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China and its Neighbours: troubled relations

ChinaanditsNeighbours:troubledrelations
ByWenwenShen
1March2012

Asthemostpopulouscountryintheworldandthirdlargestinarea,Chinaalsohasthe largestnumberofneighbours(14)sharingits22,000kmlandbordersnamely:North Korea,Russia,Mongolia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Afghanistan,Pakistan, India,Nepal,Bhutan,Myanmar,LaosandVietnam.Chinahashad,orstillhas,border issueswithsomeofitsneighbours.ThebiggestoutstandingborderissueiswithIndia. ThispaperreviewstheoriginsofChinasborderdisputeswithitsneighbours,thecurrentstateofdevelopment,anddiscusses whatcanbedonetoovercomethechallengesChinaisfacingintheregion. NorthKorea NorthKorea(DRPK),Chinasclosestally,sharesa1,416kilometrelongborder,whichhasbeenmainlydefinedbytworivers, theYaluandtheTumen,asagreedbetweenbothsidesinthe1962,SinoKoreanbordertreaty.Thereare,however,disputes mainlyconcerningthedemarcationlineinthemiddleoftherivers,ownershipofislandsandparticularlyMountPaektu,which isthehighestpeakintheregionandthesourceofthetworivers.AnothersourceoftensionisaccesstotheSeaofJapan. SincethelastpartoftheTumenriverdefinestheborderbetweentheDRPKandRussia,ChinahasnoaccesstotheSeaof Japanwhichhasfurtherimplicationsonitsmilitarystrategyintheregion.IntheYellowSea,aneconomicandfishingzone hasbeendrawnunilaterallybytheNorthKoreans200milesofftheChinesecoast.Unliketheborderdemarcationbetween theDPRKandRussia,whichwasrenegotiatedintheearly1990s,theterritorialandmaritimedisputesbetweenNorthKorea andChinahavenotbeeneffectivelyresolved,largelyduetoChinasunwillingnesstonegotiateandtheDPRKsdependence onChina,bothpoliticallyandeconomically.Butthesedisputeshardlyconstituteaseriousprobleminrelationsbetweenthe twocountries. Russia Chinasharesitssecondlongestborderof4,300kmwithRussia.Thedisputedareaintheeasternbordermainlyconcerns ZhenbaoIsland(DamanskyinRussian)ontheUsuriRiverandsomeislandsontheAmurandArgunriverssituatedinChinas northerntip.Chinaclaimshistoricalownershipoverthesedisputedterritoriesarguingthatunfairtreatiesweresigned betweentheQingEmpireandTsaristRussiainthe19thcentury.TheUSSRrefusedtoacceptthisinterpretationandinsisted onitsownership.Althoughbothsidesreachedapreliminaryagreementintheearly1960sthatZhenbaoIslandwouldbe underChinesesovereignty,borderclashestookplacethatlastedforsevenmonthsin1969.Laterthatyear,therewere furtherconflictsinthePamirMountainsthatlayonthewesternborderofChinasXinjiangUygherAutonomousRegionand Tajikistan.Consequently,SinoSovietrelationssouredafterthe1969conflict.Seriousbordernegotiationsdidnottakeplace untilthefalloftheSovietUnionin1991.ThequestionofcontroloverZhenbaoIsland,andthreeotherislandsintheAmur andArgunriverswerefinallysettledin1995and2004respectively,whilstthedemarcationofthewesternborderwas completedin2008.In2011,HeixiaziIsland(BolshoyUssuryskyIsland),onceaboneofcontentionattheconfluenceofthe AmurandUssuruirivers,wasofficiallyopenedupasanecotourismzoneafterRussiahadcededhalfofthe335squarekm islandtoChinain2004.BothsidesnowrefertoeachotherasstrategicpartnersandarefellowmembersoftheBRICS. Mongolia HavingbeentakenoverbyChinaintheYuanDynasty(12711364)andgainedinternationalrecognitionofitsindependence in1946,Mongoliasharesaborderof4677kmwithChina,thelongestforbothcountries.TheSinoMongolianbordertreaty wassignedin1962,andafinalagreementontheexactdemarcationoftheborderwasreachedin2005.Chinaincreasingly turnstoMongoliatomeetitsenergyneeds.Interestingly,whenbothChinaandRussiaofferedin2008tobuildarailwayfrom theTavanTolgoimine,oneoftheworldslargestunexploitedcoaldeposits,usingdifferenttracksinoppositedirections,the Mongoliangovernmentdecidedtosynchronizetheopeningoftwoexportrailways,adoptingamiddlewayapproachto