Capital

A Critique of Political Economy

Book One: The Process of Production of Capital
First published: in German in 1867, English edition first published in 1887; Source: First English edition of 1887 ( th German edition changes included as indicated! "ith some modernisation of spelling; #ublisher: #rogress #ublishers, $osco", %SS&; 'ranslated: Samuel $oore and Ed"ard ()eling, edited b* Frederic+ Engels; 'ranscribed: ,odiac, -inrich .uhls, (llan 'hurrott, /ill $c0orman, /ert Schult1 and $artha Gimene1 (122341226!; #roofed: and corrected b* (nd* /lunden and 5hris 5la*ton (6778!, $ar+ -arris (6717!8

Volume I

Table of Contents
#reface to the First German Edition ($ar9, 1867!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888886 #reface to the French Edition ($ar9, 1876!888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888882 (fter"ord to the Second German Edition (187:!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888817 (fter"ord to the French Edition (1873!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888816 #reface to the 'hird German Edition (188:!8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888817 #reface to the English Edition (Engels, 1886!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888812 #reface to the Fourth German Edition (Engels, 1827!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888866 Part 1: Commodities and Money...............................................................................................26 5hapter 1: 5ommodities8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888866 Section 1: 'he '"o Factors of a 5ommodit*: %se4;alue and ;alue ('he Substance of ;alue and the $agnitude of ;alue!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888866 Section 6: 'he '"ofold 5haracter of the <abour Embodied in 5ommodities888888888888888888888862 Section :: 'he Form of ;alue or E9change4;alue888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:6 Section : 'he Fetishism of 5ommodities and the Secret 'hereof8888888888888888888888888888888888888888 6 5hapter 6: E9change888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888883: 5hapter :: $one*, =r the 5irculation of 5ommodities88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888838 Section 1: 'he $easure of ;alues888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888838 Section 6: 'he $edium of 5irculation888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888866 Section :: $one*88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888873 Part 2: Transformation of Money into Capital.........................................................................83 5hapter : 'he General Formula for 5apital888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888: 5hapter 3: 5ontradictions in the General Formula of 5apital88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 5hapter 6: 'he /u*ing and Selling of <abour4#o"er8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888882 Part 3: The Production of Absolute urplus !alue.................................................................."" 5hapter 7: 'he <abour4#rocess and the #rocess of #roducing Surplus ;alue8888888888888888888888888822 Section 1: 'he <abour4#rocess or the #roduction of %se4;alues8888888888888888888888888888888888888888822 Section 6: 'he #roduction of Surplus ;alue8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888817: 5hapter 8: 5onstant 5apital and ;ariable 5apital8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888111 5hapter 2: 'he &ate of Surplus )alue8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888118 Section 1: 'he 0egree of E9ploitation of <abour4#o"er8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888118 Section 6: 'he &epresentation of the 5omponents of the ;alue of the #roduct b* 5orresponding #roportional #arts of the #roduct >tself8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888166 Section :: Senior?s @<ast -ourA88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888816 Section : Surplus4#roduce8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888167 5hapter 17: 'he Bor+ing da*8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888168 Section 1: 'he <imits of the Bor+ing da*88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888168 Section 6: 'he Greed for Surplus4<abor, $anufacturer and /o*ard888888888888888888888888888888888881:7

Section :: /ranches of English >ndustr* Bithout <egal <imits to E9ploitation8888888888888888881: Section : 0a* and Cight Bor+8 'he &ela* S*stem888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888881 1 Section 3: 'he Struggle for a Cormal Bor+ing 0a*8 5ompulsor* <a"s for the E9tension of the Bor+ing 0a* from the $iddle of the 1 th to the End of the 17th 5entur*8888888888888888881 Section 6: 'he Struggle for a Cormal Bor+ing 0a*8 5ompulsor* <imitation b* <a" of the Bor+ing4'ime8 English Factor* (cts, 18::8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888137 Section 7: 'he Struggle for a Cormal Bor+ing 0a*8 &eaction of the English Factor* (cts on =ther 5ountries88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888132 5hapter 11: &ate and $ass of Surplus ;alue88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888166 Part #: Production of $elati%e urplus !alue.........................................................................16& 5hapter 16: 'he 5oncept of &elati)e Surplus ;alue888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888167 5hapter 1:: 5o4operation8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888817: 5hapter 1 : 0i)ision of <abour and $anufacture8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888181 Section 1: '"o4Fold =rigin of $anufacture88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888181 Section 6: 'he 0etail <abourer and his >mplements88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888186 Section :: 'he '"o Fundamental Forms of $anufacture: -eterogeneous $anufacture, Serial $anufacture8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888818 Section : 0i)ision of <abour in $anufacture, and 0i)ision of <abour in Societ*888888888888188 Section 3: 'he 5apitalistic 5haracter of $anufacture888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888126 5hapter 13: $achiner* and $odern >ndustr*8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888127 Section 1 : 'he 0e)elopment of $achiner*888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888127 Section 6: 'he ;alue 'ransferred b* $achiner* to the #roduct888888888888888888888888888888888888888867 Section :: 'he #ro9imate Effects of $achiner* on the Bor+man8888888888888888888888888888888888888677 Section : 'he Factor*88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888667 Section 3: 'he Strife /et"een Bor+man and $achine888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888666 Section 6: 'he 'heor* of 5ompensation as &egards the Bor+people 0isplaced b* $achiner*888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888668 Section 7: &epulsion and (ttraction of Bor+people b* the Factor* S*stem8 5rises in the 5otton 'rade888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888886:: Section 8: &e)olution Effected in $anufacture, -andicrafts, and 0omestic >ndustr* b* $odern >ndustr*888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888886 7 Section 2: 'he Factor* (cts8 Sanitar* and Educational 5lauses of the same8 'heir General E9tension in England8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888631 Section 17: $odern >ndustr* and (griculture888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888663 Part ': Production of Absolute and $elati%e urplus !alue.................................................26& 5hapter 16: (bsolute and &elati)e Surplus ;alue888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888667 5hapter 17: 5hanges of $agnitude in the #rice of <abour4#o"er and in Surplus ;alue8888888867: Section 1: <ength of the Bor+ing da* and >ntensit* of <abour 5onstant8 #roducti)eness of <abour ;ariable88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888867: Section 6: Bor+ing da* 5onstant8 #roducti)eness of <abour 5onstant8 >ntensit* of <abour ;ariable888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888676

Section :: #roducti)eness and >ntensit* of <abour 5onstant8 <ength of the Bor+ing da* ;ariable888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888677 Section : Simultaneous ;ariations in the 0uration, #roducti)eness, and >ntensit* of <abour 88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888678 5hapter 18: ;arious Formula for the rate of Surplus )alue88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888687 Part 6: (a)es............................................................................................................................283 5hapter 12: 'he 'ransformation of the ;alue (and &especti)e #rice! of <abour4#o"er into Bages888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888868: 5hapter 67: 'ime4Bages88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888687 5hapter 61: #iece Bages88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888621 5hapter 66: Cational 0ifferences of Bages8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888623 Part &: The Accumulation of Capital......................................................................................2"8 5hapter 6:: Simple &eproduction8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888628 5hapter 6 : 5on)ersion of Surplus )alue into 5apital888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:76 Section 1: 5apitalist #roduction on a #rogressi)el* >ncreasing Scale8 'ransition of the <a"s of #ropert* that 5haracterise #roduction of 5ommodities into <a"s of 5apitalist (ppropriation8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:76 Section 6: Erroneous 5onception, b* #olitical Econom*, of &eproduction on a #rogressi)el* >ncreasing Scale888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:11 Section :: Separation of Surplus )alue into 5apital and &e)enue8 'he (bstinence 'heor* 88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:1: Section : 5ircumstances that, >ndependentl* of the #roportional 0i)ision of Surplus )alue into 5apital and &e)enue, 0etermine the (mount of (ccumulation8 0egree of E9ploitation of <abour4#o"er8 #roducti)it* of <abour8 Gro"ing 0ifference in (mount /et"een 5apital Emplo*ed and 5apital 5onsumed8 $agnitude of 5apital (d)anced8888888888888888888888888888888888:17 Section 3: 'he So45alled <abour Fund8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:66 5hapter 63: 'he General <a" of 5apitalist (ccumulation88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:6 Section 1: 'he >ncreased 0emand for labour po"er that (ccompanies (ccumulation, the 5omposition of 5apital &emaining the same8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:6 Section 6: &elati)e 0iminution of the ;ariable #art of 5apital Simultaneousl* "ith the #rogress of (ccumulation and of the 5oncentration that (ccompanies it88888888888888888888888888:68 Section :: #rogressi)e #roduction of a &elati)e surplus population or >ndustrial &eser)e (rm*88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888::6 Section : 0ifferent Forms of the &elati)e surplus population8 'he General <a" of 5apitalistic (ccumulation888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888::2 Section 3: >llustrations of the General <a" of 5apitalist (ccumulation88888888888888888888888888888: : Part 8: Primiti%e Accumulation ..............................................................................................383 5hapter 66: 'he Secret of #rimiti)e (ccumulation8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:8: 5hapter 67: E9propriation of the (gricultural #opulation From the <and888888888888888888888888888888:86 5hapter 68: /lood* <egislation (gainst the E9propriated, from the End of the 13th 5entur*8 Forcing 0o"n of Bages b* (cts of #arliament8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:2: 5hapter '"ent*4Cine: Genesis of the 5apitalist Farmer888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:27

5hapter :7: &eaction of the (gricultural &e)olution on >ndustr*8 5reation of the -ome4$ar+et for >ndustrial 5apital888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888:28 5hapter :1: 'he Genesis of the >ndustrial 5apitalist888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 71 5hapter :6: -istorical 'endenc* of 5apitalist (ccumulation8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 77 5hapter ::: 'he $odern 'heor* of 5olonisation 888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 72

Preface to the First German Edition (Marx, 1867)

'he "or+, the first )olume of "hich > no" submit to the public, forms the continuation of m* ,ur .riti+ der #olitischen =e+onomie (A Contribution to the Criticism of Political Economy ! published in 18328 'he long pause bet"een the first part and the continuation is due to an illness of man* *ears? duration that again and again interrupted m* "or+8 'he substance of that earlier "or+ is summarised in the first three chapters of this )olume8 'his is done not merel* for the sa+e of conne9ion and completeness8 'he presentation of the subDect matter is impro)ed8 (s far as circumstances in an* "a* permit, man* points onl* hinted at in the earlier boo+ are here "or+ed out more full*, "hilst, con)ersel*, points "or+ed out full* there are onl* touched upon in this )olume8 'he sections on the histor* of the theories of )alue and of mone* are no", of course, left out altogether8 'he reader of the earlier "or+ "ill find, ho"e)er, in the notes to the first chapter additional sources of reference relati)e to the histor* of those theories8 E)er* beginning is difficult, holds in all sciences8 'o understand the first chapter, especiall* the section that contains the anal*sis of commodities, "ill, therefore, present the greatest difficult*8 'hat "hich concerns more especiall* the anal*sis of the substance of )alue and the magnitude of )alue, > ha)e, as much as it "as possible, popularised8 1 'he )alue4form, "hose full* de)eloped shape is the mone*4form, is )er* elementar* and simple8 Ce)ertheless, the human mind has for more than 6,777 *ears sought in )ain to get to the bottom of it all, "hilst on the other hand, to the successful anal*sis of much more composite and comple9 forms, there has been at least an appro9imation8 Bh*E /ecause the bod*, as an organic "hole, is more eas* of stud* than are the cells of that bod*8 >n the anal*sis of economic forms, moreo)er, neither microscopes nor chemical reagents are of use8 'he force of abstraction must replace both8 /ut in bourgeois societ*, the commodit*4form of the product of labour F or )alue4form of the commodit* F is the economic cell4form8 'o the superficial obser)er, the anal*sis of these forms seems to turn upon minutiae8 >t does in fact deal "ith minutiae, but the* are of the same order as those dealt "ith in microscopic anatom*8 Bith the e9ception of the section of )alue4form, therefore, this )olume cannot stand accused on the score of difficult*8 > presuppose, of course, a reader "ho is "illing to learn something ne" and therefore to thin+ for himself8 'he ph*sicist either obser)es ph*sical phenomena "here the* occur in their most t*pical form and most free from disturbing influence, or, "here)er possible, he ma+es e9periments under conditions that assure the occurrence of the phenomenon in its normalit*8 >n this "or+ > ha)e to e9amine the capitalist mode of production, and the conditions of production and e9change corresponding to that mode8 %p to the present time, their classic ground is England8 'hat is the reason "h* England is used as the chief illustration in the de)elopment of m* theoretical ideas8 >f, ho"e)er, the German reader shrugs his shoulders at the condition of the English industrial and agricultural labourers, or in optimist fashion comforts himself "ith the thought that in German* things are not nearl* so bad; > must plainl* tell him, @ De te fabula narratur!A G>t is of *ou that the stor* is told8 F -oraceH

#reface to the First German Edition ($ar9 1867!

>ntrinsicall*, it is not a Iuestion of the higher or lo"er degree of de)elopment of the social antagonisms that result from the natural la"s of capitalist production8 >t is a Iuestion of these la"s themsel)es, of these tendencies "or+ing "ith iron necessit* to"ards ine)itable results8 'he countr* that is more de)eloped industriall* onl* sho"s, to the less de)eloped, the image of its o"n future8 /ut apart from this8 Bhere capitalist production is full* naturalised among the Germans (for instance, in the factories proper! the condition of things is much "orse than in England, because the counterpoise of the Factor* (cts is "anting8 >n all other spheres, "e, li+e all the rest of 5ontinental Bestern Europe, suffer not onl* from the de)elopment of capitalist production, but also from the incompleteness of that de)elopment8 (longside the modern e)ils, a "hole series of inherited e)ils oppress us, arising from the passi)e sur)i)al of antiIuated modes of production, "ith their ine)itable train of social and political anachronisms8 Be suffer not onl* from the li)ing, but from the dead8 Le mort saisit le vif! G'he dead holds the li)ing in his grasp8 F formula of French common la"H 'he social statistics of German* and the rest of 5ontinental Bestern Europe are, in comparison "ith those of England, "retchedl* compiled8 /ut the* raise the )eil Dust enough to let us catch a glimpse of the $edusa head behind it8 Be should be appalled at the state of things at home, if, as in England, our go)ernments and parliaments appointed periodicall* commissions of inIuir* into economic conditions; if these commissions "ere armed "ith the same plenar* po"ers to get at the truth; if it "as possible to find for this purpose men as competent, as free from partisanship and respect of persons as are the English factor*4inspectors, her medical reporters on public health, her commissioners of inIuir* into the e9ploitation of "omen and children, into housing and food8 #erseus "ore a magic cap do"n o)er his e*es and ears as a ma+e4belie)e that there are no monsters8 <et us not decei)e oursel)es on this8 (s in the 18th centur*, the (merican "ar of independence sounded the tocsin for the European middle class, so that in the 12th centur*, the (merican 5i)il Bar sounded it for the European "or+ing class8 >n England the process of social disintegration is palpable8 Bhen it has reached a certain point, it must react on the 5ontinent8 'here it "ill ta+e a form more brutal or more humane, according to the degree of de)elopment of the "or+ing class itself8 (part from higher moti)es, therefore, their o"n most important interests dictate to the classes that are for the nonce the ruling ones, the remo)al of all legall* remo)able hindrances to the free de)elopment of the "or+ing class8 For this reason, as "ell as others, > ha)e gi)en so large a space in this )olume to the histor*, the details, and the results of English factor* legislation8 =ne nation can and should learn from others8 (nd e)en "hen a societ* has got upon the right trac+ for the disco)er* of the natural la"s of its mo)ement F and it is the ultimate aim of this "or+, to la* bare the economic la" of motion of modern societ* F it can neither clear b* bold leaps, nor remo)e b* legal enactments, the obstacles offered b* the successi)e phases of its normal de)elopment8 /ut it can shorten and lessen the birth4pangs8 'o pre)ent possible misunderstanding, a "ord8 > paint the capitalist and the landlord in no sense couleur de rose Gi8e8, seen through rose4tinted glassesH8 /ut here indi)iduals are dealt "ith onl* in so far as the* are the personifications of economic categories, embodiments of particular class4 relations and class4interests8 $* standpoint, from "hich the e)olution of the economic formation of societ* is )ie"ed as a process of natural histor*, can less than an* other ma+e the indi)idual responsible for relations "hose creature he sociall* remains, ho"e)er much he ma* subDecti)el* raise himself abo)e them8 >n the domain of #olitical Econom*, free scientific inIuir* meets not merel* the same enemies as in all other domains8 'he peculiar nature of the materials it deals "ith, summons as foes into the

#reface to the First German Edition ($ar9 1867!

field of battle the most )iolent, mean and malignant passions of the human breast, the Furies of pri)ate interest8 'he English Established 5hurch, e8g8, "ill more readil* pardon an attac+ on :8 of its :2 articles than on 1J:2 of its income8 Co"4a4da*s atheism is culpa levis Ga relati)el* slight sin, c8f8 mortal sinH, as compared "ith criticism of e9isting propert* relations8 Ce)ertheless, there is an unmista+able ad)ance8 > refer, e8g8, to the /lue boo+ published "ithin the last fe" "ee+s: @5orrespondence "ith -er $aDest*?s $issions (broad, regarding >ndustrial Kuestions and 'rades? %nions8A 'he representati)es of the English 5ro"n in foreign countries there declare in so man* "ords that in German*, in France, to be brief, in all the ci)ilised states of the European 5ontinent, radical change in the e9isting relations bet"een capital and labour is as e)ident and ine)itable as in England8 (t the same time, on the other side of the (tlantic =cean, $r8 Bade, )ice4president of the %nited States, declared in public meetings that, after the abolition of sla)er*, a radical change of the relations of capital and of propert* in land is ne9t upon the order of the da*8 'hese are signs of the times, not to be hidden b* purple mantles or blac+ cassoc+s8 'he* do not signif* that tomorro" a miracle "ill happen8 'he* sho" that, "ithin the ruling classes themsel)es, a foreboding is da"ning, that the present societ* is no solid cr*stal, but an organism capable of change, and is constantl* changing8 'he second )olume of this boo+ "ill treat of the process of the circulation of capital (/oo+ >>8!, and of the )aried forms assumed b* capital in the course of its de)elopment (/oo+ >>>8!, the third and last )olume (/oo+ >;8!, the histor* of the theor*8 E)er* opinion based on scientific criticism > "elcome8 (s to preDudices of so4called public opinion, to "hich > ha)e ne)er made concessions, no" as aforetime the ma9im of the great Florentine is mine: @Segui il tuo corso, e lascia dir le genti8A GFollo" *our o"n course, and let people tal+ F paraphrased from 0anteH Karl Marx <ondon Lul* 63, 1867

