Section 3.4, Fundamental of Transmission

SECTION 3.
Optical Fibre Cable, Principle and Operation, Fibre

construction and Characteristics, OFC Splicing &
Overview of PDH Optical Fibre System
Fundamental of Transmission Sec. 3.4
Objective :
Introduction to Fibre Optics, theory and principle of Fibre Optics,
propagation of light through fibre, Fibre Geometry, Fibre Types.
FIBRE OPTICS :
Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the
transmission sequence give below :
(1) Information is encoded into electrical signals.
(2) Electrical signals are converted into light signals.
(3) Light travels down the fibre.
(4) A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals.
(5) Electrical signals are decoded into information.
ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS :
Fibre Optics has the following advantages :
(I) Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectrics)
- Grounding and surge suppression not required.
- Cables can be all dielectric.
(II) Electromagnetic Immunity :
- Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
- No radiated energy.
- Unauthorised tapping difficult.
(III) Large Bandwidth (> 5.0 GHz for 1 km length)
- Future upgradability.
- Maximum utilization of cable right of way.
- One time cable installation costs.
(IV) Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)
- Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibre's
specified bandwidth long, unrepeated links (>70km is operation).
(v) Small, Light weight cables.
- Easy installation and Handling.
- Efficient use of space.
(vi) Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)
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BRBRAITT, Jabalpur, Issued in Nov. 2008
- Less splice points.

(vii) Security
- Extremely difficult to tap a fibre as it does not radiate energy that can
be received by a nearby antenna.
- Highly secure transmission medium.
(viii) Security - Being a dielectric
- It cannot cause fire.
- Does not carry electricity.
- Can be run through hazardous areas.
(ix) Universal medium
- Serve all communication needs.
- Non-obsolescence.
APPLICATION OF FIBRE OPTICS IN COMMUNICATIONS :
- Common carrier nationwide networks.
- Telephone Inter-office Trunk lines.
- Customer premise communication networks.
- Undersea cables.
- High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).
- Factory communication/ Automation.
- Control systems.
- Expensive environments.
- High lightening areas.
- Military applications.
- Classified (secure) communications.

Transmission Sequence :
(1) Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals.
(2) Electrical Signals are Coverted into light Signals.
(3) Light Travels Down the Fiber.
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(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

(5) Electrical Signals are Decoded into Information.
- Inexpensive light sources available.
- Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because
low loss fibres are used at high data rates.
Principle of Operation - Theory

• Total Internal Reflection - The Reflection that Occurs when a Ligh Ray
Travelling in One Material Hits a Different Material and Reflects Back
into the Original Material without any Loss of Light.
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THEORY AND PRINCIPLE OF FIBRE OPTICS

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum
such as space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass.
Light travelling from one material to another changes speed, which results in light
changing its direction of travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction.
The amount that a ray of light passing from a lower refractive index to a
higher one is bent towards the normal. But light going from a higher index to a
lower one refracting away from the normal, as shown in the figures.
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90o
to the normal. The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction of 90 o is the
critical angle. If the angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the
light is totally reflected back into the first material so that it does not enter the
second material. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called
Total Internal Reflection.
By Snell's law, n1 sin ∅ 1 = n2 sing ∅ 2

The critical angle of incidence ∅ c where ∅ 2 = 90 o
Is ∅c = arc sing (n2 / n1)
At angle greater than ∅c the light is reflected, Because reflected light
means that n1 and n2 are equal (since they are in the same material), ∅ 1 and ∅ 2
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are also equal. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal. These simple
principles of refraction and reflection form the basis of light propagation through an
optical fibre.
Angle of incidence
Angle of
ø1 ø1 reflection
ø1 ø2
n1 n1 n1
n2 n2 n2
ø2 ø2
Light is bent away Light does not enter

from normal second material
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE.

The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding.
The inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the
difference refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the
core. The index of the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical
values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of
1.46. Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired optical fibre
characteristics.
Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. This buffer
coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the
propagation of light within the fibre.
Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fibre. Light injected into
the fibre and striking core to cladding interface at grater than the critical angle,
reflects back into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the
reflected light will again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the
length of the fibre.
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Light striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the
cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light
carrier, and light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light
through fibre is governed by the indices of the core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a
optical fibre. This analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass through
the fibre axis each time, they are reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel
down the fibre without passing through the axis. The path of a skew ray is typically
helical wrapping around and around the central axis. Fortunately skew rays are
ignored in most fibre optics analysis.
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fibre depends on

many factors, including
- The size of the fibre.
- The composition of the fibre.
- The light injected into the fibre.
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Jacket Jacket
Cladding
Core
Cladding (n2) Cladding
Core (n2) Jacket

