EDEXCEL NATIONAL CERTIFICATE/DIPLOMA PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS of THERMODYNAMICS NQF LEVEL 3 OUTCOME 4 - STEAM PLANT TUTORIAL 2 - STEAM BOILERS

CONTENT
Be able to quantify energy transfer in steam plant

Steam plant: heat and work transfer in major steam plant elements e.g. boiler, superheater, turbine, condenser, thermal efficiency of elements; conditions e.g. feed water temperature, steam temperatures and pressures, dryness fraction, steam flow rate, fuel consumption rate, power output; use of thermodynamic property tables to determine enthalpy values e.g. feed water, saturated water, wet steam, dry saturated steam, superheated steam Throttling process: use of simple throttling calorimeter to determination dryness fraction of wet steam

This tutorial is about water and steam but the theory could apply to any liquid and vapour. You should ensure that you have a copy of 'Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids' by Mayhew and Rogers.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

STEAM POWER PLANT The graphic below shows the main features of a basic steam power plant in which steam is produced at high pressure and then used to drive a turbine and electric generator set. Most of the plant items are heat exchangers of one kind or other. The boiler is a series of heat exchangers that evaporates the feed water and then superheats it. The source of heat may be from the combustion of fossil fuel or hot gas from a nuclear reactor. The steam passes to a turbine where it gives up its energy (enthalpy) to mechanical power that drives the alternator and produces electric power. The steam leaving the turbine is condensed in the condenser. This is another heat exchanger that uses cooling water. The cooling water is circulated to a cooling tower (or another source of cooling such as the sea, river or lake). The condensate is pumped back to the boiler but it is heated in another heat exchanger called an economiser. This uses the hot gas (usually flue gas) exiting the boiler.

In a full blown power station, there will be several feed heaters, a reheater and an air pre-heater. There will also be feed water heaters, de-aerators, de-superheaters, hot wells and many other things. The purpose of this module is to examine the energy transfers occurring and the efficiencies of the plant items.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

BOILER There are many types of boilers ranging from small hot water boilers to large power station boilers producing superheated steam. A main power station boiler will have an economiser, an evaporator, a superheater, a reheater and an air preheater (recuperator) all of which improve the efficiency. The diagram shows the arrangement for a medium size boiler using water walls. The walls of the furnace are entirely surrounded by vertical pipes banked so close together that they form a curtain wall. Water from the drum passes down the down comer pipe and is distributed to the water wall with a circulating pump. The steam from the top returns to the steam space inside the drum. Steam is drawn off from the same space and superheated in a bank of heat exchanger tubes. The superheater is placed in the hottest part of the flue. The economiser is in the coolest part of the flue.

MEDIUM SIZE POWER STATION BOILER Some boilers (once through types) are designed as one long heat exchanger with water entering one end and superheated steam leaving the other and there is no clearly defined evaporator section. Industrial process steam is usually dry or wet so many boilers do not have a superheater. It is not practical to cover the many types of boilers on the market. The pictures show typical package boilers delivered fully constructed to the site.

TYPICAL PACKAGE BOILERS

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

APPLYING THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION All the units described are basically heat exchangers. The main point is that a heat transfer rate is needed into the boiler unit in order to heat up the water, evaporate it and superheat it. The diagram represents a very simple boiler turning water into steam. The heat transfer to the water or steam is found by applying the Steady Flow Energy Equation. + P = (PE)/s + (KE)/s + (H)/s In the case of any heat exchanger, P = 0 as there is no work done. The velocity of fluids should be low otherwise there will be pressure losses and there should not be much difference between the inlet and outlet so kinetic energy is usually neglected. The inlet and outlets of the heat exchanger may be at different levels so potential energy changes might exist but this is likely to be small compared to the other energy terms so this is normally neglected as well. In this case the SFEE becomes: = H/s = m (h) h is the change in specific enthalpy of the fluid. is the heat transferred into or out of the fluid and m is the mass flow rate. This may be applied to the boiler in its entirety or to any of the units within the boiler. Tutorial 1 explained how to find the enthalpy values. Here is a brief revision. You should already know that: hf is the specific enthalpy of saturated water. hfg is the specific enthalpy of evaporation. hg is the specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam hg = hf + hfg For superheated steam h values are found at the known pressure and temperature. For wet steam with dryness fraction x h = hf + xhfg For low pressure water h = cw where cw is the specific heat (about 4.2 kJ/kg K) and the temperature in oC. Celsius is used because specific enthalpy is arbitrarily taken as zero at 0oC. For high temperatures and pressure the specific heat changes significantly and it is best to use tables. The enthalpy of steam and water may be found at http://www.spiraxsarco.com/esc/ OVERALL BOILER EFFICIENCY The heat input to a boiler comes from various sources. Fossil fuels are one of the most common sources and the heat input is given by: = mass/s x calorific value - solid fuels = volume/s x calorific value - gas fuels Typical calorific values are: Coal Fuel Oils Natural Gas 30 36 MJ/kg 43 46 MJ/kg 38 MJ/m3

