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P
0
P = t
v
Let
r
0
be the position vector of P
0
and
r be the position vector of P. Then,
P
0
P =
r
r
0
Thus, we obtain
r
r
0
= t
v
That is
r =
r
0
+ t
v (1.9)
Denition 66 Equation 1.9 is known as the vector equation of the line L.
The scalar t used in the equation is called a parameter.
The parameter t can be any real number. As it varies, the point P moves
along the line. When t = 0, P is the same as P
0
. When t > 0, P is away from
P
0
in the direction of
v and when t < 0, P is away from P
0
in the direction
opposite
v . The larger t is (in absolute value), the further away P is from P
0
.
Parametric Equations
If we switch to coordinates, equation 1.9 becomes
x; y; z = x
0
; y
0
; z
0
+ t a; b; c
= x
0
+ at; y
0
+ bt; z
0
+ ct
Two vectors are equal when their corresponding coordinates are equal. Thus,
we obtain _
_
_
x = x
0
+ at
y = y
0
+ bt
z = z
0
+ ct
(1.10)
Denition 67 Equation 1.10 is known as the parametric equation of the
line L.
Symmetric Equations
If we solve for t in equation 1.10, assuming that a ,= 0, b ,= 0, and c ,= 0 we
obtain
x x
0
a
=
y y
0
b
=
z z
0
c
(1.11)
Denition 68 Equation 1.11 is known as the symmetric equations of the
line L.
42 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
Remark 69 Equation 1.11 is really three equations
x x
0
a
=
y y
0
b
(1.12)
y y
0
b
=
z z
0
c
x x
0
a
=
z z
0
c
In the case one of the direction numbers is 0, the symmetric equation simply
becomes the equation from 1.12 which does not involve the direction number
being 0. The variable corresponding to the direction number being 0 is simply
set to the corresponding coordinate of the given point. For example, if a = 0
then the symmetric equations are
x = x
0
y y
0
b
=
z z
0
c
Examples
Example 70 Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line through
P (1; 4; 2) in the direction of
v = 1; 2; 3
The parametric equations are
_
_
_
x = 1 + t
y = 4 + 2t
z = 2 + 3t
The symmetric equations are
x + 1 =
y 4
2
=
z 2
3
Example 71 Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line through
P
1
(1; 2; 3) and P
2
(2; 4; 1).
First, we need to nd the direction vector. Since the line goes through P
1
and
P
2
, the vector
P
1
P
2
will be parallel to the line.
P
1
P
2
= 1; 2; 2
Using equation 1.10, we get
_
_
_
x = 1 + t
y = 2 + 2t
z = 3 2t
If we solve for t, we get
x 1 =
y 2
2
=
z 3
2
1.5. EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES IN 3-D 43
Equation of a Line Segment
As the last two examples illustrate, we can also nd the equation of a line if we
are given two points instead of a point and a direction vector. Lets derive a
formula in the general case. Suppose that we are given two points on the line
P
0
= (x
0
; y
o
; z
0
) and P
1
= (x
1
; y
1
; z
1
). Then
P
0
P
1
= x
1
x
0
; y
1
y
0
; z
1
z
0
P
0
P = 0 (1.14)
1.5. EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES IN 3-D 47
This is known as the vector equation of a plane. Switching to coordinates,
we get
a; b; c x x
0
; y y
0
; z z
0
= 0
a (x x
0
) + b (y y
0
) + c (z z
0
) = 0
We usually write this as
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (1.15)
where d = ax
0
by
0
cz
0
. This is known as the scalar equation of a plane.
It is also the equation of a plane in implicit form.
Remark 77 Note that when we know the scalar equation of a plane, we auto-
matically know its normal; it is given by the coecients of x, y, and z.
Remark 78 A plane in 3D is the analogous of a line in 2D. Recall that a
normal to the line ax + by + c = 0 in 2D is a; b. Similarly, a normal to the
plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a; b; c.
Example 79 The normal to the plane 3x + 2y z = 10 is 3; 2; 1.
