Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biblical Prophecy
and End Times
J. Daniel Hays
J. Scott Duvall
C. Marvin Pate
ZONDERVAN
Hays, J. Daniel.
Dictionary of biblical prophecy and end times / J. Daniel Hays, J. Scott Duvall, and C.
Marvin Pate.
p. .cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-310-25663-2
1. Bible — Prophecies — Dictionaries. I. Duvall, J. Scott. II. Pate, C. Marvin, 1952- III. Title.
BS647.3.H39 2007
220.1'503 — dc22 2007000461
CIP
All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the Holy Bible, New Interna-
tional Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permis-
sion of Zondervan. All rights reserved.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or
any other — except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the
publisher.
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Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
addition, the goal for this book is to provide a solid explanation for and
defense of all serious views on prophecy held by evangelicals, along with
an appropriate critique pointing out each view’s weaknesses as well.
Following the tradition of most modern English Bible translations,
when referring to the Old Testament Hebrew covenant name of God (Yah-
weh), the English term Lord (in caps) is used. Occasionally Yahweh is
used, usually with a brief explanation of the term.
We wish to thank Ouachita Baptist University students Garrett Ham
and Eric Michalls, who contributed to this book through proofreading
and checking the many biblical citations.
J. Daniel Hays
J. Scott Duvall
C. Marvin Pate
Gad
Gad is one of Jacob’s sons and is also the tribe of Israel that descended
from him. But Gad is also the name of a prophet who served David. In
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1 Samuel 22, David, who has not yet become king, flees from King Saul
and seeks safety in Moab. Gad the prophet appears with no introduc-
tion and advises David to leave Moab and return to Judah, which David
does.
When David becomes king, Nathan is his primary prophet, and for
most of David’s reign there is no mention of Gad (see nathan). But
toward the end of David’s life, he takes a census of his fighting men and
incurs the anger of God, who speaks once more through the prophet Gad.
Indeed, Gad functions as the mediator between God and David to resolve
the serious situation (2 Sam. 24:11 – 25; the parallel passage is in 1 Chron.
21:9 – 30). Similar to Nathan, Gad also was involved in recording David’s
court history (1 Chron. 29:29) and in prescribing how the Levite musi-
cians were to function (2 Chron. 29:25).
Garden
The Bible speaks often of the garden as a place of abundance and rest,
where plants are richly nourished for human enjoyment (e.g., Num. 24:6;
Eccl. 2:5; Isa. 58:11; Jer. 29:5). In the arid climate of much of the bibli-
cal world, the key to a lush garden was a plentiful source of fresh water.
Occasionally in Scripture, the ordinary garden becomes a metaphor for
romantic love (Song 4:12, 15, 16; 5:1; 6:2). The beauty, richness, and inti-
macy of the garden reflect the pleasures that the two lovers find in each
other.
The prophetic image of the garden, however, goes beyond that of the
ordinary garden to the “garden framework” for the entire story of the
Bible. This framework includes three central gardens: (1) the garden of
Eden (or garden of God) in Genesis 2 – 3, (2) the gardens of Jerusalem
associated with Jesus’ suffering and resurrection, and (3) the final garden
of heavenly paradise highlighted in Revelation 21 – 22.
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between God and his creation. Sadly, the garden of God became the set-
ting for the temptation and fall of human beings (Gen. 3). The curse of sin
reversed many of the original blessings of the garden of God.
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is reversed and God’s plan to live among his people is fully realized. The
heavenly garden promises to be a place where God will fulfill all human
needs — hunger, thirst, and, most of all, harmonious relationships. With-
out Satan, sin, or any other enemy of God, the deepest human longings will
be satisfied by God’s personal presence. The ultimate garden paradise is
made possible by the gardens of Jesus’ passion and resurrection. (See new
heaven and new earth; new jerusalem; presence of god.)
Gates
Throughout Scripture gates play a practical role in the biblical story, but
they also play a prophetic role as well. Gates were a critical component in
the defenses of any ancient city. They were the weak point of most defenses
and thus the attack point for most sieges. Therefore, it was important to
have strong gates.