Other sources of heat are hot gasses such as the CO2 used on nuclear power stations and hot flue gas used with waste heat boilers.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 4

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1 A hot water boiler produces 0.24 kg/s of hot water at 80oC from cold water at 18oC.The boiler burns fuel oil at a rate of 1.6 g/s with a calorific value of 44 MJ/kg. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the boiler. SOLUTION The easiest way to find the increase in enthalpy of the water is to use the specific heat assumed to be 4.186 kJ/kg K. = m c = 0.24 x 4.186 x (80 18) = 62.29 kW Heat released by combustion = mf x C.V. Heat released by combustion = 1.6 x 10-3 (kg/s) x 44 000 (kJ/kg) = 70.4 kW th = (62.29/70.4) x 100 = 88.5%

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2 A steam boiler produces 0.2 kg/s at 50 bar and 400oC from water at 50 bar and 100oC. The boiler burns 5.3 m3/min of natural gas with a calorific value of 38 MJ/ m3. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the boiler. SOLUTION The enthalpy of the steam produced is found in tables at 50 bar and 400oC. h2 = 3196 kJ/kg The enthalpy of the water is found from the table at 50 bar and 100oC. h1 = 5 423 kJ/kg Energy given to the water and steam = m (h2 - h1) = 0.2 (3196 - 423) = 3111 kW Energy from burning the fuel = Vol/s x C.V. Energy from burning the fuel = (5.3/60)(m3/s) x 38 000 (kJ/m3) = 3357 kW th = (3111/3357) x 100 = 92.7%

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1 1. A hot water boiler produces 0. 4 kg/s of hot water at 70oC from cold water at 10oC. The boiler burns fuel oil at a rate of 3.2 g/s with a calorific value of 44 MJ/kg. The specific heat of water is 4.186 kJ/kg K. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the boiler. (71.4 %) A steam boiler produces 3 kg/s at 70 bar and 500oC from water at 70 bar and 120oC. The boiler burns 17 m3/min of natural gas with a calorific value of 38 MJ/ m3. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the boiler. (80.8%) A steady flow boiler is supplied with water at 15 kg/s, 100 bar pressure and 200oC. The water is heated and turned into steam. This leaves at 15 kg/s, 100 bar and 500oC. Using your steam tables, find the following. i. The specific enthalpy of the water entering. (856 kJ/kg) ii. The specific enthalpy of the steam leaving. (3373 kJ/kg) iii. The heat transfer rate. (37.75 kW)

2.

3.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

ECONOMISER The economiser is a heat exchanger that passes heat from the flue gas to the feed water. The feed water temperature is hence hotter than it would otherwise be and less heat is required to produce steam from it. Alternatively more steam can be raised for the same amount of heat. An increase in temperature of 10C can improve the boiler efficiency by as much as 2%. SHELL BOILER WITH ECONOMISER Because the economiser is on the high-pressure side of the feed pump, feed water temperatures in excess of 100C are possible. Note that the flue gas should not be cooled to the dew point to prevent acidic water forming. The diagram shows the layout for a small shell boiler. The efficiency of an economiser refers only to how well it transfers heat and this is only affected by the heat transfer through the walls of the tubes. They are prone to sooty deposits forming on the flue gas side and this reduces the heat transfer rate. They are designed to be cleaned easily. A finned heat exchanger tube such as shown should have the fins arranged vertically so that soot will fall off them. Plain tubes have scrapers fitted for cleaning them mechanically. Steam blowing is a technique used to blast the soot off the fins with a steam jet but this can cause atmospheric pollution.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3 A boiler is supplied with 6 MW of heat and produces 0.5 kg/s of steam at 100 bar from feed water at 40oC with an efficiency of 65%. If an economiser is fitted that raises the feed water temperature to 180oC, what would be the new boiler efficiency? Assume that the heat input to the boiler is reduced by the amount saved by fitting the economiser. The table for the enthalpy of water should be used. SOLUTION The heat given to the steam is 65% x 6 MW = 3.9 MW The enthalpy of water at 100 bar and 180oC is 767 kJ/kg The enthalpy of water at 100 bar and 40oC is 176 kJ/kg The heat given to the water = mwh = 0.5(767 176) = 295.5 kW The heat transfer is reduced to 6 0.2955 = 5.7045 MW The efficiency is 3.9/5.7045 = 0.684 or 68.4%

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4 Measurements for the boiler and economiser described in example 3 show that the flue gas is cooled from 250oC to 150oC over the economiser. The specific heat of the flue gas is 1.1 kJ/kg K. Assuming 100% heat exchange, determine mass flow of the flue gas. SOLUTION The heat given to the water is 295.5 kW The heat lost from the flue gas is mgh = mg cpT = mg 1.1 x (250 150) = 295.5 kW If the transfer is 100% then we can equate. mg = 295.5/110 = 2.686 kg/s

