Page 88 FIELD WORKSHOP - IGCP 514

WESTERN GHATS, NEOTECTONICS AND KERALA BLACKSAND

PLACERS: AN APPRAISAL

K.P. Thrivikramji

Professor of Geology (Retd), University of Kerala, Karuiavattom Campus 695 581, India
<thrivikramji@gmail.com>

Western ghats (WG), a.k.a Shyadri, roughly coinciding with west coast (WC) of peninsular
India and facing the Laccadive sea, is a 1300 km long and nearly contiguous (but for the
Palghat gap in Kerala) wall-like mountain, characterized by rather steep-western-slopes
interrupted only by a step-like-aspect (hence the name ghats) in the cross profiles. Stepped-
cross-profiles are indicative of multiple planation surfaces (i.e., due to repeated rejuvenations
or uplifts) of varying geological ages. The WC is marked by a relatively straight and long
shoreline flanking the WG escarpment, which is roughly 100 km away from the modern
shoreline
The near-straightness of WC is a consequence of its rifting process and passivity of a trailing
edge, which liberated the peninsula from the Gondwanaland to propel itself toward the Asian
plate (a continent-to-continent collision) in the north, to create the lofty fold mountain belt of
Himalayas. Rifting of Indian peninsula from the Madagascar-Seychelles marks the beginning
of creation and further evolution of the WC, with features like inland plateau, steep escarpment
and low-lying coastal land. Based on evidences available from the WC, Subrahmanya (2006)
states that doming occurred around 93.0 ma and rifting started by about 88.0 ma, marking the
origin of the WC of India and Shyadris. Subsequently, around 67.0 ma, Sahyadris and northern
part of WC witnessed exceptional levels of basaltic magmatism connected to the Re-union
hotspot.
Unlike the younger-fold-mountains, the WG is geologically heterogeneous, in that its northern
part is built on flow basalts of Deccan volcanism, while older Dharwar rocks of the Indian
shield underlie the central part and further to the south occurs the typical lithologies of southern
granulite terrain. Younger sedimentary fills (Age: Cenozoic) of both marine and non-marine
affinities have been located partly in the modern onshore and largely in the offshore and truly
the onshore occurrences are only extensions of the larger offshore Kerala- and Konkan-
basins.
Relief
In fact, the trinity of relief, climate and lithology (including structure) plays a major role in the
development of landforms by process of weathering and erosion Relief aspects of the WG
are as old as late Mesozoic coinciding with separation of peninsula from Madagascar-Seychelles
land mass and since then, this region underwent sub-aerial processes of weathering and
erosion. Moreover, relief has been demonstrated by geomorphologists as a critical factor in
controlling depth of weathering, steepness of surface and stream gradients, and hence in
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transfer of detritus down stream channels. In terrains of relatively higher relief and set in
moist tropical climate with clear wet and dry spells (like in tropical monsoon regime), the
amplitude of fluctuation of water table will be quite wide promoting good drainage in a thick
zone of rock cover leading to the formation of an exceptionally thick layer of gruss with a
capping of laterite. Presence of multiple planation surfaces in the WG itself needs to be taken
as evidences for rejuvenation of the relief of the landmass.
Climate
According to Radhakrishna (1993) the monsoon climate had dawned in the peninsula and
WG in particular from Eocene period (~46.0 ma B.P.) onwards. However, later investigators
fine tuned the monsoon circulation further. For example, Qiang et al (2001) reported evidences
for a stronger monsoon system at 3.5 ma and 2.6 ma, i.e., in Pliocene. But Shackleton et al
(1984) based on continental and marine paleo-climatic records proposed that since the onset
of glaciation around 2.5 ma, the strength of the Asian monsoon showed variability both on a
short-term and long-term perspective. Data records from China, Indian and N.Pacific oceans
denoted that Indian and east Asian monsoon systems were established about 8.0 ma ago (An
et al., 2001) or during Miocene. The foregoing data thus reiterates the fact that monsoon
system had perhaps undergone some degree of variation in respect of intensity during various
periods of earth's history.
Chemical weathering or Lateritisation
An extensive tract (~60%), closely spread over most of the midland region (Elv.=7.5 - 75.0
m) of Kerala, is literally clad with an ubiquitous cover of laterite (originally defined by
Bucchanan, a French traveler, in 1807 from Angadipuram in Malappuram Dist. Kerala)
manifesting as low-standing-nearly-flat-topped ridges and/or hills (or mesas) overlying the
Pre-Cambrian crystalline basement. Laterite capping is also noticed over the Tertiary
sedimentary fill, based on which An et al., 2001tended to identify a high-level laterite (residual
on primary rocks) and a low-level laterite (secondary capping the sedimentary fill).. Following
the line of King (1883), Narayanaswamy (2001) classified laterite into two, viz. primary
laterite forming in situ and secondary/detrital laterite forming by partial or complete consolidation
of transported "lateritic material".
Some authors described it as a product of tropical weathering of rocks by desilication as well
as enrichment of iron and/or aluminum (King, 1962). In general, estimating rate of weathering
has all along been a difficult proposition. Yet, some new approaches have been designed and
perfected by some workers. Table 1 shows the various estimates aggregated from several
field studies.
Table 1 Rate of Formation of Laterite
Proposer Region Rate (m/ma)
Freyssinet & Farrah (2000) French Guyana 3.0
Boeglin & Probst (1998) Up.Niger basin 1.3- 3.7
Thomas (1994) Tropical areas 22.0