Preface to the French Edition (Marx, 1872)

'o the citi1en $aurice <achMtre 0ear 5iti1en, > applaud *our idea of publishing the translation of @0as .apitalA as a serial8 >n this form the boo+ "ill be more accessible to the "or+ing class, a consideration "hich to me out"eighs e)er*thing else8 'hat is the good side of *our suggestion, but here is the re)erse of the medal: the method of anal*sis "hich > ha)e emplo*ed, and "hich had not pre)iousl* been applied to economic subDects, ma+es the reading of the first chapters rather arduous, and it is to be feared that the French public, al"a*s impatient to come to a conclusion, eager to +no" the conne9ion bet"een general principles and the immediate Iuestions that ha)e aroused their passions, ma* be disheartened because the* "ill be unable to mo)e on at once8 'hat is a disad)antage > am po"erless to o)ercome, unless it be b* fore"arning and forearming those readers "ho 1ealousl* see+ the truth8 'here is no ro*al road to science, and onl* those "ho do not dread the fatiguing climb of its steep paths ha)e a chance of gaining its luminous summits8 /elie)e me, dear citi1en, Nour de)oted, Karl Marx <ondon $arch 18, 1876

Afterword to the Second German Edition (187 )

> must start b* informing the readers of the first edition about the alterations made in the second edition8 =ne is struc+ at once b* the clearer arrangement of the boo+8 (dditional notes are e)er*"here mar+ed as notes to the second edition8 'he follo"ing are the most important points "ith regard to the te9t itself: >n 5hapter >, Section 1, the deri)ation of )alue from an anal*sis of the eIuations b* "hich e)er* e9change4)alue is e9pressed has been carried out "ith greater scientific strictness; li+e"ise the conne9ion bet"een the substance of )alue and the determination of the magnitude of )alue b* sociall* necessar* labour4time, "hich "as onl* alluded to in the first edition, is no" e9pressl* emphasised8 5hapter >, Section : (the Form of ;alue!, has been completel* re)ised, a tas+ "hich "as made necessar* b* the double e9position in the first edition, if nothing else8 F <et me remar+, in passing, that that double e9position had been occasioned b* m* friend, 0r8 < .ugelmann in -ano)er8 > "as )isiting him in the spring of 1867 "hen the first proof4sheets arri)ed from -amburg, and he con)inced me that most readers needed a supplementar*, more didactic e9planation of the form of )alue8 F 'he last section of the first chapter, @'he Fetishism of 5ommodities, etc8,A has largel* been altered8 5hapter >>>, Section > ('he $easure of ;alue!, has been carefull* re)ised, because in the first edition this section had been treated negligentl*, the reader ha)ing been referred to the e9planation alread* gi)en in @,ur .riti+ der #olitischen =e+onomie,A /erlin 18328 5hapter ;>>, particularl* #art 6 GEng8 ed8, 5hapter >O, Section 6H, has been re4"ritten to a great e9tent8 >t "ould be a "aste of time to go into all the partial te9tual changes, "hich "ere often purel* st*listic8 'he* occur throughout the boo+8 Ce)ertheless > find no", on re)ising the French translation appearing in #aris, that se)eral parts of the German original stand in need of rather thorough remoulding, other parts reIuire rather hea)* st*listic editing, and still others painsta+ing elimination of occasional slips8 /ut there "as no time for that8 For > had been informed onl* in the autumn of 1871, "hen in the midst of other urgent "or+, that the boo+ "as sold out and that the printing of the second edition "as to begin in Lanuar* of 18768 'he appreciation "hich @0as .apitalA rapidl* gained in "ide circles of the German "or+ing class is the best re"ard of m* labours8 -err $a*er, a ;ienna manufacturer, "ho in economic matters represents the bourgeois point of )ie", in a pamphlet published during the Franco4German Bar aptl* e9pounded the idea that the great capacit* for theor*, "hich used to be considered a hereditar* German possession, had almost completel* disappeared amongst the so4called educated classes in German*, but that amongst its "or+ing class, on the contrar*, that capacit* "as celebrating its re)i)al8 'o the present moment #olitical Econom*, in German*, is a foreign science8 Gusta) )on Gulich in his @-istorical description of 5ommerce, >ndustr*,A Pc8, 1 especiall* in the t"o first )olumes published in 18:7, has e9amined at length the historical circumstances that pre)ented, in German*, the de)elopment of the capitalist mode of production, and conseIuentl* the de)elopment, in that countr*, of modern bourgeois societ*8 'hus the soil "hence #olitical Econom* springs "as "anting8 'his @scienceA had to be imported from England and France as a read*4made article; its German professors remained schoolbo*s8 'he theoretical e9pression of a foreign realit* "as turned, in their hands, into a collection of dogmas, interpreted b* them in terms of the pett* trading "orld around them, and therefore misinterpreted8 'he feeling of scientific impotence, a feeling not "holl* to be repressed, and the uneas* consciousness of

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ha)ing to touch a subDect in realit* foreign to them, "as but imperfectl* concealed, either under a parade of literar* and historical erudition, or b* an admi9ture of e9traneous material, borro"ed from the so4called @.ameralA sciences, a medle* of smatterings, through "hose purgator* the hopeful candidate for the German bureaucrac* has to pass8 Since 18 8 capitalist production has de)eloped rapidl* in German*, and at the present time it is in the full bloom of speculation and s"indling8 /ut fate is still unpropitious to our professional economists8 (t the time "hen the* "ere able to deal "ith #olitical Econom* in a straightfor"ard fashion, modern economic conditions did not actuall* e9ist in German*8 (nd as soon as these conditions did come into e9istence, the* did so under circumstances that no longer allo"ed of their being reall* and impartiall* in)estigated "ithin the bounds of the bourgeois hori1on8 >n so far as #olitical Econom* remains "ithin that hori1on, in so far, i8e8, as the capitalist regime is loo+ed upon as the absolutel* final form of social production, instead of as a passing historical phase of its e)olution, #olitical Econom* can remain a science onl* so long as the class struggle is latent or manifests itself onl* in isolated and sporadic phenomena8 <et us ta+e England8 >ts #olitical Econom* belongs to the period in "hich the class struggle "as as *et unde)eloped8 >ts last great representati)e, &icardo, in the end, consciousl* ma+es the antagonism of class interests, of "ages and profits, of profits and rent, the starting point of his in)estigations, nai)el* ta+ing this antagonism for a social la" of Cature8 /ut b* this start the science of bourgeois econom* had reached the limits be*ond "hich it could not pass8 (lread* in the lifetime of &icardo, and in opposition to him, it "as met b* criticism, in the person of Sismondi8 6 'he succeeding period, from 1867 to 18:7, "as notable in England for scientific acti)it* in the domain of #olitical Econom*8 >t "as the time as "ell of the )ulgarising and e9tending of &icardo?s theor*, as of the contest of that theor* "ith the old school8 Splendid tournaments "ere held8 Bhat "as done then, is little +no"n to the 5ontinent generall*, because the polemic is for the most part scattered through articles in re)ie"s, occasional literature and pamphlets8 'he unpreDudiced character of this polemic F although the theor* of &icardo alread* ser)es, in e9ceptional cases, as a "eapon of attac+ upon bourgeois econom* F is e9plained b* the circumstances of the time8 =n the one hand, modern industr* itself "as onl* Dust emerging from the age of childhood, as is sho"n b* the fact that "ith the crisis of 1863 it for the first time opens the periodic c*cle of its modern life8 =n the other hand, the class struggle bet"een capital and labour is forced into the bac+ground, politicall* b* the discord bet"een the go)ernments and the feudal aristocrac* gathered around the -ol* (lliance on the one hand, and the popular masses, led b* the bourgeoisie, on the other; economicall* b* the Iuarrel bet"een industrial capital and aristocratic landed propert* 4 a Iuarrel that in France "as concealed b* the opposition bet"een small and large landed propert*, and that in England bro+e out openl* after the 5orn <a"s8 'he literature of #olitical Econom* in England at this time calls to mind the storm* for"ard mo)ement in France after 0r8 Kuesna*?s death, but onl* as a Saint $artin?s summer reminds us of spring8 Bith the *ear 18:7 came the decisi)e crisis8 >n France and in England the bourgeoisie had conIuered political po"er8 'henceforth, the class struggle, practicall* as "ell as theoreticall*, too+ on more and more outspo+en and threatening forms8 >t sounded the +nell of scientific bourgeois econom*8 >t "as thenceforth no longer a Iuestion, "hether this theorem or that "as true, but "hether it "as useful to capital or harmful, e9pedient or ine9pedient, politicall* dangerous or not8 >n place of disinterested inIuirers, there "ere hired pri1e fighters; in place of genuine scientific research, the bad conscience and the e)il intent of apologetic8 Still, e)en the obtrusi)e pamphlets "ith "hich the (nti45orn <a" <eague, led b* the manufacturers 5obden and /right, deluged the "orld, ha)e a historic interest, if no

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(fter"ord to the Second German Edition (187:!

scientific one, on account of their polemic against the landed aristocrac*8 /ut since then the Free 'rade legislation, inaugurated b* Sir &obert #eel, has depri)ed )ulgar econom* of this its last sting8 'he 5ontinental re)olution of 18 842 also had its reaction in England8 $en "ho still claimed some scientific standing and aspired to be something more than mere sophists and s*cophants of the ruling classes tried to harmonise the #olitical Econom* of capital "ith the claims, no longer to be ignored, of the proletariat8 -ence a shallo" s*ncretism of "hich Lohn Stuart $ill is the best representati)e8 >t is a declaration of ban+ruptc* b* bourgeois econom*, an e)ent on "hich the great &ussian scholar and critic, C8 'schern*sche"s+*, has thro"n the light of a master mind in his @=utlines of #olitical Econom* according to $ill8A >n German*, therefore, the capitalist mode of production came to a head, after its antagonistic character had alread*, in France and England, sho"n itself in a fierce strife of classes8 (nd mean"hile, moreo)er, the German proletariat had attained a much more clear class4consciousness than the German bourgeoisie8 'hus, at the )er* moment "hen a bourgeois science of #olitical Econom* seemed at last possible in German*, it had in realit* again become impossible8 %nder these circumstances its professors fell into t"o groups8 'he one set, prudent, practical business fol+, floc+ed to the banner of /astiat, the most superficial and therefore the most adeIuate representati)e of the apologetic of )ulgar econom*; the other, proud of the professorial dignit* of their science, follo"ed Lohn Stuart $ill in his attempt to reconcile irreconcilables8 Lust as in the classical time of bourgeois econom*, so also in the time of its decline, the Germans remained mere schoolbo*s, imitators and follo"ers, pett* retailers and ha"+ers in the ser)ice of the great foreign "holesale concern8 'he peculiar historical de)elopment of German societ* therefore forbids, in that countr*, all original "or+ in bourgeois econom*; but not the criticism of that econom*8 So far as such criticism represents a class, it can onl* represent the class "hose )ocation in histor* is the o)erthro" of the capitalist mode of production and the final abolition of all classes F the proletariat8 'he learned and unlearned spo+esmen of the German bourgeoisie tried at first to +ill @0as .apitalA b* silence, as the* had managed to do "ith m* earlier "ritings8 (s soon as the* found that these tactics no longer fitted in "ith the conditions of the time, the* "rote, under pretence of criticising m* boo+, prescriptions @for the tranIuillisation of the bourgeois mind8A /ut the* found in the "or+ers? press F see, e8g8, Loseph 0iet1gen?s articles in the F antagonists stronger than themsel)es, to "hom (do"n to this )er* da*! the* o"e a repl*8 : (n e9cellent &ussian translation of @0as .apitalA appeared in the spring of 18768 'he edition of :,777 copies is alread* nearl* e9hausted8 (s earl* as 1871, C8 Sieber, #rofessor of #olitical Econom* in the %ni)ersit* of .ie), in his "or+ @0a)id &icardo?s 'heor* of ;alue and of 5apital,A referred to m* theor* of )alue, of mone* and of capital, as in its fundamentals a necessar* seIuel to the teaching of Smith and &icardo8 'hat "hich astonishes the Bestern European in the reading of this e9cellent "or+, is the author?s consistent and firm grasp of the purel* theoretical position8 'hat the method emplo*ed in @0as .apitalA has been little understood, is sho"n b* the )arious conceptions, contradictor* one to another, that ha)e been formed of it8 'hus the Paris Revue Positiviste reproaches me in that, on the one hand, > treat economics metaph*sicall*, and on the other hand F imagineQ F confine m*self to the mere critical anal*sis of actual facts, instead of "riting receipts (5omtist onesE! for the coo+4shops of the future8 >n ans"er to the reproach in re metaph*sics, #rofessor Sieber has it:

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(fter"ord to the Second German Edition (187:!

@>n so far as it deals "ith actual theor*, the method of $ar9 is the deducti)e method of the "hole English school, a school "hose failings and )irtues are common to the best theoretic economists8A $8 /loc+ F @<es 'hRoriciens du Socialisme en (llemagne8 E9trait du Lournal des Economistes, Luillet et (oSt 1876A F ma+es the disco)er* that m* method is anal*tic and sa*s: @#ar cet ou)rage $8 $ar9 se classe parmi les esprits anal*tiIues les plus eminents8A German re)ie"s, of course, shrie+ out at @-egelian sophistics8A 'he European Messen er of St8 #etersburg in an article dealing e9clusi)el* "ith the method of @0as .apitalA ($a* number, 1876, pp8 674 :6!, finds m* method of inIuir* se)erel* realistic, but m* method of presentation, unfortunatel*, German4 dialectical8 >t sa*s: @(t first sight, if the Dudgment is based on the e9ternal form of the presentation of the subDect, $ar9 is the most ideal of ideal philosophers, al"a*s in the German, i8e8, the bad sense of the "ord8 /ut in point of fact he is infinitel* more realistic than all his forerunners in the "or+ of economic criticism8 -e can in no sense be called an idealist8A > cannot ans"er the "riter better than b* aid of a fe" e9tracts from his o"n criticism, "hich ma* interest some of m* readers to "hom the &ussian original is inaccessible8 (fter a Iuotation from the preface to m* @5riticism of #olitical Econom*,A /erlin, 1832, pp8 >;4 ;>>, "here > discuss the materialistic basis of m* method, the "riter goes on: @'he one thing "hich is of moment to $ar9, is to find the la" of the phenomena "ith "hose in)estigation he is concerned; and not onl* is that la" of moment to him, "hich go)erns these phenomena, in so far as the* ha)e a definite form and mutual conne9ion "ithin a gi)en historical period8 =f still greater moment to him is the la" of their )ariation, of their de)elopment, i8e8, of their transition from one form into another, from one series of conne9ions into a different one8 'his la" once disco)ered, he in)estigates in detail the effects in "hich it manifests itself in social life8 5onseIuentl*, $ar9 onl* troubles himself about one thing: to sho", b* rigid scientific in)estigation, the necessit* of successi)e determinate orders of social conditions, and to establish, as impartiall* as possible, the facts that ser)e him for fundamental starting4points8 For this it is Iuite enough, if he pro)es, at the same time, both the necessit* of the present order of things, and the necessit* of another order into "hich the first must ine)itabl* pass o)er; and this all the same, "hether men belie)e or do not belie)e it, "hether the* are conscious or unconscious of it8 $ar9 treats the social mo)ement as a process of natural histor*, go)erned b* la"s not onl* independent of human "ill, consciousness and intelligence, but rather, on the contrar*, determining that "ill, consciousness and intelligence8 888 >f in the histor* of ci)ilisation the conscious element pla*s a part so subordinate, then it is self4e)ident that a critical inIuir* "hose subDect4matter is ci)ilisation, can, less than an*thing else, ha)e for its basis an* form of, or an* result of, consciousness8 'hat is to sa*, that not the idea, but the material phenomenon alone can ser)e as its starting4point8 Such an inIuir* "ill confine itself to the confrontation and the comparison of a fact, not "ith ideas, but "ith another fact8 For this inIuir*, the one thing of moment is, that both facts be in)estigated as accuratel* as possible, and that the* actuall* form, each "ith respect to the other, different momenta of an e)olution; but most important of all is the rigid anal*sis of the series of successions, of the seIuences and concatenations in "hich the different stages of such an e)olution present

(fter"ord to the Second German Edition (187:!