But since gates in ancient cities tended to be larger and more elaborate
than the regular wall, they also took on decorative significance. That is,
not only the size and the strength of the gate, but also its splendor testified
to the power and strength of the city. Gates controlled the entrance and
the exit to the city. Frequently they were closed at night for protection. In
some cases, the Israelites closed their gates for the Sabbath so that mer-
chandise could not be carried in and sold.
The gate area also functioned as the place where legal court was held.
For example, in Jerusalem the king apparently held court at the gate (Jer.
38:7). In fact, in Amos 5:12 and 5:15, where Amos cries out for justice
in the gates (i.e. at court), the niv translates the Hebrew word “gate” as
“courts.” Thus, Amos 5:17 reads, “Hate evil, love good; maintain justice
in the courts [lit., gates].”
For an enemy to “possess the gate” or to “sit at the gate” implies that
they both have captured the city and are currently ruling the city by hold-
ing court at the gate. Jeremiah 39:3 describes this situation as Jerusalem
falls to the Babylonians: “Then all the officials of the king of Babylon
came and took seats in the Middle Gate.”
Both of these practical aspects are connected to the prophetic use of
the gate image, a theme that starts in Genesis 3 and continues to the end
of Revelation. In Genesis 3:24, after God drives Adam and Eve from the
garden, God places cherubim to guard the way back in to the tree of life.
Although the specific word “gate” is not used in this passage, it seems
implied that the cherubim are guarding the “gate” into the garden, a
“type” of temple.
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178
Gematria
Gematria is a mathematical-based “Bible code” that has been explored
and expounded within the mystical branch of Judaism referred to as
Kaballah since the Middle Ages. The “code” works by correlating Hebrew
letters with numbers. The Hebrew language can use the normal letters
of the alphabet not only to represent the sounds of words (as in English)
but also to represent numbers. Thus the first letter, aleph, can be used
as a letter for spelling words, or it can stand for the number 1. Likewise,
beth, the second letter of the alphabet, can also stand for 2, and so forth
through the alphabet up to the number 9. Then the consecutive letters
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represent 10, 20, 30, and so on, up to 90, followed by letters representing
100 to 900, and so forth.
In Gematria, the letters in certain words are analyzed for their math-
ematical value and then equated with other words that have the same
value. For example, the Hebrew word for father is comprised of the two
letters aleph and beth. Aleph stands for 1 and beth stands for 2, so the sum
of the word is 3. Mother is comprised by the letters aleph (1) and mem (40),
so the sum of the word equals 41. The word for child has three letters — -
yod (10), lamed (30), and dalet (4), which equals 44. So father (3) plus
mother (41) equals child (44).
This example illustrates a simple type of analysis with Gematria. The
mechanics of Gematria, however, can be extremely complicated, employ-
ing various types of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
How should we evaluate Gematria in regard to prophecy? First of all,
even though the proponents of Gematria sometimes develop some pretty
far-fetched and fanciful connections, the notion that the authors of the
Old Testament used the Hebrew number values of letters to make inten-
tional word connections is at least plausible. Numbers are often symbolic
in biblical Hebrew. Furthermore, the literature of other ancient Near
Eastern cultures occasionally used number cryptograms to refer to their
gods or kings. Also, the authors of the Old Testament frequently used
other sophisticated literary devices. So it is not out of the realm of pos-
sibility that the biblical authors played some number games as well.
However, this is probably not the case with Gematria, and it is doubt-
ful whether these number connections were placed in the text intention-
ally by either the divine or the human authors. John Davis points out that
there is no evidence that Hebrew letters were used to represent numbers
until several hundred years after the Old Testament era was over. In other
words, not only in the Hebrew Scriptures, but also in the Dead Sea Scrolls
and in early Hebrew inscriptions, numbers are always written out in full
text and are never represented by letters.47
In all likelihood, therefore, Gematria is a result of coincidence, made
possible by the shear volume of number possibilities in the Hebrew text of
the Old Testament. Thus Christians should probably reject this approach
for interpreting the Old Testament, but reject it cautiously, remaining
open to the possibility that some Old Testament writers may have used
some aspect of number symbology as another sophisticated literary device
(see numbers, numerology).