In Kerala, two periods of lateritisation have been recognized, viz., one younger phase of post-
Warkalli times (vouched by a thick and ubiquitous Laterite capping on Warkalli sediments)
and an older phase that prepared and enhanced erodibility of source rocks of older Vaikom
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beds. Menon (1966), in yet another compelling piece of evidence from Karichal Cliffs, reported
the unconformable relation between altered Pc-basement rock (Khondalite) and overlying
Warkalli sediments, demarcated by an oligomictic conglomerate, in which clasts are bounded
by a crudely laminated sandy-bauxitic-matrix. Later Goplakrishnan and Nair (1976) re-
interpreted this conglomerate as an evidence lateritisation of Pre-Warkalli age and perhaps
equating with the Pre-Vaikom phase of lateritisation. Ubiquitous laterite caps occur at varying
elevations capping the Warkalli sediments at several sectors in the coastal land, like at Karichal,
Varkala beach, and Kannur.
Tectonism
Being a trailing edge, with a complex
lithological assemblage of variable
geological ages, i.e., ranging from
Proterozoic to Tertiary and modern, the WC
including the Shaydris contains a host of
evidences to underscore the active
tectonism of this land mass. Yet, evidences
of neotectonism, both in the Konkan and
Malabar coasts, are much more compelling
in comparison with paleotectonism.
Signatures and proxies of active tectonism
of the geologic past in peninsular India need
to be deciphered from landform features,
nature of drainage net, sedimentary
stratigraphy or sedimentation history,
presence of passive/dormant/active faults
or fault scarps and seismicity. The single
most important evidence for active
tectonism in the Peninsula is the fact that it
is perhaps the only land mass on planet
earth that had propelled from the southern
hemisphere to its present position in the
northern hemisphere. Multiple erosion or
planation surfaces in the WG is yet another
piece of data in support of the episodic
change in relief and hence rejuvenation of
landmass that occurred in tandem with
northerly and easterly movement of Fig.1 Major and minor lineaments, Kerala (Vardarajan
Peninsula. Regarding neo-tectonism and Nair, 1978)
(including Quaternary), evidences are immense. River terraces, knick points or cascades,
sharp turns in channel geometry, ponding of water in the channels with or with out accumulation
of fine sediment like silt and clay are some pieces of data in support of neotectonic adjustments
or disturbances in other wise quiescent river flow.
Indeed in the southern granulite terrain (of which Kerala is a part of), satellite imageries
show a large number of small, medium and large lineaments belonging to major (e.g., NW-
SE, NNW-SSE and N-S) and minor (e.g., NE-SW, NNE-SSW, and NW-SE) types, which
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primarily cut across lithological boundaries and even align themselves with the gross structure
of the basement rocks (Fig.1). Differential movement along some of these lineament sets,
co-promoted the formation of the proto-Vembanad Kayal basin. Similarly, down (gravity)
faulting along some sets of lineaments toward the end of Tertiary era and the emergence of
Warkalli sediment fill to subaerial conditions enabling lateritisation, created kayal basins of
proto-Sasthamlkotta and proto-Ashtamudi (Thrivikramji et al. 2007).
The remarkable presence of the Tertiary sedimentary rocks below the ground, but at varying
depths, between Neendakara in the south and Ponnani in the north, itself vouches for the
continued subsidence of the Cenozoic sedimentary basin guided by the activation of lineaments
related faulting. Fault control of this sedimentary basin and continuation of displacement of
sediment fill (Fig.2) are other compelling evidences for the neotectonic activity in Kerala.
Like wise, central and northern sectors of the WG also hold overwhelming evidences of
neotectonism that manifest as raised beaches, raised shell beds etc.
Cenozoic Stratigraphy
The rock formations of Cenozoic, are chiefly confined to the coastal land (<7.5 m) and in
parts of the midland. Table 2, a classification proposed by Najeeb (1999) is very instructive in
that here the Vembanad formation of Quaternary and intrusives of Mesozoic find a place.
Further laterite formation by implication initiated itself only by Quaternary. The cross section
in Fig. 2, complied using well logs and data from outcrops does show how the lineaments
manifest as a series of normal faults of variable displacement, resulting in the creation of the
larger Kerala Basin most of which is now in the offshore of Kerala. A closer look at the
stratigraphy reveals that during Tertiary, clastic Vaikom beds formed prior to the deposition of
the shallow water carbonate (viz., Quilon limestone. Age: Mid. Miocene) and then it was
followed by deposition of clastic sediments of younger Warkalli beds, which Raha et al (1983)
interpreted as typifying an oscillation of the shoreline oceanward, to begin with, then landward
and finally to oceanward again - an example of a regression-transgression-regression sequence.
Table 2 Stratigraphic sequence, Kerala (Najeeb, 1999)
Age Name Lithological Assemblage
Quaternary- Vembanad formation Sands, clays, molluscan shell beds, riverine alluviam and flood
0.0-1.6 ma plains deposits, Latetite capping crystallines and Tertiary sediments