pleasebothsides.HavingbeeneffectivelyaSovietcolonyuntil1991,MongoliahassincedevelopedclosertieswithChina, notjustintradeandnaturalresourcesbutalsoonsecurityissues. Kazakhstan ChinaandKazakhstanshareaborderof1,700kminChinasvastNorthWesternprovinceofXinJiang.Borderdisputesdate backtoSoviettimes.WiththecollapseoftheSovietUnionin1990,thenewCentralAsiancountriesincludingKazakhstan tookovertheseborderdisputeswithChina.In1998,atreatywassignedbetweenChinaandKazakhstan,whichsettleda disputedareaof680squarekmneartheBaimurzpassandanother380squarekmareaneartheSaryCharndyRiver.When thetreatywassignedChinaofferedalucrativeeconomicpackageincludinginvestmentinoneofKazakhstansbiggestoil fields,a3,000kmgaspipelineacrossKazakhstananda15yeareconomiccooperationprogramme.Acloserelationshipwith KazakhstanservesChinaslongterminterestsintheregion,botheconomicallyandstrategically.Notonlydoesitrelease ChinafromrelyingexcessivelyonimportedoilfromtheMiddleEastthroughalengthyandriskyshippingroutebutitserves asabufferzonebetweenChinaandRussia.KazakhstanisincreasinglyimportantforChinaintermsofsecuritycooperation, especiallycombatingUighurseparatism. Kyrgyzstan AswithKazakhstan,theborderdisputebetweenChinaandKyrgyzstanisthelegacyofSoviettimes.Anagreementwas reachedin1999,whichdefines900outof1,100kmoftheKyrgyzChineseborder.Accordingly,Kyrgyzstanreceived70%of thedisputedterritoryincludingthe7,000mpeakofKhanTengriinTienShan,whilstChinareceived9squarekmof mountainousareaoftheUzengiKushlocatedsouthoftheIssykKulRegion.Thesigningoftheagreementprovokedsome heatedreactionintheKyrgyzparliamentasthethenPresidentAkayevwasconsideredtraitorousandnearlyousted.The demarcationoftheboundarywasfinallycompletedin2009.AsaresultofethnictensionsinKyrgyzstan,Chinatemporarily closeditsborderin2010.ChinahasofferedtohelpKyrgyzstanbuildapowergridintheSouth,whichwouldbethelargest intergovernmentalprojectbetweenthetwocountries. Tajikistan AfterreachingborderagreementswithKyryzstanandKazakhstan,ChinasbordernegotiationswithTajikistanlaggedbehind duetothecivilwarinTajikistan.In1999anagreementwasreachedinwhichChinawouldgainsovereigntyoveranareaof 1,000squarekminthePamirMountains,lyingontheTajikborderwithChinaandAfghanistan,lessthan5.5%ofwhatChina hadoriginallyclaimed.Chinassubstantialconcessioninthisbordersettlementisbelievedtobecloselyassociatedwiththe surgeofviolenceinXinjiangprovincesincetheearly1990s.ChinalookstoCentralAsiangovernmentstocrackdownon IslamicfundamentalismandUighurseparatism. Afghanistan ChinaandAfghanistansharethe210kmborderknownastheWakhanCorridor,situatedbetweenBadakhashanProvincein AfghanistanandtheXinjiangUyghurAutonomousRegion.Historically,acaravantradeoffruitandteaflourishedinthe Wakhancorridorforcenturies.Borderdisputesintheareaweresettledasearlyas1963.DuringmostoftheColdWarperiod, ChinahadveryfriendlyrelationswithAfghanistan.However,relationswiththeTalibanregimewereveryhostileasthe TalibanwasastaunchsupporteroftheUyghurseparatistsandtheEastTurkestanIslamicMovement.In2009,theAfghan governmentproposedtoopentheborderasanalternativesupplyroutetohelpcombattheTaliban.Tocooperatewith Afghanistan,Chinaadoptedanearnestandpositiveattitudeovertransport,tradeandeconomy.InDecember2011,the AfghangovernmentsignedadealwithChinasNationalPetroleumCorporation(CNPC)allowingtheCNPCtoexploitnatural gasandoilinthecountrysnortheastthatcouldearnAfghanistan$7billionoverthenext25years. Pakistan Fouryearsonfromitsindependencein1947,PakistanestablisheddiplomaticrelationswithChina,oneyearafterIndia.At thetime,therewereunresolvedborderissuestowhichneithersidepaidseriousattention.AftertheSinoIndianwarin1962, ChinaandPakistanbecamealignedwitheachother,eventhoughtheyclearlydidnotsharethesamepoliticalvalues.Asa