In the New Testament the possibility of Gematria is much more plausible,
because by that time, individual alphabet letters were being used to represent
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numbers. Thus it is possible, for example, to interpret 666, the number of the
beast in Revelation 13:18, as being a number developed by adding up the num-
ber values of an individual’s name. Some writers suggest that the total number
sum of the Hebrew equivalent letters for Nero Caesar produces the number 666
(see nero; six hundred sixty-six). A symbolic representation like this based
on number values of letters is a form of Gematria.
Gematria has been used by branches of mystical Judaism for hundreds
of years. While it is doubtful that it contains predictive or prophetic ele-
ments in the Old Testament, it is nonetheless fascinating and it may even
be present in the New Testament. But it should not be confused with the
modern ELS type so-called “Bible Code,” which has no validity or cred-
ibility (see bible codes).
Genesis, Book of
Genesis introduces many of the major themes of biblical prophecy. This is
especially true in regard to the big picture of the biblical story and how it
unfolds prophetically. One of the major thematic plots or sequences run-
ning throughout Scripture is the following paradigm: (1) creation/bless-
ing; (2) sin; (3) exile/separation; and (4) restoration/blessing/redemption.
This sequence is played out several times in the life of the nation Israel,
but it is also part of the big picture of the Bible and is a critical element in
biblical prophecy (see revelation, book of).
Genesis introduces this “big picture” in the first twelve chapters. Gen-
esis 1 – 2 describes the wonderful “creation” of God and the tremendous
“blessings” associated with it. Genesis 3 presents the disobedience of
Adam and Eve (“sin”) and their expulsion from the garden of blessing
and the associated loss of the presence of God (“exile”). Likewise Gen-
esis 4 – 11 shows how this pattern of disobedience and exile is typical for
humanity in general. In these few chapters three terrible events occur.
Cain kills his brother Abel, humanity sins so badly that God destroys all
but a remnant in the flood (see remnant), and the people of the world
unite to rebel against God at the Tower of Babel, only to be scattered
across the world. The human race is not off to a good start.
Genesis 12, however, introduces Abraham and the Abrahamic Cov-
enant, and with it the story of God’s redemption/restoration begins to
unfold. The promises made to Abraham in Genesis 12 – 22 are founda-
tional for much of biblical prophecy. The fulfillment of these promises
drives the biblical story throughout the rest of the Old Testament and into
the New Testament (see abrahamic covenant).
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182
Satan introduces sin into Satan and sin are judged 19:11 – 21;
world 20:7 – 10
Sinful people sent away God’s people have their 20:4 – 6, 15;
from life names written in the book 21:6, 27
of life
Sin brings pain and tears God comforts his people 21:4
and removes crying and
pain
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Sinful people banished God lives among his people 21:3, 7, 22; 22:4
from God’s presence
Sin enters the world Sin banished from God’s 21:8, 27; 22:15
city
184
185
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others as well. Believers in Christ will share in the future glory (Phil.
3:20 – 21; C ol. 3:4).
In Revelation the interconnected themes of glory and presence come
to their climactic conclusion. In the new Jerusalem, God’s presence is
once again equated with the glory of God, eliminating the need for a
Temple (Rev. 21:22) or for sunlight, because the glory of God shines with
such brightness (21:11, 23; see presence of god).
Goat
Daniel 8:5 – 14, 21 – 26 prophesy that Alexander the Great (symbolized
as a goat) will destroy the Medo-Persian empire (symbolized as a two-
horned ram), which indeed took place in 334 – 331 b.c., thanks to the
Greek king’s swift, phalanx-style army. Daniel 8 alludes to the fact that
after Alexander’s death in 331 b.c., his empire would be divided up among
his four generals (symbolized as four horns on the goat): Cassander (who
controlled Macedonia), Lysimachus (who ruled Thrace), Ptolemy I (who
secured Egypt), and Seleucid I (who eventually reigned over Syria). The
last two-mentioned generals factor heavily in Daniel’s prophecies because
of their influence on ancient Israel in times leading up to and including
the Maccabean revolt (167 b.c.)