Tertiary- Warkalli formation Sandstone and clay with lignite seams

1.6 to 66.4 ma (.Mio-.Pliocene)
Quilon formation Limestone, marl, clays/calcareous clays with marine and lagoonal
(Mid. Miocene) fossils.
Vaikom formation Sandstones with pebble and gravel beds, clays and lignite and
(Lr. Miocene) carbonaceous clay.
,
Mesozoic to Intrusives with veins of quartz, pegmatite, granites, granophyres, dolerite & gabbro
Archaean Garnet-sillimanite gneiss, hornblende biotite gneiss, garnet biotite gneiss, quartzo felspathic
gneiss, charnockites, charnockite gneiss.

Black Sand Placers (BSP)

In the WC, though heavy mineral placers are known to occur in several sectors of the coastal
land, viz., in Ratnagiri coast in Maharashtra, Chavara-Kayamkulam (CK) coast in Kerala
and Manavalakurichi (MK) coast of TamilNadu, the Kerala occurrence of Black sand placers
earned all the name and fame. It is immensely rich in black opaque mineral ilmenite (FeO.TiO2),
rutile (TiO2), magnetite, sillimanite, garnet, zircon and monazite. Interestingly, unlike other
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Fig. 2 Geological cross-section, Kerala Coastal land (Varadarajan and Nair, 1978)
mineral deposits, the BSP of Kerala as well as of Tamil Nadu are special categories of placer
deposits in that these are renewed annually during the SW monsoon season, like a water
table is recharged during every snowmelt or rainy seasons. It is a mineral deposit with "life".
During every SW monsoon season, the beaches of this sector goes through a cycle of erosion
- seaward transport - shoreward re-transport - deposition on eroded beach face - repair of
erosional damage. During the beach rebuilding phase fantastic volumes of black sand are
deposited on the shore face of the eroded beach and while the backwash further winnows
away to the inshore the light fraction of quartz and shell fragments. This annual-beach-cycle
of erosion and rebuilding creates a large reserve of blacksand in the sector between Chavara
and Kayamkulam. The mining lease holders use bulldozers and tipper trucks to cart away the
bounty to run their mineral separation operations through one year. The ancient coastal land
to the east has proved occurrence of ancient BSP, which is recovered using a dredging. The
story of the MK BSP deposit is no different from that of the CK deposit, where gathering
black sand makes use of dragline excavators.
Logically, in the past several workers had closely examined the ultimate and penultimate
sources of placer minerals, transport to the depositional sink, sorting and separation from
lighter minerals, processes of formation, reserve and economic worth of the deposit etc.
Though the recent Asian Tsunami of Dec. 26, 2004, devastated life and property worth a few
hundred million rupees in Kerala, it alongside brought forth an impressive piece of evidence
on the extent of blacksand reserve in the seabed off Chavara -Kayamkulam sector of the
coast. The tsunami wave caused a huge seawater surge, carrying along phenomenal volumes
of blacksand rich seabed sediment to be deposited as washover fans and sheets (on the
backshore tract to heights of 2.0-3.0 m and occasionally reaching 4.0 m), blocking the traffic
of 4 wheeled emergency and relief vehicles in the paved streets of the affected area. Indeed,
JCBs had to be deployed to remove the sediment (blacksand) cover of the pavement to make
them motorable. This phenomenon underscored the point that the seabed off this region is
essentially a very large and extensive reservoir of blacksand rich sediment.
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Though blacksand laden sediment accumulation perhaps dates back to the origin of the WC,
the changes in climate and relief would have modulated the rate of erosion, transport and
accumulation of sediment in the ocean. The geometry of the modern coastal land of Kerala
is as recent as early Holocene, and prior to that time the sediment which west flowing
Kerala rivers (and especially those between N.Lat 9 and 10 degrees) would have delivered
the alluvial load to the modern innershelf or even beyond, due to the lower sealevel stands of
glacial periods. A cursory estimate of shelf are a of Kerala suggests that it is nearly thrice as
large as the land area. As lateritisation or chemical weathering either predates or
contemporaneous with the formation of sediments of Vaikom beds, it is argued that the ancient
landmass of Kerala had been exposed to a monsoon climate or a proto-monsoon of some sort
enabling the chemical decay of rocks of the basement. But for the suggestion of a semiarid to
arid and humid conditions during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene by Rao and Thamban