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China and its Neighbours: troubled relations

resultofaborderagreementin1963,Chinaceded1,942sqkmtoPakistaninexchangeforPakistansrecognitionofChinese sovereigntyoverpartsofNorthKashimirandLadakh.ThisagreementisconsideredeconomicallybeneficialforPakistanand bilateralrelationsbetweenPakistanandChinahavesinceimprovedsignificantly.Currently,ChinaandPakistansharea523 kmlongborder,endingneartheKarakoramPass.Therearenoborderdisputesbetweenthem.Chinahassidedwith PakistaninthedisputethatKashmirdoesnotbelongtoIndia.IfandwhentheKashmirdisputeisresolvedtherewillneedto beanadditionalagreementbetweenPakistanandChina. India ThebordersbetweentheIndiansubcontinentandChinahavebeenpeacefulforthousandsofyearsandIndiawasamongthe firstnationstograntdiplomaticrecognitiontothePRCin1950.However,therehavebeendisputesovercompetinghistorical claims,partlyfuelledbytheBritishpenchantfordrawingadministrativelyconvenientbordersduringthecolonialperiod.Two territoriescurrentlyindisputeareAksaiChinandArunachalPradesh.AksaiChinisclaimedbyChinaaspartofHotanCounty intheHotanprefectureofXinjiangAutonomousRegionandbyIndiaasapartoftheLadakhdistrictofthestateofJammu andKashmir.Despitebeinganuninhabitableareawithnoresources,AksaiChinhasstrategicimportanceforChinaasit connectsTibetandXinjiang.In1957ChinacompletedbuildingaroadinAksaiChin,aboutwhichIndiadidnotknowuntila Chinesemapwaspublishedin1958. ArunachalPredesh,situatedinIndiasnortheasternborderhasbeenaseparatestatesince1986andisclaimedbyChinaas SouthernTibet.BritishAdministrator,SirHenryMcMahondrewupthe890kmMcMahonLinewhichdefinedtheborder betweenBritishIndiaandOuterTibetattheSimlaconferencein191314.WhiletheBritishandTibetanssignedthe resultingAccordtheChinesedidnot.Today,IndiastillrecognisestheMcMahonLineastheborderbuttheChinese disagree,citingArunachalPredeshasbeinggeographicallyandculturallypartofTibetsinceancienttimes.Aftertensions builtupfollowingtheDalaiLamasexileduringtheTibetanuprisingin1959,aSinoIndianwareruptedin1962overthis disputedHimalayanborder.ChinaswiftlydeclaredvictorybutvoluntarilywithdrewbacktotheMcMahonLine.AksaiChinand ArunachalPradeshremainsourcesoftensionsbetweenChinaandIndiaandbothsideshavenotmanagedtonegotiatean agreementastothepreciseborder.MeanwhiletradeandeconomictiesbetweenChinaandIndiahavedeveloped substantiallyinrecentyears. Nepal ChinaandNepalshareaborderof1,415km,whichwasdemarcatedaccordingtoa1961treaty.Therehasbeennomajor borderdisputesinceandChinasrelationswithNepalhavebeengenerallysmoothandfriendly.NepalconsidersChinaa majorsourceofinvestment,developmentaidandeconomicsupport,whereasChinaseesNepalasastrategicbufferstate againstIndiawithregardtoTibet.AlthoughNepalstoppedacceptingTibetanrefugeesinthe1980s,theyaregenerally allowedtocrossNepalontheirwaytoIndia,aninformalagreement,whichdoesnotseriouslyantagoniseChina. Bhutan AnotherbufferstatebetweenChinaandIndiaandatraditionalallywiththelatter,Bhutanhasnotestablishedofficialties withChina,thusrelationshavebeenfrosty.Bothsidesshareaborderofroughly470kmwithadisputedterritoryof495 squarekm.Althoughtherehavebeennegotiationsonbordersettlementinthelasttwodecades,theircompetingclaimshave notbeenreconciled. Burma/Myanmar BurmaestablishedofficialtieswiththePRCin1950,thefirstnonCommuniststatetorecogniseCommunistChina.Today, ChinaandBurmasharea2,185kmborderbasedontheborderagreementof1960.Relationsbetweenbothsideswere volatilethroughouttheColdWar,largelyduetoallegeddiscriminationofethnicChinesewithinBurma.SinceChinastarted supportingthemilitaryjuntain1986,theBurmeseregimehasbecomehighlydependentontheChinesebothfinanciallyand militarily,especiallyafterthecrackdownontheprodemocracymovementin1988inBurma.TodayChinaisthelargesttrade partnerforBurma.WhilstChinahasbeenhelpingBurmabuilditsinfrastructureanddevelopitsindustries,Burmainreturn offersChinaoil,gasandothernaturalresources.Theeconomicrelationsbetweenthecountrieshavestrongpolitical