themsel)es8 /ut it "ill be said, the general la"s of economic life are one and the same, no matter "hether the* are applied to the present or the past8 'his $ar9 directl* denies8 (ccording to him, such abstract la"s do not e9ist8 =n the contrar*, in his opinion e)er* historical period has la"s of its o"n8 888 (s soon as societ* has outli)ed a gi)en period of de)elopment, and is passing o)er from one gi)en stage to another, it begins to be subDect also to other la"s8 >n a "ord, economic life offers us a phenomenon analogous to the histor* of e)olution in other branches of biolog*8 'he old economists misunderstood the nature of economic la"s "hen the* li+ened them to the la"s of ph*sics and chemistr*8 ( more thorough anal*sis of phenomena sho"s that social organisms differ among themsel)es as fundamentall* as plants or animals8 Ca*, one and the same phenomenon falls under Iuite different la"s in conseIuence of the different structure of those organisms as a "hole, of the )ariations of their indi)idual organs, of the different conditions in "hich those organs function, Pc8 $ar9, e8g8, denies that the la" of population is the same at all times and in all places8 -e asserts, on the contrar*, that e)er* stage of de)elopment has its o"n la" of population8 888 Bith the )ar*ing degree of de)elopment of producti)e po"er, social conditions and the la"s go)erning them )ar* too8 Bhilst $ar9 sets himself the tas+ of follo"ing and e9plaining from this point of )ie" the economic s*stem established b* the s"a* of capital, he is onl* formulating, in a strictl* scientific manner, the aim that e)er* accurate in)estigation into economic life must ha)e8 'he scientific )alue of such an inIuir* lies in the disclosing of the special la"s that regulate the origin, e9istence, de)elopment, death of a gi)en social organism and its replacement b* another and higher one8 (nd it is this )alue that, in point of fact, $ar9?s boo+ has8A Bhilst the "riter pictures "hat he ta+es to be actuall* m* method, in this stri+ing and Gas far as concerns m* o"n application of itH generous "a*, "hat else is he picturing but the dialectic methodE =f course the method of presentation must differ in form from that of inIuir*8 'he latter has to appropriate the material in detail, to anal*se its different forms of de)elopment, to trace out their inner conne9ion8 =nl* after this "or+ is done, can the actual mo)ement be adeIuatel* described8 >f this is done successfull*, if the life of the subDect4matter is ideall* reflected as in a mirror, then it ma* appear as if "e had before us a mere a priori construction8 $* dialectic method is not onl* different from the -egelian, but is its direct opposite8 'o -egel, the life process of the human brain, i8e8, the process of thin+ing, "hich, under the name of @the >dea,A he e)en transforms into an independent subDect, is the demiurgos of the real "orld, and the real "orld is onl* the e9ternal, phenomenal form of @the >dea8A Bith me, on the contrar*, the ideal is nothing else than the material "orld reflected b* the human mind, and translated into forms of thought8 'he m*stif*ing side of -egelian dialectic > criticised nearl* thirt* *ears ago, at a time "hen it "as still the fashion8 /ut Dust as > "as "or+ing at the first )olume of @0as .apital,A it "as the good pleasure of the pee)ish, arrogant, mediocre GEpigones F /Tchner, 0Thring and othersH "ho no" tal+ large in cultured German*, to treat -egel in same "a* as the bra)e $oses $endelssohn in <essing?s time treated Spino1a, i8e8, as a @dead dog8A > therefore openl* a)o"ed m*self the pupil of that might* thin+er, and e)en here and there, in the chapter on the theor* of )alue, coIuetted "ith the modes of e9pression peculiar to him8 'he m*stification "hich dialectic suffers in -egel?s hands, b* no means pre)ents him from being the first to present its general

13

(fter"ord to the Second German Edition (187:!

form of "or+ing in a comprehensi)e and conscious manner8 Bith him it is standing on its head8 >t must be turned right side up again, if *ou "ould disco)er the rational +ernel "ithin the m*stical shell8 >n its m*stified form, dialectic became the fashion in German*, because it seemed to transfigure and to glorif* the e9isting state of things8 >n its rational form it is a scandal and abomination to bourgeoisdom and its doctrinaire professors, because it includes in its comprehension and affirmati)e recognition of the e9isting state of things, at the same time also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its ine)itable brea+ing up; because it regards e)er* historicall* de)eloped social form as in fluid mo)ement, and therefore ta+es into account its transient nature not less than its momentar* e9istence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and re)olutionar*8 'he contradictions inherent in the mo)ement of capitalist societ* impress themsel)es upon the practical bourgeois most stri+ingl* in the changes of the periodic c*cle, through "hich modern industr* runs, and "hose cro"ning point is the uni)ersal crisis8 'hat crisis is once again approaching, although as *et but in its preliminar* stage; and b* the uni)ersalit* of its theatre and the intensit* of its action it "ill drum dialectics e)en into the heads of the mushroom4upstarts of the ne", hol* #russo4German empire8 Karl Marx <ondon Lanuar* 6 , 187:

Afterword to the French Edition (187!)

$r8 L8 &o* set himself the tas+ of producing a )ersion that "ould be as e9act and e)en literal as possible, and has scrupulousl* fulfilled it8 /ut his )er* scrupulosit* has compelled me to modif* his te9t, "ith a )ie" to rendering it more intelligible to the reader8 'hese alterations, introduced from da* to da*, as the boo+ "as published in parts, "ere not made "ith eIual care and "ere bound to result in a lac+ of harmon* in st*le8 -a)ing once underta+en this "or+ of re)ision, > "as led to appl* it also to the basic original te9t (the second German edition!, to simplif* some arguments, to complete others, to gi)e additional historical or statistical material, to add critical suggestions, etc8 -ence, "hate)er the literar* defects of this French edition ma* be, it possesses a scientific )alue independent of the original and should be consulted e)en b* readers familiar "ith German8 /elo" > gi)e the passages in the (fter"ord to the second German edition "hich treat of the de)elopment of #olitical Econom* in German* and the method emplo*ed in the present "or+8 Karl Marx <ondon (pril 68, 1873

Preface to the "hird German Edition (188 )

$ar9 "as not destined to get this, the third, edition read* for press himself8 'he po"erful thin+er, to "hose greatness e)en his opponents no" ma+e obeisance, died on $arch 1 , 188:8 %pon me "ho in $ar9 lost the best, the truest friend > had F and had for fort* *ears F the friend to "hom > am more indebted than can be e9pressed in "ords F upon me no" de)ol)ed the dut* of attending to the publication of this third edition, as "ell as of the second )olume, "hich $ar9 had left behind in manuscript8 > must no" account here to the reader for the "a* in "hich > discharged the first part of m* dut*8 >t "as $ar9Us original intention to re4"rite a great part of the te9t of ;olume >, to formulate man* theoretical points more e9actl*, insert ne" ones and bring historical and statistical materials up to date8 /ut his ailing condition and the urgent need to do the final editing of ;olume >> induced him to gi)e up this scheme8 =nl* the most necessar* alterations "ere to be made, onl* the insertions "hich the French edition (@<e 5apital8A #ar .arl $ar98 #aris, <achMtre 187:! alread* contained, "ere to be put in8 (mong the boo+s left b* $ar9 there "as a German cop* "hich he himself had corrected here and there and pro)ided "ith references to the French edition; also a French cop* in "hich he had indicated the e9act passages to be used8 'hese alterations and additions are confined, "ith fe" e9ceptions, to the last GEngl8 ed8: second lastH part of the boo+: @'he (ccumulation of 5apital8A -ere the pre)ious te9t follo"ed the original draft more closel* than else"here, "hile the preceding sections had been gone o)er more thoroughl*8 'he st*le "as therefore more )i)acious, more of a single cast, but also more careless, studded "ith (nglicisms and in parts unclear; there "ere gaps here and there in the presentation of arguments, some important particulars being merel* alluded to8 Bith regard to the st*le, $ar9 had himself thoroughl* re)ised se)eral sub4sections and thereb* had indicated to me here, as "ell as in numerous oral suggestions, the length to "hich > could go in eliminating English technical terms and other (nglicisms8 $ar9 "ould in an* e)ent ha)e gone o)er the additions and supplemental te9ts and ha)e replaced the smooth French "ith his o"n terse German; > had to be satisfied, "hen transferring them, "ith bringing them into ma9imum harmon* "ith the original te9t8 'hus not a single "ord "as changed in this third edition "ithout m* firm con)iction that the author "ould ha)e altered it himself8 >t "ould ne)er occur to me to introduce into @0as .apitalA the current Dargon in "hich German economists are "ont to e9press themsel)es F that gibberish in "hich, for instance, one "ho for cash has others gi)e him their labour is called a labour4gi)er ((rbeitgeber! and one "hose labour is ta+en a"a* from him for "ages is called a labour4ta+er ((rbeitnehmer!8 >n French, too, the "ord @tra)ailA is used in e)er*4da* life in the sense of @occupation8A /ut the French "ould rightl* consider an* economist cra1* should he call the capitalist a donneur de tra)ail (a labour4gi)er! or the "or+er a rece)eur de tra)ail (a labour4ta+er!8 Cor ha)e > ta+en the libert* to con)ert the English coins and mone*s, measures and "eights used throughout the te9t to their ne"4German eIui)alents8 Bhen the first edition appeared there "ere as man* +inds of measures and "eights in German* as there are da*s in the *ear8 /esides there "ere t"o +inds of mar+s (the &eichsmar+ e9isted at the time onl* in the imagination of Soetbeer, "ho had in)ented it in the late thirties!, t"o +inds of gulden and at least three +inds of taler, including one called neues ,"eidrittel8 >n the natural sciences the metric s*stem pre)ailed, in the

18

#reface to the 'hird German Edition (188:!

"orld mar+et F English measures and "eights8 %nder such circumstances English units of measure "ere Iuite natural for a boo+ "hich had to ta+e its factual proofs almost e9clusi)el* from /ritish industrial relations8 'he last4named reason is decisi)e e)en to4da*, especiall* because the corresponding relations in the "orld mar+et ha)e hardl* changed and English "eights and measures almost completel* control precisel* the +e* industries, iron and cotton8 >n conclusion a fe" "ords on $ar9Us art of Iuotation, "hich is so little understood8 Bhen the* are pure statements of fact or descriptions, the Iuotations, from the English /lue boo+s, for e9ample, ser)e of course as simple documentar* proof8 /ut this is not so "hen the theoretical )ie"s of other economists are cited8 -ere the Iuotation is intended merel* to state "here, "hen and b* "hom an economic idea concei)ed in the course of de)elopment "as first clearl* enunciated8 -ere the onl* consideration is that the economic conception in Iuestion must be of some significance to the histor* of science, that it is the more or less adeIuate theoretical e9pression of the economic situation of its time8 /ut "hether this conception still possesses an* absolute or relati)e )alidit* from the standpoint of the author or "hether it alread* has become "holl* past histor* is Iuite immaterial8 -ence these Iuotations are onl* a running commentar* to the te9t, a commentar* borro"ed from the histor* of economic science, and establish the dates and originators of certain of the more important ad)ances in economic theor*8 (nd that "as a )er* necessar* thing in a science "hose historians ha)e so far distinguished themsel)es onl* b* tendentious ignorance characteristic of careerists8 >t "ill no" be understandable "h* $ar9, in consonance "ith the (fter"ord to the second edition, onl* in )er* e9ceptional cases had occasion to Iuote German economists8 'here is hope that the second )olume "ill appear in the course of 188 8 !rederic" En els <ondon Co)ember 7, 188:

Preface to the En#$ish Edition (En#e$s, 1886)

'he publication of an English )ersion of @0as .apitalA needs no apolog*8 =n the contrar*, an e9planation might be e9pected "h* this English )ersion has been dela*ed until no", seeing that for some *ears past the theories ad)ocated in this boo+ ha)e been constantl* referred to, attac+ed and defended, interpreted and misinterpreted, in the periodical press and the current literature of both England and (merica8 Bhen, soon after the authorUs death in 188:, it became e)ident that an English edition of the "or+ "as reall* reIuired, $r8 Samuel $oore, for man* *ears a friend of $ar9 and of the present "riter, and than "hom, perhaps, no one is more con)ersant "ith the boo+ itself, consented to underta+e the translation "hich the literar* e9ecutors of $ar9 "ere an9ious to la* before the public8 >t "as understood that > should compare the $S8 "ith the original "or+, and suggest such alterations as > might deem ad)isable8 Bhen, b* and b*, it "as found that $r8 $ooreUs professional occupations pre)ented him from finishing the translation as Iuic+l* as "e all desired, "e gladl* accepted 0r8 ()elingUs offer to underta+e a portion of the "or+; at the same time $rs8 ()eling, $ar9Us *oungest daughter, offered to chec+ the Iuotations and to restore the original te9t of the numerous passages ta+en from English authors and /lue boo+s and translated b* $ar9 into German8 'his has been done throughout, "ith but a fe" una)oidable e9ceptions8 'he follo"ing portions of the boo+ ha)e been translated b* 0r8 ()eling: (>! 5hapters O8 ('he Bor+ing da*!, and O>8 (&ate and $ass of Surplus )alue!; (6! #art ;>8 (Bages, comprising 5hapters O>O8 to OO>>8!; (:! from 5hapter OO>;8, Section (5ircumstances that Pc8! to the end of the boo+, comprising the latter part of 5hapter OO>;8,8 5hapter OO;8, and the "hole of #art ;>>>8 (5hapters OO;>8 to OOO>>>!; ( ! the t"o (uthorUs prefaces8 (ll the rest of the boo+ has been done b* $r8 $oore8 Bhile, thus, each of the translators is responsible for his share of the "or+ onl*, > bear a Doint responsibilit* for the "hole8 'he third German edition, "hich has been made the basis of our "or+ throughout, "as prepared b* me, in 188:, "ith the assistance of notes left b* the author, indicating the passages of the second edition to be replaced b* designated passages, from the French te9t published in 187:8 1 'he alterations thus effected in the te9t of the second edition generall* coincided "ith changes prescribed b* $ar9 in a set of $S8 instructions for an English translation that "as planned, about ten *ears ago, in (merica, but abandoned chiefl* for "ant of a fit and proper translator8 'his $S8 "as placed at our disposal b* our old friend $r8 F8 (8 Sorge of -obo+en C8 L8 >t designates some further interpolations from the French edition; but, being so man* *ears older than the final instructions for the third edition, > did not consider m*self at libert* to ma+e use of it other"ise than sparingl*, and chiefl* in cases "here it helped us o)er difficulties8 >n the same "a*, the French te9t has been referred to in most of the difficult passages, as an indicator of "hat the author himself "as prepared to sacrifice "here)er something of the full import of the original had to be sacrificed in the rendering8 'here is, ho"e)er, one difficult* "e could not spare the reader: the use of certain terms in a sense different from "hat the* ha)e, not onl* in common life, but in ordinar* #olitical Econom*8 /ut this "as una)oidable8 E)er* ne" aspect of a science in)ol)es a re)olution in the technical terms of that science8 'his is best sho"n b* chemistr*, "here the "hole of the terminolog* is radicall* changed about once in t"ent* *ears, and "here *ou "ill hardl* find a single organic compound that has not gone through a "hole series of different names8 #olitical Econom* has generall* been content to ta+e, Dust as the* "ere, the terms of commercial and industrial life, and to operate

67

#reface to the English Edition (Engels 1886!

"ith them, entirel* failing to see that b* so doing, it confined itself "ithin the narro" circle of ideas e9pressed b* those terms8 'hus, though perfectl* a"are that both profits and rent are but sub4di)isions, fragments of that unpaid part of the product "hich the labourer has to suppl* to his emplo*er (its first appropriator, though not its ultimate e9clusi)e o"ner!, *et e)en classical #olitical Econom* ne)er "ent be*ond the recei)ed notions of profits and rents, ne)er e9amined this unpaid part of the product (called b* $ar9 surplus4product! in its integrit* as a "hole, and therefore ne)er arri)ed at a clear comprehension, either of its origin and nature, or of the la"s that regulate the subseIuent distribution of its )alue8 Similarl* all industr*, not agricultural or handicraft, is indiscriminatel* comprised in the term of manufacture, and thereb* the distinction is obliterated bet"een t"o great and essentiall* different periods of economic histor*: the period of manufacture proper, based on the di)ision of manual labour, and the period of modern industr* based on machiner*8 >t is, ho"e)er, self4 e)ident that a theor* "hich )ie"s modern capitalist production as a mere passing stage in the economic histor* of man+ind, must ma+e use of terms different from those habitual to "riters "ho loo+ upon that form of production as imperishable and final8 ( "ord respecting the authorUs method of Iuoting ma* not be out of place8 >n the maDorit* of cases, the Iuotations ser)e, in the usual "a*, as documentar* e)idence in support of assertions made in the te9t8 /ut in man* instances, passages from economic "riters are Iuoted in order to indicate "hen, "here, and b* "hom a certain proposition "as for the first time clearl* enunciated8 'his is done in cases "here the proposition Iuoted is of importance as being a more or less adeIuate e9pression of the conditions of social production and e9change pre)alent at the time, and Iuite irrespecti)e of $ar9Us recognition, or other"ise, of its general )alidit*8 'hese Iuotations, therefore, supplement the te9t b* a running commentar* ta+en from the histor* of the science8 =ur translation comprises the first boo+ of the "or+ onl*8 /ut this first boo+ is in a great measure a "hole in itself, and has for t"ent* *ears ran+ed as an independent "or+8 'he second boo+, edited in German b* me, in 1883, is decidedl* incomplete "ithout the third, "hich cannot be published before the end of 18878 Bhen /oo+ >>>8 has been brought out in the original German, it "ill then be soon enough to thin+ about preparing an English edition of both8 @0as .apitalA is often called, on the 5ontinent, @the /ible of the "or+ing class8A 'hat the conclusions arri)ed at in this "or+ are dail* more and more becoming the fundamental principles of the great "or+ing4 class mo)ement, not onl* in German* and S"it1erland, but in France, in -olland and /elgium, in (merica, and e)en in >tal* and Spain, that e)er*"here the "or+ing class more and more recognises, in these conclusions, the most adeIuate e9pression of its condition and of its aspirations, nobod* acIuainted "ith that mo)ement "ill den*8 (nd in England, too, the theories of $ar9, e)en at this moment, e9ercise a po"erful influence upon the socialist mo)ement "hich is spreading in the ran+s of @culturedA people no less than in those of the "or+ing class8 /ut that is not all8 'he time is rapidl* approaching "hen a thorough e9amination of EnglandUs economic position "ill impose itself as an irresistible national necessit*8 'he "or+ing of the industrial s*stem of this countr*, impossible "ithout a constant and rapid e9tension of production, and therefore of mar+ets, is coming to a dead stop8 Free 'rade has e9hausted its resources; e)en $anchester doubts this its Iuondam economic gospel86 Foreign industr*, rapidl* de)eloping, stares English production in the face e)er*"here, not onl* in protected, but also in neutral mar+ets, and e)en on this side of the 5hannel8 Bhile the producti)e po"er increases in a geometric, the e9tension of mar+ets proceeds at best in an arithmetic ratio8 'he decennial c*cle of stagnation, prosperit*, o)er4production and crisis, e)er recurrent from 1863 to 1867, seems indeed to ha)e run its course; but onl* to land us in the

61

#reface to the English Edition (Engels 1886!

slough of despond of a permanent and chronic depression8 'he sighed for period of prosperit* "ill not come; as often as "e seem to percei)e its heralding s*mptoms, so often do the* again )anish into air8 $ean"hile, each succeeding "inter brings up afresh the great Iuestion, @"hat to do "ith the unemplo*edV; but "hile the number of the unemplo*ed +eeps s"elling from *ear to *ear, there is nobod* to ans"er that Iuestion; and "e can almost calculate the moment "hen the unemplo*ed losing patience "ill ta+e their o"n fate into their o"n hands8 Surel*, at such a moment, the )oice ought to be heard of a man "hose "hole theor* is the result of a lifelong stud* of the economic histor* and condition of England, and "hom that stud* led to the conclusion that, at least in Europe, England is the onl* countr* "here the ine)itable social re)olution might be effected entirel* b* peaceful and legal means8 -e certainl* ne)er forgot to add that he hardl* e9pected the English ruling classes to submit, "ithout a @pro4sla)er* rebellion,A to this peaceful and legal re)olution8