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

EVAPORATOR All steam boilers evaporate the feed water. The feed water should be as close to the boiling point as possible to reduce the heat needed to get it up to the saturation point. The steam produced should ideally be dry steam but in practice a small amount of water is carried over with it so the steam is typically 98% dry (dryness fraction 0.98). It is not possible to produce superheated steam without a superheater section. In large power station boilers the evaporator is a water wall surrounding the furnace as described earlier. These are also called water tube boilers because the tubes contain the water with hot gas on the outside. The boiler with water walls and heater tube banks as shown earlier fits this category. In smaller boilers the water may be contained inside a shell and heated by hot gas passing through the tubes. These are shell boilers and also called fire tube boilers because the hot gas passes through the tubes.

SHELL BOILER WITH FIRE TUBES

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5 The evaporator section of a boiler uses 20 kg/s of feed water at 50 bar and 200oC. The steam produced is 98% dry. Calculate the heat transfer. SOLUTION Heat transfer = mass x h Specific enthalpy of feed water is h1 = 854 kJ/kg (from the table) The specific enthalpy of the steam is h2 = hf + 0.98 (hg) These values must be found from steam tables and we find that at 50 bar: hf = 1155 kJ/kg and hg = 1639 kJ/kg h2 = 1155 + 0.98 (1639) = 2761.2 kJ/kg in = m(h2 - h1) = 20(2761.2- 1639) = 22444 kW or 22.444 MW

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

SUPERHEATER This is a heater placed in the hottest part of the boiler that raises the temperature of the steam well beyond the saturation temperature.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6 A superheater produces 34 kg/s of steam at 70 bar and 400oC from steam 97% dry. Calculate the heat transfer to the steam. SOLUTION From the steam tables (superheat section) the enthalpy of the superheated steam is h2 = 3158 kJ/k K at 70 b and 400oC From the saturated steam section hf = 1267 and hfg = 1505 kJ/kg K at 70 bar. h1 = 1267 + 0.97(1505) = 2726.85 kJ/kg K = mh = 34(3158 - 2726.85) = 14659 kW or 14.659 MW

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 7 The same superheater given in the last example cools the flue gas by 700 K. The mean specific heat is 1.15 kJ/kg K. The air fuel ratio for the furnace is 14/1. Determine the mass flow of the flue gas and the mass of fuel being burned. SOLUTION Assuming the heat lost by the gas all goes into the steam we can equate. = mg cp = mg 1.1(700) = 770 mg kW = 14659 = 770 mg mg= 19.03 kg/s The mass of gas = mass of fuel + mass of air 19.03 = mf + ma 19.03 = mf + 14 mf = 15 mf mf = 19.03/15 = 1.269 kg/s

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

TURBINE The turbine converts the enthalpy in the steam into mechanical power. Applying the steady flow energy equation gives: + P = (PE)/s + (KE)/s + (H)/s In an ideal turbine, the heat loss from the case is reduced to near zero by lagging. The change in potential and kinetic energy are usually negligible so this reduces to : P = H = m(h) P is the power given up by the steam and h the change in specific enthalpy of the steam. Turbines in real plant are often in several stages and the last stage is specially designed to cope with water droplets in the steam that becomes wet as it gives up its energy. You must use the isentropic expansion theory in order to calculate the dryness fraction and enthalpy of the exhaust steam. The picture shows a large steam turbine stripped for service. There are three sections, high, intermediate and low pressure. The steam enters at the middle of each and flows away in both directions to reduce axial forces on the rotor.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8 A steam turbine is supplied at 100 bar and 400oC. The steam exits the turbine at 0.07 bar and dryness fraction 0.73. The flow rate of steam is 55 kg/s. Calculate the power output from the turbine assuming 100% energy transfer from the steam. SOLUTION The specific enthalpy of the steam supplied is found from tables for superheated steam. h = 3097 kJ/kg (100 bar and 400oC). The specific enthalpy of wet steam is h = hf + x3 hfg = 163 + 0.733(2409) = 1928 kJ/kg (The values are found in tables for saturated steam). The power out of the turbine is P = msh = 55(3097 - 1928) = 64.3 MW
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 10

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2 1. A steam turbine is supplied with superheated steam at 40 bar and 400oC. The exhaust steam is at 0.035 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.735. Calculate the power output for a flow rate of 1 kg/s assuming no heat loss. (1189.4 kW) A steam turbine is supplied with 55 kg/s of superheated steam at 100 bar and 400oC. The steam exhausts into a condenser at 0.07 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.733. Calculate the power output assuming no heat loss. (64.3 MW)

2.