Daniel 8:9 – 14, 23 – 26 also mention that one horn would arise out of
the four horns on the goat, probably referring to Antiochus IV Epiphanes,
the Seleucid ruler who caused such affliction for Israel from 171 to 164
b.c. (see antiochus epiphanes). Some interpreters see a contradiction
between Daniel 2/7 and Daniel 8. The former is thought to present the
Medo-Persian kingdom as two separate entities whereas the latter presents
them as one. However, the contradiction is only apparent, because Daniel
8, in mentioning the two horns on the ram, alludes to the two nations of
Media and Persia, but now as combined. (See four beasts of daniel.)
God of Heaven
“God of Heaven” is the title used of God in Daniel 2:18, 19: cf. 2:28, 36,
44. It is also used several times in Ezra and Nehemiah. Thus the title is
used only by Jews in the exile, suggesting that the name has connotations
that are specific to the exile situation. In most of the other Old Testament
books, one of the major names used for God is Yahweh (i.e., the Lord).
This is the personal name of the God of Israel, and it is used primarily in
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covenant contexts. The more general name for God is Elohim, a name that
implies more of a universal, aspect of God.
Thus when the Jews of the exile, and Daniel in particular, use “God
[Elohim] of heaven” rather than the personal, covenant keeping name
(Yahweh), the suggested implication is that the old Mosaic Covenant is
not operational. Moreover, the title may reflect the reality that God is in
control of the destinies of all of the kingdoms of world history, not just
Israel’s destiny.
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Golden Censor
The golden censor or bowl is mentioned in Revelation 5:8; 15:7; 16:1 – 4,
8, 10, 12, 17; 17:1; 21:9. All these references draw on the background of the
Old Testament liturgy of the Temple with its altars, menorah, bowls of
incense, and the like. The background of the gold censor may also derive
from the early Jewish notion that angels functioned as heavenly priests of
God. But Revelation combines these backgrounds to give a negative twist
to the usage of golden censors by angels, for they represent God’s wrath to
be poured out on unbelievers during the Great Tribulation as part of the
answer to the prayers of persecuted Christians (see great tribulation).
Gomer
Gomer is one of the nations allied against Israel in the future invasion
described in Ezekiel 38. Most scholars identify Gomer with the Cim-
merians, a people originally from north of Assyria who migrated south
into Asia Minor (modern Turkey) during the eighth to seventh centuries
b.c. to flee the invasion of another tribe, the Scythians. The Cimmerians
were defeated by the Assyrians and then assimilated into the surround-
ing peoples through intermarriage; thus they disappear from history
around the sixth century b.c. Ezekiel appears to use Gomer and the other
six nations listed in Ezek. 38:1 – 6 to symbolize the worldwide nature of
the alliance that opposes Israel in the eschatological (end-time) battle he
describes (see gog and magog).
Great Prostitute
Revelation contrasts two women who are also represented as cities: God’s
people as the faithful bride of Christ (the new Jerusalem) and the great
prostitute (Babylon). In the Old Testament, Israel herself could appear
either as a pure bride (e.g., Isa. 54:5 – 6; 62:5; Hos. 2:19 – 20) or as a disobe-
dient prostitute or adulteress (e.g., Jer. 3:6 – 10; Ezek. 16:15 – 22; 23:1 – 49;
Hos. 4:12 – 13; 5:3), depending on her relationship with God at the time.
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Occasionally the harlot is not Israel, but foreign evil empires such as
Nineveh (Nah. 3:4) or Tyre (Isa. 23:17). Along with the prostitute back-
ground in the Old Testament, the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon
adds another dimension to the harlot image in Revelation. As the political
and religious center of a world empire, Babylon was well known for materi-
alism and immorality. She conquered Jerusalem in 587/586 b.c., establish-
ing her fame as a powerful enemy of God’s people. Revelation combines the
images of the great city Babylon with that of a harlot or prostitute to describe
a corrupting center of pagan power. The image appears in Revelation as the
“prostitute” (Rev. 17:1, 5, 15, 16; 19:2), the “great city” (Rev. 16:19; 17:18;
18:10, 16, 18, 19, 21), and “Babylon” (Rev. 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21).
