesasenseoftheimpactsthatthesemigrantsmaybe
havingonparticularsectors–atopicwereturntoinSection4.
Countriesoforigin
AswellasbeingincreasinglyspreadacrosstheUK,theUK’sforeign-bornpopulationisalso
increasinglydiverseintermsoftheirnationalorigin(Sriskandarajahetal 2007).Table2
presentsdataonthesizeandgrowthofthe10largestforeign-borngroupsresidentinthe
UKin2007.
Table3showsthesameinformationforthe10largestmigrantgroupsintheUK’sruralareas.
Table2.The10largestgroupsofforeign-bornresidentsintheUK,bycountryofbirth,2007
Rank* Country %oftheUK’stotal %growthincountry-of-birth
foreign-bornpopulation groupin10years**
1 India 9.8% 46%
2 Ireland 6.8% -23%
3 Poland 6.3% 575%
4 Pakistan 6.1% 77%
5 Germany 4.2% 7%
6 SouthAfrica 3.1% 119%
7 Bangladesh 3.1% 26%
8 UnitedStates 3.0% 39%
9 ChinaandHongKong 2.7% 123%
10 Jamaica 2.7% 25%
Source:LabourForceSurveyandipprcalculations
*Usingdatafromallquarters,2007.**BetweenQ41997andQ42007
Table3.The10largestgroupsofforeign-bornresidentsinUKruralareas,bycountryofbirth,2007
Rank* Country %ofruralareas’total %growthincountry-of-birth
foreign-bornpopulation groupin10years**
1 Ireland 8.5% -14.8%
2 India 8.3% 48.5%
3 Poland 8.1% 983.1%
4 Pakistan 5.4% 39.6%
5 SouthAfrica 4.9% 48.1%
6 Germany 3.8% 16.3%
7 UnitedStates 3.5% 83.0%
8 Australia 3.0% 24.1%
9 Zimbabwe 2.8% 278.1%
10 Philippines 2.8% 508.1%
*Usingdatafromallquarters,2007;**BetweenQ41997andQ42007
Wecanseefromthesetablesthatverysimilarcountriesarerepresentedamongmigrantsin
theUKasawholeandthoselivinginruralareas.TheincreaseinPolishmigrantslivingin
ruralareas,however,hasbeenmuchmoresubstantialthaninurbanareas,andasaresult
PolesnowconstitutealargerproportionofmigrantsinruralareasthanacrosstheUKasa
whole.
Inordertogiveafullersenseofruralmigrants’regionsoforiginbeyondthetop10
countries,whichrepresentonlyabouthalfofallmigrantsresidinginruralBritain,Table4
showstheregionsoforiginofallmigrantsinruralareas.Thisshowsthatbysomesubstantial
marginthelargestgroupofmigrantsinruralareascomesfromthethe15countriesthat
weremembersoftheEUbeforethe2004expansion(the‘EU15’),butthefastestgrowing
groupismigrantsfromthenewEUmemberstates.
Routesofentryofruralmigrants
Table4:TheUK’sruralmigrantsbyregionofbirth,2007
Rank* Worldregion %ofruralareas’total %growthinregionofbirthgroup
foreign-bornpopulation in10years**
1 EU15 27% -3%
2 Indiansub-continent 16% 57%
3 Sub-SaharanAfrica 15% 66%
4 OtherAsia 12% 109%
5 NewEUmemberstates 10% 370%
6 America 8% 20%
7 OtherEurope 5% 129%
=8 AustraliaandthePacific 4% 23%
=8 MiddleEast 4% 130%
*Usingdatafromallquarters,2007;**betweenQ41997andQ42007
Itisimportanttoalsoanalysethetermsofentryofmigrants–thegroundsunderwhichthey
arepermittedtoentertheUKandthereforetheroutetheytake.Residencystatuscanaffect
aperson’saspirationsandentitlements(forexample,asylumseekersarenotentitledto
work),andthereforetheirimpactsonthelocaleconomy.Migrants’residencystatusalso
affectstheirabilitytoaccessbenefits,housingandotherpublicservices.
TherearesevenmainroutesofentryintotheUK,whichareoutlinedbelowwithestimatesof
theextenttowhichmigrantsinruralareasfallundereachgroup.Notethatwecannottell
definitivelyhowmanyofeachtypeliveinruralareasbecausethemaindatasourcesthat
collectdataontermsofentrydonotcollectplaceofresidence,andviceversaforthosethat
collectdataonplaceofresidence.
1.AsEUandEEAmigrants
CitizensofthemajorityofcountriesintheEuropeanEconomicArea(EEA)1 andSwitzerland
arepermittedtoliveandworkintheUKfreely.TheexceptionarethosefromtheEU’snew
memberstates,mostofwhomfacesomerestriction:nationalsfrommostofthecountries
thatjoinedtheEUinMay20042 havetoenrolontheWorkersRegistrationScheme(WRS),
unlesstheyareregisteredasself-employed.NationalsofRomaniaandBulgaria,bothof
whichjoinedtheEUinJanuary2007,havemorerestrictedrights3.Migrantswhoentervia
theirstatusasbeingfromtheEEAorSwitzerlandarethelargestmigrantgroupintheUK,
andarealsothelargestmigrantgroupinruralareas.
2.Viathepoints-basedsystem
1.TheEEAconsistsoftheEUstates,Iceland,LiechtensteinandNorway
2.TheCzechRepublic,Estonia,Hungary,Latvia,Lithuania,Poland,SlovakiaandSlovenia
3.RomaniansandBulgarianscanworklegallyintheUKiftheyareself-employedorareontheSeasonal
AgriculturalWorkersSchemeortheSector-BasedScheme,whichhavebeenexclusivelyreservedfor
RomanianandBulgariannationalssinceJanuary2008.TheycanalsoworkintheUKiftheyhaveawork
permitorareastudent(theselattertworoutesareopentonationalsofothercountriesoutsidetheEUas
wellandarediscussedingreaterdetaillaterinthissection).AllBulgarianandRomaniannationalswho
haveworkedlegallyintheUKfor12months,however,gainEuropeanEconomicArea(EEA)Worker
StatusandhavefullaccesstotheUKlabourmarket.
EntrytotheUKviathepoints-basedsystemisforlabour-relatedmigrationfromoutsidethe
EU.Thissystemisbasedaroundfivetiers:
•TierOne–forhighly-skilledmigrants.Thisgroupcancomeastheywish,without
requiringapriorjoboffer.Theyareseenashavingimportantskills(andsometimes
financialresources)thatwillboostproductivityandtheUKeconomy.
•TierTwo–forskilledworkerswithajoboffer.Thisgroupareexpectedtofillgapsin
theUKlabourmarket.
•TierThree–low-skilledtemporaryworkers.TheGovernmenthasannouncedthatit
doesnotintendtoopenupthistierinthenearfuture,onthegroundsthatthereare
nounskilledgapsthatcannotbefilledwithUKandEEAnationals.
•TierFour–students.
•TierFive–youthmobilityandotherschemeswheretheaimofworkingintheUKis
notprimarilyeconomic(forexample,workingholiday-makers).
Thenumberofentrantsviathepoints-basedsystemissubstantial.In2007,some82,300
peoplewithworkpermitsandotherworkvisaholders(theprecursorstothepoints-based
system)cametotheUKfromoutsidetheEU,withmajorcountriesoforiginincludingthe
US,Canada,SouthAfrica,IndiaandPakistan(HomeOffice2008c).Mostwererelatively
highlyskilled,giventhattheGovernmenthaskeptTier3(whichmanagestemporary
migrationintolowerskilledjobs)closed.
Skilledmigrantswhohavecometoruralareasviathepoints-basedsystemhavejobsina
widevarietyofareasincludingtheNHS,thesocialcaresectorandspecialistsectorssuchas
engineeringinCumbria(Rutterforthcoming).Newmigrantsareparticularlybeingsoughtin
anumberofrolesimportanttoruraleconomies,includingveterinaries,engineers,chefsand
sheepshearers(HomeOffice2008d).
3.Asylumseekersandrefugees
ThisgroupincludesthosemovingtotheUKinsearchofrefugefrompersecution.23,430
asylumapplicationswerelodgedintheUKin2007.Ofthoseasylumseekerswhoreceived
aninitialdecisionontheirasylumapplicationsin2007,16percentweregrantedrefugee
status,withanother11percentgrantedhumanitarianprotectionordiscretionaryleaveto
remainintheUK,meaningthatsome73percentwererefused(HomeOffice2008b).While
someofthoserefusedasylumleavetheUKorareremoved,manyremainandmakeupa
significantcomponentoftheUK’sirregularmigrantpopulation.Since2002,themain
countriesoforiginofasylum-seekershaveincludedtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo,
Eritrea,Somalia,Zimbabwe,TurkeyandAfghanistan.
Priorto1997mostasylumseekerswerehousedinLondon.Sincethen,however,increasing
proportionshavebeen‘dispersed’toaccommodationelsewhereintheUK.Onthewholethis
hasnotbeenmovementtoruralareas,asthefocushasbeenon‘clusterareas,’wherebynew
arrivalsaresenttoplacesthatalreadyhaveasignificantpopulationofasylum-seekers.
However,ipprhasencounteredrefugeeswhohadsuccessfullysettledinruralareas,for
example,KosovarsinruralCumbria(RutterandLatorreforthcoming).
4.Familyreunion
Some42,200spouses,fiancé(e)sandcivilpartnerswereadmittedtotheUKin2007(Home
Office2008c),tolivewithfamilymembers.ThetopcountriesoforiginincludePakistan,
India,Bangladesh,USandThailand.Thesemigrantssettlewiththeirfamiliesindifferent
partsoftheUK.However,thereislikelytobeatendencytowardsurbansettlement,given
thatmanymarriagesaretomembersoftheUK’sexistingethnicminoritygroups,whohave
tendedtosettlepredominantlyinurbanareas.
5.Overseasstudents
HomeOfficestatisticssuggestthatin2007some358,000overseasstudentsenteredtheUK
fromoutsidetheEU(HomeOffice2008c)tostudyinuniversities,privateEnglishlanguage
collegesandfurthereducationcolleges.Theyarepotentiallyimportanttoruraleconomies
becauseoverseasstudentsadmittedforcoursesthatlastmorethansixmonthsgenerally
havetherighttoworkforupto20hoursperweekduringtermtime,andfulltimeduring
vacations;theirdependentsmayalsowork.In2007themaincountriesoforiginofoverseas
studentswereChina,Russia,JapanandtheUnitedStates.
Overseasstudentnumbershaveincreasedslowlyoverthelast10years,ashavethenumbers
ofoverseasstudentswhohavesettledintheenvironsofruraluniversitycampuses.Although
theproportionofoverseasstudentsvariesfromuniversitytouniversity,thereappeartobe
sufficientnumbersofforeignstudentsinruralareastobeaffectingthecompositionofthose
areas.Forexample,theoverseas-bornpopulationoflocalauthoritieswithuniversity
campusesandclassifiedas‘significantrural’byDEFRAwas7.3percentin2006,andfor
thosewithoutcampusesitwas5percent.
6.Irregularmigrants
Relativelylittleisknownaboutirregularmigrants,butwedoknowthatthisgroupcomprises
mostlyvisaandasylumover-stayers,aswellassmallernumbersof‘clandestineentrants’–
peoplewhocrosstheUKborderillegally(InstituteforPublicPolicyResearch2006).
ResearchcommissionedbytheHomeOfficeestimatedtheirregularmigrantpopulationas
being310,000–530,000personsin2001(Pinkertonetal 2004),andrecentworkfromthe
LondonSchoolofEconomicssuggeststhattheremightnowbearound725,000(Gordonet
al 2009).Inotherresearchipprencounteredanumberofirregularmigrantswhowere
workinginruralareas,mostlyasagriculturalworkersbutsometimesinfoodprocessingor
othermanufacturingindustries(RutterandLatorreforthcoming).However,theirregular
migrantswemetwerenotlivinginruralareas.Theybasedthemselvesinatownorcity,but
weretransportedtoruralareasforwork,oftenbylabourproviders4.
7.ReturningBritishnationals
ThelastgroupofmigrantscomingtotheUKisreturningBritishnationals(Sriskandarajah
andDrew2006),someofwhommovetoruralareas.Forexample,asubstantialproportion
ofGerman-bornpeopleinbothruralandurbanareasarelikelytobechildrenofBritish
militarypersonnel,whothoughborninGermanyhavebeenBritishcitizensfrombirth.
4.Thisisnottosaythattherearenotirregularmigrantslivinginruralareas,simplythatwedidnot
comeacrosstheminthecourseofourqualitativeresearch.Itmaybethatthiswassimplychance,orthat
theseworkersareparticularlymarginalisedandunlikelytobepickedupinresearch.
3.Migrants’experiencesoflifeandworkinruralareas
Reasonsformigrationtoruralareas
Employmentopportunitiesandgreaterearningspotentialwerethekeypullfactorsthathad
broughtalmostallofthoseweinterviewedtotheUK.
‘Icametogetabetterlifeandworkconditions.InPortugalweworkveryhard
butdon’tearnthesamemoney.‘(Hospitalitysectorworker)
Migrationhasoftenbeenseenasanurbanissue,butsomemigrantsweinterviewedhad
moveddirectlytoruralareasonarrivalintheUKorafterafewdays.Lessoften,ruralareas
wereplacesofonwardmigrationafteraperiodofresidenceelsewhereintheUK.Some
migrantsfromPolandforexampleweremakingspecificdecisionstoliveinthecountryside.
Figure4showsthatsome19percentmovedtothecountrysidetobenearfriendsand
familyand6percentbecausetheyspecificallywantedtoliveinaruralarea.
Figure4:Reasons
25%
givenby300
Polishmigrants
formigrationtoa
20%
ruralarea,2008
Source:ipprpolling
data 15%
10%
5%
0%
Recruited by employment agency Wanted to join friends and family Found work in rural area Wanted to live in country side
to work in rural area
Therewerealsopullfactorsthatwerespecifictoparticularplaces.Akeensailorfrom
PortugalmadethedecisiontomovetotheIsleofWighttocontinuehishobby.Formigrants
livingintheEastofEngland,theproximityofStanstedandLutonwasamajorattractionas
cheapflightsfromtheseairportsenabledthemtomakefrequentvisitshome.
Lifeinruralareas
Almostallmigrantsweinterviewedweregenerallyhappywithwheretheywereliving,with
thoseinruralareashighlightinganumberofaspectsofrurallifeasbeingattractive,suchas
thenaturalbeauty,andpeaceandquiet.Moregenerally,ourinterviewswithPoleswholived
acrosstheUKandwhohadnowreturnedtoPolandrevealedthattheysawtheirexperiences
intheUKasbeingbetteroratleastasgoodastheyexpected.Just18percentsaidthey
felttheirexperiencesintheUKhadbeenworsethanexpected,with70percentof
respondentssayingthattheirexperienceshadbeenbetterorasgoodasexpected.
Ourintervieweeshadverydiverseexperiencesoftheirinitialhousing.Thosewhohadfamily
orfriendsintheUKtendedtostaywiththem,untiltheycouldsecuremorepermanent
accommodation,eitherthroughemploymentorviawordofmouth.Veryfewmigrants
receivedanyadviceabouttheirhousingentitlementsorabouthowtosearchfor
accommodation.Thereisaraftofhousinglegislationdesignedtoprotecttenantsbut
reducedstaffinglevels,budgetcutsandskillsshortagesamongenvironmentalhealthofficers
andstaffresponsibleforregulationoftheprivaterentalsectorimpactontheabilityto
enforceminimumstandardsinrelationtorentalaccommodation(CookandRoney2008).
Ourresearchhighlightedmanyinstancesofpoorhousingconditions.Someofthe
accommodationmigrantsliveinisnotproperlycoveredbyhousinglegislationandmigrants
arenotalwaysawareoftheirrightsinthisarea.Transientworkers(thosewhoremaininthe
UKforlessthanayear)andmigrantsworkinginseasonaljobsareparticularlyvulnerable
groups.Short-termhousingprovisionisoftenlimited,orofpoorquality.Transientmigrants
oftenalsoknowlittleabouttheirrights,andmayhavepoorEnglish,leavingthemexposed
toagreaterchanceofpoortreatment,includinginrelationtohousing.
Housingconditionsarepoorparticularlyamongmigrantslivinginaccommodationtiedto
employment–manytransientorseasonalworkersliveinsuchaccommodation.The
legislativeprotectionoftenantswholiveinformsofaccommodationotherthanahouseis
complex.Thereissomelegislationtoprotecttenantsinmobilehomeparksbutmanytenants
havelittleprotectionfromeviction,ortheenforcementofminimumstandardsofdecency.
Thoselivingon‘unprotectedsites’,comprisingprivatelandorsitesregisteredforholiday
homeuse,havemuchlessprotection,andifapersonlivesinaccommodationthatisnot
classifiedasa‘dwelling’theyalsohaveverylittleprotection.
Nooneweinterviewedwhowasemployedinagriculture,manufacturingorinthehospitality
sectorownedtheirhomes.Unlesstheyhadfamilies,thesemigrantswerehousedintied
accommodationorintheprivaterentalsector.
ThatfarmandhospitalitysectorworkersweresimplytoopoortobuyhousingintheUKmay
makeitmorelikelythattheywillreturnhome,asmanydidownpropertyintheirhome
countries.Weseethelimitedavailabilityofaffordablehousingasakeyfactorthatlimits
workeravailability(includingmigrantworkers)inruralareas.
Experiencesofworkinruralareas
SomemigrantworkersfoundworkbeforecomingtotheUK,throughanoverseasagencyor
throughexistingcontacts.Othersfoundworkafterarrival.
Manyworkersintheagriculture,foodprocessingandhospitalitysectorsfoundtheirfirstjob
throughanagency–alabourproviderwhoinsomecasesalsoprovidedhousing.Allthose
weinterviewedwhohadbeenemployedbyagenciesexpressedstrongopinionsaboutthe
waytheyworked.Dissatisfactionwithworkconditionstookmanyforms,butwasparticularly
associatedwiththeseagencies.
Someunskilledmigrantswereworkingwithahighproportionofothermigrants.Thislimited
theirinteractionwithlocalBritish-bornpeopleandmeanttheywerenot‘integrated’into
broadersociety.Thatsaid,migrants’socialinteractionswithhostcommunitieswerevery
varied:somemigrantsformedfriendshipsoutsidetheircommunitiesandothersdidnot.
Therewasalsoastrongperceptionthatinruralareasitwasgettinghardertofindwork
(althoughnotagriculturalwork).Agencyworkerswerefindingthismostdifficult.
‘Therearetoomanypeoplelookingforworknow.Wegettwodaysaweek,
one,twodaysaweek,anotherone,twodaysaweek,anotherone.Forpeople
topaytherenttheyneedsomething[more],itisnogoodjusttwodaysa
week.‘(Brazilianmigrant,foodprocessingsector)
Beingunabletofinddirectpermanentemploymentisanimportantreasongivenbymigrant
workersformovingonfromanareaorjob.Whileemploymentagenciesareanaccepted
usefulpartoftheeconomy–ruralandurban–theyalsopresentsomeimportantproblems.
Migrantworkersthemselvesfindtheprecariousnatureofemploymentofferedunattractive,
andwhiletheyarehappytoworkthroughagenciesforashortperiodonenteringtheUK
mostprioritisemovingoutofagencyworkandintodirect,permanentemployment.
Agenciesareunpopularnotonlyfortheformsofworktheyoffer(workatshortnotice,with
fewassociatedrightsandnoguaranteeofrepeatedemployment),butalsoforthelarge
differentialbetweentheamounttheagencyispaidtoprovidethemandthewagethey
themselvesreceive,whichmanymigrantworkersperceivetobeveryunfair.
‘I’dliketoworkdirectlyforacompany.Theagencychargesaretoohigh.’
(Portuguesehotelworker,Peterborough)
Someagenciesalsositontheveryedgeoflegalbehaviour,forexampledockingwagesfor
servicesprovidedbytheagency,suchasaccommodation,whichmightnotbewanted
and/orissub-standard.Asonestakeholderemphasised:
‘Ifourclientscangetintoworkasanemployeethey’remuchbetteroff.The
mainissueistodowithagenciesandgangmasters…Iknowrecruitment
agenciesaren’tbreakingthelaw,butthey’reusingittoexploitmigrants’
situations.’Stakeholder,migrantassociation
4.Migrants’impactsonruraleconomies
Hereweexaminethekeyimpactsofmigrantworkersonruraleconomies.Theimpactsare
manyandvaried;welookatwages,employment,skillsshortages,jobcreation,productivity
andspecificsectoralimpacts.Someoftheseissuesareprominentnationalissues–for
example,theeffectsofmigrationonwagesandemployment,andmanyruralcommunities
arenow,forthefirsttime,feelingthattheseissuesarerelevanttothem.Wealsofocuson
theintersectionbetweenmigrationandthekeychallengesfacingruraleconomies–
identifiedbytheCommissionforRuralCommunitiesaswages,lowskillsandthelossof
youngpeopletourbanareas(CommissionforRuralCommunities2008a).
Sectorsemployingmigrantsinruralareas
Anumberofsectorsinruraleconomiesemploymigrantworkerstoasignificantextent.
Figure5belowshowstheproportionofworkerswhowerebornoutsidetheUKovertimein
eachindustrysectorinruralareas–excludingagriculture,whichispoorlysampledinthe
LabourForceSurvey.5
Figure5.The
9%
percentageof
workerswhoare 8%
Foreign born as % of labour force in sector
foreignbornin 7%
eachindustry
6%
sectorinrural
areas,2000–2007 5%
Source:LabourForce 4%
Surveyandippr
3%
calculations
2%
1%
0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Manufacturing Construction Distribution, hotels and restaurants