Example 80 The scalar equation of a plane through (1; 2; 3) with normal 2; 1; 4
is
2 (x 1) + 1 (y 2) + 4 (z 3) = 0
2x + y + 4z 16 = 0
Plane determined by three points
If instead of being given a point and the normal, we are given three non-colinear
points P
1
, P
2
, and P
3
, we form the vectors
P
1
P
2
and
P
1
P
3
. The cross product
P
1
P
2
P
1
P
3
is a vector perpendicular to both
P
1
P
2
and
P
1
P
3
and therefore per-
pendicular to the plane. We can then use one of the point, the vector obtained
from the cross product to derive the equation of the plane.
Example 81 Find the equation of the plane through the points P
1
(0; 1; 1),
P
2
(1; 0; 1) and P
3
(1; 3; 1).
A normal to the plane is
P
1
P
2
P
1
P
3
=
i
j
k
1 1 0
1 4 2
= 2
i + 2
j 3
k
= 2; 2; 3
48 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
A point P (x; y; z) is on the plane if
P
1
P
_
P
1
P
2
P
1
P
3
_
= 0
x; y 1; z 1 2; 2; 3 = 0
2x + 2 (y 1) 3 (z 1) = 0
2x + 2y 3z + 1 = 0
Parallel Planes, Intersecting Planes
Two planes are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel. If two planes
p
1
with normal
n
1
and p
2
with normal
n
2
are not parallel, then the angle
between them is dened to be the smallest angle between their normals that is
the angle with the non-negative cosine. In other words,
= cos
1
[
n
1
n
2
[
|
n
1
| |
n
2
|
(1.16)
Example 82 Find the angle between the planes p
1
: x + y + z 1 = 0 and
p
2
: x 2y + 3z 1 = 0. Find their intersection.
Angle: The normal to p
1
is
n
1
= 1; 1; 1 and the normal to p
2
is
n
2
=
1; 2; 3. Therefore, the angle between them is
= cos
1
[
n
1
n
2
[
|
n
1
| |
n
2
|
= cos
1
2
_
3
_
14
= cos
1
2
_
42
- 72
Intersection: When two planes are not parallel, they intersect in a line.
To nd the equation of a line, we need a point and a direction. The
direction of the line will be perpendicular to both
n
1
and
n
2
. Thus, it can
be found with
n
1
n
2
.
n
1
n
2
=
i
j
k
1 1 1
1 2 3
= 5
i 2
j 3
k
= 5; 2; 3
We also need a point on the line. For this, we can use the equations of the
planes. To be on the line, a point must belong to the two planes. However,
that gives us only two equations and we have three unknowns. So, we can
1.5. EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES IN 3-D 49
also x one of the variables. For example, if we set z = 0, we will be
looking for the point on the line which intersects the two planes and also
the xy-plane. This is what we will do. So, we must solve
_
x + y = 1
x 2y = 1
The solutions are x = 1 and y = 0. So, (1; 0; 0) is a point on the line.
Thus, the parametric equations of the line are
_
_
_
x = 1 + 5t
y = 2t
z = 3t
Summary for Planes
In addition, using the material studied so far, you should be able to do the
following:
1. Be able to nd the equation of a plane given a point on the plane and a
normal to the plane.
2. Be able to nd the equation of a plane given three points on the plane.
3. Be able to nd the equation of a plane through a point and parallel to a
given plane.
4. Be able to nd the equation of a plane through a point and a line not
containing the point.
5. Be able to tell if two planes are parallel, perpendicular.
6. Be able to nd the angle between two planes.
7. Be able to nd the traces of a plane.
8. Be able to nd the intersection of two planes.
Make sure you can do the above before attempting the problems.
1.5.3 Problems
Do the following problems.
1. Find the parametric equations for the line through the point P = (3; 4; 1)
parallel to
i +
j +
k .
2. Find the parametric equations for the line through the point P = (2; 0; 3)
and Q = (3; 5; 2).
50 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
3. Find the parametric equations for the line through the origin parallel to
2
j +
k .
4. Find the parametric equations for the line through the point (1; 1; 1) par-
allel to the z-axis.
5. Find the parametric equations for the line through the point (0; 7; 0)
perpendicular to the plane x + 2y + 2z = 13.
6. Find the parametric equations for the x-axis.
7. Find the equation of the line segment from (0; 0; 0) to
_
1; 1;
3
2
_
.
8. Find the equation of the line segment from (1; 0; 0) to (1; 1; 0).
9. Find the equation of the plane through P = (0; 2; 1) normal to 3
i
2
j
k .