Revelation focuses on the prostitute as the recipient of God’s judg-
ment, and deservedly so. She has allied herself with the beast from the sea
(Rev. 17:3, 7) as well as demonic spirits (18:2, 23). Babylon’s widespread
influence (17:1, 15, 18) on the nations is corrupting because of her own
idolatry and immorality (17:4 – 5). On several occasions she is said to make
the nations drunk with the “maddening wine of her adulteries” (14:8;
17:2; 18:3, 9), indicating how she seduces the nations with her idolatry and
immorality.
Babylon’s corrupting influence spreads easily because of her affluence
and materialism. She dresses in purple and scarlet (symbolic of luxury and
royalty) and adorns herself with gold and precious stones (Rev. 17:4). The
merchants grow rich from “her excessive luxuries” (18:3; cf. 18:7). Revela-
tion 18 goes into detail about the prostitute’s wealth and economic influ-
ence. Even in this extended description of her prosperity, the focus stays on
her downfall as kings, merchants, and mariners lament her demise.
Although self-sufficient and independent (Rev. 18:7), Babylon’s down-
fall will be sudden and dramatic (18:8, 10, 21). Those who profited from
her wealth will mourn and weep as they observe her “torment” (18:15)
and “ruin” (18:19). God even uses the beast to bring judgment on the
prostitute (17:16 – 17). All the normal routines of work and family life
cease as the great city faces God’s judgment (18:21 – 23). Revelation leaves
no doubt that the almighty God has made the prostitute to drink from the
“cup filled with the wine of the fury of his wrath” (16:19; cf. 18:6, 8).
Babylon, the great prostitute, faces God’s judgment chiefly because she
has persecuted the followers of Jesus Christ. John saw “the woman drunk
with the blood of the saints, the blood of those who bore testimony to
Jesus” (Rev. 17:6). He adds that in the “great city” was found “the blood of
prophets and of the saints, and of all who have been killed on the earth”
(18:24). God’s judgment on the prostitute is severe because “her sins are
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piled up to heaven, and God has remembered her crimes” (18:5). The
angel calls for rejoicing as God vindicates his people by destroying Baby-
lon: “Rejoice over her, O heaven! Rejoice, saints and apostles and proph-
ets! God has judged her for the way she treated you” (18:20). But believers
are also commanded to “come out of her, my people, so that you will not
share in her sins, so that you will not receive any of her plagues” (18:4).
Historically, the great prostitute has been identified as Rome, the secu-
lar center of political, economic, religious, and military power of the first-
century world that opposed God and persecuted his people. But even if
ancient Rome lies behind the image, it does not exhaust its meaning. By
extension, every age boasts of great centers of materialism, pagan power,
and corruption that draw people away from God and threaten his people.
But, as Stephen Smalley reminds us, “in the end, the powers of evil serve
the purposes of the sovereign God, in addition to being condemned by
him.”50 (See babylon/babylonians; bride of the lamb; new jerusa-
lem; rome/roman empire.)
Great Tribulation
The Bible uses the term “tribulation” to refer to the distress, trouble, perse-
cution, and suffering experienced by believers as a result of living faithfully
in a world opposed to God (see tribulation). When the world encounters
the truth of God in the gospel, it responds with tribulation and persecution
for those who bear witness. The expression “the Great Tribulation” is taken
by most scholars to refer to an unprecedented period of intense suffering
that will characterize the time just prior to Christ’s return.
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The phrase “Great Tribulation” (thlipsis megas) only occurs four times
in the New Testament: Matthew 24:21; Acts 7:11; Revelation 2:22 and 7:14
(see chart). The reference in Acts describes a time of intense suffering
caused by a famine during the time of the patriarchs. In Revelation 2:22
Jesus warns the followers of Jezebel, the false prophetess who is promoting
immorality and idolatry, that he will make them “suffer intensely” (see
jezebel). Here the expression refers to Jesus’ judgment on the unrepen-
tant followers of a false teacher.