Preface to the Fo%rth German Edition (En#e$s, 18&')

'he fourth edition reIuired that > should establish in final form, as nearl* as possible, both te9t and footnotes8 'he follo"ing brief e9planation "ill sho" ho" > ha)e fulfilled this tas+8 (fter again comparing the French edition and $ar9?s manuscript remar+s > ha)e made some further additions to the German te9t from that translation8 'he* "ill be found on p8 87 (:rd edition, p8 88! Gpresent edition, pp8 117418H, pp8 38467 (:rd edition, pp8 372417! Gpresent edition, pp8 66463H,i pp8 3 7431 (:rd edition, p8 677! Gpresent edition, pp8 3 8431H, pp8 32142: (:rd edition, p8 6 ! Gpresent edition, 387482H and p8 326 (:rd edition, p8 6 8! Gpresent edition, p8 321H in Cote 18 > ha)e also follo"ed the e9ample of the French and English editions b* putting the long footnote on the miners into the te9t (:rd edition, pp8 3724 13; th edition, pp8 61467! Gpresent edition, pp8 63471H8 =ther small alterations are of a purel* technical nature8 Further, > ha)e added a fe" more e9planator* notes, especiall* "here changed historical conditions seemed to demand this8 (ll these additional notes are enclosed in sIuare brac+ets and mar+ed either "ith m* initials or @08 -8A 6 $ean"hile a complete re)ision of the numerous Iuotations had been made necessar* b* the publication of the English edition8 For this edition $ar9?s *oungest daughter, Eleanor, undertoo+ to compare all the Iuotations "ith their originals, so that those ta+en from English sources, "hich constitute the )ast maDorit*, are gi)en there not as re4translations from the German but in the original English form >n preparing the fourth edition it "as therefore incumbent upon me to consult this te9t8 'he comparison re)ealed )arious small inaccuracies8 #age numbers "rongl* indicated, due partl* to mista+es in cop*ing from noteboo+s, and partl* to the accumulated misprints of three editions; misplaced Iuotation or omission mar+s, "hich cannot be a)oided "hen a mass of Iuotations is copied from note4boo+ e9tracts; here and there some rather unhapp* translation of a "ord; particular passages Iuoted from the old #aris noteboo+s of 18 :4 3, "hen $ar9 did not +no" English and "as reading English economists in French translations, so that the double translation *ielded a slightl* different shade of meaning, e8g8, in the case of Steuart, %re, etc8, "here the English te9t had no" to be used F and other similar instances of trifling inaccurac* or negligence8 /ut an*one "ho compares the fourth edition "ith the pre)ious ones can con)ince himself that all this laborious process of emendation has not produced the smallest change in the boo+ "orth spea+ing of8 'here "as onl* one Iuotation "hich could not be traced F the one from &ichard Lones ( th edition, p8 366, note 7!8 $ar9 probabl* slipped up "hen "riting do"n the title of the boo+8: (ll the other Iuotations retain their cogenc* in full, or ha)e enhanced it due to their present e9act form8 -ere, ho"e)er, > am obliged to re)ert to an old stor*8 > +no" of onl* one case in "hich the accurac* of a Iuotation gi)en b* $ar9 has been called in Iuestion8 /ut as the issue dragged be*ond his lifetime > cannot "ell ignore it here8 =n $arch 7, 1876, there appeared in the /erlin 5oncordia, organ of the German $anufacturers? (ssociation, an anon*mous article entitled: @-o" .arl $ar9 Kuotes8A >t "as here asserted, "ith an effer)escence of moral indignation and unparliamentar* language, that the Iuotation from Gladstone?s /udget Speech of (pril 16, 186: (in the >naugural (ddress of the >nternational Bor+ingmen?s (ssociation, 186 , and repeated in @5apital,A ;ol8 >, p8 617, th edition; p8 671,

6:

#reface to the Fourth German Edition (Engels 1827!

:rd edition! Gpresent edition, p8 617H, had been falsified; that not a single "ord of the sentence: @this into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er 888 is 888 entirel* confined to classes of propert*A "as to be found in the (semi4official! stenographic report in -ansard8 @/ut this sentence is no"here to be found in Gladstone?s speech8 E9actl* the opposite is stated there8A (>n bold t*pe!: @'his sentence, both in form and substance, is a lie inserted b* $ar98V $ar9, to "hom the number of 5oncordia "as sent the follo"ing $a*, ans"ered the anon*mous author in the #ol"sstaat of Lune 1st8 (s he could not recall "hich ne"spaper report he had used for the Iuotation, he limited himself to citing, first the eIui)alent Iuotation from t"o English publications, and then the report in 'he 'imes, according to "hich Gladstone sa*s: @'hat is the state of the case as regards the "ealth of this countr*8 > must sa* for one, > should loo+ almost "ith apprehension and "ith pain upon this into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er, if it "ere m* belief that it "as confined to classes "ho are in eas* circumstances8 'his ta+es no cognisance at all of the condition of the labouring population8 'he augmentation > ha)e described and "hich is founded, > thin+, upon accurate returns, is an augmentation entirel* confined to classes possessed of propert*8A 'hus Gladstone sa*s here that he "ould be sorr* if it "ere so, but it is so: this into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er is entirel* confined to classes of propert*8 (nd as to the semi4 official -ansard, $ar9 goes on to sa*: @>n the )ersion "hich he after"ards manipulated G1urechtgestTmpertH, $r8 Gladstone "as astute enough to obliterate G"eg1upfuschenH this passage, "hich, coming from an English 5hancellor of the E9cheIuer, "as certainl* compromising8 'his, b* the "a*, is a traditional usage in the English parliament and not an in)ention gotten up b* little <as+er against /ebel8A 'he anon*mous "riter gets angrier and angrier8 >n his ans"er in 5oncordia, Lul* th, he s"eeps aside second4hand sources and demurel* suggests that it is the @customA to Iuote parliamentar* speeches from the stenographic report; adding, ho"e)er, that 'he 'imes report ("hich includes the @falsifiedA sentence! and the -ansard report ("hich omits it! are @substantiall* in complete agreement,A "hile 'he 'imes report li+e"ise contains @the e9act opposite to that notorious passage in the >naugural (ddress8A 'his fello" carefull* conceals the fact that 'he 'imes report e9plicitl* includes that self4same @notorious passage,A alongside of its alleged @opposite8A 0espite all this, ho"e)er, the anon*mous one feels that he is stuc+ fast and that onl* some ne" dodge can sa)e him8 'hus, "hilst his article bristles, as "e ha)e Dust sho"n, "ith @impudent mendacit*A and is interlarded "ith such edif*ing terms of abuse as @bad faith,A @dishonest*,A @l*ing allegation,A @that spurious Iuotation,A @impudent mendacit*,A @a Iuotation entirel* falsified,A @this falsification,A @simpl* infamous,A etc8, he finds it necessar* to di)ert the issue to another domain and therefore promises @to e9plain in a second article the meaning "hich "e (the non4mendacious anon*mous one! attribute to the content of Gladstone?s "ords8A (s if his particular opinion, of no decisi)e )alue as it is, had an*thing "hate)er to do "ith the matter8 'his second article "as printed in 5oncordia on Lul* 11th8 $ar9 replied again in the #ol"sstaat of (ugust 7th no" gi)ing also the reports of the passage in Iuestion from the $orning Star and the $orning (d)ertiser of (pril 17, 186:8 (ccording to both reports Gladstone said that he "ould loo+ "ith apprehension, etc8, upon this into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er if he belie)ed it to be confined to @classes in eas* circumstances8A /ut this augmentation "as in fact @entirel* confined to classes possessed of propert*8A So these reports too reproduced "ord for "ord the sentence alleged to ha)e been @l*ingl* inserted8A $ar9 further established once more, b* a comparison of 'he 'imes and the -ansard te9ts, that this sentence, "hich three ne"spaper reports of identical content, appearing independentl* of one another the ne9t morning, pro)ed to ha)e been reall* uttered, "as missing

#reface to the Fourth German Edition (Engels 1827!

from the -ansard report, re)ised according to the familiar @custom,A and that Gladstone, to use $ar9?s "ords, @had after"ards conDured it a"a*8A >n conclusion $ar9 stated that he had no time for further intercourse "ith the anon*mous one8 'he latter also seems to ha)e had enough, at an* rate $ar9 recei)ed no further issues of 5oncordia8 Bith this the matter appeared to be dead and buried8 'rue, once or t"ice later on there reached us, from persons in touch "ith the %ni)ersit* of 5ambridge, m*sterious rumours of an unspea+able literar* crime "hich $ar9 "as supposed to ha)e committed in @5apital,A but despite all in)estigation nothing more definite could be learned8 'hen, on Co)ember 62, 188:, eight months after $ar9?s death, there appeared in 'he 'imes a letter headed 'rinit* 5ollege, 5ambridge, and signed Sedle* 'a*lor, in "hich this little man, "ho dabbles in the mildest sort of co4operati)e affairs, sei1ing upon some chance prete9t or other, at last enlightened us, not onl* concerning those )ague 5ambridge rumours, but also the anon*mous one in 5oncordia8 @Bhat appears e9tremel* singular,A sa*s the little man from 'rinit* 5ollege, @is that it "as reser)ed for #rofessor /rentano (then of the %ni)ersit* of /reslau, no" of that of Strassburg! to e9pose888 the bad faith "hich had manifestl* dictated the citation made from $r8 Gladstone?s speech in the G>nauguralH (ddress8 -err .arl $ar9, "ho 888 attempted to defend the citation, had the hardihood, in the deadl* shifts to "hich /rentano?s masterl* conduct of the attac+ speedil* reduced him, to assert that $r8 Gladstone had Wmanipulated? the report of his speech in 'he 'imes of (pril 17, 186:, before it appeared in -ansard, in order to Wobliterate? a passage "hich W"as certainl* compromising? for an English 5hancellor of the E9cheIuer8 =n /rentano?s sho"ing, b* a detailed comparison of te9ts, that the reports of 'he 'imes and of -ansard agreed in utterl* e9cluding the meaning "hich craftil* isolated Iuotation had put upon $r8 Gladstone?s "ords, $ar9 "ithdre" from further contro)ers* under the plea of W"ant of time8?A So that "as at the bottom of the "hole businessQ (nd thus "as the anon*mous campaign of -err /rentano in 5oncordia gloriousl* reflected in the producti)el* co4operating imagination of 5ambridge8 'hus he stood, s"ord in hand, and thus he battled, in his @masterl* conduct of the attac+,A this St8 George of the German $anufacturers? (ssociation, "hilst the infernal dragon $ar9, @in deadl* shifts,A @speedil*A breathed his last at his feet8 (ll this (riostian battle scene, ho"e)er, onl* ser)es to conceal the dodges of our St8 George8 -ere there is no longer tal+ of @l*ing insertionA or @falsification,A but of @craftil* isolated Iuotation8A 'he "hole issue "as shifted, and St8 George and his 5ambridge sIuire )er* "ell +ne" "h*8 Eleanor $ar9 replied in the monthl* Dournal 'o4da* (Februar* 188 !, as 'he 'imes refused to publish her letter8 She once more focussed the debate on the sole Iuestion at issue: had $ar9 @l*ingl* insertedA that sentence or notE 'o this $r8 Sedle* 'a*lor ans"ered that @the Iuestion "hether a particular sentence did or did not occur in $r8 Gladstone?s speechA had been, in his opinion, @of )er* subordinate importanceA in the /rentano4$ar9 contro)ers*, @compared to the issue "hether the Iuotation in dispute "as made "ith the intention of con)e*ing, or of per)erting $r8 Gladstone?s meaning8A -e then admits that 'he 'imes report contains @a )erbal contrariet*V; but, if the conte9t is rightl* interpreted, i8e8, in the Gladstonian <iberal sense, it sho"s "hat $r8 Gladstone meant to sa*8 ('o4da*, $arch, 188 8! 'he most comic point here is that our little 5ambridge man no" insists upon Iuoting the speech not from -ansard, as, according to the anon*mous /rentano, it is @customar*A to do, but from 'he 'imes report, "hich the same /rentano had characterised as @necessaril* bungling8A Caturall* so, for in -ansard the )e9atious sentence is missing8 Eleanor $ar9 had no difficult* (in the same issue of 'o4da*! in dissol)ing all this argumentation into thin air8 Either $r8 'a*lor had read the contro)ers* of 1876, in "hich case he "as no"

63

#reface to the Fourth German Edition (Engels 1827!

ma+ing not onl* @l*ing insertionsA but also @l*ingA suppressions; or he had not read it and ought to remain silent8 >n either case it "as certain that he did not dare to maintain for a moment the accusation of his friend /rentano that $ar9 had made a @l*ingA addition8 =n the contrar*, $ar9, it no" seems, had not l*ingl* added but suppressed an important sentence8 /ut this same sentence is Iuoted on page 3 of the >naugural (ddress, a fe" lines before the alleged @l*ing insertion8A (nd as to the @contrariet*A in Gladstone?s speech, is it not $ar9 himself, "ho in @5apital,A p8 618 (:rd edition, p8 676!, note 173 Gpresent edition, p8 611, Cote 1H, refers to @the continual cr*ing contradictions in Gladstone?s /udget speeches of 186: and 186 VE =nl* he does not presume X la $r8 Sedle* 'a*lor to resol)e them into complacent <iberal sentiments8 Eleanor $ar9, in concluding her repl*, finall* sums up as follo"s: @$ar9 has not suppressed an*thing "orth Iuoting, neither has he Wl*ingl*? added an*thing8 /ut he has restored, rescued from obli)ion, a particular sentence of one of $r8 Gladstone?s speeches, a sentence "hich had indubitabl* been pronounced, but "hich someho" or other had found its "a* F out of -ansard8A Bith that $r8 Sedle* 'a*lor too had had enough, and the result of this "hole professorial cob"eb, spun out o)er t"o decades and t"o great countries, is that nobod* has since dared to cast an* other aspersion upon $ar9?s literar* honest*; "hilst $r8 Sedle* 'a*lor, no doubt, "ill hereafter put as little confidence in the literar* "ar bulletins of -err /rentano as -err /rentano "ill in the papal infallibilit* of -ansard8 !rederic" En els <ondon8 Lune 638 1827

Part 1: Commodities and Money

(ha)ter 1* (ommodities
Section 1: The Two Factors of a Commodit : !se"Value and Value #The Substance of Value and the $a%nitude of Value&
'he "ealth of those societies in "hich the capitalist mode of production pre)ails, presents itself as @an immense accumulation of commodities,A 1 its unit being a single commodit*8 =ur in)estigation must therefore begin "ith the anal*sis of a commodit*8 ( commodit* is, in the first place, an obDect outside us, a thing that b* its properties satisfies human "ants of some sort or another8 'he nature of such "ants, "hether, for instance, the* spring from the stomach or from fanc*, ma+es no difference8 6 Ceither are "e here concerned to +no" ho" the obDect satisfies these "ants, "hether directl* as means of subsistence, or indirectl* as means of production8 E)er* useful thing, as iron, paper, Pc8, ma* be loo+ed at from the t"o points of )ie" of Iualit* and Iuantit*8 >t is an assemblage of man* properties, and ma* therefore be of use in )arious "a*s8 'o disco)er the )arious uses of things is the "or+ of histor*8 : So also is the establishment of sociall*4recogni1ed standards of measure for the Iuantities of these useful obDects8 'he di)ersit* of these measures has its origin partl* in the di)erse nature of the obDects to be measured, partl* in con)ention8 'he utilit* of a thing ma+es it a use )alue8 /ut this utilit* is not a thing of air8 /eing limited b* the ph*sical properties of the commodit*, it has no e9istence apart from that commodit*8 ( commodit*, such as iron, corn, or a diamond, is therefore, so far as it is a material thing, a use )alue, something useful8 'his propert* of a commodit* is independent of the amount of labour reIuired to appropriate its useful Iualities8 Bhen treating of use )alue, "e al"a*s assume to be dealing "ith definite Iuantities, such as do1ens of "atches, *ards of linen, or tons of iron8 'he use )alues of commodities furnish the material for a special stud*, that of the commercial +no"ledge of commodities83 %se )alues become a realit* onl* b* use or consumption: the* also constitute the substance of all "ealth, "hate)er ma* be the social form of that "ealth8 >n the form of societ* "e are about to consider, the* are, in addition, the material depositories of e9change )alue8 E9change )alue, at first sight, presents itself as a Iuantitati)e relation, as the proportion in "hich )alues in use of one sort are e9changed for those of another sort, 6 a relation constantl* changing "ith time and place8 -ence e9change )alue appears to be something accidental and purel* relati)e, and conseIuentl* an intrinsic )alue, i$e$, an e9change )alue that is inseparabl* connected "ith, inherent in commodities, seems a contradiction in terms8 7 <et us consider the matter a little more closel*8 ( gi)en commodit*, e$ $, a Iuarter of "heat is e9changed for 9 blac+ing, * sil+, or 1 gold, Pc8 F in short, for other commodities in the most different proportions8 >nstead of one e9change )alue, the "heat has, therefore, a great man*8 /ut since 9 blac+ing, * sil+, or 1 gold Pc8, each represents the e9change )alue of one Iuarter of "heat, 9 blac+ing, * sil+, 1 gold, Pc8, must, as e9change