Light at less than
Angle of Angle of
critical angle is
incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection
Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre
FIBRE GEOMETRY
An Optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually
silica or borosilicate glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but a
slightly lower refractive index.
Fibre themselves have exceedingly small diameters. Figure shows cross
section of the core and cladding diameters of commonly used fibres. The
diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.
Core (µm) Cladding (µ m)

8 125
50 125
62.5 125
100 140
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125 8 125 50 125 62.5 125 100
Core Cladding
Typical Core and Cladding Diameters
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by
the cladding size. Thus 50/125 means a core diameter of 50µm and a cladding
diameter of 125µm.
FIBRE TYPES
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of
the core and cladding. Two main relationship exists :
(I) Step Index
(II) Graded Index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile
shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the
graded index has a non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and
gradually decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp
break in indices between the core and the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibres :
(I) Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre)
(II) Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre)
(III) Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre)
(1) STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBRE

This fibre is called "Step Index" because the refractive index changes
abruptly from cladding to core. The cladding has a refractive index somewhat
lower than the refractive index of the core glass. As a result, all rays within a
certain angle will be totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary. Rays striking
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the boundary at angles grater than the critical angle will be partially reflected and
partially transmitted out through the boundary. After many such bounces the
energy in these rays will be lost from the fibre.
The paths along which the rays (modes) of this step index fibre travel differ,
depending on their angles relative to the axis. As a result, the different modes in a
pulse will arrive at the far end of the fibre at different times, resulting in pulse
spreading which limits the bit-rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted.
The maximum number of modes (N) depends on the core diameter (d),
wavelength and numerical aperture (NA)
( π xd xNA
N= 0.5 x (---------------------- ) 2
(λ)
This types of fibre results in considerable model dispersion, which results

the fibre's band width.
(2) GRADED INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBRE

This fibre is called graded index because there are many changes in the
refractive index with larger values towards the center. As light travels faster in a
lower index of refraction. So, the farther the light is from the center axis, the grater
is its speed. Each layer of the core refracts the light. Instead of being sharply
reflected as it is in a step index fibre, the light is now bent or continuously refracted
in an almost sinusoidal pattern. Those rays that follow the longest path by
travelling near the outside of the core, have a faster average velocity. The light
travelling near the center of the core, has the slowest average velocity.
As a result all rays tend to reach the end of the fibre at the same time. That
causes the end travel time of different rays to be nearly equal, even though they
travel different paths.
The graded index reduces model dispersing to 1ns/km or less.
Graded index fibres have core diameter of 50, 62.5 or 85 µm and a
cladding diameter of 125 µm. The fibre is used in applications requiring a wide
bandwidth a low model dispersion. The number of modes in the fibre is about half
that of step index fibre having the same diameter & NA.
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Dispersion
Input Output High order Refractive
Pulse Mode Index Profile
Pulse
n1
n2
Multi mode Step Index

Low Order Mode
n1
n2
Single Mode Step Index
Dispersion
n1
n2
Multi mode Graded Index
πdxNA
N= 0.25 x ( ---------------- )2
(λ)
(3) SINGLE MODE FIBRE.

Another way to reduce model dispersion is to reduce the core's diameter,
until the fibre only propagates one mode efficiently. The single mode fibre has an
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exceedingly small core diameter of only 5 to 10 µ m. Standard cladding diameter

is 125 µm. Since this fibre carries only one mode, model dispersion does not
exists. Single mode fibres easily have a potential bandwidth of 50to 100GHz-km.
The core diameter is so small that the splicing technique and measuring
technique are more difficult. High sources must have very narrow spectral width
and they must be very small and bright in order to permit efficient coupling into the
very small core dia of these fibres.
One advantage of single mode fibre is that once they are installed, the
system's capacity can be increased as newer, higher capacity transmission
system becomes available. This capability saves the high cost of installing a new
transmission medium to obtain increased performance and allows cost effective
increases from low capacity system to higher capacity system.
As the wavelength is increased the fibre carries fewer and fewer modes
until only one remains. Single mode operation begins when the wavelength
approaches the core diameter. At 1300 nm, the fibre permits only one mode, it
becomes a single mode fibre.
As optical energy in a single mode fibre travels in the cladding as well as in

the core, therefore the cladding must be a more efficient carrier of energy. In a
multimode fibre cladding modes are not desirable, a cladding with in efficient
transmission characteristic can be tolerated. The diameter of the light appearing at
the end of the single mode fibre is larger than the core diameter, because some of
the optical energy of the mode travels in the cladding. Mode field diameter is the
term used to define this diameter of optical energy.
OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS

Optical fibre systems have the following parameters.
(I) Wavelength.
(II) Frequency.
(III) Window.
(IV) Attenuation.
(V) Dispersion.
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(VI) Bandwidth.
WAVELENGTH
It is a characterstic of light that is emitted from the light source and is
measures in nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be
described as the colour of the light.
For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical
wavelength for fibre use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are
invisible.
FREQUENCY
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is
measured in units of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.
WINDOW
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre
best operates. Typical windows are given below :
Window Operational Wavelength
800nm - 900nm 850nm
1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm
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1pm
10-12
Gamma rays
10-10
Rontgen rays
1nm
U.V. rays
10-8
Visible Light
1μ m
10-6
Infra Red
10-4
1mm
Thermal Rays
10-2
1m
Radio Frequencies
U.H.F.
100
102
M.F.
1Km
WAVE LENGTH IN NM
L.F.
104
1Mm
106
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ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a
fibre with lower attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fibre
with higher attenuation.
Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.
INTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic attenuation may occur
as
(I) Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.
(II) Scattering - Light rays travelling in the core reflect from small
imperfections into a new pathway that may be lost through the
cladding.
(1) Absorption - Natural Impurities in the Glass Absorb Light Energy.
Light
Ray
Or
(2) Scattering - Light Rays Travelling in the Core Reflect from small
Imperfections into a New Pathway that may be Lost through the cladding.
Light is lost
Light
Ray
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EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as –
(I) Macrobending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling
down the fibre cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
Micro bend
Micro bend
Micro bend
Fig. Loss and Bends
(II) Microbending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by

crushing contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the
naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison

between the transmitted and received power in a system.
DISPERSION
It is defined as the spreading of light pulse as it travels down the fibre.
ecause of the spreading effect, pulses tend to overlap, making them unreadable
by the receiver.
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BANDWIDTH
It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that
each pulse of light is distinguishable by the receiver.
System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we say

that a system has bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20 million pulses of light per
second will travel down the fibre and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
NUMBERICAL APERTURE
Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of a fibre. Light

injected into the fibre at angles greater than the critical angle will be propagated.
The material NA relates to the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
NA = n12 - n22
where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.
NA is unitless dimension. We can also define as the angles at which rays

will be propagated by the fibre. These angles form a cone called the acceptance
cone, which gives the maximum angle of light acceptance. The acceptance cone
is related to the NA
∅ = arc sing (NA) or
NA = sin ∅
where ∅ is the half angle of acceptance
The NA of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre

accepts and propagates light. A fibre with a large NA accepts light well, a fibre with
a low NA requires highly directional light.
In general, fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower NA. They thus allow
fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A large NA
promotes more modal dispersion, since more paths for the rays are provided NA,
although it can be defined for a single mode fibre, is essentially meaningless as a
practical
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characteristic. NA in a multimode fibre is important to system performance

and to calculate anticipated performance.
Total Internal Reflection
(Summary)
* Light Ray A : Did not Enter Acceptance Cone - Lost
* Light Ray B : Entered Acceptance Cone - Transmitted through the Core
by Total Internal Reflection.
NA = 0.275 (For 62.5 µm Core Fiber)
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DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of
an optical fibre. Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of
a fibre. The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart
and therefore the greater dispersion can be tolerated.
There are three main types of dispersion in a fibre -
(I) Modal Dispersion
(II) Material dispersion
(III) Waveguide dispersion
MODAL DISPERSION
Modal dispersion occurs only in Multimode fibres. It arises because rays
follow different paths through the fibre and consequently arrive at the other end of
the fibre at different times. Mode is a mathematical and physical concept
describing the propagation of electromagnetic waves through media. In case of
fibre, a mode is simply a path that a light ray can follow in travelling down a fibre.
The number of modes supported by a fibre ranges from 1 to over 100,000. Thus a
fibre provides a path of travels for one or thousands of light rays depending on its
size and properties. Since light reflects at different angles for different paths (or
modes), the path lengths of different modes are different. Thus different rays take
a shorter or longer time to travel the length of the fibre. The ray that goes straight
down the center of the core without reflecting, arrives at the other end first, other
rays arrive later. Thus light entering the fibre at the same time exist the other end
at different times. The light has spread out in time.
The spreading of light is called modal dispersion. Modal dispersion is that
type of dispersion that results from the varying modal path lengths in the fibre.
Typical modal dispersion figures for the step index fibre are 15 to 30 ns/ km. This
means that for light entering a fibre at the same time, the ray following the longest
path will arrive at the other end of a 1 km long fibre 15 to 30 ns after the ray,
following the shortest path. Fifteen to 30 billionths of a second may not seem like
much, but dispersion is the main limiting factor on a fibre's bandwidth. Pulse
spreading results in a pulse overlapping adjacent pulses as shown in figure.
Eventually, the pulses will merge so that one pulse cannot be distinguished from
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another. The information contained in the pulse is lost Reducing dispersion