(1994), during the Cenozoic, we have scarcely any strong evidence warranting a climate-
shift from wet and moist type.
As a consequence, the process of lateritisation of basement rocks (like Khondalites and
Charnockites) unabatedly continued and the Kallada R delivered huge volumes of detritus
carrying black sand minerals to the ancient coastal plain now under the modern shelf and
presently to the shelf itself. The Kallada R is very special in this context in that unlike other
rivers rising from the WG of Kerala, Kallada R cuts through the rocks of Tertiary Warkalla
basin declaring its antecedent nature. Recently Vinodkumar (2005) demonstrated that primarily
Khondalite and to a lesser degree the associated charnockite have been the source of BSP
minerals and cumulatively over the last several million years a vast reservoir of BS minerals
have been deposited in the ancient and modern shelf off the CK sector. The dominant longshore
current, like now, have been heading northerly in the past - Holocene to be precise - as
indicated by the extensive patch of Chertala glass sand deposit (reserve=42.0 million tons)
by a process of hydraulic sorting. The heavier BSP minerals any way lagged behind the lights
and accumulated as ancient placer in the ancient coastal land.
Summary
1. Though the WC of India is a passive trailing margin it had been tectonically active in the
geologic past as well as later (as indicated by several intra-plate earthquakes of varying
magnitudes in ancient and current times), right from the time of its parting by rifting from
Antartica and later from the Seychelles-Madagascar landmass.
2. The WG, bordering the WC of Indian peninsula, is a very lofty mountain range of 1300
km. extending from north to south practically uninterruptedly and is constituted by ancient
crystallines rocks of Dharwar craton in the central part, the Deccan flood basalts in the
northern part and rocks like khondalite and charnockite of the southern granulite terrain in
the south.
3. Dawn of monsoon or a proto-monsoon climate at the early Tertiary is responsible for the
extensive chemical weathering or lateritisation that the basement crystalline rocks went
through and the great deal of erosion of the uplands of WG. At least, 3 planation surfaces
exist in this tract and are caused by the rejuvenation of the WG.
4. Several sets of large and small lineaments crossing the terrain, at varying orientations did
play a critical role in dissipating the stress accumulating from the northerly movement of
Peninsula by triggering seismic episodes, and in creating the Kerala basin in early Cenozoic
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time enabling the accumulation of marine or terrestrial sediments from time to time. Some
of the proto-basins of Kayals of Kerala coastal land owe their origin to the lineament-
controlled-neotectonics.
5. Laterite (first described by Bucchanan from Angadipuram in Malappuram Dist., Kerala)
and the mechanism of lateritisation is an example of near-intense chemical weathering in
a tropical monsoon climate, is primarily controlled by climate and relief of a terrain. Though
difficult to quantify, the rate of weathering (ranging between 1.3 to 22.0 m/ma) has been
estimated by some workers. It is no surprise to find deeply weathered zones of primary
rock with a laterite cap in many parts in the midland of Kerala.
6. Dawn of the Proto-monsoon climate and episodic rejuvenation of the WG led to the
etching of slopes and terrain by several west-flowing antecedent streams in the early
Cenozoic. With progress of time, monsoon also evolved and refined to its contemporary
style. Since that time, the fluvial processes erosion, transport and deposition, delivered
several billion tons of detrital sediment to the ancient Laccadive sea, along with the
associated heavy mineral particles.
7. In any continent, coastal geologic scenery is mostly contributed by the fluctuating sea
levels of the Cenozoic. The WC and Kerala in particular, is no exception. Huge sediment
accumulations in the proto- or modern-shelf of the Laccadive Sea, was controlled by
fluctuating sea levels during the Pleistocene glaciations and tectonism of earlier periods of
the Cenozoic.
8. The shelf sediment of the modern Laccadive Sea, off CK sector, is a huge reservoir of
blacksand minerals and the recent Asian tsunami (Dec.26, 2004) proved its potential beyond
doubt.
Acknowledgements
I sincerely thank Dr. D.S.S. Babu (the convener) and Dr. M.Baba (Director, CESS) for
offering me a berth in the workshop of IGCP-514 Project. Ms. Frincy, R.M., rendered invaluable
(Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Kerala, Kariavattom Campus) rendered invaluable assistance in
completing the manuscript.

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