SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

Was a pioneer in the study of human behavior and the human mind He was a doctor in Vienna, Austria, who gradually became interested in the problem of understanding mental illness

FREUDS VIEW OF THE SELF

ID- consists of the drives and instincts that Freud believed every human being inherits, but which for the most part remain unconscious

Of these instincts, two are most important:

1) the aggressive drive 2) the erotic or sexual drive (called libido).

Every feeling derives from these two drives.

SUPEREGO- represents societys norms and moral values as learned primarily from our parents.

The superego is the internal sensor. It is not inherited biologically, like the id, but is learned in the course of a persons socialization. The superego keeps trying to put the brakes on the ids impulsive attempts to satisfy its drives So, for instance, the superego must hold back the ids unending drive for sexual expression. The id and superego, then, are eternally at war with each other.

EGO- tries not only to mediate in the external conflict between id and superego but also to find socially acceptable ways for the ids drives to be expressed.

Unlike the id, the ego constantly evaluates social realities and looks for ways to adjust to them

Freud pictured the individual as constantly in conflict:

The instinctual drives of the id essentially, sex and aggression) push for expression, while at the same time the demands of society set certain limits on the behavior patterns that will be tolerated.

Even though the individual needs society, societys restrictive norms and values are a source of ongoing discontent Freuds theories suggest that society and the individual are enemies, with the latter yielding to the former reluctantl y and only out of compulsion

ERIK H. ERIKSON (1902-1994)

An artist turned Psychologist who studied under Freud in Vienna, published an influential book called Childhood and Society.

He built on Freuds theory of development but added two important elements:

1) he stressed that development is a lifelong process and that the person continues during adulthood 2) he paid greater attention to the social and cultural forces operating on the

to pass through new stages even

individual at each step along the way

8 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Each stage amounts to a crisis of sorts brought on by two factors: biological changes in the developing individual and social expectations and stresses

At each stage the individual is pulled in opposite directions to resolve the crisis In normal development, the individual resolves the conflict experienced at each stage somewhere toward the middle of the opposing options

For example, very few people are entirely trusting, and very few trust nobody at all. Most of us are able to trust at least some other people and thereby form enduring relationships, while at the same time staying alert to the possibility of being misled

Eriksons view of development has proved to be useful to sociologists because it seems to apply to many societies. Eriksons most valuable contribution to the study of human development has been to show that socialization continues througho ut a persons life and does not stop with childhood.

The task of building the self is lifelong; it can be considered our central task from cradle to grave. We construct the self- our identity- using materials made available to us by our culture and our society.

DANIEL LEVINSON (1920-1994)

A blending of Psychology and Sociology has taken place in the area of adult development. Through research in this field, we have come to recognize that there are predictable age-related developmental periods in the adult life cycle, as there are in the development cycles for children and adolescents. These periods are marked by a concerted effort to resolve particular life issues and goals.

Levinson (1978) did research in this area involving a male population. He recruited 40 men, aged 35 to 45, from four occupational groups: factory workers, novelists, business executives, and academic biologists

Each subject was interviewed several times during a 2-3 month period and again, if possible, in a follow-up session 2 years later. Later, Levinson (1996) repeated his study with 45 women in 3 broad categories: academics, corporate-financial careers, and homemakers.

From these studies, Levinson developed the foundation of his theory. He proposed that adults periodically are faced with new but predictable developmental tasks throughout their lives and that working through these challenges is the essence of adulthood.

Levinson believes the adult life course is marked by a continual series of building periods, followed by stable periods, and then followed again by periods in which attempts are made to change some of the perceived flaws in the previous design.

Levinson believed that both men and women go through the same periods of adult development, although there are differences due to the external and internal constraints. For example, gender role expectations in society or the biological demands of childbearing will influence how a woman works on the developmental tasks of ach stage.