CONDENSER The condenser removes energy from the steam and converts it back to water. Applying the Steady Flow Energy Equation gives: + P = (PE)/s + (KE)/s + (H)/s There is no work (power) extracted from a condenser. Kinetic and potential energy terms are negligible so the equation reduces to = H = m (h) is the heat transfer rate from the steam and water. h is the change in enthalpy of the steam and water. WORKED EXAMPLE No. 9 A steam condenser receives 55 kg/s of wet steam at 0.07 bar and 0.73 dryness fraction. The steam is completely condensed to saturated water. Assuming 100% heat transfer, determine the heat transfer to the cooling water. If the cooling water temperature must not rise by more than 20K, what should the flow rate be? Assume the specific heat of water is 4.2 kJ/kg K. SOLUTION The specific enthalpy of the steam entering the condenser is: h = hf + x hfg = 163 + 0.73(2409) = 1928 kJ/kg (from tables at 0.07 bar) The specific enthalpy of the condensate is simply hf at 0.07 bar = 163 kJ/kg The heat transfer from the steam is = ms(h) = 55(1928 - 163) = 97.1 MW If all this is transferred to the cooling water then the we can equate : mw cw T = mw 4.2 (20) = 97100 kW 97100 mw = = 1156 kg/s (4.2)(20)

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

11

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3 1. A steam condenser takes in wet steam at 8 kg/s and dryness fraction 0.82. This is condensed into saturated water at outlet. The working pressure is 0.05 bar. Calculate the heat transfer rate. ( = 15896 kW) 2. A steam condenser is supplied with 2 kg/s of steam at 0.07 bar and dryness fraction 0.9. The steam is condensed into saturated water at outlet. Determine the following. i. The specific enthalpies at inlet and outlet. (2331 and 163 kJ/kg) ii. The heat transfer rate. (4336 kW)

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

12

THROTTLING PROCESS A throttle is a restriction that drops the pressure. It could be a tap or valve or some other barrier. The diagram shows a fluid at high pressure being throttled to a low pressure. Applying the Steady Flow Energy Equation gives: + P = (PE)/s + (KE)/s + (H)/s There is no work (power) produced and no heat transfer in or out of the fluid. If the kinetic and potential energy terms are negligible the equation reduces to 0 = m (h) and so h = 0 h1 = h2 This means that the enthalpy of the substance is the same on both sides of the throttle. Remember that enthalpy is made up of internal energy and flow energy and what happens is that the internal energy and flow energy change from one to the other. There are many uses for throttles but you only have to study how they are used to find the dryness fraction of wet steam. THROTTLING WET STEAM If a wet vapour is throttled (1 to 2 on the p - h diagram), the line connecting the two points with the same enthalpy crosses the saturation curve and we see that wet steam becomes superheated. In simple words, the drop in pressure reduces the boiling point so the water content has to evaporate. This is useful for determining the dryness fraction of wet steam. Since the pressure and temperature of the superheated vapour is easily measured, and knowing that the enthalpy is the same before and after, the original dryness fraction may be deduced. We can use the formula h1 = hf + x hfg = h2

If everything is known except x, then x may be deduced. The apparatus used to do this is called a THROTTLING CALORIMETER. The steam sample is throttled to around 1 bar. The exact pressure and temperature must be measured and accurate tables used to find h2. SUPERHEAT TABLE FOR USE WITH STEAM THROTTLES PRESSURE IN BARS TEMP oC 100 110 120 130 140 150 0.9 2677.5 2697.6 2717.6 2737.5 2757.4 2777.1 0.95 2676.9 2697 2717.1 2737.1 2756.9 2776.8 1.0 2676.2 2696.5 2716.6 2736.6 2756.5 2776.4 1.1 2695.3 2715.6 2735.7 2755.7 2775.6 1.2 2694.2 2714.5 2734.8 2754.9 2774.9 1.4 2693 2713.5 2733.8 2754 2774.1

The data at the pressure-temperature co-ordinate is the specific enthalpy in KJ/kg.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 13

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 10 Wet steam at 10 bar is throttled to 1 bar where its temperature is found to be 110oC. Determine the dryness fraction before throttling. SOLUTION After throttling h2= 2676.2 kJ/kg from the table. Before throttling h1 = hf + xhfg = 763 + x(2015) (from the usual tables). Equating h1 and h2 763 + x(2015) = 2676.2 x = 0.9495

SEPARATORS The process outlined in the example only works if the steam is almost dry prior to throttling. This makes it unsuited for finding the dryness fraction of very wet steam. Another way to find the dryness fraction is to use a separator. A typical separator consists of a vessel with baffles which allows the dry steam through easily but the water droplets in the steam collide with the baffle plates and run down to the bottom to be collected as water called separate. The steam may be made to swirl so that centrifugal force throws the droplets out against the vessel wall to run down to the collection point. The quantity of separate may be measured with a graduated sight glass or when sufficient separate is collected, a tap is opened to drain it into a measuring flask. In order to deduce the dryness fraction, the mass of the dry steam must also be found by condensing the sample in a heat exchanger and measuring it. This must be done at the same time as the separate is collected. m = mass of wet steam before separating. m1 = mass of separate m2 = mass of condensate = mass of dry steam. m = m1 + m2 x = mass of dry steam/mass of wet steam m2 x= m1 + m 2 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 11