increases fibre bandwidth.
Model dispersion can be reduced in three ways :
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(I) Use a smaller core diameter, which allows fewer modes.

(II) Use a graded -index fibre so that light rays that allow longer paths
also travel at a faster velocity and thereby arrive at the other end of
the fibre at nearly the same time as rays that follow shorter paths.
(III) Use a single-mode fibre, which permits no modal dispersion.
MATERIAL DISPERSION
Different wavelengths (colours) also travel at different velocities through a
fibre, even in the same mode, as
n = c/v
where n is index of refraction, c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed
of the same wavelength in the material. The value of V in the equation changes for
each wavelength, Thus Index of refraction changes according to the wavelength.
Dispersion from this phenomenon is called material dispersion, since it arises from
material properties of the fibre.
Each wave changes speed differently, each is refracted differently. White
light entering the prism contains all colours. The prism refracts the light and its
changes speed as it enters the prism. Red light deviates the least and travels the
fastest. The violet light deviates the most and travels the slowest.
The amount of material dispersion depends on two factors :
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(I) The range of light wavelengths injected into the fibre. A source does
not normally emit a single wavelength, it emits several. This range of
wavelengths, expressed in nanometer is the spectral width of the
source. An LED has a much higher spectral width than a LASER -
about 35 nm for a LED and 2 to 3 nm for a LASER.
(II) The centre operating wavelength of the sources
Around 850nm, longer (reddish) wavelengths travel faster than the shorter
(Bluish) ones. At 1550nm however the situation is reversed. The shorter
wavelengths travel faster than the longer ones. At some point, the cross over must
occur where the bluish and reddish wavelengths travel at the same speed. This
crossover occurs around 1300nm, the zero-dispersion wavelength. At
wavelengths below 1300nm, dispersion is negative. So wavelengths travel or
arrive later. Above 1300 nm, the wavelengths lead or arrive faster.
This dispersion is expressed in Pico seconds per kilometer per nanometer
of source spectral width (ps/km/nm).
WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION :
Waveguide dispersion, most significant in a single- mode fibre, occurs
because optical energy travels in both the core and cladding, which have slightly
different refractive indices. The energy travels at slightly different velocities in the
core and cladding because of the slightly different refractive indices of the
materials. Altering the internal structures of the fibre, allows waveguide dispersion
to be substantially changed, thus changing the specified overall dispersion of the
fibre.
BANDWIDTH AND DISPERSION :
A bandwidth of 400 MHz -km means that a 400 MHz-signal can be
transmitted for 1 km. It means that the product of frequency and the length must
be 400 or less. We can send a lower frequency for a longer distance, i.e. 200 MHz
for 2 km or 100 MHz for 4 km.
Multimode fibres are specified by the bandwidth-length product or simply
bandwidth.
Single mode fibres on the other hand are specified by dispersion,
expressed in ps/km/nm. In other words for any given single mode fibre dispersion
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is most affected by the source's spectral width. The wider the source spectral
width, the greater the dispersion.
Conversion of dispersion to bandwidth can be approximated roughly by the
following equation.
0.187
BW = --------------------------
(Disp) (SW) (L)
Disp = Dispersion at the operating wavelength in seconds/ nm/ km.

SW = Spectral width of the source in nm.
L = Fibre length in km.
So the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the