Matthew 24:21 occurs in the context of Jesus’ Olivet Discourse in Mat-
thew 24 – 25. The immediate context (24:4 – 31) may be divided into four
parts: (1) 24:4 – 14 describes the “birth pains” that will occur throughout
the entire age of the church (e.g., wars, famines, earthquakes, persecution,
apostasy, false prophets); (2) 24:15 – 20 portrays the horrifying destruc-
tion of the Jerusalem Temple in a.d. 70 (cf. Luke 21:20 – 24; Dan. 9:27;
11:31; 12:11); (3) Matt. 24:21 – 28 spells out the period known as the “great
distress” that immediately precedes Jesus’ return (Mark 13:19; cf. Dan.
12:1); and (4) Matt. 24:29 – 31 depicts the return of Christ.
Some see all of Matthew 24:15 – 28 as describing the “Great Tribula-
tion” rather than dividing the unit into two sections. They understand
Jesus to be interweaving prophetic elements throughout 24:15 – 28 that
relate both to his generation and to the end times. Others see the entire
period from a.d. 70 to Jesus’ return as the time of “great distress.” The par-
allel passage in Luke 21:20 – 24 suggests that the destruction of Jerusalem
would be followed by a long period of Gentile domination. In summary,
the “great distress” of Matthew 24:21 refers to a period of intense tribula-
tion and persecution at the end of the age just prior to Jesus’ return.
Assuming that believers will be present during that time, Jesus assures
his disciples that those days will be shortened “for the sake of the elect”
(24:22). He appears to be using the near event of the destruction of the
Temple in Jerusalem in a.d. 70 to predict the far event of the Great Tribu-
lation that immediately precedes his return.
Following the sealing of the 144,000 in Revelation 7:1 – 8, John sees a
“great multitude that no one can count, from every nation, tribe, people
and language, standing before the throne and in front of the Lamb” (7:9).
They are wearing white robes, holding palm branches, and crying out
praises to God and the Lamb (7:10). The angels, elders, and four living
creatures join the great multitude in praising God (7:11 – 12).
Then one of the elders asks John, “These in white robes — who are
they, and where did they come from?” (Rev. 7:13). After John pleads igno-
rance, the elder provides the answer: “These are they who have come out
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of the great tribulation; they have washed their robes and made them
white in the blood of the Lamb” (7:14). Who are these people and what
does it mean that they have come out of “the great tribulation”?
The immediate context demonstrates that the entire episode refers
to an event that has already occurred rather than one in the process of
occurring. Because of the past-tense verbs in Revelation 7:13 (“did . . .
come”) and in 7:14 (“washed” and “made white”), the present-tense parti-
ciple is properly translated as a past tense (“those who have come out of”)
rather than as a present tense (“those who are in the process of coming
out of”). Their identification as those who have “washed their robes and
made them white in the blood of the Lamb” probably alludes to the test-
ing and purifying process explained in Daniel 11:35 and 12:10.
In those passages the “wise” will for a time fall by the sword or be
burned or captured or plundered, and even stumble, but will eventually
be “refined, purified, and made spotless until the time of the end.” Thus,
washing their robes white in Christ’s blood in Revelation 7:14 likely refers
to their perseverance through tribulation made possible by their reli-
ance on and faithful witness to the atoning death of Christ — the “blood
of the Lamb” (cf. 3:18; 6:9 – 11; 12:11; 22:14). Consequently, the people
described in 7:14 are believers who have faithfully persevered times of
terrible persecution and tribulation.
There is disagreement about whether this group of believers is to be iden-
tified with the church or (for those holding to a pretribulation rapture) with
other saints who have become Christians during the Tribulation. While
all these believers have persevered faithfully, scholars also disagree about
whether all have been martyred. Some interpret the metaphor of washing
white robes in blood as necessitating martyrdom (Aune, Bauckham, Wal-
voord), while others see the metaphor as a reference to persevering faith that
may result in martyrdom, but doesn’t always (Beale, Smalley).