A sample of wet steam is separated and 50 g of separate is obtained. At the same time the remaining dry steam is condensed and 900 g of condensate is obtained. Deduce the dryness fraction of the sample.
SOLUTION

Mass of wet steam = 50 + 900= 950g Mass of dry steam = 900g

x= 900/950 = 0.947

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

14

COMBINED THROTTLING AND SEPARATING CALORIMETER

Separators are not accurate because some droplets find their way through. In order to accurately find the dryness fraction we combine the separator and throttle as shown below.

see http://www.cussons.co.uk/en/products/p7672.html

First the wet steam is drawn from the main through a sampling tube. The wet steam is separated and an approximate estimation of the dryness fraction is found from the separator. Let this dryness fraction be x1. x1= m2/(m1 + m2) The steam leaving the separator is not quite dry so by using throttling theory, the dryness fraction of the mass m2 being throttled is found. Let this be x2. The correct mass of dry saturated steam in the sample is then x2m2. The dryness fraction of the original sample is then found as follows. x= mass of drysteam m2 x m = = 2 2 = x 2 x1 total mass m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

15

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 12

A test with a throttling/separating calorimeter gave the following results: pressure of sample 20 bar mass of separate 100g mass of condensate 3 kg temperature after throttling 140oC pressure after throttling 0.9 bar Find the dryness fraction.
SOLUTION

First the throttle.

h2 = 2757.4 kJ/kg from table at 0.9 bar and 140oC. h2= h1 = hf + x2hfg at 9 bar = 909 + x(1899) = 2757.4 x2= 0.977989 Next the separator x1 = 3000/(3000+ 100) = 0.9677419 Finally x = x1 x x2 = 0.946

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. Wet team is throttled from 5 bar to 1.1 bar and its temperature becomes 120oC. Calculate the dryness fraction before throttling. (0.984). 2. Wet steam at 10 bar is throttled to 1.3 bar and its temperature becomes 130oC. Calculate the dryness fraction before throttling. (0.978) 3. A test with a throttling/separating calorimeter gave the following results: pressure of sample 10 bar mass of separate 56g mass of condensate 2.53 kg temperature after throttling 110oC pressure after throttling 1.1 bar Find the dryness fraction. (0.938). 4. Wet steam at a pressure of 40 bar is taken from a steam main and passed through a throttle valve into a settling chamber where a pressure and temperature of 1 bar and 135oC are measured. Steam is removed from the settling chamber at the same rate at which it is taken from the main. Calculate the dryness fraction of the steam from the main. Would you expect your answer to be higher or lower than the true value of dryness fraction in the main? Justify your answer. (Note you should use the steam tables to solve this, not the table in this tutorial).

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

16

STEAM SYSTEM BASICS

Desuperheaters. The purpose of a desuperheater is to remove the superheat from steam. The majority of heating and process equipment performs more efficiently using saturated rather than super-heated steam. Desuperheaters inject a very fine mist of high-purity water, such as condensate, into the steam flow. The superheated vapor gives up heat to the water mist, and by doing so, reduces its temperature. Vacuum breakers. Vacuum conditions can develop in a steam system when steam flow into a component or a branch is throttled or shut off. If the rate of downstream steam use exceeds the steam supply, the pressure decreases and vacuum conditions can form. Vacuum conditions also result when the load on the heat exchanger is significantly less than the heat exchanger capacity. If the pressure in the heat exchanger drops too far, the condensate will not drain from the trap due to a higher pressure on the traps downstream side. If uncorrected, the condensate level will rise in the heat exchanger, reducing the available heat transfer area and increasing the risk of corrosion by condensate. Vacuum breakers are pressure-controlled devices that essentially vent a heat exchanger or system branch in which a vacuum has formed. By allowing in air when they open, vacuum breakers restore pressure and allow the condensate to drain. Air vents. Before start-up, the steam system contains air that must be removed. The presence of air in a steam system reduces heat transfer effectiveness and promotes condensate corrosion. Air vents remove this air. Air vents are often thermostatic devices, similar to thermostatic steam traps that rely on the temperature difference between air and steam. When exposed to the lower temperature air in the system side, the vent opens. As the higher temperature steam reaches the vent, it closes, preventing the escape of steam. Traps. Steam traps are important to the performance of end-use equipment. Traps provide for condensate removal with little or no steam loss. If the traps do not function properly, excess steam will flow through the end-use device or the condensate will back up into it. Excess steam loss will lead to costly operation, while condensate backup will promote poor performance and may lead to water hammer. Traps can also remove noncondensable gases that reduce heat exchanger effectiveness. There are several different types of steam traps, which are discussed in the Distribution section of this sourcebook.