67

5hapter 1

)alues, be replaceable b* each other, or eIual to each other8 'herefore, first: the )alid e9change )alues of a gi)en commodit* e9press something eIual; secondl*, e9change )alue, generall*, is onl* the mode of e9pression, the phenomenal form, of something contained in it, *et distinguishable from it8 <et us ta+e t"o commodities, e$ $, corn and iron8 'he proportions in "hich the* are e9changeable, "hate)er those proportions ma* be, can al"a*s be represented b* an eIuation in "hich a gi)en Iuantit* of corn is eIuated to some Iuantit* of iron: e$ $, 1 Iuarter corn Y 9 c"t8 iron8 Bhat does this eIuation tell usE >t tells us that in t"o different things F in 1 Iuarter of corn and 9 c"t8 of iron, there e9ists in eIual Iuantities something common to both8 'he t"o things must therefore be eIual to a third, "hich in itself is neither the one nor the other8 Each of them, so far as it is e9change )alue, must therefore be reducible to this third8 ( simple geometrical illustration "ill ma+e this clear8 >n order to calculate and compare the areas of rectilinear figures, "e decompose them into triangles8 /ut the area of the triangle itself is e9pressed b* something totall* different from its )isible figure, namel*, b* half the product of the base multiplied b* the altitude8 >n the same "a* the e9change )alues of commodities must be capable of being e9pressed in terms of something common to them all, of "hich thing the* represent a greater or less Iuantit*8 'his common @somethingA cannot be either a geometrical, a chemical, or an* other natural propert* of commodities8 Such properties claim our attention onl* in so far as the* affect the utilit* of those commodities, ma+e them use )alues8 /ut the e9change of commodities is e)identl* an act characterised b* a total abstraction from use )alue8 'hen one use )alue is Dust as good as another, pro)ided onl* it be present in sufficient Iuantit*8 =r, as old /arbon sa*s, @one sort of "ares are as good as another, if the )alues be eIual8 'here is no difference or distinction in things of eIual )alue 888 (n hundred pounds? "orth of lead or iron, is of as great )alue as one hundred pounds? "orth of sil)er or gold8A 8 (s use )alues, commodities are, abo)e all, of different Iualities, but as e9change )alues the* are merel* different Iuantities, and conseIuentl* do not contain an atom of use )alue8 >f then "e lea)e out of consideration the use )alue of commodities, the* ha)e onl* one common propert* left, that of being products of labour8 /ut e)en the product of labour itself has undergone a change in our hands8 >f "e ma+e abstraction from its use )alue, "e ma+e abstraction at the same time from the material elements and shapes that ma+e the product a use )alue; "e see in it no longer a table, a house, *arn, or an* other useful thing8 >ts e9istence as a material thing is put out of sight8 Ceither can it an* longer be regarded as the product of the labour of the Doiner, the mason, the spinner, or of an* other definite +ind of producti)e labour8 (long "ith the useful Iualities of the products themsel)es, "e put out of sight both the useful character of the )arious +inds of labour embodied in them, and the concrete forms of that labour; there is nothing left but "hat is common to them all; all are reduced to one and the same sort of labour, human labour in the abstract8 <et us no" consider the residue of each of these products; it consists of the same unsubstantial realit* in each, a mere congelation of homogeneous human labour, of labour po"er e9pended "ithout regard to the mode of its e9penditure8 (ll that these things no" tell us is, that human labour po"er has been e9pended in their production, that human labour is embodied in them8 Bhen loo+ed at as cr*stals of this social substance, common to them all, the* are F ;alues8 Be ha)e seen that "hen commodities are e9changed, their e9change )alue manifests itself as something totall* independent of their use )alue8 /ut if "e abstract from their use )alue, there remains their ;alue as defined abo)e8 'herefore, the common substance that manifests itself in the e9change )alue of commodities, "hene)er the* are e9changed, is their )alue8 'he progress of

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our in)estigation "ill sho" that e9change )alue is the onl* form in "hich the )alue of commodities can manifest itself or be e9pressed8 For the present, ho"e)er, "e ha)e to consider the nature of )alue independentl* of this, its form8 ( use )alue, or useful article, therefore, has )alue onl* because human labour in the abstract has been embodied or materialised in it8 -o", then, is the magnitude of this )alue to be measuredE #lainl*, b* the Iuantit* of the )alue4creating substance, the labour, contained in the article8 'he Iuantit* of labour, ho"e)er, is measured b* its duration, and labour time in its turn finds its standard in "ee+s, da*s, and hours8 Some people might thin+ that if the )alue of a commodit* is determined b* the Iuantit* of labour spent on it, the more idle and uns+ilful the labourer, the more )aluable "ould his commodit* be, because more time "ould be reIuired in its production8 'he labour, ho"e)er, that forms the substance of )alue, is homogeneous human labour, e9penditure of one uniform labour po"er8 'he total labour po"er of societ*, "hich is embodied in the sum total of the )alues of all commodities produced b* that societ*, counts here as one homogeneous mass of human labour po"er, composed though it be of innumerable indi)idual units8 Each of these units is the same as an* other, so far as it has the character of the a)erage labour po"er of societ*, and ta+es effect as such; that is, so far as it reIuires for producing a commodit*, no more time than is needed on an a)erage, no more than is sociall* necessar*8 'he labour time sociall* necessar* is that reIuired to produce an article under the normal conditions of production, and "ith the a)erage degree of s+ill and intensit* pre)alent at the time8 'he introduction of po"er4looms into England probabl* reduced b* one4half the labour reIuired to "ea)e a gi)en Iuantit* of *arn into cloth8 'he hand4 loom "ea)ers, as a matter of fact, continued to reIuire the same time as before; but for all that, the product of one hour of their labour represented after the change onl* half an hour?s social labour, and conseIuentl* fell to one4half its former )alue8 Be see then that that "hich determines the magnitude of the )alue of an* article is the amount of labour sociall* necessar*, or the labour time sociall* necessar* for its production8 2 Each indi)idual commodit*, in this conne9ion, is to be considered as an a)erage sample of its class8 17 5ommodities, therefore, in "hich eIual Iuantities of labour are embodied, or "hich can be produced in the same time, ha)e the same )alue8 'he )alue of one commodit* is to the )alue of an* other, as the labour time necessar* for the production of the one is to that necessar* for the production of the other8 @(s )alues, all commodities are onl* definite masses of congealed labour time8A11 'he )alue of a commodit* "ould therefore remain constant, if the labour time reIuired for its production also remained constant8 /ut the latter changes "ith e)er* )ariation in the producti)eness of labour8 'his producti)eness is determined b* )arious circumstances, amongst others, b* the a)erage amount of s+ill of the "or+men, the state of science, and the degree of its practical application, the social organisation of production, the e9tent and capabilities of the means of production, and b* ph*sical conditions8 For e9ample, the same amount of labour in fa)ourable seasons is embodied in 8 bushels of corn, and in unfa)ourable, onl* in four8 'he same labour e9tracts from rich mines more metal than from poor mines8 0iamonds are of )er* rare occurrence on the earth?s surface, and hence their disco)er* costs, on an a)erage, a great deal of labour time8 5onseIuentl* much labour is represented in a small compass8 Lacob doubts "hether gold has e)er been paid for at its full )alue8 'his applies still more to diamonds8 (ccording to Esch"ege, the total produce of the /ra1ilian diamond mines for the eight* *ears, ending in 186:, had not realised the price of one4and4a4half *ears? a)erage produce of the sugar and coffee plantations of the same countr*, although the diamonds cost much more labour, and therefore represented more )alue8 Bith richer mines, the same Iuantit* of labour "ould embod* itself in

62

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more diamonds, and their )alue "ould fall8 >f "e could succeed at a small e9penditure of labour, in con)erting carbon into diamonds, their )alue might fall belo" that of bric+s8 >n general, the greater the producti)eness of labour, the less is the labour time reIuired for the production of an article, the less is the amount of labour cr*stallised in that article, and the less is its )alue; and vice vers%, the less the producti)eness of labour, the greater is the labour time reIuired for the production of an article, and the greater is its )alue8 'he )alue of a commodit*, therefore, )aries directl* as the Iuantit*, and in)ersel* as the producti)eness, of the labour incorporated in it8 Z ( thing can be a use )alue, "ithout ha)ing )alue8 'his is the case "hene)er its utilit* to man is not due to labour8 Such are air, )irgin soil, natural meado"s, Pc8 ( thing can be useful, and the product of human labour, "ithout being a commodit*8 Bhoe)er directl* satisfies his "ants "ith the produce of his o"n labour, creates, indeed, use )alues, but not commodities8 >n order to produce the latter, he must not onl* produce use )alues, but use )alues for others, social use )alues8 ((nd not onl* for others, "ithout more8 'he mediae)al peasant produced Iuit4rent4corn for his feudal lord and tithe4corn for his parson8 /ut neither the Iuit4rent4corn nor the tithe4corn became commodities b* reason of the fact that the* had been produced for others8 'o become a commodit* a product must be transferred to another, "hom it "ill ser)e as a use )alue, b* means of an e9change8!16 <astl* nothing can ha)e )alue, "ithout being an obDect of utilit*8 >f the thing is useless, so is the labour contained in it; the labour does not count as labour, and therefore creates no )alue8

Section ': The Twofold Character of the (abour )mbodied in Commodities

(t first sight a commodit* presented itself to us as a comple9 of t"o things F use )alue and e9change )alue8 <ater on, "e sa" also that labour, too, possesses the same t"ofold nature; for, so far as it finds e9pression in )alue, it does not possess the same characteristics that belong to it as a creator of use )alues8 > "as the first to point out and to e9amine criticall* this t"ofold nature of the labour contained in commodities8 (s this point is the pi)ot on "hich a clear comprehension of political econom* turns, "e must go more into detail8 <et us ta+e t"o commodities such as a coat and 17 *ards of linen, and let the former be double the )alue of the latter, so that, if 17 *ards of linen Y B, the coat Y 6B8 'he coat is a use )alue that satisfies a particular "ant8 >ts e9istence is the result of a special sort of producti)e acti)it*, the nature of "hich is determined b* its aim, mode of operation, subDect, means, and result8 'he labour, "hose utilit* is thus represented b* the )alue in use of its product, or "hich manifests itself b* ma+ing its product a use )alue, "e call useful labour8 >n this connection "e consider onl* its useful effect8 (s the coat and the linen are t"o Iualitati)el* different use )alues, so also are the t"o forms of labour that produce them, tailoring and "ea)ing8 Bere these t"o obDects not Iualitati)el* different, not produced respecti)el* b* labour of different Iualit*, the* could not stand to each other in the relation of commodities8 5oats are not e9changed for coats, one use )alue is not e9changed for another of the same +ind8 'o all the different )arieties of )alues in use there correspond as man* different +inds of useful labour, classified according to the order, genus, species, and )ariet* to "hich the* belong in the
Z

'he follo"ing passage occurred onl* in the first edition8 @Co" "e +no" the substance of )alue8 >t is labour8 Be +no" the measure of its magnitude8 >t is labour time8 'he form, "hich stamps )alue as e9change4)alue, remains to be anal*sed8 /ut before this "e need to de)elop the characteristics "e ha)e alread* found some"hat more full*8A 'a+en from the #enguin edition of @5apital,A translated b* /en Fo"+es8

:7

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social di)ision of labour8 'his di)ision of labour is a necessar* condition for the production of commodities, but it does not follo", con)ersel*, that the production of commodities is a necessar* condition for the di)ision of labour8 >n the primiti)e >ndian communit* there is social di)ision of labour, "ithout production of commodities8 =r, to ta+e an e9ample nearer home, in e)er* factor* the labour is di)ided according to a s*stem, but this di)ision is not brought about b* the operati)es mutuall* e9changing their indi)idual products8 =nl* such products can become commodities "ith regard to each other, as result from different +inds of labour, each +ind being carried on independentl* and for the account of pri)ate indi)iduals8 'o resume, then: >n the use )alue of each commodit* there is contained useful labour, i$e$, producti)e acti)it* of a definite +ind and e9ercised "ith a definite aim8 %se )alues cannot confront each other as commodities, unless the useful labour embodied in them is Iualitati)el* different in each of them8 >n a communit*, the produce of "hich in general ta+es the form of commodities, i$e$, in a communit* of commodit* producers, this Iualitati)e difference bet"een the useful forms of labour that are carried on independentl* b* indi)idual producers, each on their o"n account, de)elops into a comple9 s*stem, a social di)ision of labour8 (n*ho", "hether the coat be "orn b* the tailor or b* his customer, in either case it operates as a use )alue8 Cor is the relation bet"een the coat and the labour that produced it altered b* the circumstance that tailoring ma* ha)e become a special trade, an independent branch of the social di)ision of labour8 Bhere)er the "ant of clothing forced them to it, the human race made clothes for thousands of *ears, "ithout a single man becoming a tailor8 /ut coats and linen, li+e e)er* other element of material "ealth that is not the spontaneous produce of Cature, must in)ariabl* o"e their e9istence to a special producti)e acti)it*, e9ercised "ith a definite aim, an acti)it* that appropriates particular nature4gi)en materials to particular human "ants8 So far therefore as labour is a creator of use )alue, is useful labour, it is a necessar* condition, independent of all forms of societ*, for the e9istence of the human race; it is an eternal nature4imposed necessit*, "ithout "hich there can be no material e9changes bet"een man and Cature, and therefore no life8 'he use )alues, coat, linen, Pc8, i$e$, the bodies of commodities, are combinations of t"o elements F matter and labour8 >f "e ta+e a"a* the useful labour e9pended upon them, a material substratum is al"a*s left, "hich is furnished b* Cature "ithout the help of man8 'he latter can "or+ onl* as Cature does, that is b* changing the form of matter8 1: Ca* more, in this "or+ of changing the form he is constantl* helped b* natural forces8 Be see, then, that labour is not the onl* source of material "ealth, of use )alues produced b* labour8 (s Billiam #ett* puts it, labour is its father and the earth its mother8 <et us no" pass from the commodit* considered as a use )alue to the )alue of commodities8 /* our assumption, the coat is "orth t"ice as much as the linen8 /ut this is a mere Iuantitati)e difference, "hich for the present does not concern us8 Be bear in mind, ho"e)er, that if the )alue of the coat is double that of 17 *ds of linen, 67 *ds of linen must ha)e the same )alue as one coat8 So far as the* are )alues, the coat and the linen are things of a li+e substance, obDecti)e e9pressions of essentiall* identical labour8 /ut tailoring and "ea)ing are, Iualitati)el*, different +inds of labour8 'here are, ho"e)er, states of societ* in "hich one and the same man does tailoring and "ea)ing alternatel*, in "hich case these t"o forms of labour are mere modifications of the labour of the same indi)idual, and not special and fi9ed functions of different persons, Dust as the coat "hich our tailor ma+es one da*, and the trousers "hich he ma+es another da*, impl* onl* a )ariation in the labour of one and the same indi)idual8 $oreo)er, "e see at a glance that, in our capitalist societ*, a gi)en portion of human labour is, in accordance "ith the )ar*ing demand, at one time supplied in the form of tailoring, at another in the form of "ea)ing8 'his change ma* possibl* not ta+e place "ithout friction, but ta+e place it must8

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#roducti)e acti)it*, if "e lea)e out of sight its special form, )i18, the useful character of the labour, is nothing but the e9penditure of human labour po"er8 'ailoring and "ea)ing, though Iualitati)el* different producti)e acti)ities, are each a producti)e e9penditure of human brains, ner)es, and muscles, and in this sense are human labour8 'he* are but t"o different modes of e9pending human labour po"er8 =f course, this labour po"er, "hich remains the same under all its modifications, must ha)e attained a certain pitch of de)elopment before it can be e9pended in a multiplicit* of modes8 /ut the )alue of a commodit* represents human labour in the abstract, the e9penditure of human labour in general8 (nd Dust as in societ*, a general or a ban+er pla*s a great part, but mere man, on the other hand, a )er* shabb* part, 1 so here "ith mere human labour8 >t is the e9penditure of simple labour po"er, i$e$, of the labour po"er "hich, on an a)erage, apart from an* special de)elopment, e9ists in the organism of e)er* ordinar* indi)idual8 Simple a)erage labour, it is true, )aries in character in different countries and at different times, but in a particular societ* it is gi)en8 S+illed labour counts onl* as simple labour intensified, or rather, as multiplied simple labour, a gi)en Iuantit* of s+illed being considered eIual to a greater Iuantit* of simple labour8 E9perience sho"s that this reduction is constantl* being made8 ( commodit* ma* be the product of the most s+illed labour, but its )alue, b* eIuating it to the product of simple uns+illed labour, represents a definite Iuantit* of the latter labour alone8 13 'he different proportions in "hich different sorts of labour are reduced to uns+illed labour as their standard, are established b* a social process that goes on behind the bac+s of the producers, and, conseIuentl*, appear to be fi9ed b* custom8 For simplicit*?s sa+e "e shall henceforth account e)er* +ind of labour to be uns+illed, simple labour; b* this "e do no more than sa)e oursel)es the trouble of ma+ing the reduction8 Lust as, therefore, in )ie"ing the coat and linen as )alues, "e abstract from their different use )alues, so it is "ith the labour represented b* those )alues: "e disregard the difference bet"een its useful forms, "ea)ing and tailoring8 (s the use )alues, coat and linen, are combinations of special producti)e acti)ities "ith cloth and *arn, "hile the )alues, coat and linen, are, on the other hand, mere homogeneous congelations of undifferentiated labour, so the labour embodied in these latter )alues does not count b* )irtue of its producti)e relation to cloth and *arn, but onl* as being e9penditure of human labour po"er8 'ailoring and "ea)ing are necessar* factors in the creation of the use )alues, coat and linen, precisel* because these t"o +inds of labour are of different Iualities; but onl* in so far as abstraction is made from their special Iualities, onl* in so far as both possess the same Iualit* of being human labour, do tailoring and "ea)ing form the substance of the )alues of the same articles8 5oats and linen, ho"e)er, are not merel* )alues, but )alues of definite magnitude, and according to our assumption, the coat is "orth t"ice as much as the ten *ards of linen8 Bhence this difference in their )aluesE >t is o"ing to the fact that the linen contains onl* half as much labour as the coat, and conseIuentl*, that in the production of the latter, labour po"er must ha)e been e9pended during t"ice the time necessar* for the production of the former8 Bhile, therefore, "ith reference to use )alue, the labour contained in a commodit* counts onl* Iualitati)el*, "ith reference to )alue it counts onl* Iuantitati)el*, and must first be reduced to human labour pure and simple8 >n the former case, it is a Iuestion of -o" and Bhat, in the latter of -o" muchE -o" long a timeE Since the magnitude of the )alue of a commodit* represents onl* the Iuantit* of labour embodied in it, it follo"s that all commodities, "hen ta+en in certain proportions, must be eIual in )alue8 >f the producti)e po"er of all the different sorts of useful labour reIuired for the production of a coat remains unchanged, the sum of the )alues of the coats produced increases "ith their number8 >f one coat represents 9 da*s? labour, t"o coats represent 69 da*s? labour, and so on8 /ut assume