10. Find the equation of the plane through P = (1; 1; 1), Q = (2; 0; 2) and
R = (0; 2; 1).
11. Find the equation of the plane through P = (2; 4; 5) perpendicular to the
line
_
_
_
x = 5 + t
y = 1 + 3t
z = 4t
12. Find the point of intersection of the lines
_
_
_
x = 1 + 2t
y = 2 + 3t
z = 3 + 4t
and
_
_
_
x = 2 + s
y = 4 + 2s
z = 1 4s
.
Then, nd the plane determined by these two lines.
13. Find the plane determined by intersecting the lines
_
_
_
x = 1 + t
y = 2 + t
z = 1 t
and
_
_
_
x = 1 4s
y = 1 + 2s
z = 2 2s
14. Find the plane through P
0
= (2; 1; 1) perpendicular to the line of inter-
section of the planes 2x + y z = 3 and x + 2y + z = 2.
15. Find the distance from the point P = (0; 0; 12) to the line
_
_
_
x = 4t
y = 2t
z = 2t
16. Find the distance from the point P = (2; 1; 3) to the line
_
_
_
x = 2 + 2t
y = 1 + 6t
z = 3
17. Find the distance from the point P = (2; 3; 4) to the plane x+2y +2z =
13.
1.5. EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES IN 3-D 51
18. Find the distance from the point P = (0; 1; 1) to the plane 4y +3z = 12.
19. Find the distance between the two planes x+2y+6z = 1 and x+2y+6z =
10.
20. Find the angle between the two planes 2x+2y+2z = 3 and 2x2yz = 5.
21. Find the point of intersection between the line
_
_
_
x = 1 t
y = 3t
z = 1 + t
and the plane
2x y + 3z = 6.
22. Determine whether the lines taken two at a time are parallel, intersect or
skew. If they intersect, nd their point of intersection.
L
1
:
_
_
_
x = 3 + 2t
y = 1 + 4t
z = 2 t
L
2
:
_
_
_
x = 1 + 4s
y = 1 + 2s
z = 3 + 4s
L
3
:
_
_
_
x = 3 + 2r
y = 2 + r
z = 2 + 2r
23. Find the points in which the line
_
_
_
x = 1 + 2t
y = 1 t
z = 3t
meet the coordinate
planes.
24. In the plane, the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line is y = mx+b
where m is the slope and b the y-intercept. Show that the vector (1; m) is
a direction vector of the line y = mx + b. (hint: Pick 2 points P
1
and P
2
on the line the vector
P
1
P
2
is a direction vector for the line).
25. Another form of the equation of a line in the plane is ax + by + c = 0.
Using a similar approach as the one in the previous problem, show that
(b; a) is a direction vector for such a line. What is a vector perpendicular
to the line?
26. For a line in space, the notion of slope (
change in y
change in x
) does not carry over
because there are three variables changing, it is replaced by the direction
vector. However, if a line is one of the coordinate planes, then there are
only two variables involved. If the line is in the xy-plane, then only x
and y are changing. If a line is in the xz-plane, then only x and z are
changing. If a line is in the yz-plane, then only y and z are changing.
Find the direction vector of a line having its slope equal to m in each of
the coordinate planes. (hint: use problem ??).
52 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
27. Let L be the line that passes through the points Q and R and let P be
a point not on L. Show that the distance between P and L is
!
QR
!
QP
!
QR
.
Show that this agrees with the formula in the book for the distance be-
tween a point S and a line through P parallel to
v which is
!
PS
!
v
|
!
v |
.
28. Let P be a point not on the plane determined by the points Q, R and S.
Show that the distance between P and the plane is
!
QR
!
QS
!
QP
!
QR
!
QS
.
29. Show that the distance from the point P
1
= (x
1
; y
1
) to the line ax+by+c =
0 is
jax1+by1+cj
p
a
2
+b
2
.
30. Show that the distance from the point P
1
= (x
1
; y
1
; z
1
) and the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
jax1+by1+cz1+dj
p
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
.
31. Assuming d
1
,= d
2
, explain why the two planes given by ax+by+cz+d
1
= 0
and ax+by +cz +d
2
= 0 are parallel, then compute the distance between
them.