Transport & communication Banking, finance & insurance Public admin, education and health
Other
Numbersofforeign-bornworkershavebeenrisingandtheyarefoundacrossruralindustries,
Infact,foreign-bornworkershaveplayedanimportantroleinmanyruralindustriesforsome
time–theymadeupmorethan4percentofallindustrysectors’workforcesinruralareas
since2000,withtheexceptionofconstruction.6
Theproportionofforeign-bornworkersrosesignificantlyin2004,particularlyin
manufacturing,hospitalityandtransportandcommunications–allsectorswheremigrants
nowaccountforatleast7percentofthetotalworkforce.Thisislikelytobearesultinlarge
partofimmigrationfromthenewEUmemberstates.
5.ThepoorcoverageofagriculturewithintheLabourForceSurveymeansthatitisarelativelyunder-
studiedsector,whichisonereasonthatweincludedspecificsectoralanalysisofagricultureinthispaper
(seebelow).
6.ForeignworkersinconstructionareheavilyconcentratedinLondon(seeChappelletal 2008).
Migrationandwages
Perhapsthemostfrequentlyvoicedfearinrelationtomigrationandtheeconomy–ruraland
urban–isthatmigrantsaretakingBritons’jobsandpushingdownwages.However,despite
thefrequencywithwhichtheseconcernsareexpressedinthemedia,thebestavailable
evidencesuggeststhat,atanationallevel,migrationdoesneitherofthesethings.
Turningfirsttothequestionofwages,thebestandmostrecentresearchonmigration’s
wageimpactsintheUKsuggeststhatmigrationhasclosetonoimpactonwages,evenafter
therapidincreaseofimmigrationsince2004(Dustmannetal 2005,ReedandLatorre
2009).7
Thisnationalpictureisimportanttodiscussbecauseitisnotwidelyknowntobethecase,
eitherbythepublicorbypolicymakers,andprovidesimportantcontext.However,itdoes
notdefinitivelyanswerthequestionastowhethermigrationhasnegativewageimpactsin
ruralareas,orforparticulargroups.Wagesareaveryimportantissueforruralareas–the
CommissionforRuralCommunities(2008a)identifieslowwagesasapushfactor
encouragingyoungBritishworkerstoleaveruralareas.Butitisnotpossibletoundertake
conclusiveeconometricanalysisexaminingtheimpactofmigrationonruralareasalone
becauseofthelackofdata.
Wecan,however,lookatsomeindicativedata.Figure6belowplotstheaveragerealwages
(thatis,adjustedforinflation)beingearnedbyBritish-bornresidentsinruralareas8.Itshows
ageneraltrendofrisingwagesovertimesince2001.Figure5alsoshowstheproportionof
foreign-bornpeopleofworkingageinthepopulation,whichagain,risesfairlysteadilyover
time.Itdoesnotappearthattherisingproportionofmigrantswithinruralworkforcesis
drivingdownwages.
Itdoes,however,remainpossiblethatmigrationhashadwageimpactsinsomeruralareasor
sectors–moredataandresearchintolocallabourmarketimpactsisneeded.
Figure6.UK- £12 0.08

bornaverage
Foreign born of working age as % of population of working age

grosshourlypay
vs.percentageof £10
foreignbornin 0.06
Average gross hourly pay (2007=100)
theworkforcein
£8
ruralareas,
2001–2007
Source:LabourForce £6 0.04
Surveyandippr
calculations
£4
0.02
£2
£0 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
UK born average hourly pay % foreign born of working age
7.Atleastintheshorttomediumterm.Wedealwiththelongerrunsituationinfollowingsub-sections.
8.Notethatthismaynotbeanentirelyaccuratereflectionofruralwagesbecausesomeruralresidents
willworkinurbanareas.Thisdatais,however,thebestavailable.
Migrationandunemployment
Thebestandmostrecentresearchonmigration’semploymentimpactsintheUKsaysthat
migrationhasnotresultedinincreasedunemployment(Gilpinetal 2006,ReedandLatorre
2009).Thismaysoundcounterintuitive–howcouldnewpeoplearriveintoanareaandnot
takejobsfromtheexistingworkforce?Oneexplanationisthat,intheshortrun,migrantsfill
gapsinthelabourforcethatcannotbefilledfromtheUK-bornpopulation(thisissupported
bythefactthatmigrantstendtoworkinsectorswithhighvacancyrates).Anotheristhat
migrantsalsoincreasedemandintheeconomyandthuscausetheeconomytoexpand,
creatingnewjobs.
Sohowmightruraleconomiesvaryfromthisnationalpicture,ifatall?Thereisevidencethat
vacanciesinruraleconomiescanbeevenhardertofillthaninurbanareas(Commissionfor
RuralCommunities2008b),andthatthisisthecasebothforhighly-skilledandlow-skilled
workers.Thissuggeststhatmigrantworkersmaybemorelikelytotakeuphard-to-fill
vacancies,andthereforeevenlesslikelytocreateunemploymentinruralareasthaninthe
widereconomy.Thisviewwassupportedbyourstakeholderinterviews:
‘Inlotsofruralareasthereisnolocalworkforcetodrawon...InruralWales
they[businesses]couldn’tfunctionwithoutmigrantworkers;similarlyinthe
South-West.‘Stakeholder,hospitality
Figure7supportsthisconclusion–itshowstheproportionofmigrantsofworkingagein
ruralpopulationsovertime,setagainstunemployment.Itshowsthatunemploymentinrural
areashasremainedsteadyovertheperiodconcerned(whichdoesnotcoverthecurrent
recession),whiletheproportionofworkingagepeoplebornoutsidetheUKhasrisen
steadily.Inotherwords,migrationdoesnotappeartohaveledtoariseinunemploymentin
ruralareas.Instead,wheretheyareemployedtheyseemtobefillingvacancies(andmigrants
aremorelikelytobeemployedthantheaverageBritish-bornperson)(Cooleyetal 2005).
Theymayalsobemakingacontributionsuchthattheyareexpandingtheruraleconomyand
thusthetotalnumberofjobswillincrease(discussedfurtherlaterinthissection).
Figure7.UK- 0.08
bornemployment
ratevs. 80% 0.07
UK born employed as % of population of wokring age
Foreign born of working age as % of population of working age
percentageof
foreign-bornin 0.06
theworkforcein
60%
ruralareas, 0.05
2001–2007
Source:LabourForce 0.04
Surveyandippr 40%
calculations 0.03
0.02
20%
0.01
0% 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
UK born employment rate % foreign born of working age