performance of a single mode fibre.
OPTICAL WINDOWS :
Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with the wavelengths of light.
Windows are low-loss regions, where fibre carry light with little attenuation. The
first generation of optical fibre operated in the first window around 820 to 850 nm.
The second window is the zero-dispersion region of 1300 nm and the third window
is the 1550 nm region.
High loss regions, where attenuation is very high occur at 730, 950, 1250
and 1380 nm. One wishes to avoid operating in these regions. Evaluation of
losses in a fibre must be done with respect to the transmitted wavelength.
Figure shows a typical attenuation curve for a low loss multimode fibre.
Making the best use of the low loss properties of the fibre requires that the
sources emit light in the low loss region of the fibre. Plastic fibres are best
operated in the visible light area around 650 nm. One important feature of
attenuation in an optical fibre is that the constant at all modulation frequencies
within the bandwidth. Attenuation in a fibre has two main causes.
(I) Scattering
(II) Absorption
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We can obtain losses less than 2.5 dB/km in the first window at 850 nm.
Graded index fibres in the second window with loss below 1 dB/km and in the thrid
window below 0.5 dB/km are obtained. Even lower losses are regarded as
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feasible for monomode fibres in all the three windows. Typically minimum loss in
the three windows for the multimode fibre is 2.5 dB/km, 0.44 dB, km and 0.22
dB/km respectively. The corresponding figures for a monomode fibre are 1.9
dB/km, 0.32 dB/km and 0.048 dB/km.
CABLE CONSTRUCTION
Cabling is an outer protective structure surrounding one or more fibres.
Cabling protects fibres environmentally and mechanically from being damaged or
degraded in performance. Important consideration in any cable are tensile
strength, ruggedness, durability, flexibility, environmental resistance, temperature
extremes and even appearance. Evaluation of these considerations depends on
the application.
Fibre Optic Cables have the following parts in common ;
(I) Optical Fibre
(II) Buffer
(III) Strength member
(IV) Jacket
Cable Components
Component Function Material
Protect fibre From

Buffer Nylon, Mylar, Plastic
Outside
Facilitate Stranding
Central Member Temperature Stability Steel, Fibreglass
Anti-Buckling
Primary Strength Member Tensile Strength Aramid Yarn, Steel
Contain and Protect

Cable Jacket Cable Core PE, PUR, PVC, Teflon
Abrasion Resistance
Cable Filling Prevent Moisture Water Blocking
Compound intrusion and Migration Compound
Rodent Protection
Armoring Steel Tape
Crush Resistance
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Loose Tube Buffering

One way of isolating the Optical Fibre from External Forces is to Place an
Excess Fibre Length within on Oversized "Buffer" Tube.
Siecor/ Optical Cable fills these tubes with a Jollylike Compound to Provide
Additional Cushioning and Prevent the incursion of Moisture.
1. Fibre in Buffer after Manufacturing.
2. Shrinking of Buffer During Temperature Decrease (Different

Coefficients of Thermal Expansion Fiber/Plastics)
3. Elongation of Buffer Due to Cable Tensile Stress
NOTE : Additional Excess Length is Achieved when the "Buffered" Fibers

are Stranded together during the Cabling Operation.
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It is the plastic coating applied to the coating. It protects fibre from outside
stress. The cable buffer is one of two types.
(I) Loose Buffer
(II) Tight Buffer
The loose buffer uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several
times that of the fibre. One or more fibres lie within the buffer tube. As the cable
expands and shrinks with temperature changes, it does not affect the fibre as
much. The fibre in the tube is slightly longer than the tube itself. Thus the cable
can expand and contract without stressing the fibre. The buffer becomes the load-
bearing member.
The tight buffer has a plastic directly applied over the coating. This
construction provides crush and impact resistance. It is more flexible and allows
tighter turn radius. It is useful for indoor applications where temperature variations
are minimum and the ability to make tight turns inside walls is desired.
27
Types of Fiber Buffering