connotations.ChinahadforyearsshelteredtheBurmesemilitaryjuntafromUNsanctionsandensureditsdomesticstability. Burma,ontheotherhand,isimportantforChina,notjustforitsnaturalresources,butitsstrategiclocationinSouthAsia. However,agrowingnumberofproblemsonbothsides,evidencedbythesuddenhaltoftheMyitisonedamprojectand incidentsontheMekongriver,haveshownthelimitationsoftheirrelationship.In2009,violentclashesbetweentheBurmese governmentandtheKokang,agroupofarmedrebelsinnorthernBurma,resultedinChinesecasualtiesandBurmese refugeesfloodingintotheChineseprovinceofYunan.FearingtheescalatingviolencewouldthreatenChinasbordersecurity andeconomicinterestsinBurma,Chinarepeatedcalledforaceasefire. Laos Chinasharesaborderof505kmwithLaosbasedonabordertreatysignedin1991.AlthoughSinoLaosrelationswere strainedduringtheColdWarduetoChinasinvolvementinCambodiaandVietnam,diplomaticrelationshavebeen normalisedsincetheearly1990sandChinahasbecomethelargestforeigninvestorinLaos. Vietnam Chinasharesalandborderof1,300kmwithVietnam.Forcenturies,VietnamwassubjecttoChinesedominationresultingin conflictsandinvasions.DuringtheVietnamWar(19541975),ChinawastheallyofNorthVietnamagainstSouthVietnam anditsally,theUnitedStates.FollowingtheVietnameseinvasionandoccupationofCambodiain1976,relationswith Beijingdeterioratedandin1979ChinainvadedandfoughtashortbutbloodywarwithVietnam.Whilebothsidesclaimed victoryeachsufferedheavycasualties.Aborderagreementwaseventuallysignedin1999followingborderskirmishes throughoutthe1980s.In2007,thebuildingoftheHanoiKunminghighwaywasannouncedthatmarkedasignificant improvementinSinoVietnameserelations.WhileChinahasnowbecomethesecondlargesttradingpartnerandthelargest sourceofimportsforVietnam,tensionsoverterritorialissueswererecentlyrekindledovertheSpratlyIsland,anoilricharea intheSouthChinaSea. MaritimeBorders BesidestheobviouscrossstraitrelationswithTaiwan,Chinasharesmaritimeborderswithfourcountries,JapanandSouth KoreaintheEastChinaSea,thePhilippinesandVietnamintheSouthChinaSea.Thesebordersarenotagreedandthe subjectofcontinuingdisputes.IntheEastChinaSea(1,249,000sqkm),ChinaiscurrentlyindisputewithJapanandSouth Koreaovertheextentoftheirrespectiveexclusiveeconomiczones,eachresortingtodifferentpartsoftheUNConventions ontheLawoftheSea.IntheSouthChinaSea(3,500,000sqkm),oneoftheworldsbusiestwaterwayswithhugepotential oilandgasfieldstobeexploited,Chinaclaimsmostofthewaterbasedonhistoricalfactsandinternationallaw,aposition thatisdisputedbyitsallitsneighbours,particularlyVietnamandthePhilippines.ASEANhasattemptedtoresolvethe disputesthroughmultilateraltalksbutChinapreferstodealwitheachcountryonabilateralbasis.Anotherfactoristhe presenceoftheUSinthePacificanditsdeterminationtoupholdfreedomofnavigation.Chinahasexpressedconcernatthe Americanplanstoincreaseitsmilitarypresenceintheregion. Conclusion Chinahasclearlybeensuccessfulinresolvingborderdisputeswithmostofitsneighboursinawinwinsituationsincethe 1990s.TheCentralAsianbordersweretheeasiesttoresolvewithChinabeingwillingtomakeconcessionstoenlistthe supportofthesegovernmentsincombatingaperceivedsecuritythreat.Theborderswiththetwofellowmembersofthe UNSCweremoredifficult.IttookadecadetoreachagreementwithRussiaandtheborderwithIndiaremainsunresolved.It is,however,themaritimebordersthathavecausedmosttroubleinthepasttwoyearswithChinabeingaccusedof increasinglyassertivebehaviourtowardsitsneighbours. ItmaybeusefulforChinatoreverttothediplomaticlanguageitusedduringitspeacefulriseinordertoassureits neighboursthatitisnotabully.WhetherChinacanregaintherespectofitsneighboursthatithadduringtheeraofthe MiddleKingdomremainstobeseen.ItwillbeadifficultbalancingactforChinaontheonehanddemonstratingthatitis backasamajorpowerafterthecenturyofhumiliationandontheotherwishingtoberegardedasanimportantbutpeaceful neighbour.ThelastthingthatChinaneedsinitscurrentsituationisanarmedconflictwithanyofitsneighbours.Inaneraof growingpoliticalandeconomicinterdependencesuchadevelopmentcouldonlyimpactnegativelyonChina.