Thisemploymentpictureislikelytochangesignificantlyduringthecurrentrecession,with
unemploymentexpectedtoriseacrosstheUK,includinginruralareas.Thenumberofhard-
to-fillvacanciesinruralareasislikelytodeclineduringtherecession,butsotooisthesupply
ofmigrants(seebelow).Infact,ruraleconomies,whichtendtohavelessflexiblelabour
markets,mayfindthattherecessionhaslessimpactontheirvacancyratesthaninurban
areas,andtheymayseedemandformigrantworkersremaininghigherthanelsewhereinthe
UK.
Migrationandskillshortages
Thesparsenessofpopulationsinruralareascanexacerbatetheshortagesofskillsthatmight
befeltanywayinsomesectors.Ruralemployersareconcernedaboutthegreaterdifficulties
theyfaceinrecruitingthantheirurbancounterparts,particularlyofskilledmanagersand
professionals(CommissionforRuralCommunities2008a).Inthemediumtolongtermthere
needtobemeasurestoensurethereiseducationandtrainingforpeopleinruralareasbut
migrationalsohasaroletoplay,particularlyintheshorttomediumterm.
Therearesignificantdifferencesinthelevelofqualificationsbetweenforeign-bornandUK-
bornworkersinruralareas.9 Figure8showsthatmorethan50percentofUK-bornpeoplein
ruralareasleftfull-timeeducationatage16orbefore,whereasthiswasthecaseforless
than30percentofforeign-bornworkers.
Figure8.Ageat
60%
whichleftfull-
Population by age when left full time education as % of total
timeeducation,
foreign-bornand 50%
UK-bornrural
residents,2007 40%
Source:LabourForce 16 or under
Surveyandippr 30% 17-21
calculations Over 21
Still in education
20%
10%
0%
Rural foreign born Rural UK born
ShortagesofskilledlocalworkerscausedbyhighlyeducatedUK-bornworkersmovingfrom
thecountrysidetomoreurbanareasappeartoafflictallsectorsinruraleconomies(Figure
9).Insomesectorssuchashospitalityandmanufacturingmorethan60percentoftheUK-
bornworkforcelefteducationatage16orunder.Financialservicesandpublic
administration,educationandhealthboastthehighestproportionofhighly-educatedUK-
bornworkersinruralareas.
9.Thevariableusedinthisanalysistoestimateworkers’levelofqualificationsisagewhenleftfull-time
education,sinceforeignqualificationsareunder-representedintheLabourForceSurvey.Althoughthis
estimateprovidesonlyapartialpictureofworkers’skills,itisagoodapproximationtocomparethelevel
ofqualificationsbetweenforeign-bornandUK-bornworkers.
Figure9.Ageof
100%
UK-bornworkers
Foreign born by age group as % of foreign born in industry sector

5% 9% 7%
inruralareas 16% 15%
90%
whenleftfull-
80% 33%
timeeducation, 31%
30%
byindustry 70%
sector,2007 41% 46%
60%
Source:LabourForce
50%
Surveyandippr
calculations 40%
30% 62% 61% 63%
20% 43%
39%
10%
0%
Distribution, hotels and Public admin, education Banking, finance and Manufacturing Other
restaurants and health insurance
16 or under 17-21 Over 21
Incontrast,foreign-bornworkersacrossallsectorsinruralareasaremuchmorelikelytobe
highlyeducated(Figure10).Theshareofworkerswholefteducationaged16orunderis
significantlylowerthanfortheUK-bornpopulation,representinglessthan30percentin
mostsectors.
Figure10.Ageof
100%
foreign-born
Foreign born by age group as % of foreign born in industry sector
workersinrural 90% 19% 19%