Tight Buffer Jacket
Longitudinal and Transverse Tight
LOOSE BUFFER JACKET
28
Strength member :
Strength members add mechanical strength to the fibre. During and after
installation, the strength members handle the tensile stresses applied to the cable
so that the fibre is not damaged. The most common strength members are Kevlar,
Armid Yarn, Steel and Fibre glass epoxy rods.
Kevlar is most commonly used when individual fibres are placed within their
own jackets. Steel and fibre glass members find use in multifibre cable. Steel
offers better strength than fibreglass but in some cases it is undesirable when one
wishes to maintain an all-dielectrical cables. Steel attracts lightening whereas
fibreglass does not.
Jacket
It provides protection from the effects of abrasion, oil, ozone, acids, alkali,
solvents and so forth. The choice of jacket material depends on degree of
resistance required for different influences and on cost.
The outer layers are often called the sheath. The jacket becomes the layer
directly protecting fibres and the sheath refers to additional layer.
MULTIFIBRE CABLE :
It often contain several loose buffer tubes, each containing one or more
fibres. The use of several tubes allows identification of fibre by tube, since both
tubes and fibres can be colour coded. These tubes are stranded around a central
strength member of steel or fibre glass rod. The stranding provides strain relief for
the fibres when the cable is bent.
29
Typical Mini-Bundle Cable
30
Description
1 - Blue
2 - Orange
3 - Green
4 - Brown
5 - Slate
6 - White
7 - Red
8 - Black
9 - Yellow
10 - Violet
11 - Blue/ Black
12 - Orange/ Black
THE ENVIRONMENT EFFECT :
31
1. There are however always small defects at the surface of the fibre, called
microcracks. These cracks grew when water vapour is present and the
fibre simultaneously is under strain, hence shortening the life of the fibre.
2. Another effect ingress of water, which may increase of concentration of
water vapour around the fibre.
3. Temperature variation may cause Expansion/ Contraction of fibres and
affect the performance to some extent. By proper choice of materials and
by adjusting the excess length of fibre in the loose tube, the temperature
variation effect can be neglected.
CABLE DRUM LENGTH :
Cables come reeled in various length, typically 1 to 2 km, although lengths
of 5 or 6 kms are available for single mode fibres. Long lengths are desirables for
long distance applications, since cable must be spliced end to end over the run.
Each splice introduce additional loss into the system. Long cable lengths mean
fewer splices and less loss.
METALLIC OR NON-METALLIC CABLES :
Fibre optic cables sometimes also contain copper conductors, such as
twisted pair. One use of these conductors is to allow installers to communicate
with each other during installation of the fibre especially with long distance
telephone installation. The other use is to power remote equipment such as
repeaters. Sub-marine cables, cables for overhead mounting, highly, armoured
cables of railways etc are also coming in category of metallic cables. In such
cables strength member will typically be of steel wire and the cable will also
contain one or two copper service pairs. It is also common to include an
aluminium water barrier.
It is possible to construct completely metal free cables, used in areas
suffering from high frequency of lightening. Strength member is made of fibre
glass rod. Induction effect due to lightening or power line parallelism is not at all on
such non-metallic cables.
32
OFC Splicing
Splices
Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing
involves cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be spliced.
Splicing Methods
Single–Fibre Mechanical Splicing
– Single Fibre Capillary
– Aligns two fibre ends to a common centerline, thereby aligning
cores.
– Clean, cleaved fibres are butted together and index matched.
– Permanently secured with epoxy or adhesive.
Examples : Siecor, See Splice GTE Elastomeric Splice.
Splice Location
Uncosted Costed
Fibre Fibre
Fig.
SeeSplice Mechanical Splice
Splicing Methods
The following three types are widely used :
1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
2. Mechanical splicing.
3. Fusion splicing.
1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end
preparation, it is axially aligned in a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or
another kind of reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment
of fibre end, a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the
core material is set between and around the fibre ends. A two component epoxy
33
or an UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent. The splice loss of this
type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing technique is
more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.
2. Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency
repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to
bare fibres for taking various measurements.
The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components :

(i) An alignment surface for mating fibre ends.
(ii) A retainer
(iii) An index matching material.
(iv) A protective housing
A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical
performance as good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single
mode fibre, this type of splice cannot have stability of loss.
3. Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for
achieving very low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through
electrical arc or through gas flame.
The process involves cutting of the fibres and fixing them in micro–
positioners on the fusion splicing machine. The fibres are then aligned either
manually or automatically core aligning (in case of S.M. fibre) process.
Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibres to a
specified distance, preheating of the fibre ends through electric arc and bringing
together of the fibre ends in a position and splicing through high temperature
fusion.
If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the
splicing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the
splicing joint should be provided with a proper protector to have following
protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b) Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy
resins protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the
joint.
Now–a–days, the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are
fixed on the joints by the fusion tools.
34
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for
achieving very low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fibre for
use in long haul network brought with it fibre construction and cable design
different from those of multimode fibres.
The splicing machines imported by BSNL begins to the core profile

alignment system, the main functions of which are :
(1) Auto active alignment of the core.
(2) Auto arc fusion.
(3) Video display of the entire process.
(4) Indication of the estimated splice loss.
The two fibres ends to be spliced are cleaved and then clamped in
accurately machined vee–grooves. When the optimum alignment is achieved,
the fibres are fused under the microprocessor contorl, the machine then
measures the radial and angular off–sets of the fibres and uses these figures to
calculate a splice loss. The operation of the machine observes the alignment and
fusion processes on a video screens showing horizontal and vertical projection
of the fibres and then decides the quality of the splice.
The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a
final value as it is only an estimated loss and so after every splicing is over, the
splice loss measurement is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer). The manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the
fibres. For cleaning the fibres, Dichlorine Methyl or Acetone or Alcohol is used to
remove primary coating.
With the special fibre cleaver or cutter, the cleaned fibre is cut. The cut
has to be so precise that it produces an end angle of less than 0.5 degree on a
prepared fibre. If the cut is bad, the splicing loss will increase or machine will not
accept for splicing. The shape of the cut can be monitored on the video screen,
some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed below :
(i) Broken ends.
(ii) Ripped ends.
(iii) Slanting cuts.
(iv) Unclean ends.