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that the duration of the labour necessar* for the production of a coat becomes doubled or hal)ed8 >n the first case one coat is "orth as much as t"o coats "ere before; in the second case, t"o coats are onl* "orth as much as one "as before, although in both cases one coat renders the same ser)ice as before, and the useful labour embodied in it remains of the same Iualit*8 /ut the Iuantit* of labour spent on its production has altered8 (n increase in the Iuantit* of use )alues is an increase of material "ealth8 Bith t"o coats t"o men can be clothed, "ith one coat onl* one man8 Ce)ertheless, an increased Iuantit* of material "ealth ma* correspond to a simultaneous fall in the magnitude of its )alue8 'his antagonistic mo)ement has its origin in the t"ofold character of labour8 #roducti)e po"er has reference, of course, onl* to labour of some useful concrete form, the efficac* of an* special producti)e acti)it* during a gi)en time being dependent on its producti)eness8 %seful labour becomes, therefore, a more or less abundant source of products, in proportion to the rise or fall of its producti)eness8 =n the other hand, no change in this producti)eness affects the labour represented b* )alue8 Since producti)e po"er is an attribute of the concrete useful forms of labour, of course it can no longer ha)e an* bearing on that labour, so soon as "e ma+e abstraction from those concrete useful forms8 -o"e)er then producti)e po"er ma* )ar*, the same labour, e9ercised during eIual periods of time, al"a*s *ields eIual amounts of )alue8 /ut it "ill *ield, during eIual periods of time, different Iuantities of )alues in use; more, if the producti)e po"er rise, fe"er, if it fall8 'he same change in producti)e po"er, "hich increases the fruitfulness of labour, and, in conseIuence, the Iuantit* of use )alues produced b* that labour, "ill diminish the total )alue of this increased Iuantit* of use )alues, pro)ided such change shorten the total labour time necessar* for their production; and vice vers%8 =n the one hand all labour is, spea+ing ph*siologicall*, an e9penditure of human labour po"er, and in its character of identical abstract human labour, it creates and forms the )alue of commodities8 =n the other hand, all labour is the e9penditure of human labour po"er in a special form and "ith a definite aim, and in this, its character of concrete useful labour, it produces use )alues816

Section *: The Form of Value or )+chan%e" Value

5ommodities come into the "orld in the shape of use )alues, articles, or goods, such as iron, linen, corn, Pc8 'his is their plain, homel*, bodil* form8 'he* are, ho"e)er, commodities, onl* because the* are something t"ofold, both obDects of utilit*, and, at the same time, depositories of )alue8 'he* manifest themsel)es therefore as commodities, or ha)e the form of commodities, onl* in so far as the* ha)e t"o forms, a ph*sical or natural form, and a )alue form8 'he realit* of the )alue of commodities differs in this respect from 0ame Kuic+l*, that "e don?t +no" @"here to ha)e it8A 'he )alue of commodities is the )er* opposite of the coarse materialit* of their substance, not an atom of matter enters into its composition8 'urn and e9amine a single commodit*, b* itself, as "e "ill, *et in so far as it remains an obDect of )alue, it seems impossible to grasp it8 >f, ho"e)er, "e bear in mind that the )alue of commodities has a purel* social realit*, and that the* acIuire this realit* onl* in so far as the* are e9pressions or embodiments of one identical social substance, )i18, human labour, it follo"s as a matter of course, that )alue can onl* manifest itself in the social relation of commodit* to commodit*8 >n fact "e started from e9change )alue, or the e9change relation of commodities, in order to get at the )alue that lies hidden behind it8 Be must no" return to this form under "hich )alue first appeared to us8

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E)er* one +no"s, if he +no"s nothing else, that commodities ha)e a )alue form common to them all, and presenting a mar+ed contrast "ith the )aried bodil* forms of their use )alues8 > mean their mone* form8 -ere, ho"e)er, a tas+ is set us, the performance of "hich has ne)er *et e)en been attempted b* bour eois econom*, the tas+ of tracing the genesis of this mone* form, of de)eloping the e9pression of )alue implied in the )alue relation of commodities, from its simplest, almost imperceptible outline, to the da11ling mone*4form8 /* doing this "e shall, at the same time, sol)e the riddle presented b* mone*8 'he simplest )alue4relation is e)identl* that of one commodit* to some one other commodit* of a different +ind8 -ence the relation bet"een the )alues of t"o commodities supplies us "ith the simplest e9pression of the )alue of a single commodit*8

A. Elementary or Accidental Form Of Value

9 commodit* ( Y * commodit* /, or 9 commodit* ( is "orth * commodit* /8 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat, or 67 Nards of linen are "orth 1 coat8

1. The two poles of the expression of value. Relative form and Equivalent form
'he "hole m*ster* of the form of )alue lies hidden in this elementar* form8 >ts anal*sis, therefore, is our real difficult*8 -ere t"o different +inds of commodities (in our e9ample the linen and the coat!, e)identl* pla* t"o different parts8 'he linen e9presses its )alue in the coat; the coat ser)es as the material in "hich that )alue is e9pressed8 'he former pla*s an acti)e, the latter a passi)e, part8 'he )alue of the linen is represented as relati)e )alue, or appears in relati)e form8 'he coat officiates as eIui)alent, or appears in eIui)alent form8 'he relati)e form and the eIui)alent form are t"o intimatel* connected, mutuall* dependent and inseparable elements of the e9pression of )alue; but, at the same time, are mutuall* e9clusi)e, antagonistic e9tremes F i$e$, poles of the same e9pression8 'he* are allotted respecti)el* to the t"o different commodities brought into relation b* that e9pression8 >t is not possible to e9press the )alue of linen in linen8 67 *ards of linen Y 67 *ards of linen is no e9pression of )alue8 =n the contrar*, such an eIuation merel* sa*s that 67 *ards of linen are nothing else than 67 *ards of linen, a definite Iuantit* of the use )alue linen8 'he )alue of the linen can therefore be e9pressed onl* relati)el* F i$e$, in some other commodit*8 'he relati)e form of the )alue of the linen presupposes, therefore, the presence of some other commodit* F here the coat F under the form of an eIui)alent8 =n the other hand, the commodit* that figures as the eIui)alent cannot at the same time assume the relati)e form8 'hat second commodit* is not the one "hose )alue is e9pressed8 >ts function is merel* to ser)e as the material in "hich the )alue of the first commodit* is e9pressed8 Co doubt, the e9pression 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat, or 67 *ards of linen are "orth 1 coat, implies the opposite relation8 1 coat Y 67 *ards of linen, or 1 coat is "orth 67 *ards of linen8 /ut, in that case, > must re)erse the eIuation, in order to e9press the )alue of the coat relati)el*; and8 so soon as > do that the linen becomes the eIui)alent instead of the coat8 ( single commodit* cannot, therefore, simultaneousl* assume, in the same e9pression of )alue, both forms8 'he )er* polarit* of these forms ma+es them mutuall* e9clusi)e8

5hapter 1

Bhether, then, a commodit* assumes the relati)e form, or the opposite eIui)alent form, depends entirel* upon its accidental position in the e9pression of )alue F that is, upon "hether it is the commodit* "hose )alue is being e9pressed or the commodit* in "hich )alue is being e9pressed8

2. The Relative Form of value

(a8! 'he nature and import of this form >n order to disco)er ho" the elementar* e9pression of the )alue of a commodit* lies hidden in the )alue relation of t"o commodities, "e must, in the first place, consider the latter entirel* apart from its Iuantitati)e aspect8 'he usual mode of procedure is generall* the re)erse, and in the )alue relation nothing is seen but the proportion bet"een definite Iuantities of t"o different sorts of commodities that are considered eIual to each other8 >t is apt to be forgotten that the magnitudes of different things can be compared Iuantitati)el*, onl* "hen those magnitudes are e9pressed in terms of the same unit8 >t is onl* as e9pressions of such a unit that the* are of the same denomination, and therefore commensurable8 17 Bhether 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat or Y 67 coats or Y 9 coats F that is, "hether a gi)en Iuantit* of linen is "orth fe" or man* coats, e)er* such statement implies that the linen and coats, as magnitudes of )alue, are e9pressions of the same unit, things of the same +ind8 <inen Y coat is the basis of the eIuation8 /ut the t"o commodities "hose identit* of Iualit* is thus assumed, do not pla* the same part8 >t is onl* the )alue of the linen that is e9pressed8 (nd ho"E /* its reference to the coat as its eIui)alent, as something that can be e9changed for it8 >n this relation the coat is the mode of e9istence of )alue, is )alue embodied, for onl* as such is it the same as the linen8 =n the other hand, the linen?s o"n )alue comes to the front, recei)es independent e9pression, for it is onl* as being )alue that it is comparable "ith the coat as a thing of eIual )alue, or e9changeable "ith the coat8 'o borro" an illustration from chemistr*, but*ric acid is a different substance from prop*l formate8 Net both are made up of the same chemical substances, carbon (5!, h*drogen (-!, and o9*gen (=!, and that, too, in li+e proportions F namel*, 5 -8=68 >f no" "e eIuate but*ric acid to prop*l formate, then, in the first place, prop*l formate "ould be, in this relation, merel* a form of e9istence of 5 -8=6; and in the second place, "e should be stating that but*ric acid also consists of 5 -8=68 'herefore, b* thus eIuating the t"o substances, e9pression "ould be gi)en to their chemical composition, "hile their different ph*sical forms "ould be neglected8 >f "e sa* that, as )alues, commodities are mere congelations of human labour, "e reduce them b* our anal*sis, it is true, to the abstraction, )alue; but "e ascribe to this )alue no form apart from their bodil* form8 >t is other"ise in the )alue relation of one commodit* to another8 -ere, the one stands forth in its character of )alue b* reason of its relation to the other8 /* ma+ing the coat the eIui)alent of the linen, "e eIuate the labour embodied in the former to that in the latter8 Co", it is true that the tailoring, "hich ma+es the coat, is concrete labour of a different sort from the "ea)ing "hich ma+es the linen8 /ut the act of eIuating it to the "ea)ing, reduces the tailoring to that "hich is reall* eIual in the t"o +inds of labour, to their common character of human labour8 >n this roundabout "a*, then, the fact is e9pressed, that "ea)ing also, in so far as it "ea)es )alue, has nothing to distinguish it from tailoring, and, conseIuentl*, is abstract human labour8 >t is the e9pression of eIui)alence bet"een different sorts of commodities that alone brings into relief the specific character of )alue4creating labour, and this it does b* actuall* reducing the different )arieties of labour embodied in the different +inds of commodities to their common Iualit* of human labour in the abstract8 18 'here is, ho"e)er, something else reIuired be*ond the e9pression of the specific character of the labour of "hich the )alue of the linen consists8 -uman labour po"er in motion, or human labour,

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creates )alue, but is not itself )alue8 >t becomes )alue onl* in its congealed state, "hen embodied in the form of some obDect8 >n order to e9press the )alue of the linen as a congelation of human labour, that )alue must be e9pressed as ha)ing obDecti)e e9istence, as being a something materiall* different from the linen itself, and *et a something common to the linen and all other commodities8 'he problem is alread* sol)ed8 Bhen occup*ing the position of eIui)alent in the eIuation of )alue, the coat ran+s Iualitati)el* as the eIual of the linen, as something of the same +ind, because it is )alue8 >n this position it is a thing in "hich "e see nothing but )alue, or "hose palpable bodil* form represents )alue8 Net the coat itself, the bod* of the commodit*, coat, is a mere use )alue8 ( coat as such no more tells us it is )alue, than does the first piece of linen "e ta+e hold of8 'his sho"s that "hen placed in )alue4 relation to the linen, the coat signifies more than "hen out of that relation, Dust as man* a man strutting about in a gorgeous uniform counts for more than "hen in mufti8 >n the production of the coat, human labour po"er, in the shape of tailoring, must ha)e been actuall* e9pended8 -uman labour is therefore accumulated in it8 >n this aspect the coat is a depositor* of )alue, but though "orn to a thread, it does not let this fact sho" through8 (nd as eIui)alent of the linen in the )alue eIuation, it e9ists under this aspect alone, counts therefore as embodied )alue, as a bod* that is )alue8 (, for instance, cannot be @*our maDest*A to /, unless at the same time maDest* in /?s e*es assumes the bodil* form of (, and, "hat is more, "ith e)er* ne" father of the people, changes its features, hair, and man* other things besides8 -ence, in the )alue eIuation, in "hich the coat is the eIui)alent of the linen, the coat officiates as the form of )alue8 'he )alue of the commodit* linen is e9pressed b* the bodil* form of the commodit* coat, the )alue of one b* the use )alue of the other8 (s a use )alue, the linen is something palpabl* different from the coat; as )alue, it is the same as the coat, and no" has the appearance of a coat8 'hus the linen acIuires a )alue form different from its ph*sical form8 'he fact that it is )alue, is made manifest b* its eIualit* "ith the coat, Dust as the sheep?s nature of a 5hristian is sho"n in his resemblance to the <amb of God8 Be see, then, all that our anal*sis of the )alue of commodities has alread* told us, is told us b* the linen itself, so soon as it comes into communication "ith another commodit*, the coat8 =nl* it betra*s its thoughts in that language "ith "hich alone it is familiar, the language of commodities8 >n order to tell us that its o"n )alue is created b* labour in its abstract character of human labour, it sa*s that the coat, in so far as it is "orth as much as the linen, and therefore is )alue, consists of the same labour as the linen8 >n order to inform us that its sublime realit* as )alue is not the same as its buc+ram bod*, it sa*s that )alue has the appearance of a coat, and conseIuentl* that so far as the linen is )alue, it and the coat are as li+e as t"o peas8 Be ma* here remar+, that the language of commodities has, besides -ebre", man* other more or less correct dialects8 'he German @Bertsein,A to be "orth, for instance, e9presses in a less stri+ing manner than the &omance )erbs @)alere,A @)aler,A @)aloir,A that the eIuating of commodit* / to commodit* (, is commodit* (?s o"n mode of e9pressing its )alue8 Paris vaut bien une messe8 G#aris is certainl* "orth a massH /* means, therefore, of the )alue4relation e9pressed in our eIuation, the bodil* form of commodit* / becomes the )alue form of commodit* (, or the bod* of commodit* / acts as a mirror to the )alue of commodit* (8 12 /* putting itself in relation "ith commodit* /, as )alue in propri% person%, as the matter of "hich human labour is made up, the commodit* ( con)erts the )alue in use, /, into the substance in "hich to e9press its, (?s, o"n )alue8 'he )alue of (, thus e9pressed in the use )alue of /, has ta+en the form of relati)e )alue8 (b8! Kuantitati)e determination of &elati)e )alue

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E)er* commodit*, "hose )alue it is intended to e9press, is a useful obDect of gi)en Iuantit*, as 13 bushels of corn, or 177 lbs of coffee8 (nd a gi)en Iuantit* of an* commodit* contains a definite Iuantit* of human labour8 'he )alue form must therefore not onl* e9press )alue generall*, but also )alue in definite Iuantit*8 'herefore, in the )alue relation of commodit* ( to commodit* /, of the linen to the coat, not onl* is the latter, as )alue in general, made the eIual in Iualit* of the linen, but a definite Iuantit* of coat (1 coat! is made the eIui)alent of a definite Iuantit* (67 *ards! of linen8 'he eIuation, 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat, or 67 *ards of linen are "orth one coat, implies that the same Iuantit* of )alue substance (congealed labour! is embodied in both; that the t"o commodities ha)e each cost the same amount of labour of the same Iuantit* of labour time8 /ut the labour time necessar* for the production of 67 *ards of linen or 1 coat )aries "ith e)er* change in the producti)eness of "ea)ing or tailoring8 Be ha)e no" to consider the influence of such changes on the Iuantitati)e aspect of the relati)e e9pression of )alue8 >8 <et the )alue of the linen )ar*, 67 that of the coat remaining constant8 >f, sa* in conseIuence of the e9haustion of fla94gro"ing soil, the labour time necessar* for the production of the linen be doubled, the )alue of the linen "ill also be doubled8 >nstead of the eIuation, 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat, "e should ha)e 67 *ards of linen Y 6 coats, since 1 coat "ould no" contain onl* half the labour time embodied in 67 *ards of linen8 >f, on the other hand, in conseIuence, sa*, of impro)ed looms, this labour time be reduced b* one4half, the )alue of the linen "ould fall b* one4half8 5onseIuentl*, "e should ha)e 67 *ards of linen Y [ coat8 'he relati)e )alue of commodit* (, i$e$, its )alue e9pressed in commodit* /, rises and falls directl* as the )alue of (, the )alue of / being supposed constant8 >>8 <et the )alue of the linen remain constant, "hile the )alue of the coat )aries8 >f, under these circumstances, in conseIuence, for instance, of a poor crop of "ool, the labour time necessar* for the production of a coat becomes doubled, "e ha)e instead of 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat, 67 *ards of linen Y [ coat8 >f, on the other hand, the )alue of the coat sin+s b* one4half, then 67 *ards of linen Y 6 coats8 -ence, if the )alue of commodit* ( remain constant, its relati)e )alue e9pressed in commodit* / rises and falls in)ersel* as the )alue of /8 >f "e compare the different cases in > and >>, "e see that the same change of magnitude in relati)e )alue ma* arise from totall* opposite causes8 'hus, the eIuation, 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat, becomes 67 *ards of linen Y 6 coats, either, because the )alue of the linen has doubled, or because the )alue of the coat has fallen b* one4half; and it becomes 67 *ards of linen Y [ coat, either, because the )alue of the linen has fallen b* one4half, or because the )alue of the coat has doubled8 >>>8 <et the Iuantities of labour time respecti)el* necessar* for the production of the linen and the coat )ar* simultaneousl* in the same direction and in the same proportion8 >n this case 67 *ards of linen continue eIual to 1 coat, ho"e)er much their )alues ma* ha)e altered8 'heir change of )alue is seen as soon as the* are compared "ith a third commodit*, "hose )alue has remained constant8 >f the )alues of all commodities rose or fell simultaneousl*, and in the same proportion, their relati)e )alues "ould remain unaltered8 'heir real change of )alue "ould appear from the diminished or increased Iuantit* of commodities produced in a gi)en time8 >;8 'he labour time respecti)el* necessar* for the production of the linen and the coat, and therefore the )alue of these commodities ma* simultaneousl* )ar* in the same direction, but at uneIual rates or in opposite directions, or in other "a*s8 'he effect of all these possible different )ariations, on the relati)e )alue of a commodit*, ma* be deduced from the results of >, >>, and >>>8