26%
areaswhenleft 30%
34%
80%
full-time
education,by 70%
industrysector,
60% 44%
2007 51%
50% 46%
Source:LabourForce
47% 53%
Surveyandippr 40%
calculations
30%
20% 37%
30% 28%
10% 19% 17%
0%
Distribution, hotels and Public admin, education Banking, finance and Manufacturing Other
restaurants and health insurance
16 or under 17-21 Over 21
MigrantscomingtoworkintheUKareoftenunderemployed,performingjobsthatrequire
skillsbelowtheirlevelofqualifications(Dustmannetal 2007).Inparticular,asubstantial
proportionofthosethathavebeenintheUKforonlyashortperiodoftimearelikelytobe
doinglow-skilledwork.Overtime,however,migrantstendtomoveintojobsthatbettersuit
theireducationalbackgroundandskills.Therefore,thisinjectionofhighly-skilledworkers
intoruraleconomieshasstrongerlikelihoodofmeetingsomeskillsshortagesifworkers
remaininthemediumtolongterm.
Migrationandjobcreation
Aswellasbeingworkers,migrantsareconsumers–thosewholiveinruralareascanincrease
demandinruraleconomies,whichcanincreasethemarketforlocalfirms.Whenbusinesses
succeedandexpandtheyfurtherincreasedemandwithintheeconomy.Thismeansthateven
businessesandindustriesthatdonotemploymigrantsthemselvescanbenefitfrom
migration,leadingtojobcreationthroughoutruraleconomiesinthelongerterm.
Anumberofstakeholdersinourresearchstronglyemphasisedthispointaboutjobcreation:
‘Migrantsarecriticalnotjusttothoseindustriesthatemploythem,butalsoto
inter-linkedindustries.‘Stakeholder,ruralbusiness
Thisisnottheonlywayinwhichmigrantsappeartosupportruralbusinessesandjob
creation.Anumberofstudieshavestressedthatmigrantscanbemoreentrepreneurialthan
non-migrants(Nathan2008)–andentrepreneurialismisavitalfactorincreatingthriving
businesses,economiesandjobopportunities.Onemeasureofentrepreneurialismisself-
employment.Figure11showstheproportionsofself-employedforeign-bornandUK-born
Figure11.Self-
45%
employed,
foreign-bornand 40%
UK-born,in
Self-employed as % of workforce in sector
35%
urbanandrural
areas,2007 30%
Source:LabourForce 25%
Surveyandippr
20%
calculations
15%
10%
5%
0%
Rural UK Born Rural Foreign Born Urban UK Born Urban Foreign Born
Construction Other
Banking, finance and insurance Distribution, hotels and restaurants
Manufacturing Public admin, education and health
Onaverage,peoplelivinginruralareasaremorelikelytobeself-employedthanthosein
urbanareas.ComparingthosebornabroadwiththosebornintheUKsuggeststhatthe
foreign-bornaremorelikelytobeself-employedinsomesectorsinruralareas–suchas
distribution,hotelsandrestaurantsandbanking,financeandinsurance,whereastheUK-
bornaremorelikelytobeself-employedinotherssuchasmanufacturing.Migrantsinrural
areasaremorelikelytobeself-employedthantheaveragepersonintheUK,thoughnot
moresothantheaveragepersoninruralareas.
Table5showsthepercentagesofmigrantswhoareself-employed,breakingdownthedata
bytheirlengthofstay.Thedatashowsthatmigrantsaremuchmorelikelytobeself-
employediftheyarrivedintheUKrecently.
Table5.Self-employedforeign-born,bylengthofstayintheUK,2007
Lengthofstay %migrantsintheUKforthatperiodwhoareself-employed
Lessthan5years 19%
5–10years 12%
Morethan10years 3%
Thereareanumberofexplanationsforthis.Someoftheself-employmentmaybeafunction
ofvisarestrictions–RomaniansandBulgarians,forexample,arenotusuallypermittedaccess
totheUKlabourmarketas‘workers’,thoughtheyareabletoworkasself-employedpeople.
Theseself-employedpeoplemaynotbeanymore‘entrepreneurial’thantheaverageworker.
Insomesectorssuchasconstructionandthemediaself-employmenthasbecomea‘normal’
wayofworkingandagain,inthesecasesself-employmentisprobablynotsignificantly
linkedtoentrepreneurialism(Chappelletal 2008).
However,someofthereasonsforwhichnewmigrantsaremorelikelytobeself-employed
thanotherworkersmaysuggesthigherlevelsofentrepreneurialism.Forexample,some
migrantscomefromcultureswhereself-employmentandbusinesscreationarecommon,
bringingtheseculturalattitudesandwaysofworkingwiththem,whichmaycreatenewjobs
intheUK.Somemigrantsmaybeforcedintoself-employmentiftheyareexcludedfrom
employment,butmaynonethelesssubsequentlydrivejobcreationinthelocalarea.
Migrationandproductivity
WehavealreadyseenthatmigrantstoruralareasareoftenmoreskilledthanUK-born
workersinruralareas.Wewouldexpectthistoincreasetheproductivityofruraleconomies.
Similarly,migrantentrepreneursmayincreaseproductivity.Butmigrationmayalsohave
widerproductivityeffectsviachangesintechnologyorbusinesspractices.
Theavailabilityof(cheap)migrantlabourmightstopfirmsfrominnovatingtechnologically
andinvestingincapitalinordertodelivertheirproducts.Economictheorysuggeststhatto
produceagivengood,firmshaveachoiceusinglabourorcapital(crudely,peopleor
machines)asinputs.Ifthereareshortagesoflabour,businesseswillneedtoconsiderother
methodsofproduction,meaningthattheyeitherinvestincapital,iftherighttechnologies
alreadyexist,orinresearchandinvestmenttodeveloptherequiredtechnology.Ithasbeen
suggestedthatbyprovidingsuppliesoflabour,migrationmightpreventtechnological
innovation.Thiscouldleadtoa‘lowskillequilibrium’wherelow-skilled,low-paidjobspersist
intheeconomyforlongerthantheymightotherwisehavedone.Thereissomeevidence
thatthismayoccurintheUK,includinginruralareas(Nathan2008).
However,otherresearchsuggeststhateconomictheoryprobablyoverstatestheextentto
whichtechnologycanreplacepeople(Rowthorne1999).Moreover,intheshorttermat
least,manybusinessesdonotfaceastraighttrade-offbetweenlabourandtechnology.In
caseswherethescopetoincreaseproductivitythroughmorecapital-intensivemethodsis
limited,orwherenewtechnologiesneedtobedeveloped,orwhereUKbusinessesface
competitionfromoverseas,thenthechoicemaynotbebetweenlabourandnewtechnology:
itmaybebetweenlabourandbankruptcy–eitherforsomefirmsortheentiresectororsub-
sectoroftheeconomy.Thismaybethecaseforsomeruralsectors,particularlyagriculture,
anindustrywhereinplacesthepotentialformechanisationhasbeenexhausted,andstrong
competitionfromothercountriesputsdownwardpressureonprices.
Secondly,migrantsareoftenthoughttobeparticularlyproductiveworkers.Thisisforsimilar
reasonsasfortheirentrepreneurialism–eitherbecausetheyarecomingfromaculture
wherethereisastrongfocusonhardworkandproductivity;orbecausetheactofmigrating,
beingwillingtocrossbordersandenternewculturesinsearchofopportunity,shows
inherentdriveandambitioninitself.Thereissomestrongevidenceforthehighproductivity
ofmigrantworkersintheUK(Denchetal 2006,Eaglesham2007,Chappelletal 2008).The
productivityofmigrantworkersalsocamethroughclearlyinourdiscussionswithemployers
andbusinessgroups:
‘Theclassicmarkerofamigrantworkeristhattheywanttoimprove
themselvesinsomeway.‘Stakeholder,hospitality
‘Migrantsareefficient,hardworkersandresponsible.‘Stakeholder,agriculture
‘Themigrantworkeronmystaffisnowthebestpaidmemberofthe
workforce,becausehe’sinvaluable.It’sadifferentworkethic.‘Stakeholder,
agriculture
Sectoralimpactsofmigrationinruralareas
Havinganalysedtherelationshipbetweenmigrationandunemployment,wages,jobcreation
andproductivity,wenowturntoexaminethreekeyruraleconomicsectorsascasestudies–
agriculture,foodprocessingandhospitality.Thisenablesustobuildamoredetailedpicture
ofhowmigrationinteractswithasector,bringingtolifetherolethatmigrantsplay.
Thesesectorshavebeenchosenfortwomainreasons.First,eachhasseentheproportionof
migrantsintheirworkforcerisesignificantly,andthusmigrationplaysanimportantrolein
theeconomicprospectsofthesesectors.BetweenMay2004andSeptember2006more
than75percentofnewEUmigrantsarrivinginruralareasregisteredtoworkinthese
sectors–33percentinmanufacturing(whichincludesfoodprocessing),25percentin
agricultureandfishing,and20percentindistribution,hotelsandretail.Thisisparticularly
strikingasbetweenthemthesectorsonlyaccountfor36percentofruraloutput
(CommissionforRuralCommunities2007a).10
Second,eachofthesesectorsisimportanttoruraleconomies,althoughtheyaccountfor
onlyaroundathirdofruraloutput.Hospitalityisamajoremployerinruralareaswhichhas
grownstronglyandsteadilyinrecentyears,andhasbeenidentifiedasasectorwithstrong
futuregrowthpotential(People1st2006c).Agricultureandmanufacturing,conversely,are
industriesthathavehistoricallymadelargecontributionstotheUKeconomy,particularlyin
ruralareas,butwhichhavebeenstrugglingtomaintaintheirpositioninrecentyears.This
declineisofconcerntothewiderruralandnationaleconomy.Theadvantagesofretaining
strongbusinessesandindustriesintheUKnearthebaseofthe‘productionchain’have
increasinglybeenemphasisedoverthepastyearassomeserviceindustries,suchasfinance,
havestruggled.Someoftherecentgainsmadebythesesectorshavearguablybeen
facilitatedbytheavailabilityofmigrantlabour.
10.Thedatareferstothesectorsthatmigrantssaytheywillbeworkinginwhentheyregister.After
sometimeintheUKtheymaymovetoothersectors;evidencesuggestsmanymigrantsdothis.
Thereforethesestatisticsonlyaccuratelyrepresentthesectoralallocationofmigrantswhentheyinitially
entertheUK.
ThesesectorsalsocontributetoUKfoodsecurity,anissuethatisrisingupthepolicyagenda
(forexamplewiththerecentestablishmentoftheCouncilofFoodPolicyAdvisers,whichwill
lookatUKfoodsecurity)(DepartmentforEnvironmentFoodandRuralAffairs2008).In
addition,agriculturehasaspecialroleinitsstewardshipoftheland.Further,foodprocessing
hasbeenidentifiedasapotentialgrowthsectorforruralareas,buckingthegeneral
manufacturingtrend.Forexample,ithasbeenidentifiedasaprioritygrowthsectorbythe
NorthWestDevelopmentAgency(2007).Nonetheless,itisimportantnottooverstatethe
importanceofagriculture–in2004itonlyemployedapproximately6percentoftherural
workforce(DepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs2004).
Casestudy1:Agriculture
Alldatainthissection,unlessspecified,comefromDEFRA’sAnnualAgriculturalStatisticsfor
EnglandandWales,2008,whicharedrawnfromtheannualJuneAgriculturalCensus.
Sectoroverview
Employmentinagriculturehasbeenfallingforsometime.Agriculture(includinghorticulture)
employed480,000peopleintheUKin2007,a31percentdecreaseon1984.Thefallin
agriculturalemploymentoverthepast70yearshasbeenfairlyconstantyear-on-year.From
theSecondWorldWaruntil1970,mostsectorsofagricultureenjoyedaboom,but
employmentstilldeclinedasproductivityincreasedsignificantly.Since1970,however,
agriculturehasexperiencedfallingcommodityprices,verytightprofitmargins,andasa
consequencefallingfarmincomes.Theincreasedpowerofthesupermarketsand
agribusinessastheprimepurchasersofagriculturalproducehasproducedmostofthis
squeezeonprofits(forexample,Tesconowcontrols27percentofthefoodretailmarketin
theUK[Lawrence2008]),aswellassupermarkets’willingnesstosourceproductsfrom
overseas.
Inordertomaintaintheirviability,farmershaverespondedinthreemainways,through:
•Intensification–usingtechnicalandnon-technicalinnovationtoincreaseyields,speed
upagriculturalproduction,orreducerisk.MostfocusedinEastAnglia,theEast
MidlandsandtheFens.
•Diversificationandvalorisationwithinagriculturalproduction–growingnewcrops
suchastriticale(acrossbetweenwheatandrye),byconvertingtoorganicproduction
orspecialistanimalbreeds.Thesenewinitiativesareoftenlabourintensive,creating
potentialdemandsformigrantlabour.
•Farmincomediversificationoutsideagriculturalproduction,includingmovementinto
farmholidaysandtherentaloffarmbuildingsasoffices.
Thehistoricaluseofmigrantlabourinagriculture
Thereisalonghistoryofusingforeignmigrantsasagriculturalworkers,datingbackmany
centuries(Winder2004).ProtestantrefugeesfromFranceandtheSpanishNetherlands
drainedandfirstcultivatedtheFens.DuringtheFirstWorldWar,Belgianrefugeessettledin
PeterboroughanditsenvironsinCambridgeshire,manyofthemfindingagriculturalwork.
AftertheSecondWorldWar,Polishex-servicemenwhosettledintheUKwerebilletedto
workasagriculturallabourersatatimeofacutelabourshortage.
Agriculturehasreliedonseasonallabourformanycenturies.Differentcropsrequiredifferent
amountsoflabourinputatdifferenttimesoftheyear,asdodifferenttypesofanimal
production.Horticulturalproduction,includingpacking,isaparticularlylabourintensive
sector,characterisedbypeaksandtroughsinlabourdemand.Strawberryproductionunder
glass,forexample,requiresthreetimesasmuchlabourinAugustandSeptemberasitdoes
inFebruary.
Scottetal (2008)distinguishbetweentheprimaryagriculturallabourmarket,comprising
permanentemployees,andthesecondaryagriculturallabourmarketwhichcomprises
seasonalworkers.Thisseasonallabourhas,andcontinuestobe,providedbyfamilymembers
andothersinruralcommunities(thelongschoolholidayswerescheduledtocoincidewith
theharvest).Gypsiesandothertravellershavealsobeenasourceofseasonallabourand
thereisalonghistoryofusingtheurbanworkingclassasseasonallabourinsomepartsof
theUK.Forexample,hoppickinginKentwasundertakenbyLondonersuntilwellafterthe
SecondWorldWar.Untilthelate1990s,unemployedUK-bornworkersalsosometimes
workedonfarmsduringtimesofpeaklabourdemand.Forexample,workersmovedfrom
NottinghamandHulltoworkonholdingsintheFens,stayingincaravansforpartofthe
weekthentravellinghome.However,todaythisseasonallabourneedisincreasinglymetby
theemploymentofmigrantworkers.
Migrantsinagriculturetoday
Since1997,thesizeoftheUK-bornagriculturallabourforcehasdecreasedatthesametime