Insulation
End-use equipment, such as heat exchangers and turbines, should generally be insulated due to the significant heat loss that the surface areas of this equipment can provide. The various types of insulation are discussed in the Distribution section. Where end-use equipment requires frequent inspection or maintenance, removable insulation should be considered.

Additional Equipment
The additional equipment category refers to end uses of steam throughout industry; although still significant, these generally account for less steam energy than key end uses. Absorption chillers. Absorption chillers provide cooling using an interesting variation of the vapor compression cycle. Instead of a compressor, which is generally used in chillers, absorption chillers exploit the ability of one substance to absorb a refrigerant at one temperature and then release it at another. In ammonia-based systems, water is the absorbent and ammonia is the refrigerant. In lithium bromide-based systems, lithium bromide is the absorbent, while water is the refrigerant. An absorption chiller uses a pump instead of a compressor to increase refrigerant pressure. Once it is at the higher pressure, the absorbent/refrigerant solution is heated, often with steam, which releases the refrigerant. Although absorption chillers generally have lower coefficients of performance (COP) (indicating lower thermodynamic efficiency) than traditional chillers, they use less electric power per ton of cooling and are well suited for use with steam systems. Humidifiers. Humidifiers inject steam into an air or other gas source to increase its water vapor content. In humidification, steam is used as a source of both water and energy. Humidification applications are found in the chemical manufacturing industry where control of ambient temperature and moisture content are critical for product quality. Preheat/Reheat air handling coils. While steam is occasionally used in space heating applications to preheat and reheat air, there are other more efficient methods of controlling space humidity levels. In many HVAC systems, the conditioned air must have both its temperature and humidity adjusted. In preheat applications, steam is used to heat an air supply, which is typically a mixture of return air and outside air. The air is then conditioned to achieve a certain humidity and temperature. In reheat applications, the air is cooled to a particular dew point to remove water

IMPROVING STEAM SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: A SOURCEBOOK FOR INDUSTRY

19

STEAM SYSTEM BASICS

Desuperheaters. The purpose of a desuperheater is to remove the superheat from steam. The majority of heating and process equipment performs more efficiently using saturated rather than super-heated steam. Desuperheaters inject a very fine mist of high-purity water, such as condensate, into the steam flow. The superheated vapor gives up heat to the water mist, and by doing so, reduces its temperature. Vacuum breakers. Vacuum conditions can develop in a steam system when steam flow into a component or a branch is throttled or shut off. If the rate of downstream steam use exceeds the steam supply, the pressure decreases and vacuum conditions can form. Vacuum conditions also result when the load on the heat exchanger is significantly less than the heat exchanger capacity. If the pressure in the heat exchanger drops too far, the condensate will not drain from the trap due to a higher pressure on the traps downstream side. If uncorrected, the condensate level will rise in the heat exchanger, reducing the available heat transfer area and increasing the risk of corrosion by condensate. Vacuum breakers are pressure-controlled devices that essentially vent a heat exchanger or system branch in which a vacuum has formed. By allowing in air when they open, vacuum breakers restore pressure and allow the condensate to drain. Air vents. Before start-up, the steam system contains air that must be removed. The presence of air in a steam system reduces heat transfer effectiveness and promotes condensate corrosion. Air vents remove this air. Air vents are often thermostatic devices, similar to thermostatic steam traps that rely on the temperature difference between air and steam. When exposed to the lower temperature air in the system side, the vent opens. As the higher temperature steam reaches the vent, it closes, preventing the escape of steam. Traps. Steam traps are important to the performance of end-use equipment. Traps provide for condensate removal with little or no steam loss. If the traps do not function properly, excess steam will flow through the end-use device or the condensate will back up into it. Excess steam loss will lead to costly operation, while condensate backup will promote poor performance and may lead to water hammer. Traps can also remove noncondensable gases that reduce heat exchanger effectiveness. There are several different types of steam traps, which are discussed in the Distribution section of this sourcebook.

Insulation
End-use equipment, such as heat exchangers and turbines, should generally be insulated due to the significant heat loss that the surface areas of this equipment can provide. The various types of insulation are discussed in the Distribution section. Where end-use equipment requires frequent inspection or maintenance, removable insulation should be considered.