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Population Area

China and its Neighbours: troubled relations

Lengthof TotalGDP land border 1,416km 4,300km $40billion

GDPper Diplomatic Capital Relations

NorthKorea 24,052,23 Russia Mongolia 143,030,106 2,754,685

120,540km2 17,075,400km2

$1,900

1949 1949 1987 1992 1992 1992 1955 1950 1950 1947 N/A 1948 1961

$2.376trillion $13,235 $12.237billion $3,174 $214.840billion $10,951 $12.016billion $2,248 $14.311billion $2,190 $30.012billion $575 $482.913billion $2,851 $4.469trillion $3,703 $35.813billion $1,270 $3.875billion $1,978 $81.553billion $702 $15.693billion $2,435

1,564,115.75km2 4677km 2,724,900km2 199,900km2 143,100km2 647,500km2 796,095km2 1,700km 1,100km 414km 210km 523km 4,057km 1,415km 470km 2,185km 505km 1,300km

Kazakhstan 16,600,000 Kyrgyzstan 5,482,000 Tajikistan 7,995,754

Afghanistan 29,835,392 Pakistan India Nepal Bhutan Myanmar Laos Vietnam 177,100,000

1,210,193,422 3,287,263km2 29,331,000 708,427 60,280,000 6,500,000 90,549,390 147,181km2 38,394km2 676,578km2 236,800km2 331,210km2

$299.6billion $3,354.8 1950

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