:7

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'hus real changes in the magnitude of )alue are neither uneIui)ocall* nor e9hausti)el* reflected in their relati)e e9pression, that is, in the eIuation e9pressing the magnitude of relati)e )alue8 'he relati)e )alue of a commodit* ma* )ar*, although its )alue remains constant8 >ts relati)e )alue ma* remain constant, although its )alue )aries; and finall*, simultaneous )ariations in the magnitude of )alue and in that of its relati)e e9pression b* no means necessaril* correspond in amount861

3. The Equivalent form of value

Be ha)e seen that commodit* ( (the linen!, b* e9pressing its )alue in the use )alue of a commodit* differing in +ind (the coat!, at the same time impresses upon the latter a specific form of )alue, namel* that of the eIui)alent8 'he commodit* linen manifests its Iualit* of ha)ing a )alue b* the fact that the coat, "ithout ha)ing assumed a )alue form different from its bodil* form, is eIuated to the linen8 'he fact that the latter therefore has a )alue is e9pressed b* sa*ing that the coat is directl* e9changeable "ith it8 'herefore, "hen "e sa* that a commodit* is in the eIui)alent form, "e e9press the fact that it is directl* e9changeable "ith other commodities8 Bhen one commodit*, such as a coat, ser)es as the eIui)alent of another, such as linen, and coats conseIuentl* acIuire the characteristic propert* of being directl* e9changeable "ith linen, "e are far from +no"ing in "hat proportion the t"o are e9changeable8 'he )alue of the linen being gi)en in magnitude, that proportion depends on the )alue of the coat8 Bhether the coat ser)es as the eIui)alent and the linen as relati)e )alue, or the linen as the eIui)alent and the coat as relati)e )alue, the magnitude of the coat?s )alue is determined, independentl* of its )alue form, b* the labour time necessar* for its production8 /ut "hene)er the coat assumes in the eIuation of )alue, the position of eIui)alent, its )alue acIuires no Iuantitati)e e9pression; on the contrar*, the commodit* coat no" figures onl* as a definite Iuantit* of some article8 For instance, 7 *ards of linen are "orth F "hatE 6 coats8 /ecause the commodit* coat here pla*s the part of eIui)alent, because the use4)alue coat, as opposed to the linen, figures as an embodiment of )alue, therefore a definite number of coats suffices to e9press the definite Iuantit* of )alue in the linen8 '"o coats ma* therefore e9press the Iuantit* of )alue of 7 *ards of linen, but the* can ne)er e9press the Iuantit* of their o"n )alue8 ( superficial obser)ation of this fact, namel*, that in the eIuation of )alue, the eIui)alent figures e9clusi)el* as a simple Iuantit* of some article, of some use )alue, has misled /aile*, as also man* others, both before and after him, into seeing, in the e9pression of )alue, merel* a Iuantitati)e relation8 'he truth being, that "hen a commodit* acts as eIui)alent, no Iuantitati)e determination of its )alue is e9pressed8 'he first peculiarit* that stri+es us, in considering the form of the eIui)alent, is this: use )alue becomes the form of manifestation, the phenomenal form of its opposite, )alue8 'he bodil* form of the commodit* becomes its )alue form8 /ut, mar+ "ell, that this &uid pro &uo e9ists in the case of an* commodit* /, onl* "hen some other commodit* ( enters into a )alue relation "ith it, and then onl* "ithin the limits of this relation8 Since no commodit* can stand in the relation of eIui)alent to itself, and thus turn its o"n bodil* shape into the e9pression of its o"n )alue, e)er* commodit* is compelled to choose some other commodit* for its eIui)alent, and to accept the use )alue, that is to sa*, the bodil* shape of that other commodit* as the form of its o"n )alue8 =ne of the measures that "e appl* to commodities as material substances, as use )alues, "ill ser)e to illustrate this point8 ( sugar4loaf being a bod*, is hea)*, and therefore has "eight: but "e can neither see nor touch this "eight8 Be then ta+e )arious pieces of iron, "hose "eight has been determined beforehand8 'he iron, as iron, is no more the form of manifestation of "eight, than is the sugar4loaf8 Ce)ertheless, in order to e9press the sugar4loaf as so much "eight, "e put it into a "eight4relation "ith the iron8 >n this relation, the iron officiates as a bod* representing nothing

:8

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but "eight8 ( certain Iuantit* of iron therefore ser)es as the measure of the "eight of the sugar, and represents, in relation to the sugar4loaf, "eight embodied, the form of manifestation of "eight8 'his part is pla*ed b* the iron onl* "ithin this relation, into "hich the sugar or an* other bod*, "hose "eight has to be determined, enters "ith the iron8 Bere the* not both hea)*, the* could not enter into this relation, and the one could therefore not ser)e as the e9pression of the "eight of the other8 Bhen "e thro" both into the scales, "e see in realit*, that as "eight the* are both the same, and that, therefore, "hen ta+en in proper proportions, the* ha)e the same "eight8 Lust as the substance iron, as a measure of "eight, represents in relation to the sugar4loaf "eight alone, so, in our e9pression of )alue, the material obDect, coat, in relation to the linen, represents )alue alone8 -ere, ho"e)er, the analog* ceases8 'he iron, in the e9pression of the "eight of the sugar4loaf, represents a natural propert* common to both bodies, namel* their "eight; but the coat, in the e9pression of )alue of the linen, represents a non4natural propert* of both, something purel* social, namel*, their )alue8 Since the relati)e form of )alue of a commodit* F the linen, for e9ample F e9presses the )alue of that commodit*, as being something "holl* different from its substance and properties, as being, for instance, coat4li+e, "e see that this e9pression itself indicates that some social relation lies at the bottom of it8 Bith the eIui)alent form it is Dust the contrar*8 'he )er* essence of this form is that the material commodit* itself F the coat F Dust as it is, e9presses )alue, and is endo"ed "ith the form of )alue b* Cature itself8 =f course this holds good onl* so long as the )alue relation e9ists, in "hich the coat stands in the position of eIui)alent to the linen8 66 Since, ho"e)er, the properties of a thing are not the result of its relations to other things, but onl* manifest themsel)es in such relations, the coat seems to be endo"ed "ith its eIui)alent form, its propert* of being directl* e9changeable, Dust as much b* Cature as it is endo"ed "ith the propert* of being hea)*, or the capacit* to +eep us "arm8 -ence the enigmatical character of the eIui)alent form "hich escapes the notice of the bourgeois political economist, until this form, completel* de)eloped, confronts him in the shape of mone*8 -e then see+s to e9plain a"a* the m*stical character of gold and sil)er, b* substituting for them less da11ling commodities, and b* reciting, "ith e)er rene"ed satisfaction, the catalogue of all possible commodities "hich at one time or another ha)e pla*ed the part of eIui)alent8 -e has not the least suspicion that the most simple e9pression of )alue, such as 67 *ds of linen Y 1 coat, alread* propounds the riddle of the eIui)alent form for our solution8 'he bod* of the commodit* that ser)es as the eIui)alent, figures as the materialisation of human labour in the abstract, and is at the same time the product of some specificall* useful concrete labour8 'his concrete labour becomes, therefore, the medium for e9pressing abstract human labour8 >f on the one hand the coat ran+s as nothing but the embodiment of abstract human labour, so, on the other hand, the tailoring "hich is actuall* embodied in it, counts as nothing but the form under "hich that abstract labour is realised8 >n the e9pression of )alue of the linen, the utilit* of the tailoring consists, not in ma+ing clothes, but in ma+ing an obDect, "hich "e at once recognise to be ;alue, and therefore to be a congelation of labour, but of labour indistinguishable from that realised in the )alue of the linen8 >n order to act as such a mirror of )alue, the labour of tailoring must reflect nothing besides its o"n abstract Iualit* of being human labour generall*8 >n tailoring, as "ell as in "ea)ing, human labour po"er is e9pended8 /oth, therefore, possess the general propert* of being human labour, and ma*, therefore, in certain cases, such as in the production of )alue, ha)e to be considered under this aspect alone8 'here is nothing m*sterious in this8 /ut in the e9pression of )alue there is a complete turn of the tables8 For instance, ho" is the fact to be e9pressed that "ea)ing creates the )alue of the linen, not b* )irtue of being "ea)ing, as

:2

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such, but b* reason of its general propert* of being human labourE Simpl* b* opposing to "ea)ing that other particular form of concrete labour (in this instance tailoring!, "hich produces the eIui)alent of the product of "ea)ing8 Lust as the coat in its bodil* form became a direct e9pression of )alue, so no" does tailoring, a concrete form of labour, appear as the direct and palpable embodiment of human labour generall*8 -ence, the second peculiarit* of the eIui)alent form is, that concrete labour becomes the form under "hich its opposite, abstract human labour, manifests itself8 /ut because this concrete labour, tailoring in our case, ran+s as, and is directl* identified "ith, undifferentiated human labour, it also ran+s as identical "ith an* other sort of labour, and therefore "ith that embodied in the linen8 5onseIuentl*, although, li+e all other commodit*4 producing labour, it is the labour of pri)ate indi)iduals, *et, at the same time, it ran+s as labour directl* social in its character8 'his is the reason "h* it results in a product directl* e9changeable "ith other commodities8 Be ha)e then a third peculiarit* of the eIui)alent form, namel*, that the labour of pri)ate indi)iduals ta+es the form of its opposite, labour directl* social in its form8 'he t"o latter peculiarities of the eIui)alent form "ill become more intelligible if "e go bac+ to the great thin+er "ho "as the first to anal*se so man* forms, "hether of thought, societ*, or Cature, and amongst them also the form of )alue8 > mean (ristotle8 >n the first place, he clearl* enunciates that the mone* form of commodities is onl* the further de)elopment of the simple form of )alue F i$e$, of the e9pression of the )alue of one commodit* in some other commodit* ta+en at random; for he sa*s: 3 beds Y 1 house F ( \! is not to be distinguished from 3 beds Y so much mone*8 F ( ... ! -e further sees that the )alue relation "hich gi)es rise to this e9pression ma+es it necessar* that the house should Iualitati)el* be made the eIual of the bed, and that, "ithout such an eIualisation, these t"o clearl* different things could not be compared "ith each other as commensurable Iuantities8 @E9change,A he sa*s, @cannot ta+e place "ithout eIualit*, and eIualit* not "ithout commensurabilit*V8 ( \ \ \!8 -ere, ho"e)er, he comes to a stop, and gi)es up the further anal*sis of the form of )alue8 @>t is, ho"e)er, in realit*, impossible ( !, that such unli+e things can be commensurableA F i$e$, Iualitati)el* eIual8 Such an eIualisation can onl* be something foreign to their real nature, conseIuentl* onl* @a ma+eshift for practical purposes8A (ristotle therefore, himself, tells us "hat barred the "a* to his further anal*sis; it "as the absence of an* concept of )alue8 Bhat is that eIual something, that common substance, "hich admits of the )alue of the beds being e9pressed b* a houseE Such a thing, in truth, cannot e9ist, sa*s (ristotle8 (nd "h* notE 5ompared "ith the beds, the house does represent something eIual to them, in so far as it represents "hat is reall* eIual, both in the beds and the house8 (nd that is F human labour8 'here "as, ho"e)er, an important fact "hich pre)ented (ristotle from seeing that, to attribute )alue to commodities, is merel* a mode of e9pressing all labour as eIual human labour, and conseIuentl* as labour of eIual Iualit*8 Gree+ societ* "as founded upon sla)er*, and had, therefore, for its natural basis, the ineIualit* of men and of their labour po"ers8 'he secret of the e9pression of )alue, namel*, that all +inds of labour are eIual and eIui)alent, because, and so far as the* are human labour in general, cannot be deciphered, until the notion of human eIualit* has alread* acIuired the fi9it* of a popular preDudice8 'his, ho"e)er, is possible onl* in a societ* in "hich the great mass of the produce of labour ta+es the form of commodities, in "hich,

5hapter 1

conseIuentl*, the dominant relation bet"een man and man, is that of o"ners of commodities8 'he brillianc* of (ristotle?s genius is sho"n b* this alone, that he disco)ered, in the e9pression of the )alue of commodities, a relation of eIualit*8 'he peculiar conditions of the societ* in "hich he li)ed, alone pre)ented him from disco)ering "hat, @in truth,A "as at the bottom of this eIualit*8

4. The Elementary Form of value considered as a whole

'he elementar* form of )alue of a commodit* is contained in the eIuation, e9pressing its )alue relation to another commodit* of a different +ind, or in its e9change relation to the same8 'he )alue of commodit* (, is Iualitati)el* e9pressed, b* the fact that commodit* / is directl* e9changeable "ith it8 >ts )alue is Iuantitati)el* e9pressed b* the fact, that a definite Iuantit* of / is e9changeable "ith a definite Iuantit* of (8 >n other "ords, the )alue of a commodit* obtains independent and definite e9pression, b* ta+ing the form of e9change )alue8 Bhen, at the beginning of this chapter, "e said, in common parlance, that a commodit* is both a use )alue and an e9change )alue, "e "ere, accuratel* spea+ing, "rong8 ( commodit* is a use )alue or obDect of utilit*, and a )alue8 >t manifests itself as this t"ofold thing, that it is, as soon as its )alue assumes an independent form F )i18, the form of e9change )alue8 >t ne)er assumes this form "hen isolated, but onl* "hen placed in a )alue or e9change relation "ith another commodit* of a different +ind8 Bhen once "e +no" this, such a mode of e9pression does no harm; it simpl* ser)es as an abbre)iation8 =ur anal*sis has sho"n, that the form or e9pression of the )alue of a commodit* originates in the nature of )alue, and not that )alue and its magnitude originate in the mode of their e9pression as e9change )alue8 'his, ho"e)er, is the delusion as "ell of the mercantilists and their recent re)i)ers, Ferrier, Ganilh,6: and others, as also of their antipodes, the modern bagmen of Free4 trade, such as /astiat8 'he mercantilists la* special stress on the Iualitati)e aspect of the e9pression of )alue, and conseIuentl* on the eIui)alent form of commodities, "hich attains its full perfection in mone*8 'he modern ha"+ers of Free4trade, "ho must get rid of their article at an* price, on the other hand, la* most stress on the Iuantitati)e aspect of the relati)e form of )alue8 For them there conseIuentl* e9ists neither )alue, nor magnitude of )alue, an*"here e9cept in its e9pression b* means of the e9change relation of commodities, that is, in the dail* list of prices current8 $acleod, "ho has ta+en upon himself to dress up the confused ideas of <ombard Street in the most learned finer*, is a successful cross bet"een the superstitious mercantilists, and the enlightened Free4trade bagmen8 ( close scrutin* of the e9pression of the )alue of ( in terms of /, contained in the eIuation e9pressing the )alue relation of ( to /, has sho"n us that, "ithin that relation, the bodil* form of ( figures onl* as a use )alue, the bodil* form of / onl* as the form or aspect of )alue8 'he opposition or contrast e9isting internall* in each commodit* bet"een use )alue and )alue, is, therefore, made e)ident e9ternall* b* t"o commodities being placed in such relation to each other, that the commodit* "hose )alue it is sought to e9press, figures directl* as a mere use )alue, "hile the commodit* in "hich that )alue is to be e9pressed, figures directl* as mere e9change )alue8 -ence the elementar* form of )alue of a commodit* is the elementar* form in "hich the contrast contained in that commodit*, bet"een use )alue and )alue, becomes apparent8 E)er* product of labour is, in all states of societ*, a use )alue; but it is onl* at a definite historical epoch in a societ*?s de)elopment that such a product becomes a commodit*, )i18, at the epoch "hen the labour spent on the production of a useful article becomes e9pressed as one of the obDecti)e Iualities of that article, i$e$, as its )alue8 >t therefore follo"s that the elementar* )alue form is also the primiti)e form under "hich a product of labour appears historicall* as a commodit*, and that the gradual transformation of such products into commodities, proceeds pari passu "ith the de)elopment of the )alue form8

5hapter 1

Be percei)e, at first sight, the deficiencies of the elementar* form of )alue: it is a mere germ, "hich must undergo a series of metamorphoses before it can ripen into the price form8 'he e9pression of the )alue of commodit* ( in terms of an* other commodit* /, merel* distinguishes the )alue from the use )alue of (, and therefore places ( merel* in a relation of e9change "ith a single different commodit*, /; but it is still far from e9pressing (?s Iualitati)e eIualit*, and Iuantitati)e proportionalit*, to all commodities8 'o the elementar* relati)e )alue form of a commodit*, there corresponds the single eIui)alent form of one other commodit*8 'hus, in the relati)e e9pression of )alue of the linen, the coat assumes the form of eIui)alent, or of being directl* e9changeable, onl* in relation to a single commodit*, the linen8 Ce)ertheless, the elementar* form of )alue passes b* an eas* transition into a more complete form8 >t is true that b* means of the elementar* form, the )alue of a commodit* (, becomes e9pressed in terms of one, and onl* one, other commodit*8 /ut that one ma* be a commodit* of an* +ind, coat, iron, corn, or an*thing else8 'herefore, according as ( is placed in relation "ith one or the other, "e get for one and the same commodit*, different elementar* e9pressions of )alue86 'he number of such possible e9pressions is limited onl* b* the number of the different +inds of commodities distinct from it8 'he isolated e9pression of (?s )alue, is therefore con)ertible into a series, prolonged to an* length, of the different elementar* e9pressions of that )alue8

B. Total or Expanded Form of value

1 5om8 ( Y u 5om8 / or ) 5om8 5 or Y " 5om8 0 or Y 5om8 E or Y Pc8 (67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat or Y 17 lbs tea or Y 7 lbs8 coffee or Y 1 Iuarter corn or Y 6 ounces gold or Y [ ton iron or Y Pc8!