Additional Equipment
The additional equipment category refers to end uses of steam throughout industry; although still significant, these generally account for less steam energy than key end uses. Absorption chillers. Absorption chillers provide cooling using an interesting variation of the vapor compression cycle. Instead of a compressor, which is generally used in chillers, absorption chillers exploit the ability of one substance to absorb a refrigerant at one temperature and then release it at another. In ammonia-based systems, water is the absorbent and ammonia is the refrigerant. In lithium bromide-based systems, lithium bromide is the absorbent, while water is the refrigerant. An absorption chiller uses a pump instead of a compressor to increase refrigerant pressure. Once it is at the higher pressure, the absorbent/refrigerant solution is heated, often with steam, which releases the refrigerant. Although absorption chillers generally have lower coefficients of performance (COP) (indicating lower thermodynamic efficiency) than traditional chillers, they use less electric power per ton of cooling and are well suited for use with steam systems. Humidifiers. Humidifiers inject steam into an air or other gas source to increase its water vapor content. In humidification, steam is used as a source of both water and energy. Humidification applications are found in the chemical manufacturing industry where control of ambient temperature and moisture content are critical for product quality. Preheat/Reheat air handling coils. While steam is occasionally used in space heating applications to preheat and reheat air, there are other more efficient methods of controlling space humidity levels. In many HVAC systems, the conditioned air must have both its temperature and humidity adjusted. In preheat applications, steam is used to heat an air supply, which is typically a mixture of return air and outside air. The air is then conditioned to achieve a certain humidity and temperature. In reheat applications, the air is cooled to a particular dew point to remove water

IMPROVING STEAM SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: A SOURCEBOOK FOR INDUSTRY

19

STEAM SYSTEM BASICS

and achieve a desired humidity. As a result, before the air is delivered back to the workspaces, steam coils must reheat the process air stream up to the proper temperature. In both reheat and preheat applications, finned tube heat exchangers are generally used. Tracing. In tracing applications, steam is used to maintain the temperature of a fluid in a pipe. A common application of tracing lines is to prevent the freezing of a process fluid in piping that runs outside of a temperature-controlled area. Since tracing lines are exposed to freezing conditions, proper insulation, steam flow, and condensate drainage are essential to prevent freezing of the tracing lines as well as the process piping. Meters. Steam meters are used to measure steam flow, and are important for tracking the steam use of a particular part of a steam system or a particular end use. Discussion of different meter types is provided in the Steam Generation section.

For more information on condensate recovery, see the Steam Tip Sheet #8, Return Condensate to the Boiler at:
manufacturing.energy.gov.

Condensate Return Piping

Condensate return piping transports condensate as it drains from distribution and end-use equipment piping back to the boiler. Condensate piping should be adequately sized and insulated. Although the installation of larger pipe diameters is more expensive, larger pipes create less pressure drop for a given flow rate; this reduces the load on the condensate pumps. Larger pipe diameters also reduce the noise associated with condensate flow and are more suitable for carrying flash steam. Insulating the condensate piping helps to retain the thermal energy that provides much of the benefits of a condensate recovery system. See Pump Tip Sheet #9, Reduce Pumping Costs Through Optimum Pipe Sizing at: manufacturing.energy.gov.

Recovery
The recovery components of a steam system collect and return condensate back to the generation part of the system. Condensate recovery provides thermal and water treatment benefits. Condensate that is not returned must be compensated for by the addition of makeup water, which is generally much cooler than condensate, however it is becoming less commonly available. Condensate temperature often exceeds 200F, while makeup water temperature is typically between 50F and 80F. As a result, the enthalpy difference between condensate and makeup water is generally over 120 Btu/lb, an amount of energy that is often more than 10% of the energy in the boiler generated steam. Additionally, makeup water is generally treated with chemicals that remove minerals and establish certain pH levels in the boiler water and in the system. Reducing the amount of makeup water added to the system reduces chemical use. Additionally, some of the treatment chemicals that are contained in condensate are problematic to a plants wastewater treatment facility. Industrial steam plants often extend across large areas. Recovering condensate from steam systems requires piping, collecting tanks, pumping equipment, and, in many cases, flash steam separators, meters, and filtration/cleanup equipment. However, the cost savings available from avoiding the purchase, treatment, and heating of makeup water often make investments in condensate recovery systems highly feasible.

Insulation
Insulation provides energy savings and safety benefits. In terms of energy savings, insulation reduces heat loss from the condensate piping and recovery equipment surfaces, which can make the surrounding work environment more comfortable. Reducing this heat loss can also reduce the burden on the cooling systems that support surrounding workspaces. In terms of safety, insulation reduces the outer surface temperature of the piping, which lessens the risk of burns. Important insulation properties and characteristics of piping insulation are discussed in the Distribution section. See Tip Sheet #2, Insulate Steam Distribution and Condensate Return Lines at: manufacturing.energy.gov.

Condensate Receiver Tanks

Condensate receiver tanks collect and store condensate. These tanks are usually located remotely around the condensate system and are configured in conjunction with condensate pumps, as shown in Figure 14. Condensate flows can be highly variable due to changes in steam demand, especially during system start-ups. Receiver tanks minimize the effects of this flow variability on condensate pumps by providing storage, which maintains a minimum water level that prevents downstream condensate pumps from running dry. Since many condensate pumps are centrifugal types, it is important to keep a certain suction pressure to prevent cavitation damage. By maintaining a minimum condensate level, receiver tanks provide enough static pressure to avoid cavitation.