What is this great ordeal that these people have survived? Daniel 12:1
supplies the likely background for the phrase “the Great Tribulation”:
At that time Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will
arise. There will be a time of distress such as has not happened from the
beginning of nations until then. But at that time your people — everyone
whose name is found written in the book — will be delivered.
In Daniel, God’s people are persecuted because of their covenant rela-
tionship with God (Dan. 11:30, 32), so that some even turn away from
the faith. Yet those who trust in the Lord (i.e., “everyone whose name is
found written in the book”) will ultimately be delivered. Some will be
“delivered” through resurrection from the dead (Dan. 12:2).
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on how one understands 20:4 – 5: “They came to life and reigned with
Christ a thousand years. (The rest of the dead did not come to life until
the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection.” If the first
resurrection of 20:5 is limited to the martyrs, then the great white throne
likely involves both righteous and unrighteous. If the first resurrection
includes all believers, then the second resurrection of 20:13 includes only
the wicked.
Some see Revelation 20:12 as describing the judgment of believers
and 20:13 – 15 the judgment of unbelievers.51 Most scholars see the Great
White Throne Judgment as a general judgment of the entire human race,
righteous and unrighteous alike. The statement in 20:13 that the sea,
death, and Hades give up their dead for judgment appears to affirm
the idea of a universal judgment. No one will escape resurrection and
judgment.
Judgment is based on the evidence in “the books,” probably referring
to a person’s words and actions during their lifetime (Rev. 20:12; cf. Dan.
7:10). People are “judged according to what they had done as recorded in
the books” (Rev. 20:12 – 13). The theme of judgment by works appears
throughout Revelation (2:23; 11:18; 14:13; 18:16; 22:12), as well as the
rest of the New Testament (e.g., Matt. 16:27; Rom. 14:12; 1 Cor. 3:12 – 15;
2 Cor. 5:10; 1 Peter 1:17). Although the exact nature of this judgment is
not specified here, in other contexts the recompense may include posi-
tive aspects of reward as well as negative aspects of punishment (see
rewards).
Along with “the books,” another book is opened — the “book of life”
(Rev. 20:12, 15). The book of life image appears in 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:12,
15; 21:27, always as a record of salvation or redemption. Those whose
names are written in the book of life will be given eternal life, while those
whose names are not included will suffer condemnation (see book of
life). If Christians do appear before the great white throne (a matter of
debate), they can take comfort in knowing that their names are written
in the book of life. The final judgment concludes with death and Hades,
and anyone whose name is not found in the book of life is “thrown into
the lake of fire” (20:14), where the beast, false prophet, and Satan are
already suffering torment (19:20; 20:10). The lake of fire is “the second
death” (20:15).
This age concludes with God’s righteous and holy judgment of sin and
sinners. The last enemy (death) is decisively eliminated. Now the new age
may begin in full (Rev. 21). (See judgment; judgment seat of christ;
last judgment.)
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Greece
Greece occurs in connection with biblical prophecy in Daniel 2, 7, 8, and
11. The first two references are debated. Some equate Greece with the
third empire mentioned in 2:39b (the kingdom of bronze) and in 7:6 (the
leopard). Others equate Greece with the fourth empire in 2:40 – 43 (iron
and clay) and in 7:7 – 8, 19 – 25 (the hideous beast). The latter reading
believes, therefore, that the fulfillment of Daniel’s prophecy of the four
kingdoms concluded with ancient Greece. The former interpretation
identifies Daniel’s fourth kingdom with a future, revived Roman empire.
(See alexander the great; four beasts of daniel.)
But concerning Daniel 8:21 – 22 and 11:2 – 4, all agree that Greece is
the object of Daniel’s prophecy and, in particular, the conquest of Alex-
ander the Great over the Persian empire as well as the subsequent fourfold
division of the Greek empire after Alexander’s death in 323 b.c.
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