asincreasedagrarianintensificationandincomediversification,whichhasinsomecases
increasedthedemandforlabour.Peoplewillingtoundertakeunskilledlabourinruralareas
aresimplynotavailableinthequantitythatisrequiredbyagriculture.Moreover,agricultural
wagesarelowincomparisonwithotherunskilledwork,despitetheworkbeinghardand
therebeingfewercareerprospectsthaninotherjobs.
Inparticular,therehasbeenanincreaseddemandforsecondary,seasonalagriculturallabour
(Scottetal 2008).Asaresult,employershavelookedtointernationalmigrantstofillthe
gaps,andmigrantworkersnowplayasignificantroleintheprimaryagriculturallabour
marketandtheseasonallabourmarket.
LabourForceSurveyestimates(whichcaptureonlythoseemployedintheprimary
agriculturallabourmarket,andexcludethoselivinginaccommodationtiedtoemployment)
suggestthattherewere25,200foreign-bornworkersemployedintheagriculturaland
fisherysectorinthefirstquarterof2007,comparedwith11,500inQ21998.Itisvery
difficulttoestimatethenumbersofseasonalmigrantworkersinthesector,butweknow
howmanyhavecometotheUKthroughtheSeasonalAgriculturalWorkersScheme:7,310
workersenteredtheUKin2007throughSAWS,downfrom20,700whentheschemewasat
itspeakin2003.Manymoreworkersareemployedseasonallyinthesector,buttheyarenot
capturedinthesedatasets.
LearningmoreaboutthemigrantsinvolvedisnoteasyasthesmallsamplesizeoftheLabour
ForceSurveypreventsadetailedanalysis.However,other,qualitativeresearchprovidessome
insights.Migrantsareoccasionallyemployedinthedairysectorbutaremorelikelytowork
withpigsandpoultry(teamsworktogethertoemptyandcleansheds)andthe‘othercrops’
sector(softfruits,vegetables,flowersandbulbs)–wheretheircontributionisessential
duringtheharvestingseason.
ResearchsuggeststhatmostmigrantagriculturalworkersintheUKcomefromwithinthe
EU,mostlyfromthenewmemberstates,particularlyPolandandRomania,withmany
RomaniansadmittedthroughSAWS.Thisispartlyareflectionofimmigrationrules.SAWS,
forexample,hasbeenreservedsolelyforBulgarianandRomaniannationalssinceJanuary
2008(whereasin2007therewasaquotaof40percentofplacesfornon-EUnationals).
One2007studyfoundthat58percentofhorticulturalworkerswerenationalsoftheA8
accessioncountries,19percentwereRomaniansandBulgariansadmittedthroughSAWS,19
percentwerenationalsofothercountriesadmittedthroughSAWSand2percentwere
nationalsofothercountriesarrivingbyotherroutes(NationalFarmersUnion2008).Inother
sub-sectorsandpartsoftheUK,however,therearesignificantgroupsofmigrantsfrom
countriesoutsidetheEU.
BringingthisinformationtogetherwithresearchonwhymigrantscometoworkinBritish
agriculture,wecangroupmigrantagriculturalworkersintoanumberofcategories:
•A8andA2migrantsforwhomagriculturalworkisafirstjobonarrivalintheUK
beforemovingtobetterpaidwork:ipprpollingdataandotherresearchsuggeststhat
abouthalfofA8workersleaveagriculturalworkwithinthreemonthsofarrivalinthe
UK.Thosewholeavearealmostalwaysbettereducatedthantheaverageandcite
poorpayandlowstatusoftheworkasthemainreasonsformovingon.
•A8migrantswhoremainforaperiodoftimeintheUK,savemoney,thenreturnto
theircountryoforigin:Seasonalagriculturalworkisoftenanattractiveoptionfor
thosewhomigratetotheUKforjustashortperiodoftime(perhapsonmorethan
oneoccasion).
•A8workerswhoremaininagriculture:Thisgroupisrelativelysmall.Theygenerally
appeartobelesswell-educated,speaklessfluentEnglish,bedependenton
compatriotsfortranslationandhavefewercareeroptionsintheUKortheircountries
oforiginthanworkersintheothercategorieshere.Insomecasestheyareprogressing
tomoreresponsibleworkwithinthesector.
•SAWSmigrants:Before2008,whenSAWSwasopentoawiderrangeofnational
groups,SAWSattractedstudentsfromcountriessuchasUkraine.Today,SAWSworkers
appeartobeolderandlesseducated.HighproportionsareRoma,astheseasonal
natureoftheworkisoftencompatiblewiththelifestylesofsomeRomawhowantto
spendtimewithfamilyinRomania.
•Pre-2004EUmigrants:vastmajorityfromPortugal:Pooremploymentprospectsin
Portugalamongthisgroup,manyofwhomhavefewqualifications,havebrought
themtotheUK(deAbreuandLambert2003).
• EUandoverseasstudentswiththerighttoworkintheUK:Asmallgroup,though
numbersmaybegrowing.
•Irregularmigrants:Althoughitisdifficulttoestimatenumbersofirregularmigrants,in
2000theycomprisedasignificantpartofthehorticulturallabourforceinpartsofthe
UK.TheircountriesoforiginincludedChina,Brazil,Iraq,Afghanistan,India,Pakistan
andBangladesh(RogalyandTaylor2004).Employers’sanctionsandtheworkofthe
GangmastersLicensingAuthorityappeartohavedecreasedthenumbersofirregular
migrantsemployedonfarms,buttheyarestillpresent.
•Long-settledforeign-bornpopulationsfromSouthAsiawholiveinurbanareas:This
grouptendstobebussedoutofcitiesbygangmasterstoworkinhorticultureand
fieldvegetableproductionandpacking.Forexample,therearesignificantpopulations
ofBritishPakistanisworkinginthehorticulturesectorinHerefordshireand
Worcestershire(LanzandGullen2006).Thisgroupoftenpossessesfewqualifications.
Limitedjobprospectsinurbanareas,plusagrowingnumberofSouthAsian
gangmasters,haveledtoanincreaseinseasonalworkersfromthisgroup.
Futuretrends
Agriculturewillplayanimportantroleinthefutureofruraleconomies,evenifitremainsa
relativelysmallemployer.Increasedemphasisonfoodsecurityandlandstewardshipwill
reinforcethiseconomicrole.Itseemslikelythatagriculturewillcontinuetoexperiencelabour
shortages,particularlyforlow-skilledandseasonalwork.Althoughtechnologicalinnovation,
capitalinvestmentandchangedworkingpracticesmayreducethedemandforlabourto
someextentinthefuture,manylow-skilledandseasonaljobswillremain.Somewillbefilled
byUK-bornworkers,particularlyduringthecurrentrecession,buttheirlocationandnature
arelikelytorenderthemhardtofillinthemediumtolongterm.Migrantworkerswill
thereforehaveanimportantandongoingroleinthesector.
Casestudy2:Foodprocessing
Sectoroverview
Foodprocessingisadiversesector,includingsmall-scaleartisanbusinesses,medium-sized
enterprisesaswellaslargetransnationalcompaniesthatmakemanyproducts.TheFoodand
DrinkFederation(2007)suggeststhat411,000peoplewereemployedinthefood
processingsectorin2007.Thisisalmostcertainlyanunderestimate,undercountingthose
employedinartisanbusinessesandfoodprocessingoperationswithintheretailsector.Itis
likelythatabout15percentofthetotalUKworkforceisdirectlyemployedinfood
processing.Additionally,manythousandsofjobsinagricultureandretailingdependonthe
foodprocessingsector,whichpurchases75percentoftheUK’sagriculturaloutput.
Thetotalturnoverinthefoodprocessingsectorwasestimatedtobe£74millionin2007.
ThesectoristhelargestcomponentoftheUK’smanufacturingindustryandcontributes
14.2percentofthemanufacturingsector’sGrossValueAdded(FoodandDrinkFederation
2007).InsomepartsoftheUK–NorthernIreland,EasternScotland,theEastMidlandsand
theFens,includingmanyruralareas–thefoodprocessingsectorisparticularlyimportantto
localeconomies.
Althoughmostfoodprocessingbusinessesaremediumsized,employing100to250people,
therehasalsobeenagrowthinthenumberofverylargeenterprises(FoodandDrink
Federation2007).Andtherehasbeenaconsolidationofbusinessesaslargetransnational
corporationshaveboughtupfactoriesandbrands.
Migrantsinruralfoodprocessing
Althoughthetotalturnoverofthefoodprocessingsectorhasgrownoverthelast10years,
thesizeofitsworkforcehasdecreased,asaconsequenceofgreaterautomation.Atthe
sametime,analysisoftheLabourForceSurveyshowsthattherehasbeenasteadygrowthin
thenumbersofmigrantworkersemployedinthefoodprocessingsector,particularlysince
2004andthearrivalofmigrantsfromtheEU’snewmemberstates.Thefoodprocessing
sectorischaracterisedbytightprofitmarginsforproducersandlowwagesforemployees.In
economicboomtimes,thefoodprocessingsectorhasnotbeenseenasanattractivecareer
optionbyUK-bornworkers,althoughthismaychangeduringrecession.
Despiteagriculturalintensification,thefoodprocessingsectorhasseasonalpeaksindemand
forlabour.Thesepeaksarecausedbyagriculturalproductionpatternsaswellasseasonal
consumptionpatterns.Newinnovationssuchas‘just-in-timeproduction’wherefoodisnot
producedtostock,rathertomeettheexactamountdemandedbyacustomer,requireavery
flexibleworkforce.Ifdemandishighinoneareaofthebusiness,additionaltemporary
workersmayberequired.Temporarywork,sometimeson‘zero-hourscontracts’(underwhich
theemployerdoesnotguaranteetoprovideworkandpaysonlyforworkactuallydone),has
provedunattractivetomanyBritishworkers,somuchofthislabourhasbeenprovidedby
migrants.Manyofthetemporaryworkersforjust-in-timeprocessesgettheworkthrough
labourproviders,oftengangmasters,someofwhomarethemselvesmigrants(Geddes2008).
Migrantsarenotemployedinequalnumbersacrossthesector.Theyaremostlikelytobe
employedinfoodpacking,forexampletheinitialprocessingandpackingofsalad
vegetables,aswellastheproductionlineprocessingoffoods(seeTable6belowandGeddes
2008).Theserolesaremorelikelythanotherstobelocatedinruralareas.
Table6:Migrantworkersinfoodprocessing,2006–2007(meanquarterlypercentage)
UK-born EU15plus EUaccession Bulgariaand Non-EEA
Norway,Iceland, states Romania
Switzerland, of2004
Liechtenstein
Butchers,meatcutters 91.4 1.8 2.2 0.6 4.0
Bakers,flour, 84.2 4.0 2.2 0.3 9.3
confectioners
Fishmongers,poultrydressers 82.8 0 5.1 3.0 9.1
Food,drinkandtobaccoprocess 72.4 2.3 10.0 2.1 13.2
operatives
Packers,bottlers, 60.3 3.0 16.6 4.0 16.1
cannersandfillers
Source:LabourForceSurveyascitedinGeddes(2008)
Scottetal (2008)distinguishbetweentheprimaryagriculturallabourmarketofpermanent
employees,andthesecondarylabourmarketofseasonalandtemporaryworkers.Thissame
divisionoccursinfoodprocessing.Qualitativeresearchsuggeststhatmigrantworkersare
morelikelytobeemployedinthesecondarylabourforce,withmanyoftheseseasonaland
temporaryworkersprovidedbygangmasters(Geddes2008,Rutterforthcoming).Again,this
secondarylabourforceismorelikelytobearuralone.
Futuretrends
Intheshortterm,theproportionofmigrantworkersemployedinthefoodprocessingsector
maydecrease.(Thereisalreadyevidenceofthishappeningindatagatheredfromthe
WorkersRegistrationSchemeformigrantsfromthenewmemberstatesoftheEU.)During
therecession,unemployedUK-bornworkerswillfillvacanciesinlargernumbers–
employmentinthefoodprocessingsectorisperceivedasmoreattractivethaninagriculture.
Demandforprocessedfoodislikelytoholdupbetterthanforotherproductsduring
recession,asitisoftencheaperthanfreshfood,andwhilesomefirmsmaybeaffectedby
therecession,itisunlikelythattherewillbelarge-scalejoblosses.Additionally,thecredit
crunchmayhaltgreaterautomationinfoodprocessing,asthatiscapitalintensive.
Casestudy3:Hospitality
Sectoroverview
TheUK’shospitalityindustrybroadlyfallsintothreemaincategoriesofbusiness:restaurants,
bars/clubsandpubs,andhotels/motels(People1st2006c).TheUK’shospitalitysectorisa
significantemployer,currentlyemployingapproximately2millionpeople,around7percent
ofthetotallabourforcein2005(LowPayCommission2006).Itisalsogrowingfast.In2007
‘distribution,hotelsandrestaurants‘(ofwhichhospitalityisapart)grewby5.1percent,
secondfastestafter‘publicadministration,educationandhealth’.Lookingahead,the
sector’sexpansionseemslikelytosloworreverseduringtherecession,butinthemediumto
longtermweexpectthesectortobeofgrowingimportancetoruraleconomies.
Keycharacteristicsofthesector‘sworkforceinclude:
•Youth:Athirdoftheworkersinthesectorareundertheageof25,withagreater
proportionofstudentsthanothersectors.
•Afemaleworkforce:Around60percentofthesector’sworkforceisfemale.
•Parttime:Agreaterproportionofparttimeworkersthanothersectors.
•Dominatedbysmalltomediumsizedfirms:threequartersofbusinessesemployfewer
than10workers.
•Lowpay:17.2percentofthesector’sworkforceareworkinginminimum-wagepaying
jobs,whichisthethirdhighestproportionafterhairdressing(22.2percent)and
security(19.3percent)(LowPayCommission2008).Thereisalsoconcernthatsome
hospitalityworkersarenotbeingpaidtheminimumwage–enoughtotriggera
programmeofminimumwageenforcement.
•Alow-skilledworkforce:Onefifthoftheworkforcehasnoqualifications.However,
migrantworkersinthesectortendtohavehigherqualifications(People1st2006c).
•Informalapproachestorecruitment,training,rulesandprocedures:Inparticular,the
sectorisnotedforobtaininglabourthroughrecruitmentagencies,aswellasalow
densityoftradeunionmembership(Lucas2004).
Thehospitalitysectoroftenhashighlevelsofjobvacancies,andfacesspecificskills
shortages,particularlywithincertainpositionssuchaschefsandrestaurant/barmanagers.In
thepastyear,forexample,theBritishhospitalitysectorandPeople1st(theindustry’sskills
council)jointlywarnedtheGovernmentthattheUKfacesamassiveshortageofhighly-
skilledchefsandthaturgentactionisrequirediftheproblemistobemitigated.
Vacanciesandskillshortagesaretheresultofacombinationoffactors:
•Theexpansionofthesectorhasmeantthattherateofjobcreationhasexceededthe
availablelaboursupply(People1st2006a,2006c,MatthewsandRuhs2007).
•FailuresintheUK‘svocationaleducationandtrainingsystemshavehitthesectorhard
(IncomeDataServices2003).
•Britishworkersperceivethesectorasofferingdifficultandlow-paidwork,soitishard
toattractthemtothesector(MatthewsandRuhs2007).
•Thereseemstobeastructuralrelationshipbetweenjobvacanciesandhighlevelsof
turnoverintheindustry,whichhasbeenestimatedat30percent–equivalentto
losing590,640peopleayear(People1st2006b).Whileemployersarekeentofilljob