It is also desirable to limit the average splice loss to be less than 0.1 dB.
35
Preconditions for a Splice with a Low Loss
36
Overview of PDH and SDH

With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications
networks were gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years.
To cope with the demand for ever higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called
the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) evolved. The bit rates start with the
basic multiplex rate of 2 Mbit/s with further stages of 8, 34 and 140 Mbit/s. In
North America and Japan, the primary rate is 1.5 Mbit/s. Hierarchy stages of 6
and 44 Mbit/s developed from this. Because of these very different
developments, gateways between one network and another were very difficult
and expensive to realize. PCM allows multiple use of a single line by means of
digital time-domain multiplexing. The analog telephone signal is sampled at a
bandwidth of 3.1 kHz, quantized and encoded and then transmitted at a bit rate
of 64 kbit/s. A transmission rate of 2048 kbit/s results when 30 such coded
channels are collected together into a frame along with the necessary signaling
information. This so-called primary rate is used throughout the world. Only the
USA, Canada and Japan use a primary rate of 1544 kbit/s, formed by combining
24 channels instead of 30. The growing demand for more bandwidth meant that
more stages of multiplexing were needed throughout the world. A practically
synchronous (or, to give it its proper name: plesiochronous) digital hierarchy is
the result. Slight differences in timing signals mean that justification or stuffing is
necessary when forming the multiplexed signals. Inserting or dropping an
individual 64 kbit/s channel to or from a higher digital hierarchy requires a
considerable amount of complex multiplexer equipment.
Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been
based on multiplexing signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the
same speed). Also, various parts of the world use different hierarchies which
lead to problems of international interworking; for example, between those
countries using 1.544 Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the
2.048 Mbit/s system. To recover a 64 kbit/s channel from a 140 Mbit/s PDH
signal, it’s necessary to demultiplex the signal all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s
level before the location of the 64 kbit/s channel can be identified. PDH requires
“steps” (140-34, 34-8, 8-2 demultiplex; 2-8, 8-34, 34-140 multiplex) to drop out or
add an individual speech or data channel (see Figure 1).
37
Fig. 1 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchies (PDH)

The main problems of PDH systems are:
1. Homogeneity of equipment
2. Problem of Channel segregation
3. The problem cross connection of channels
4. Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream.
5. Insufficient capacity for network management;
6. Most PDH network management is proprietary.
7. There’s no standardised definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140
Mbit/s.
8. There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized
interface equipment is required to interwork the two hierarchies.
1988 SDH standard introduced with three major goals:
– Avoid the problems of PDH
– Achieve higher bit rates (Gbit/s)
– Better means for Operation, Administration, and Maintenance
(OA&M)
SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network. SDH is a
synchronous digital transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and
flexible telecom infrastructure. The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
38
is synchronous multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte

interleaved.
SDH brings the following advantages to network providers:
1. High transmission rates
Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in modern SDH
systems. SDH is therefore the most suitable technology for backbones, which
can be considered as being the super highways in today's telecommunications
networks.
2. Simplified add & drop function
Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and
insert low-bit rate channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is
no longer necessary to demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous
structure.
3. High availability and capacity matching
With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the
requirements of their customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a
matter of minutes. The network provider can use standardized network elements
that can be controlled and monitored from a central location by means of a
telecommunications network management (TMN) system.
4. Reliability
Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair
mechanisms to cope with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element
does not lead to failure of the entire network which could be a financial disaster
for the network provider. These back-up circuits are also monitored by a
management system.
5. Future-proof platform for new services
Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for services ranging from POTS,
ISDN and mobile radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it
is able to handle the very latest services, such as video on demand and digital
video broadcasting via ATM that are gradually becoming established.
6. Interconnection
SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network
providers and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized,
39
making it possible to combine network elements from different manufacturers