20

IMPROVING STEAM SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: A SOURCEBOOK FOR INDUSTRY

STEAM SYSTEM BASICS

Most systems also contain a large condensate receiver tank that collects all the condensate returned from the system. This tank may also be used to store pretreated water.

For more information on flash steam vessels, see the Steam Tip Sheet #12, Flash High-Pressure Condensate to Regenerate Low-Pressure Steam at: manufacturing.energy.gov.

Condensate Meters
Inlet

Condensate Pump

Condensate Receiver Tank

Outlet

Condensate meters measure the flow rate of condensate in the return system. Knowing the condensate flow rate can be helpful in monitoring the condensate system and the condition of steam traps. Condensate meters are often inline rotary types, relying on turbine or scroll rotation to measure flow rate.

Filtration/Cleanup Equipment
Figure 14. Condensate Receiver Tank and Pump Combination

Condensate Pumps
Condensate pumps move condensate from receiver tanks back to the boiler room. Condensate pumps can be driven by electric motors, steam, or compressed air, depending on the availability of these sources. Motor-driven condensate pumps are usually centrifugal type pumps. In many cases, receiver tanks and motor-driven pumps are packaged together and equipped with a control system that de-energizes the pump under low water level conditions. Steam or compressed air powered condensate pumps are used where electrical pumps would not be suitable, and are generally pressure-powered pumps. Condensate pumps also can be important to the performance of end-use equipment. Effective use of condensate pumps can eliminate condensate backup into end-use equipment, improving process control and reducing potential equipment problems from condensate acidification and water hammer.

In many systems, the flow of steam and condensate picks up rust, scale, and trace contaminants that are either carried over from the boiler or that form in carbon steel piping and on copper alloy heat exchange surfaces. Although strainers and filters are used to catch the particulate matter, some contaminants are dissolved in the condensate and can cause problems if returned to the boiler. In systems that require a high level of cleanliness, condensate polishers are used. Condensate polishers use ion exchange to remove these contaminants, preventing the redeposition of these contaminants on boiler surfaces.

Saturated Vapor Supply High-Pressure Condensate

Low-Pressure Flash Vessel

Steam Trap

Saturated Vapor Saturated Liquid

Level Controller

Flash Steam Vessels

Flash steam vessels allow the recovery of steam from condensate lines, as illustrated in Figure 15. By removing steam from the condensate system, flash steam vessels provide an efficient source of steam to low-pressure end uses. For example, 250F condensate has a saturation pressure of about 15 psig. Consequently, steam that is separated by flash steam vessels can be used in low-pressure steam applications such as space heating and preheating.

Condensate Discharge

Figure 15. Flash Steam Recovery Vessel

IMPROVING STEAM SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: A SOURCEBOOK FOR INDUSTRY

21

PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Table 2. Common Performance Improvement Opportunities for the Generation, Distribution, and Recovery Parts of Industrial Steam Systems

Opportunity
Generation Minimize excess air Clean boiler heat transfer surfaces Install heat recovery equipment (feedwater economizers and/or combustion air preheaters) Improve water treatment to minimize boiler blowdown Recover energy from boiler blowdown Add/restore boiler refractory Optimize deaerator vent rate

Description

Reduces the amount of heat lost up the stack, allowing more of the fuel energy to be transferred to the steam Promotes effective heat transfer from the combustion gases to the steam Recovers available heat from exhaust gases and transfers it back into the system by preheating feedwater or combustion air

Reduces the amount of total dissolved solids in the boiler water, which allows less blowdown and therefore less energy loss Transfers the available energy in a blowdown stream back into the system, thereby reducing energy loss Reduces heat loss from the boiler and restores boiler efficiency Minimizes avoidable loss of steam Distribution

Repair steam leaks Minimize vented steam Ensure that steam system piping, valves, ttings, and vessels are well insulated Implement an effective steam-trap maintenance program Isolate steam from unused lines

Minimizes avoidable loss of steam Minimizes avoidable loss of steam Reduces energy loss from piping and equipment surfaces

Reduces passage of live steam into condensate system and promotes efficient operation of end-use heat transfer equipment Minimizes avoidable loss of steam and reduces energy loss from piping and equipment surfaces Provides a more efficient method of reducing steam pressure for lowpressure services Recovery

Utilize backpressure turbines instead of PRVs

Optimize condensate recovery Use high-pressure condensate to make low-pressure steam

Recovers the thermal energy in the condensate and reduces the amount of makeup water added to the system, saving energy and chemicals treatment Exploits the available energy in the returning condensate

24

IMPROVING STEAM SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: A SOURCEBOOK FOR INDUSTRY