vacancies,theoftenfluctuatingandseasonalnatureofthesector’semployment
meansthatemployersalsowantflexibilitytohireandlayoffworkersaccordingto
demand,makingjobslesspermanentandstableincomparisontoworkinother
sectors.
•Alackoftrainingandclearpathsforcareerprogressionwithinthesectoralsomakes
attractingstaffdifficult.
Migrantsinruralhospitality
ThehospitalitysectorhaslongbeenamajoremployerofmigrantsintheUK,forexample
employingSouthernEuropeansthroughmuchofthe19thand20thcenturies(Baum2006
citedinDevineetal 2007).However,itwasnotuntilrecentlythatthesectorbecameas
diverseintermsofitsemployees’nationalitiesasitistoday.Between2003and2008the
proportionofforeign-bornworkersinthesectorincreasedfrom10.2percentto13.2per
cent(andtherealfiguremaybealittlehigher,asundocumentedmigrantsworkinginthe
sectormightnotbefullycountedinthesefigures).Thistrendappearstobeprincipallydue
tothearrivalofworkersfromthenewmemberstatesoftheEUsince2004,sincewhich
morethan150,000peoplefromEasternEuropehaveregisteredtoworkintheUK’s
hospitalitysector(HomeOffice2008a).
Thecompositionofthesector’sworkforceishighlydiverse.In2008,Poleswerethelargest
individualforeigngroupworkinginthesector(1.4percentofthetotallabourforce),
followedbyIndiannationals(1.1percent).WhilemigrantworkersfromCentralandEastern
Europearethefastestgrowinggroupofthesector,theirnumbersremainsmallrelativeto
thetotallabourforce,atapproximately2percentintotal.MigrantsfromAsianandMiddle
Easterncountriesaretogetherthelargestforeigngroupwithinthesector(approximately5
percent).
Migrantsarenotworkinginalloccupationsacrossthesectorbuttendtobeconcentratedin
particularcategories:infoodandbeverageoccupations,workingaschefs/cooks,waiters,bar
staffandroomserviceaswellasin‘frontofhouse‘operationssuchasreceptionand
conciergepersonnel(WrightandPollert2006).
Thegeographicalspreadofmigrantsworkinginthesectorhastraditionallymovedhandin
handwithmoregeneralsettlementpatternsofnewlyarrivedmigrants.Duringthe1990s,
newmigrantsinthehospitalitysectorwereclusteredinareaswherelonger-established
migrantnetworkshavesettled.Forexample,inthe2001Census,ethnicminoritiesworking
inthesectorwereconcentratedinLondonandtheWestMidlands(WrightandPollert2005).
However,inthelastdecade,therehasbeenagreaterdispersaltowardsmoreruralareas
(People1st2006b,Devineetal 2007).Forexample,intheEast,therecruitmentof
internationalworkerswithinthehospitalitysectoriswidespreadespeciallyforlow-skilledand
frontofhouseoccupations.12percentoftheregion’sworkersinthehospitality,leisure,
travelandtourismsectorsareforeign-born–almostequivalenttonationalratesofmigrant
employmentinthesector(People1st2006b).
TheSouthWest,particularlySomersetandCornwall,isanotherregionthathasan
increasinglylargemigrantpopulationworkinginitshospitalitysector.JobcentrePlusrecords
inCornwallshowthat33percentofjobsinthehospitalitysectorwenttomigrantsbetween
AprilandJuly2004(SouthWestEnterpriseandSkillsAlliance2005).
Futuretrends
Theadventofthepoints-basedsystemhasreducedtheeligibilityofmigrantstofind
legitimateworkinthehospitalitysector.Thishasledtolabourshortagesinsomerestaurants,
particularlythosecookingIndianandotherglobalfood.PriortotheaccessionofthenewEU
memberstatesin2004,theGovernmentcreatedtheSector-BasedScheme(SBS)inresponse
toemployerconcernsaboutworkershortages.TheSBSfacilitatedtheemploymentofa
limitednumberofnonEU-workersinselectedlow-skilledjobs,withthehospitalitysector
beingoneofonlythreesectorswheresuchjobscouldbefilled.In2003,thequotaofnon-
EUnationalsstoodat20,000.WiththeA8accession,thisquotawasreducedto15,000in
2004,andphasingoutbegunin2005,withtheexpectationthatnewEUnationalswouldbe
abletofillanyjobvacancies.
AlthoughtheGovernmentcorrectlyassumedthatmanynewEUnationalswouldbeavailable
toworkinthesector,industryandemployers’representativeshavereportedthatjob
vacanciesandskillsshortagesstillremainhigh.ItisalsonotcleartowhatextenttheBritish
hospitalitysectorislikelytobeabletorelyonnewEUnationalsasasourceforlabourinthe
future–recentevidencesuggeststhatmigrationfromthesecountriesisdeclining,andmany
ofthosewhohavecomealreadywillreturnhome(Pollardetal 2008).
5.Futuretrendsandimplicationsforruraleconomies
Havinglookedinsomedetailattherolethatmigrantscurrentlyplayinruralareasandtheir
impactsonruralindustriesthissectionconsiderspossiblefuturetrendsandtheirimplications
forruraleconomies.
HowwilldemandformigrantlabourinruralBritainchange?
Thekeyvariablesindeterminingthefuturedemandformigrantlabourinruralareasare:
•Growthratesinruraleconomies
•Theextenttowhichlabourissubstitutablebytechnology
•AvailabilityofUKlabourtofillvacanciesandaddressskillsshortages.
Theshortterm
Itisimportantfortheshortterm(nextonetotwoyears)toexaminetheimpactofthe
recessiononmigrantlabourdemandinruralareas.Theexpectationwouldbethatoutputin
ruralBritainwouldfall,translatingintoreduceddemandforlabourandquiteprobably
reduceddemandformigrantworkers.Theparticularchallengesfacedbyruraleconomies(for
example,relativelyinflexiblelabourforces)mayalsohaveparticularlydamagingimpacts
duringarecession.
Recentstatisticsshowamorecomplexpicture,however.Whileunemploymentisrisingacross
theUK,thishassofarbeenmoremarkedinurbanareaswhereitrosesubstantiallyin2008
butheldsteadyinruralEngland(CommissionforRuralCommunities2008b).Overthesame
period,however,economicinactivityinruralareasincreased11 –fastertherethaninurban
ones.Thissuggeststhatlabourdemandfallinginruralcommunities,butthatisreflectedin
peopledroppingoutofthelabourmarket,ratherthanconsideringthemselvesunemployed.
Althoughongoingprocessesofwelfarereformmayincreaselabourforceparticipationinthe
future,therisingrateofeconomicinactivityinruralareasmaymakefuturevacanciesharder
tofillfromtheUK-bornpopulation,sincetheeconomicallyinactivetendtobeharderto
reintegrateintotheworkforcethantheunemployed;inturnthiscouldincreasedemandfor
migrantlabour.
Ithasbeensuggestedthatmigrantlabouristhefirsttobecutinarecession(whichwould
suggestthatthedemandformigrantlabourwouldfallfasterthanthedemandforlabourin
general),butitisnotclearthatthisisthecase.Ontheonehand,temporarylabourismore
likelytobecutinadownturnthanpermanentlabour–andmigrantsaremorelikelytobeon
temporarycontractsthanareUK-bornworkers.Forexample,53percentofmigrantsfrom
newEuropeanUnioncountriesregisteringwiththeWorkerRegistrationSchemeintheyear
toMarch2009areintemporarywork,afigurewhichrisesto78percentforthoseworking
inagriculture(UKBorderAgency2008).Onthesegroundswewouldexpectmigrantworkers
tobedisproportionatelyaffectedbyrecession.
11.Economicinactivityisameasureofpeopleofworkingagewhoareoutofworkandnotactively
seekingit,whereasthe‘unemployed’areactivelylookingforwork.Someeconomicallyinactivepeople
maychoosethis,forexampleinordertocareforchildren,butsomemaynothavebeenabletofindwork
andhavestoppedtrying.Thismaymeantheyareless‘work-ready’thantheunemployed,makinggetting
themintoworkparticularlydifficult.
Alsorelevantisthefactthat‘lastin,firstout’isafairlycommonapproachtakenby
employerstodecidewhichemploymenttoterminate,atleastinthecaseofformal
redundancies(Smithetal 1999).Giventhatmanyruralmigrantshavearrivedinthecountry
(andthereforetheirworkplace)fairlyrecently,itcouldbeexpectedthattheywouldloseout
forthisreasontoo.Lastly,racismandxenophobiamayriseinarecessionaspeoplefear
losingtheirjobs,andmayblamemigrants,whichmightaffecttheiremploymentsituation.
Ontheotherhand,ifimmigrantworkersbringparticularbenefitstoemployersthatarenot
availableinthelocalpopulation(suchasfillingskillsgapsorprovidingflexibility)the
demandformigrantlabourinruralareasmightremainsteadyeveninadownturn.Infact,
onestudyoftheUSfoundthatmigrantworkerswerelesslikelytolosetheirjobsthan
American-bornworkersintherecessionof2001(Lowelletal 2006),suggestingthatinthat
caseatleast,factorssuchastemporarycontractswereoutweighedbythepositivereasons
foremployingmigrantsinthefirstplace.
ItmayalsobethecasethatthescopetosubstitutemigrantworkerswithunemployedUK-
bornworkersduringarecessionismorelimitedinruralareasthanelsewhere–forexampleif
transportproblemspreventmanyunemployedpeoplelivinginurbanareasfromaccessing
ruraljobs.
However,whileexistingmigrantworkersmightnotlosetheirjobs,demandfornewworkers
ofanytypeislikelytoslacken,andthereforeitseemslikelythatdemandformigrantswill
slowsubstantially.Whatthismeansfortheevolutionofmigrantflowsandtheruraleconomy
willofcoursedependonhowsupplyevolves.Weaddressthisbelow.
Themediumterm
Whentherecessionends(whetherin2010aspredictedbytheGovernmentorsomewhat
laterasotherssuggest)demandformigrantlabourwillbedeterminedtoagreaterextentby
underlyingdynamicsofruralgrowthpotential,technologicaldevelopmentandUKlabour
availability.Inthemediumtolongrun,therefore,thefollowingtrendslooklikelyto
determinedemandforlabourinruralareas.
First,thegeneraleconomicprospectsfortheUK’sruralareaslookstrong.TheCommission
forRuralCommunitiesrecentlyprojectedthattheoutputofruralfirmscouldbedoubledif
therightfacilitatingpolicymeasuresareputinplace(CRC2008a).Thisisahugelypositive
findingforruralareasandindicatesthepotentialforsignificantgrowthinruraleconomiesin
themediumterm.
Oursectoralanalysissuggestssimilarconclusions.Thereisclearlysignificantpotentialfor
furthergrowthinhospitalityandfoodprocessinginruralareas.Moreover,webelievethereis
alsopotential,withtherightfacilitatingpolicymeasuresinplace,forimprovedperformance
inagriculture.Whilethesectorhasbeenstrugglinginrecentyears,anincreasedfocuson
foodsecurityandlandmanagementbygovernmentmayboostsupportforagricultural
production.Thereappearstobeanincreasingrecognitionthat,asoneofourstakeholders
suggested:
‘Itisn’tjustthat“theseareafewindustrieswhichhavegotsomeproblems
andisn’titinteresting”.Theseareanimportantpartofourfoodsupply.‘
Stakeholder,ruralbusiness
Second,wemustturntothequestionofwhetherfutureeconomicgrowthinruralareaswill
generatedemandforlargernumbersofworkersorwhetherdemandwillbemetthrough
investmentincapitalandtechnology.Lookingacrossruraleconomies,itseemsunlikelythat
underanyplausiblescenarioinvestmentincapitalandtechnologicaldevelopmentalone
wouldbeabletosupporttheCRC’sgoalofadoublingofruraloutput,eveninthemedium
term.Toachieveanythingnearthatwouldalmostinevitablyrequireadditionallabourto
somedegree.Andindeed,governmentisplanningforanincreasingpopulationinruralareas
inordertosupportfuturegrowth(DepartmentforCommunitiesandLocalGovernment
2007).
Lookingatthesamequestionsectorallygivesasimilarbutmorenuancedpicture.Itisclear
thattheverynatureofthehospitalityindustrylimitsthepossibilitiesofincreasingtheuseof
technology(Baum2006).Restaurants,barsandhotelsarebasedaroundperson-to-person
services,andwhiletheremightberoomtomechanisesomeback-of-houseoperations,on
thewholelabourisakeyconstituentpartoftheindustry.
Incontrast,theremayberoomtofurtherreducethelabourcomponentoffoodprocessing
(ElAmin2006).Therewillalwaysbesomelabourrequirementsinthesector,evenatitsmost
mechanised,forhighlyskilledsupervisorsandmachinetechniciansandusuallyasmall
numberoflessskilledworkersontheproductionline.However,thesectorisonewhere
mechanisationhaspotential,anditmaybethatincreasingproductioninfoodprocessing
wouldnotnecessarilydrasticallyincreaselabourrequirementsoverthemediumterm.
Inagriculture,thebalanceofevidenceappearstosuggestthatinmanysub-sectorsthe
potentialforreplacinglabourwithtechnologyhasbeenexhausted.Thismessagecame
throughstronglyinourresearch:
‘Inhorticulture,anywayofreplacingpickingbytechnologicalinnovationis
simplybeyondourunderstanding.[Withoutlabour]farmersandgrowers
wouldhavetocontractratherthanexpandtheirproduction,diversifyortake
theirbusinessabroad.‘Stakeholder,ruralbusiness
ThusthereappearstobepotentialinsomepartsoftheUK’sruraleconomiestopursue
futuregrowththroughgreaterinvestmentincapitalandtechnologybutlargernumbersof
workerswillalsoberequiredtopromotegrowth.
Thirdweturntothequestionofwhetherfuture,potentiallyverysignificant,ruraleconomic
growthcanbeachievedwithaUK-bornworkforce.EnglandandWaleshasanageing
population.Therearerelativelyfewerpeopleinthe20–45agegroupthaninolderage
groups,atrendthatisevenmoremarkedinruralareaswherebasicfertilitytrendshavebeen
accentuatedbyinternalmigrationwithintheUK.Youngpeopletendtoleaveruralareasto
seekworkorforhighereducation,andfewreturn.
Somesectorsofruraleconomiesfaceskillsshortagesthatarecurrentlypartiallyaddressedby
theemploymentofmigrantworkers.Theseshortagescouldbereducedinthemediumterm
byimprovingaccesstoeducationandtraininginruralareas.
Finally,itseemsunlikelythatincreasedemploymentratesorsignificantmovementofUK
workersfromurbantoruralareaswillmeetthedemandforlabourimpliedbytheambitions
forfutureruraleconomicgrowth.Althoughwelfarereformprocessesmayencouragesome
Britishworkerstotakeupruralemployment,thebarrierskeepingUKworkersoutofsome
ruralemployment,suchaslowpay,temporarycontractsandthelowstatusofworkinsome
agriculturaljobs,lookunlikelytochange.
Insum,itseemslikelythatdemandformigrantlabourinruralBritainwillremainsignificant,
andmayevenincreaseinthemediumtolongterm,particularlyiftheambitiousvisionof