into a network. The result is a reduction in equipment costs as compared with
PDH.
Network Elements of SDH
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various
tributaries. The mixture of different applications is typical of the data transported
by SDH. Synchronous networks must be able to transmit plesiochronous signals
and at the same time be capable of handling future services such as ATM.
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications networks
Current SDH networks are basically made up from four different types of
network element. The topology (i.e. ring or mesh structure) is governed by the
requirements of the network provider.
1. Regenerators as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the
clock and amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been
attenuated and distorted by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the
incoming data stream. Messages are received by extracting various 64 kbit/s
channels (e.g. service channels E1, F1) in the RSOH (regenerator section
overhead). Messages can also be output using these channels.
40
2. Terminal multiplexers Terminal multiplexers are used to combine

plesiochronous and synchronous input signals into higher bit rate STM-N
signals.
3. Add/drop multiplexers (ADM) Plesiochronous and lower bit rate
synchronous signals can be extracted from or inserted into high speed SDH bit
streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes it possible to set up ring
structures, which have the advantage that automatic back-up path switching is
possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
4. Digital cross-connects (DXC) This network element has the widest
range of functions. It allows mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual
containers as well as switching of various containers up to and including VC-4.
5. Network element management The telecommunications management
network (TMN) is considered as a further element in the synchronous network.
All the SDH network elements mentioned so far are software-controlled. This
means that they can be monitored and remotely controlled, one of the most
important features of SDH. Network management is described in more detail in
the section “TMN in the SDH network”
SDH Rates
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The
basic unit of SDH is STM-1. Different SDH rates are given below:
STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is
synchronous.
The STM-1 frame format
The standardized SDH transmission frames, called Synchronous
Transport Modules of Nth hierarchical level (STM-N).
A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s is defined in ITU-T
Recommendation
G.707. This frame is called the synchronous transport module (STM).
Since the frame is the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy, it is known
41
as STM-1. Figure 2 shows the format of this frame. It is made up from a byte
matrix of 9 rows and 270 columns. Transmission is row by row, starting with the
byte in the upper left corner and ending with the byte in the lower right corner.
The frame repetition rate is 125 ms., each byte in the payload represents a 64
kbit/s channel. The STM-1 frame is capable of transporting any PDH tributary
signal.
The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. G.707
makes a distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the
multiplex section overhead (MSOH). The reason for this is to be able to couple
the functions of certain overhead bytes to the network architecture. The table
below describes the individual functions of the bytes.
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of STM-1 frame
42

Section 3.4, Fundamental of Transmission

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Section 3.4, Fundamental of Transmission

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SECTION 3.

Optical Fibre Cable, Principle and Operation, Fibre

- Less splice points.

- Telephone Inter-office Trunk lines.

- Customer premise communication networks.

- High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).

- Factory communication/ Automation.

- High lightening areas.

- Classified (secure) communications.

(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

Principle of Operation - Theory

THEORY AND PRINCIPLE OF FIBRE OPTICS

By Snell's law, n1 sin ∅ 1 = n2 sing ∅ 2

Light is bent away Light does not enter

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE.

The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fibre depends on

- The size of the fibre.

- The composition of the fibre.

- The light injected into the fibre.

Cladding (n2) Cladding

Core (n2) Jacket

Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

Core (µm) Cladding (µ m)

125 8 125 50 125 62.5 125 100

Typical Core and Cladding Diameters

(1) STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBRE

This types of fibre results in considerable model dispersion, which results

(2) GRADED INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBRE

Multi mode Step Index

Single Mode Step Index

Multi mode Graded Index

(3) SINGLE MODE FIBRE.

exceedingly small core diameter of only 5 to 10 µ m. Standard cladding diameter

As optical energy in a single mode fibre travels in the cladding as well as in

OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS

Window Operational Wavelength

800nm - 900nm 850nm

1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm

1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm

Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.

Fig. Loss and Bends

(II) Microbending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by

Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison

System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we say

Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of a fibre. Light

where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

NA is unitless dimension. We can also define as the angles at which rays

∅ = arc sing (NA) or

where ∅ is the half angle of acceptance

The NA of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre

characteristic. NA in a multimode fibre is important to system performance

another. The information contained in the pulse is lost Reducing dispersion

Model dispersion can be reduced in three ways :

(I) Use a smaller core diameter, which allows fewer modes.

The amount of material dispersion depends on two factors :

Disp = Dispersion at the operating wavelength in seconds/ nm/ km.

So the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the

Component Function Material

Protect fibre From

Primary Strength Member Tensile Strength Aramid Yarn, Steel

Contain and Protect

Loose Tube Buffering

1. Fibre in Buffer after Manufacturing.

2. Shrinking of Buffer During Temperature Decrease (Different