doublingruraloutputistobeachieved.Thishassomeimportantimplicationfortherisks
facingruraleconomies.Anincreasingdemandformigrantworkerssuggestsanincreasing
relianceontheirsupply.ShouldthissupplynotbedependablethiscouldexposeruralBritain
toseriouseconomicrisks.Weturnnowtoconsiderhowthesupplyoflabourtoruralareasis
likelyevolve,examininghowserioustheserisksmightbe.
HowwillthesupplyofmigrantlabourtoruralBritainchange?
ThesupplyofmigrantlabourtoruralBritainwilldependinlargepartonthesupplyof
migrantlabourtothewidereconomyasmanyofthefactorsthatdeterminemigrantflows
arenational(notleastimmigrationpolicy).However,regionalandlocalfactorswillalsoplaya
role,andtherelativesuccessofruraleconomiesinthefuturewillbeanimportant
determinantofflows.
Theshortterm
Itisdifficulttopredictthesupplyofmigrantsintheshortterm,inpartbecauseofrapidly
changingeconomicconditions.Qualitativeevidenceoncurrenttrendsinruralareasappears
divided.Ontheonehand,themigrantworkerswespoketoinSpalding,Lincolnshire,said
thatthepaceofnewarrivalstotheareawasnotslowingandtheydidnotlikethatfact:
‘Ithinktheyneedtostop.StoplettingmoremigrantscometotheUK.
BecauseIthinktheyarealwayscoming,coming,coming,coming,coming,
coming.‘Migrantworkerinfoodprocessing,Spalding
Mostofthemigrantswespoketoexpressedtheirintentiontostay,atleastforthenextfew
years.
Somestakeholdersconcurredwiththispictureofastrongsupplyoflabourtoo:
‘Wecertainlyaren’tseeinganysignsof[laboursupply]lesseningatall….
[Moreover]thelabourmarketwithintheEUisenormous…andthose
workforcesareavailableforemployershere.‘Stakeholder,hospitalitysector
Incontrast,inthefocusgroupweundertookinPeterborough,themigrantswespoketosaid
thatnewarrivalshadslowed,andelsewhereotherssaidthatmanywerereturning12:
‘ThePolisharenotcominghere.They’drathergotoothercountrieslike
Norway.‘Migrantworkerinhospitality,Peterborough
‘Therearen’tmanyPortugesehere.Fouryearsagothereweremore.Ithink
everyonehasgonenow.’Migrantworkerinfoodprocessing,Spalding
‘YoungpeoplefromLatviaaregoingback.Peoplelikeme,ourage,havemore
opportunitieshere[intheUK].Butyoungpeoplearegoingback.’Migrant
workerinfoodprocessing,Spalding
Otherstakeholdershadhadasimilarexperience:
‘MyPolishemployeeknewotherPolesinthearea,andhe’stheonlyone
who’sstillremaining.Theyallwentbackthreetofourmonthsago.Itseemsto
beatrendandifitisatrendthenIthinkwewillhaveproblems.‘Stakeholder,
agriculture
Moreover,themajorityofmigrantswespoketoinalllocationssaidthattheywouldnot
encourageotherstocometotheUK:
‘IfsomefriendaskedmeifEnglandisallright,formeitisallrightbecauseI
haveagoodjobandeverything,I’mgood.Buttosaytofriendscome?[No,I
wouldn’t]...‘Migrantworkerinfoodprocessing,Spalding
12.Ofcourse,somemigrantsalwaysleave,whetherfortheircountryoforiginortogoelsewhere.What
wethinkweareobservinghere,however,isahigherlevelofreturnthanusual.
Thisisimportantbecausesocialnetworksarecriticalintermsoftransmittinginformationand
opinionstoothersinamigrant’sorigincountry.Manyofthemigrantswespoketohadcome
totheUKbecausetheyhadbeenadvisedtobyfriendsandrelatives.Thattheywouldnot
recommendthistoothersislikelytobeimportantindeterminingfutureflows.Thismaybe
anearlywarningoflowerlevelsofmovementintheshortterm.
ThisqualitativeevidenceofslowingarrivalsandsignificantreturnsinruralBritainis
supportedbynationalevidenceofthesametrend:arrivalsfromCentralandEasternEurope
appeartobeslowing,andreturnsaresubstantial.Sowhileonthewholethesupplyoflabour
atthemomentseemssufficient,itmaydwindleoverthecomingmonthsandyears.Tosome
extent,itappearsmigrationmayintheshorttermbeself-regulating,sothatitriseswhen
thereareplentyofopportunitiesavailable,butcanalsoprovideflexibilityinthelabourforce
inmoredifficulttimes(Chappelletal 2009).
Themediumterm
Drawingonarecentsystematicanalysisofwhymigrantschoseparticulardestinations
(EconomistIntelligenceUnit2008)aswellasippr’spastresearchandtherural-specific
researchwehaveconductedforthispaper,wecanisolatesomeofthemedium-termfactors
thatdeterminemigrationflows.
Welookattwogroupsoffactors.Firstarethosethatdeterminetherelativeattractivenessof
theUKcomparedwithotherpotentialcountries(whetherthemigrant’shomecountryor
anotherdestination).Theevolutionofthesefactorsbothaffectsboththerelative
attractivenessoftheUKforpotentialnewmigrantstothecountry,anditsattractivenessto
thosewhoarealreadyherebutareconsideringleaving(eithertogohomeortoathird
country).Secondarethefactorsthataffecthowlikelymigrantsaretobeattractedto(or
stayin)specificruralareas.
Nationalfactors
Atthenationallevel,migrationpoliciesthatmayaffectfutureflowsofmigrantstorural
areasincludefirst,puttingTier2ofthepoints-basedsystemintooperation.Itremainstobe
seenhowflexibleTier2,andinparticulartheshortagelistsystem,willbetoeconomic
demands–particularlyattheregionalorlocallevel.
ThesecondfactoristheevolutionofSAWSandTier3.SAWShasbeenanimportantsource
ofseasonallabourfortheagriculturesectorbuttheGovernmentseemsintentonabolishing
SAWSin2010withnoapparentplansinplacetoreplaceitbyopeningTier3ofthepoints-
basedsystem.TheGovernment’sassumptionisthatanySAWS-typevacanciescanbefilled
bymigrantsfromwithintheEU.However,itisnotatallclearthatthiswillbethecase–itis
likelythatEUworkerswillseekmorestableandlong-termemploymentoncetheyhavefull
accesstotheUKlabourmarket.Already,therestrictionofSAWStoRomanianandBulgarian
nationalshasledtoquotasgoingunfilledandthishashadanimpactonsomeagricultural
businesses,whichlookssettoworsenifthecurrentrestrictionsarecontinued.
ThoseintheUKagriculturesector,especiallyhorticulture,feelverystronglythatSAWSis
vitaltoitssuccess:
‘Ican’ttellyouhowimportantthatschemeistous.Toloseitwouldbea
disaster.IftheGovernmentdecidestheydon’twantafoodproduction
capacityinthiscountryanymorethat’suptothem.’Stakeholder,rural
business
Indeed,theuncertaintyoverthefutureofSAWSiscausingmajorproblemstoemployers,as
onefarmmanagersetoutforus:
‘Wewanttodoubletheareaoffruitgrownonthefarminthenextfourto
fiveyears.Todothatweneedtoknowwecangetthepeopletoharvest
thosecrops.Becausewedidn’tknowwehadtoputthoseplansonholdfor
12months,andwewillprobablyputthemonholdfor12-18monthsagain…
We’dbemadtodoanythingbeforewehavesomecertaintygoing
forward…Andifwecan’tgetthepeoplethatweneedwemayhavetothink
aboutstoppinggrowingthefruitaltogether.’Stakeholder,agriculture
Themigrationpoliciesofothercountrieswillalsobeimportantindeterminingthefuture
flowsofmigrantstotheUK’sruralareas.GiventheparticularimportanceofCentraland
EasternEuropeanmigrantsinrecentflowstotheUK’sruralareas,policiesthatmightattract
thoseworkerselsewheredeserveparticularattention.Ofthese,themostlikelytobe
significantistheplannedopeningofGermany’slabourmarketsby2011(Euroactiv.com
2008).Germanyisarichcountry,closergeographicallytokeyCentralandEasternEuropean
countriesthantheUK.Perhapsmostimportantofall,ithasahistoryofattractingmigrants
fromtheregion,particularlyPoland,tocarryoutworkintheagriculturesector.Moreopen
regimeselsewhereinconcertwithmoreclosedpolicieshereintheUKcouldconsiderably
underminetheUK’sattractivenesstomigrants.
Themedium-termperformanceoftheUKeconomyrelativetoothercountries(particularlyin
theEU)willbeanimportantfactorindeterminingthesupplyofmigrantlabour.Although
thefullimpactsofthecurrentrecessionareasyetunclear,itislikelythatmembershipofthe
EUwillgivenewEUmemberstatesconsiderableeconomicbenefitsinthemediumterm.We
mightthereforeexpectthetrendoffallingunemploymenttocontinueinthemediumtolong
term,whichislikelytoreducetherelativeattractivenessoftheUKlabourmarkettomigrants
fromthesecountriesinthefuture.ThiswillbeexacerbatedifSterlingcontinuestobeweak
relativetotheEuro.
Localandregionalfactors
Thevastmajorityofmigrantswespoketolikedlivinginruralareasandintheirparticular
locality,apartfromafewwhosaidrurallifewastooquiet(althoughthiswasnotsucha
concernthatitwouldcausethemtoleave).Peoplelikedthenaturalbeauty,viewedrural
localitiesasgoodplacesforchildrentolive,founditrelativelyeasytofindwork,foundmost
thingstobelowcost(withhousinganotableexception),andenjoyedthepeaceandquiet.
Housingwastheonerural-specificproblemraisedbythemigrantswespoketoandthose
thatworkwiththem.Thelackofavailabilityandthehighcost,particularlyofrented
accommodation,inwhichmigrantworkerslivedisproportionately(RutterandLatorre
forthcoming),wasaconstanttheme.Thefollowingcommentwastypical:
‘Whenpeoplewanttostaythere’snohousingforthem.Theytendtomoveto
urbanareasthen,whentheywanttostayandworkinruralareas.‘
Stakeholder,migrantassociation
Thehighcostandlimitedavailabilityofhousinginsomeruralareasisanissueforallthose
wholiveorworkinthecountryside.Manyyoungpeopleinruralareas,forexample,are
pricedoutofthemarketintheareaswheretheyhavegrownup.Theparticularchallengesof
housinginruralareas,aselaboratedintheTaylorreview(Taylor2008),mayexacerbatethe
challengeofcontinuingtoattractsufficientmigrantstoruralareastomeetlabourdemand.
Thereareanumberofmorelocalandindividualreasonsthatmightinfluencepeople’s
decisionsonwheretheywanttolive.Ourresearchinruralareasalsohighlightedanumberof
issuesthatwhilenot‘ruralspecific’oronlyrelevanttoruralareas,werefelttobeimportant
inmostruralcontexts.Thesewere:
•Direct,permanentemployment: Thiswasthemostimportantfactorthemigrant
workerswespoketogaveforstayinginajoborlocality(andinsomecases,theUK).
Agencyworkwasveryunpopular,andwhilemostsawitasanacceptablewaytoenter
theUKlabourmarket,aftersometimeasagencystafftheywantedtobedirectly
employedonapermanentcontract.
•Hours: Anumberofthemigrantworkersandemployerswespoketoemphasisedthe
importanceofbeingabletoworkareasonablenumberofhours–neithertoofew(for
example,oneortwodaysagencyworkaweek)nortoomany(regularlymorethanfive
fulldaysaweek.)
•Promotion: Anumberofpeoplementionedthepossibilityofpromotionasakeyfactor
thatwouldattractthemtoliveandworkinaparticularlocation.
•Exploitationandworkplacediscrimination:Migrantsoftenlackawarenessoftheir
rightsandentitlements,whichcanleadtoexploitationanddiscrimination,for
example,notbeingpaidovertime,beingrefusedsickorholidaypayandhavingtheir
passportsretained(seeMatthewsandRuhs2007).13 Asanexampleofdiscrimination,
astudyofthehospitalitysectorfoundemployerspreferredwhitestaffovernon-white
staffforfrontlinework(Wright2007).Ifamigrantisawareofexploitationand
discrimination,aparticularbusiness,andpossiblylocalityandindustry,willbecome
lessattractivetothem.
• Workbeyondfactoriesandfields: Someofthemigrantswespoketowantedtomove
outofworkinfactoriesandfields,preferringhospitality,retailandconstructionwork.
Asingleoverarchingruralstrategytoensuremigrantsareabletoaccessworkinrural
economiesmaynotbesufficient,therefore.Onewaytoaddressthisistouse
temporaryschemes(suchasSAWS),sothatratherthanattemptingtoattractone
groupofmigrantstoremaininthesectorspermanently,businessesinsteaddrawona
rollingsupplyofshort-termmigrantswhoaretheintheUKtemporarilytoundertake
thisspecificwork.
•Integrationandcommunitycohesion:Problemsinthisarea–particularlyalackof
opportunitiesforlearningEnglishandfrictionsbetweenlocalsandnewarrivals–
mightalsoleadmigrantstoleaveaplace.
Riskanalysis
Theevidencepresentedabovesuggeststhatruraleconomieswillhaveongoingneedfor
migrantsfortheforeseeablefuture,butthatthesupplyofmigrantlabourisnotnecessarily
assured.Wethereforeassesstherisksassociatedwithalackofmigrantworkeravailability.
Table7takessomeofthekeyfactorsdeterminingtheavailabilityofmigrantworkers
identifiedabove,andthensetsouthowlikelyanyriskistomaterialiseinthemediumterm
andsecondly,whattheimpactonmigrantworkeravailabilityinruralareaswouldbe.
13.Ofcourse,ifmigrantsareworkingillegally,theirsituationisevenmoregrave,withtherebeingthe
dangerthattheydonotgetpaidatallbytheemployer.
Table7.SummaryofriskfactorsfortheavailabilityofmigrantworkersinruralareasoftheUK
Riskfactor Likelihoodofoccurrence SeverityofimpactonUK
(mediumterm)
UKmigrationpolicylimitstheavailabilityofmigrantworkers Medium High
belowlevelsofdemand
Other(EU)countriesadjusttheirmigrationpolicies High Medium
makingiteasiertomovethere
ThevalueofSterlingcontinuestodeclineagainst Medium Medium
currenciesinalternativedestinations
EmploymentprospectsintheUKdeterioraterelative Medium High
toalternativedestinationsand/orsourcecountries
Housingavailabilityinruralareasworsensandcostsrise High High
Itbecomeshardertoobtaindirect,permanentemployment Medium High
Migrantsfindithardertogetajobinvolvingreasonable Medium Medium
numbersofhoursofworkperweek
Migrantsfindithardertoadvanceintheirjobsand Low Low
getpromoted
Exploitationofmigrantworkersgetsworse,asdoesdiscrimination Medium Medium
Migrantsarelessabletofindworkbeyondthefactoryandthefield Low Medium
Communitycohesionworsens,andinparticularaccesstoEnglish Medium Medium
languagelearningfallsandtensionsbetweencommunitiesincrease
6.Conclusionsandrecommendations
Actionsatavarietyoflevelscouldbetakentoreducetherisksruraleconomiesareexposed
tobytheiruseofmigrantlabour.Somekeyriskfactors,suchascurrencyexchangerates,
cannotbeaddressedherebuttherearesomerecommendationsforchangestopolicythat
wecanmake.Itisimportanttohighlighttheseforurgentattention,asmanystakeholdersin
ruralareascurrentlyfeelthattheirneedsarepoorlyreflectedbypolicymakers.
Respondingtotheserisksdoesnotwarrantawholenewpolicyagenda.Inmostcasesthe
keyleversandpolicyprocessesarealreadyinplace.Reducingtherisksrelatedtomigrant
workeravailabilityrequiresbeingawareofhowruralissuesarelinkedtoexistingpolicylevers
andprocesses,andthenadjustingorprioritisingthemaccordingly.
Threemaintypesofactionsneedtobetakentoreducerisk:
•ChangestoUK-widepolicytoencouragemigrantstocome,sothatemployerscan
accessthelabourtheyrequire
•Actiontoimprovetheattractivenessofruraleconomiessothattheygetthemigrant
workforcetheyneed
•Encouragementtostakeholderstoworktoimproveunderstandingandcommunication
oftheseissues.
Wehighlightthemostimportantrecommendationsbelowwithastar.
*Recommendation1:IncorporateanewversionofSAWSintothepoints-based
system,underTier3
ThoseintheUKagriculturesector,especiallyhorticulture,feelverystronglythatSAWSis
vitaltoitssuccess.AlthoughtheGovernmentincreasedSAWSplacesbyseveralthousand
between2008and2009itisstillscheduledtobephasedoutin2010,andremainsrestricted
toworkersfromBulgariaandRomania.
Webelievethatthisisthewrongdecisiongiventhatfarmersneedadditionalworkers,andit
seemsunlikelythataUK-basedsupply,andpossiblyanEU-basedsupply,willbeavailablein
themediumterm.TheuncertaintyoverthefutureofSAWSiscausingmajorproblemsto
employers.
WerecommendthattheGovernmentcontinuewithaSAWS-typeschemeunderTier3ofthe
points-basedsystem,whichregulatesthemovementintotheUKoflow-skilledworkersfrom
outsidetheEU.AtpresenttheGovernmenthaskeptthistierclosed,butevidencefromthe
agriculturesectorshowsthatitisimportantthatitbeopened.TheGovernmentshouldallow
workersfromoutsidetheEUtoentertheUKonsimilartermsasitusedtounderSAWS
beforeitwasrestrictedtoworkersfromRomaniaandBulgaria.
ThisisessentialforensuringthatthepotentialoftheUK’sagriculturalsectorisfullyrealised.
IftheGovernmentdoesnotreplaceSAWSwithanothersimilararrangementin2010,itis
likelythattheonlypossiblealternativeforsomepartsofthesectorwillbetomove
productionoutsidetheUK.Thiswouldhaveknock-oneffectsonotherpartsoftheUK’s
ruraleconomies,aswellasonwidergoalssuchasfoodsecurityandlandmanagement.
TheGovernmentshouldconsiderincorporatingacriterionrelatedtothedevelopmentof
sendingcountriesindecidingwhichworkersshouldbeabletotakeupplacesunderanew
scheme.ThiswouldfollowtheleadofcountriessuchasNewZealand,whichhasmade
arrangementswithsomeofthePacificIslandcountriestoprovidetheagriculturallabour
theyrequire.ThisaddressesNewZealand’sshortagesofagriculturallabourandprovides
opportunitiesforpeoplefromsomeofworld’spoorestcountriestoearngoodwages,which
canhaveasignificantimpactontheirfamilies’andcommunities’circumstances(Pacific
IslandsForumSecretariat2008).
Recommendation2:OpenupTier3morewidely,toensurebusinessesacrossall
sectorsareabletoaccesslow-skilledmigrantworkersfromoutsidetheEUif
required
TheGovernmentshouldconsideropeningupTier3morewidelyalongsidespecificprovision
foragriculturegiventhefactthattherearevacanciesinlow-skilledjobsacrossanumberof
industriesinruraleconomies,forexampleinthecaresector.Unemploymenthasrisensince
ourresearchwasconductedbutitislikelythatanumberoflow-skilledvacanciesarelikelyto
remaininruraleconomiesandelsewhereinthemediumterm.
WebelieveitisimportantthattheGovernmentputinplacemonitoringmechanismsto
examinelabourshortagesinlow-skilledjobsandconsiderwheregapsmightsensiblybefilled
bymigration,asisdoneforskilledlabour.Thiswillhelptodevelopamorenuanced
understandingofwheregapsexistandwheremigrantsmightfillthem.
AsforRecommendation1above,theGovernmentshouldembeddevelopmentcriteriainits
decisionsaboutwhocancometofilllow-skilledvacancies,shouldjobsbeidentifiedthatcan
besuitablyfilledbymigrants.Thiswillhelpensurethatthemigrantsandtheirfamiliesand
communitiesgainasmuchfromtheirtimeintheUKasruralemployersandtheeconomy.
*Recommendation3:Government,housingassociations,employersandthe
NationalHousingFederationshouldworktogethertodevelopmoreaffordableand
betterqualityhousinginruralareas
Housingavailabilityisnotanewissueforruralareas,andhasalreadybeentoucheduponby
anumberofgovernmentcommissionsandpolicies(DepartmentforCommunitiesandLocal
Government2007,RuggandRhodes2008).Increasingtheavailabilityofaffordablehousing
isapriorityforruralcommunitiesingeneral,andwouldencouragemigrantworkerstomove
toandstayinruralareas,whichcouldhavepositiveimpactsonruraleconomies.Improving
housingavailabilitycouldalsohelptoreducedifficultiesbetweenmigrantsandtheexisting
community.Competitionforhousingcancauseproblemswithcommunitycohesion,ascan
theperceivedproblemsresultingfromhomesofmultipleoccupancy;thereforeimproved
housingavailabilitycouldsupportincreasedcommunitycohesion.
Ruralmigrantsareoverwhelminglyhousedinprivaterentalaccommodation,asignificant
proportionofwhichistiedtoemployment.Localauthoritybudgetsfortheregulationof
rentalaccommodationshouldbeincreasedandring-fenced,andRegionalStrategic
MigrationPartnerships(RSMPs)shouldaudithousingadviceservicesintheirparticularareas
andfacilitatethesettingupofnewserviceswheretherearegapsinprovision.RSMPsmight
alsoconsiderworkingwithhomelessnessnon-governmentalorganisationstodeveloprent
depositguaranteeschemestargetedatnewmigrants,tohelpthosewhohavedifficultyin
findingadeposittogethousing.
*Recommendation4:Improvehousingprovisionfortransientmigrantworkersand
seasonalworkersinruralareasandreviewlegislationprotectingtenantslivingin
formsofaccommodationnotlegallydesignatedasadwellingorinunprotected
caravansites
Thereisacompellingneedforthehousingsectortopilotnewwaysofhousingtransientand
seasonalmigrantworkersinruralareas.Thismayincludethecreationofworkers’hostels–
thoughthesearefarfromidealandonlyprovideshort-termsolutions.
WerecommendanurgentGovernmentreviewoflegislationinallpartsoftheUKgiventhat
asignificantnumberoftransientorseasonalmigrantsliveinaccommodationthatisnot
classifiedasadwelling(inotheripprresearchweinterviewedamigrantwholivedwithtwo
othersinashippingcontainer[Rutterforthcoming]).Theaimofthisreviewmustbeto
ensurethateveryonewithintheUKisentitledtoliveinadecentstandardof
accommodation,nomatterhowshorttheirstayhereis.
*Recommendation5:Reviewtherolethatrecruitmentagenciesplayinthe
economyandevaluatethecostsandbenefitsofthisapproachofmatchingworkers
tojobs
ItisvitalthatGovernmentcloselyexaminetherolethatprivateemploymentagenciesare
playingintheUKeconomygiventheimportancethatmigrantworkersplaceonthisissue,
andtheroleitappearstohaveindeterminingtheirdecisionsaboutwheretoliveandwork.
TheGovernmentshouldconductahigh-levelreviewtoassessthecostsandbenefitsof
usingemploymentagenciestomatchworkerstojobs.Oneoftheobjectivesshouldbeto
ensurethatthenatureofworkonoffertomigrantworkersthroughagenciesshouldnotbe
sounattractiveinthelongrunastodeterthemfromwantingtoliveandworkintheUK,or
incertainareasoftheUK(includingsomeruralsectors),whereagencyworkishighly
prevalent.
*Recommendation6:ExtendtheremitoftheGangmastersLicensingAuthority
(GLA)tocoversectorscharacterisedbyvulnerableemployment
TheGovernmentshouldextendtheremitoftheGangmastersLicensingAuthority(GLA)to
allsectorscharacterisedbyvulnerableemployment,inlinewiththerecommendationsofthe
TradesUnionCongressCommissiononVulnerableEmployment(2008).Partiallyinresponse
totheMorecambeBaycocklepickerstragedyof2004,theGovernmentsetuptheGLA,
whosemandateistoensurethewelfareandinterestsofworkersinthesectorsitcoversby
licensinglabourprovidersandensuringthattheyremainwithinthelaw.However,atpresent
theGLAonlyregulateslabourprovidersinagriculture,forestry,horticulture,shellfish
gatheringandfoodprocessingandpackaging.
ExtendingtheGLA’sremit,aswellassafeguardingtherightsofmigrantworkersand
protectinglegitimateagenciesfromunfaircompetitionbasedonexploitation,willreducethe
risksfacingruraleconomies.Crackingdownonexploitativegangmasterswillhelpimprove
thereputationofworknotinvolvinggangmasters,whichshouldimprovethesupplyof
migrantlabourandmakeitmoresustainableinthelongrun.Bringingmoresectorsunder
theremitoftheGLAalsoreducestheriskthatruraleconomiescometodependonlabour
whichisprovidedbyagenciesorgangmasterswhobreakthelaw.
Recommendation7:Stepupcoordinatedworkingtoaddresstheneedsofmigrant
workersandcommunitycohesion/integrationinruralareas
Thiswouldneedtoinvolveavarietyofactors,includinglocalauthorities,theGangmasters
LicensingAuthority,localmigrantassociations,theCitizens’AdviceBureauandJobcentre
Plusamongothers.Thisshouldinvolveexpandingandlearningfromexistingbestpractice,
includingthatdisseminatedthroughtheImprovementandDevelopmentAgency(IDeA).
Partnershipworkingisnowcommonbutinmanyplacesthereisstillroomtodomore.
Fortunately,thereisplentyofpotentialtolearnfromthosewhoarefurtherahead.In
particular,IDeArunsaknowledge-sharingprogrammeonmigration(fundedbyDCLG)and
itswebsitecontainsmanyresourcesandtoolkitsthatshowthesortsofinterventionsthat
localauthoritiestogetherwithpartnerscanmaketoimprovetheexperiencesofmigrant
workersandpromotecommunitycohesion.Ithasalsoestablisheda‘communityofpractice’,
wherebythoseworkingonmigrationatalocallevelcanshareanddiscussemergingbest
practiceandissuesofconcern.Werecommendthatallplayersatalocallevelinruralareas
whointeractwithorservemigrantsaccesstheIDeAresources.
Recommendation8:Ensuretheimpactofmigrationonruraleconomiesisonthe
agendaathigh-profileeventssuchastheongoingruralsummitsonunlockingthe
potentialofruraleconomies
In2007theGovernment’sRuralAdvocatewasaskedtoproduceareportforthePrime
MinisteronunlockingthepotentialofBritain’sruraleconomies.Amongthekey
recommendationsinhisreportwastheconveningofanationalsummitandashortseriesof
regionalsummitstofocusattentionandactivityofcentral,regional,cityandlocal
governmentonreleasingthepotentialofruraleconomies(CRC2008a).Wesuggestthat
migrationinruralareasshouldbeontheagendainforumssuchasthis.
Continuingdiscussionsoftheseissueswouldallowforthevalidityofourfindingstobe
tested,policyrecommendationsappraisedandprogressedandtheneedforfuturework
evaluated.Itwouldalsoraisetheprofileoftheseissueswithawidevarietyofkey
stakeholders.Inparticular,itwouldallowforthosewithinterestsindifferentpartsofthe
picturetoworkinamorejoined-upway.Webelievethatitisvitalthatpolicymakersat
differentlevelsareremindedoftheimportanceofruraleconomiesandthecontribution
migrantsmaketotheirsuccess.
Recommendation9:Ensureissuesaroundmigration,riskandruraleconomic
performanceareincorporatedintoLocalAuthorityEconomicAssessmentsandthe
IntegratedRegionalStrategies
Inmanycasesthiswillneedtobeprecededbyanassessmentoftheextenttowhichrisks
associatedwithmigrantworkeravailabilityareanissuefortheperformanceofrural(and
indeedurban)economiesineachlocality.
Takinganationalperspectiveaswehavedoneinthisreporthasbeenhelpfulforafirst
examinationoftheissuesconcerned,andisalsousefulbecausemanyofthepolicy
responsesrequiredtoreducerisksmusttakeplaceatanationallevel.Butthenextstepmust
beforparticularruralareastoassesstheimpactsandriskstotheirarea,economyand
community.Assuch,werecommendthatlocalandregionalgovernmentcarriesout
assessmentsoftheextenttowhichrisksassociatedwithmigrantworkeravailabilityarean
issuefortheirlocaleconomy.Theseassessmentsshouldenablethemtoincorporatethese
issuesappropriatelyintotheirrespectivelocalauthorityeconomicassessmentsandregional
integratedstrategies.
Recommendation10:Takecareoverthelanguageusedbyallactorswhoworkor
commentateonmigration
Wefoundthattoughtalkscaresemployersandmakescommunityrelationsharder.Anumber
ofstakeholderswespoketoreferredtotheGovernment’scampaignofinformationabout
thepoints-basedsystem,whichwarnedthemoftheconsequencesofnotcomplying.
UniversallytheysawitasanindicatoroftheGovernment’sintenttoreducemigration,and
punishthosewhobreaktherules.Thosewhowereengagedinruralbusinessconcludedfrom
thismessagingthattheiraccesstoforeignworkerswouldbereducedinthefutureandinat
leastonecasethishadactivelycontributedtoabusinessdecisionnottoexpandproduction
inanotherwisesuccessfulbusiness,forfearofnotbeingabletogettheworkerstostaffthe
extraproduction.Scaringemployerscanbackfireintermsofrestrictingthepotentialofrural
economies.
Toughtalkcanalsomakecommunitycohesionmoredifficultbypromotingtheideathat
migrantscauseproblemsandmigrationneedstoberestricted,andtherebymakeaplaceless
appealingformigrantcommunities.
Takingamoreconsideredviewoftheimpactsofmigrationandspeakingaboutitinamore
nuancedandpositivemannerwouldhelpavoidscaringemployersandlocalpeopleabout
migration.Itwouldhelptocreateanenvironmentinwhichthecontributionsthatmigrants
maketoruralareas(andindeedthewholeoftheUK)canbemorereadilyappreciated.
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Figure6.UK- £12 0.08

Foreign born of working age as % of population of working age

Foreign born of working age as % of population of working age

UK born employment rate % foreign born of working age

Foreign born by age group as % of foreign born in industry sector

30% 62% 61% 63%

16 or under 17-21 Over 21

workersinrural 90% 19% 19%

16 or under 17-21 Over 21

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