1. The Expanded Relative form of value

'he )alue of a single commodit*, the linen, for e9ample, is no" e9pressed in terms of numberless other elements of the "orld of commodities8 E)er* other commodit* no" becomes a mirror of the linen?s )alue863 >t is thus, that for the first time, this )alue sho"s itself in its true light as a congelation of undifferentiated human labour8 For the labour that creates it, no" stands e9pressl* re)ealed, as labour that ran+s eIuall* "ith e)er* other sort of human labour, no matter "hat its form, "hether tailoring, ploughing, mining, Pc8, and no matter, therefore, "hether it is realised in coats, corn, iron, or gold8 'he linen, b* )irtue of the form of its )alue, no" stands in a social relation, no longer "ith onl* one other +ind of commodit*, but "ith the "hole "orld of commodities8 (s a commodit*, it is a citi1en of that "orld8 (t the same time, the interminable series of )alue eIuations implies, that as regards the )alue of a commodit*, it is a matter of indifference under "hat particular form, or +ind, of use )alue it appears8 >n the first form, 67 *ds of linen Y 1 coat, it might, for ought that other"ise appears, be pure accident, that these t"o commodities are e9changeable in definite Iuantities8 >n the second form, on the contrar*, "e percei)e at once the bac+ground that determines, and is essentiall* different from, this accidental appearance8 'he )alue of the linen remains unaltered in magnitude, "hether e9pressed in coats, coffee, or iron, or in numberless different commodities, the propert* of as man* different o"ners8 'he accidental relation bet"een t"o indi)idual commodit*4o"ners disappears8 >t becomes plain, that it is not the e9change of commodities "hich regulates the magnitude of their )alue; but, on the contrar*, that it is the magnitude of their )alue "hich controls their e9change proportions8

2. The particular Equivalent form

Each commodit*, such as, coat, tea, corn, iron, Pc8, figures in the e9pression of )alue of the linen, as an eIui)alent, and, conseIuentl*, as a thing that is )alue8 'he bodil* form of each of

5hapter 1

these commodities figures no" as a particular eIui)alent form, one out of man*8 >n the same "a* the manifold concrete useful +inds of labour, embodied in these different commodities, ran+ no" as so man* different forms of the realisation, or manifestation, of undifferentiated human labour8

3. efects of the Total or Expanded form of value

>n the first place, the relati)e e9pression of )alue is incomplete because the series representing it is interminable8 'he chain of "hich each eIuation of )alue is a lin+, is liable at an* moment to be lengthened b* each ne" +ind of commodit* that comes into e9istence and furnishes the material for a fresh e9pression of )alue8 >n the second place, it is a man*4coloured mosaic of disparate and independent e9pressions of )alue8 (nd lastl*, if, as must be the case, the relati)e )alue of each commodit* in turn, becomes e9pressed in this e9panded form, "e get for each of them a relati)e )alue form, different in e)er* case, and consisting of an interminable series of e9pressions of )alue8 'he defects of the e9panded relati)e )alue form are reflected in the corresponding eIui)alent form8 Since the bodil* form of each single commodit* is one particular eIui)alent form amongst numberless others, "e ha)e, on the "hole, nothing but fragmentar* eIui)alent forms, each e9cluding the others8 >n the same "a*, also, the special, concrete, useful +ind of labour embodied in each particular eIui)alent, is presented onl* as a particular +ind of labour, and therefore not as an e9hausti)e representati)e of human labour generall*8 'he latter, indeed, gains adeIuate manifestation in the totalit* of its manifold, particular, concrete forms8 /ut, in that case, its e9pression in an infinite series is e)er incomplete and deficient in unit*8 'he e9panded relati)e )alue form is, ho"e)er, nothing but the sum of the elementar* relati)e e9pressions or eIuations of the first +ind, such as: 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat 67 *ards of linen Y 17 lbs of tea, etc8 Each of these implies the corresponding in)erted eIuation, 1 coat Y 67 *ards of linen 17 lbs of tea Y 67 *ards of linen, etc8 >n fact, "hen a person e9changes his linen for man* other commodities, and thus e9presses its )alue in a series of other commodities, it necessaril* follo"s, that the )arious o"ners of the latter e9change them for the linen, and conseIuentl* e9press the )alue of their )arious commodities in one and the same third commodit*, the linen8 >f then, "e re)erse the series, 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat or Y 17 lbs of tea, etc8, that is to sa*, if "e gi)e e9pression to the con)erse relation alread* implied in the series, "e get,

C. The General Form of Value

1 17 7 1 6 [ 9 coat lbs of tea lbs of coffee Iuarter of corn ounces of gold a ton of iron 5ommodit* (, etc8

Y 67 *ards of linen

5hapter 1

1. The altered character of the form of value

(ll commodities no" e9press their )alue (1! in an elementar* form, because in a single commodit*; (6! "ith unit*, because in one and the same commodit*8 'his form of )alue is elementar* and the same for all, therefore general8 'he forms ( and / "ere fit onl* to e9press the )alue of a commodit* as something distinct from its use )alue or material form8 'he first form, (, furnishes such eIuations as the follo"ing: F 1 coat Y 67 *ards of linen, 17 lbs of tea Y [ a ton of iron8 'he )alue of the coat is eIuated to linen, that of the tea to iron8 /ut to be eIuated to linen, and again to iron, is to be as different as are linen and iron8 'his form, it is plain, occurs practicall* onl* in the first beginning, "hen the products of labour are con)erted into commodities b* accidental and occasional e9changes8 'he second form, /, distinguishes, in a more adeIuate manner than the first, the )alue of a commodit* from its use )alue, for the )alue of the coat is there placed in contrast under all possible shapes "ith the bodil* form of the coat; it is eIuated to linen, to iron, to tea, in short, to e)er*thing else, onl* not to itself, the coat8 =n the other hand, an* general e9pression of )alue common to all is directl* e9cluded; for, in the eIuation of )alue of each commodit*, all other commodities no" appear onl* under the form of eIui)alents8 'he e9panded form of )alue comes into actual e9istence for the first time so soon as a particular product of labour, such as cattle, is no longer e9ceptionall*, but habituall*, e9changed for )arious other commodities8 'he third and lastl* de)eloped form e9presses the )alues of the "hole "orld of commodities in terms of a single commodit* set apart for the purpose, namel*, the linen, and thus represents to us their )alues b* means of their eIualit* "ith linen8 'he )alue of e)er* commodit* is no", b* being eIuated to linen, not onl* differentiated from its o"n use )alue, but from all other use )alues generall*, and is, b* that )er* fact, e9pressed as that "hich is common to all commodities8 /* this form, commodities are, for the first time, effecti)el* brought into relation "ith one another as )alues, or made to appear as e9change )alues8 'he t"o earlier forms either e9press the )alue of each commodit* in terms of a single commodit* of a different +ind, or in a series of man* such commodities8 >n both cases, it is, so to sa*, the special business of each single commodit* to find an e9pression for its )alue, and this it does "ithout the help of the others8 'hese others, "ith respect to the former, pla* the passi)e parts of eIui)alents8 'he general form of )alue, 5, results from the Doint action of the "hole "orld of commodities, and from that alone8 ( commodit* can acIuire a general e9pression of its )alue onl* b* all other commodities, simultaneousl* "ith it, e9pressing their )alues in the same eIui)alent; and e)er* ne" commodit* must follo" suit8 >t thus becomes e)ident that since the e9istence of commodities as )alues is purel* social, this social e9istence can be e9pressed b* the totalit* of their social relations alone, and conseIuentl* that the form of their )alue must be a sociall* recognised form8 (ll commodities being eIuated to linen no" appear not onl* as Iualitati)el* eIual as )alues generall*, but also as )alues "hose magnitudes are capable of comparison8 /* e9pressing the magnitudes of their )alues in one and the same material, the linen, those magnitudes are also compared "ith each other For instance, 17 lbs of tea Y 67 *ards of linen, and 7 lbs of coffee Y 67 *ards of linen8 'herefore, 17 lbs of tea Y 7 lbs of coffee8 >n other "ords, there is contained in 1 lb of coffee onl* one4fourth as much substance of )alue F labour F as is contained in 1 lb of tea8 'he general form of relati)e )alue, embracing the "hole "orld of commodities, con)erts the single commodit* that is e9cluded from the rest, and made to pla* the part of eIui)alent F here the linen F into the uni)ersal eIui)alent8 'he bodil* form of the linen is no" the form assumed in

5hapter 1

common b* the )alues of all commodities; it therefore becomes directl* e9changeable "ith all and e)er* of them8 'he substance linen becomes the )isible incarnation, the social chr*salis state of e)er* +ind of human labour8 Bea)ing, "hich is the labour of certain pri)ate indi)iduals producing a particular article, linen, acIuires in conseIuence a social character, the character of eIualit* "ith all other +inds of labour8 'he innumerable eIuations of "hich the general form of )alue is composed, eIuate in turn the labour embodied in the linen to that embodied in e)er* other commodit*, and the* thus con)ert "ea)ing into the general form of manifestation of undifferentiated human labour8 >n this manner the labour realised in the )alues of commodities is presented not onl* under its negati)e aspect, under "hich abstraction is made from e)er* concrete form and useful propert* of actual "or+, but its o"n positi)e nature is made to re)eal itself e9pressl*8 'he general )alue form is the reduction of all +inds of actual labour to their common character of being human labour generall*, of being the e9penditure of human labour po"er8 'he general )alue form, "hich represents all products of labour as mere congelations of undifferentiated human labour, sho"s b* its )er* structure that it is the social resumR of the "orld of commodities8 'hat form conseIuentl* ma+es it indisputabl* e)ident that in the "orld of commodities the character possessed b* all labour of being human labour constitutes its specific social character8

2. The !nterdependent evelopment of the Relative Form of "alue# and of the Equivalent Form
'he degree of de)elopment of the relati)e form of )alue corresponds to that of the eIui)alent form8 /ut "e must bear in mind that the de)elopment of the latter is onl* the e9pression and result of the de)elopment of the former8 'he primar* or isolated relati)e form of )alue of one commodit* con)erts some other commodit* into an isolated eIui)alent8 'he e9panded form of relati)e )alue, "hich is the e9pression of the )alue of one commodit* in terms of all other commodities, endo"s those other commodities "ith the character of particular eIui)alents differing in +ind8 (nd lastl*, a particular +ind of commodit* acIuires the character of uni)ersal eIui)alent, because all other commodities ma+e it the material in "hich the* uniforml* e9press their )alue8 'he antagonism bet"een the relati)e form of )alue and the eIui)alent form, the t"o poles of the )alue form, is de)eloped concurrentl* "ith that form itself8 'he first form, 67 *ds of linen Y one coat, alread* contains this antagonism, "ithout as *et fi9ing it8 (ccording as "e read this eIuation for"ards or bac+"ards, the parts pla*ed b* the linen and the coat are different8 >n the one case the relati)e )alue of the linen is e9pressed in the coat, in the other case the relati)e )alue of the coat is e9pressed in the linen8 >n this first form of )alue, therefore, it is difficult to grasp the polar contrast8 Form / sho"s that onl* one single commodit* at a time can completel* e9pand its relati)e )alue, and that it acIuires this e9panded form onl* because, and in so far as, all other commodities are, "ith respect to it, eIui)alents8 -ere "e cannot re)erse the eIuation, as "e can the eIuation 67 *ds of linen Y 1 coat, "ithout altering its general character, and con)erting it from the e9panded form of )alue into the general form of )alue8 Finall*, the form 5 gi)es to the "orld of commodities a general social relati)e form of )alue, because, and in so far as, thereb* all commodities, "ith the e9ception of one, are e9cluded from the eIui)alent form8 ( single commodit*, the linen, appears therefore to ha)e acIuired the character of direct e9changeabilit* "ith e)er* other commodit* because, and in so far as, this character is denied to e)er* other commodit*8 66

5hapter 1

'he commodit* that figures as uni)ersal eIui)alent, is, on the other hand, e9cluded from the relati)e )alue form8 >f the linen, or an* other commodit* ser)ing as uni)ersal eIui)alent, "ere, at the same time, to share in the relati)e form of )alue, it "ould ha)e to ser)e as its o"n eIui)alent8 Be should then ha)e 67 *ds of linen Y 67 *ds of linen; this tautolog* e9presses neither )alue, nor magnitude of )alue8 >n order to e9press the relati)e )alue of the uni)ersal eIui)alent, "e must rather re)erse the form 58 'his eIui)alent has no relati)e form of )alue in common "ith other commodities, but its )alue is relati)el* e9pressed b* a ne)er ending series of other commodities8 'hus, the e9panded form of relati)e )alue, or form /, no" sho"s itself as the specific form of relati)e )alue for the eIui)alent commodit*8

3. Transition from the $eneral form of value to the %oney form

'he uni)ersal eIui)alent form is a form of )alue in general8 >t can, therefore, be assumed b* an* commodit*8 =n the other hand, if a commodit* be found to ha)e assumed the uni)ersal eIui)alent form (form 5!, this is onl* because and in so far as it has been e9cluded from the rest of all other commodities as their eIui)alent, and that b* their o"n act8 (nd from the moment that this e9clusion becomes finall* restricted to one particular commodit*, from that moment onl*, the general form of relati)e )alue of the "orld of commodities obtains real consistence and general social )alidit*8 'he particular commodit*, "ith "hose bodil* form the eIui)alent form is thus sociall* identified, no" becomes the mone* commodit*, or ser)es as mone*8 >t becomes the special social function of that commodit*, and conseIuentl* its social monopol*, to pla* "ithin the "orld of commodities the part of the uni)ersal eIui)alent8 (mongst the commodities "hich, in form /, figure as particular eIui)alents of the linen, and, in form 5, e9press in common their relati)e )alues in linen, this foremost place has been attained b* one in particular F namel*, gold8 >f, then, in form 5 "e replace the linen b* gold, "e get,

D. The Money Form

67 1 17 7 1 6 [ 9 *ards of linen coat lbs of tea lbs of coffee Iuarter of corn ounces of gold a ton of iron 5ommodit* ( Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Y 6 ounces of gold

>n passing from form ( to form /, and from the latter to form 5, the changes are fundamental8 =n the other hand, there is no difference bet"een forms 5 and 0, e9cept that, in the latter, gold has assumed the eIui)alent form in the place of linen8 Gold is in form 0, "hat linen "as in form 5 F the uni)ersal eIui)alent8 'he progress consists in this alone, that the character of direct and uni)ersal e9changeabilit* F in other "ords, that the uni)ersal eIui)alent form F has no", b* social custom, become finall* identified "ith the substance, gold8 Gold is no" mone* "ith reference to all other commodities onl* because it "as pre)iousl*, "ith reference to them, a simple commodit*8 <i+e all other commodities, it "as also capable of ser)ing as an eIui)alent, either as simple eIui)alent in isolated e9changes, or as particular eIui)alent b* the side of others8 Graduall* it began to ser)e, "ithin )ar*ing limits, as uni)ersal eIui)alent8 So soon as it monopolises this position in the e9pression of )alue for the "orld of

5hapter 1

commodities, it becomes the mone* commodit*, and then, and not till then, does form 0 become distinct from form 5, and the general form of )alue become changed into the mone* form8 'he elementar* e9pression of the relati)e )alue of a single commodit*, such as linen, in terms of the commodit*, such as gold, that pla*s the part of mone*, is the price form of that commodit*8 'he price form of the linen is therefore 67 *ards of linen Y 6 ounces of gold, or, if 6 ounces of gold "hen coined are ]6, 67 *ards of linen Y ]68 'he difficult* in forming a concept of the mone* form, consists in clearl* comprehending the uni)ersal eIui)alent form, and as a necessar* corollar*, the general form of )alue, form 58 'he latter is deducible from form /, the e9panded form of )alue, the essential component element of "hich, "e sa", is form (, 67 *ards of linen Y 1 coat or 9 commodit* ( Y * commodit* /8 'he simple commodit* form is therefore the germ of the mone* form8

Section ,: The Fetishism of Commodities and the Secret Thereof

( commodit* appears, at first sight, a )er* tri)ial thing, and easil* understood8 >ts anal*sis sho"s that it is, in realit*, a )er* Iueer thing, abounding in metaph*sical subtleties and theological niceties8 So far as it is a )alue in use, there is nothing m*sterious about it, "hether "e consider it from the point of )ie" that b* its properties it is capable of satisf*ing human "ants, or from the point that those properties are the product of human labour8 >t is as clear as noon4da*, that man, b* his industr*, changes the forms of the materials furnished b* Cature, in such a "a* as to ma+e them useful to him8 'he form of "ood, for instance, is altered, b* ma+ing a table out of it8 Net, for all that, the table continues to be that common, e)er*4da* thing, "ood8 /ut, so soon as it steps forth as a commodit*, it is changed into something transcendent8 >t not onl* stands "ith its feet on the ground, but, in relation to all other commodities, it stands on its head, and e)ol)es out of its "ooden brain grotesIue ideas, far more "onderful than @table4turningA e)er "as8 66a 'he m*stical character of commodities does not originate, therefore, in their use )alue8 Lust as little does it proceed from the nature of the determining factors of )alue8 For, in the first place, ho"e)er )aried the useful +inds of labour, or producti)e acti)ities, ma* be, it is a ph*siological fact, that the* are functions of the human organism, and that each such function, "hate)er ma* be its nature or form, is essentiall* the e9penditure of human brain, ner)es, muscles, Pc8 Secondl*, "ith regard to that "hich forms the ground4"or+ for the Iuantitati)e determination of )alue, namel*, the duration of that e9penditure, or the Iuantit* of labour, it is Iuite clear that there is a palpable difference bet"een its Iuantit* and Iualit*8 >n all states of societ*, the labour time that it costs to produce the means of subsistence, must necessaril* be an obDect of interest to man+ind, though not of eIual interest in different stages of de)elopment8 67 (nd lastl*, from the moment that men in an* "a* "or+ for one another, their labour assumes a social form8 Bhence, then, arises the enigmatical character of the product of labour, so soon as it assumes the form of commoditiesE 5learl* from this form itself8 'he eIualit* of all sorts of human labour is e9pressed obDecti)el* b* their products all being eIuall* )alues; the measure of the e9penditure of labour po"er b* the duration of that e9penditure, ta+es the form of the Iuantit* of )alue of the products of labour; and finall* the mutual relations of the producers, "ithin "hich the social character of their labour affirms itself, ta+e the form of a social relation bet"een the products8 ( commodit* is therefore a m*sterious thing, simpl* because in it the social character of men?s labour appears to them as an obDecti)e character stamped upon the product of that labour; because the relation of the producers to the sum total of their o"n labour is presented to them as a social

5hapter 1

relation, e9isting not bet"een themsel)es, but bet"een the products of their labour8 'his is the reason "h* the products of labour become commodities, social things "hose Iualities are at the same time perceptible and imperceptible b* the senses8 >n the same "a* the light from an obDect is percei)ed b* us not as the subDecti)e e9citation of our optic ner)e, but as the obDecti)e form of something outside the e*e itself8 /ut, in the act of seeing, there is at all e)ents, an actual passage of light from one thing to another, from the e9ternal obDect to the e*e8 'here is a ph*sical relation bet"een ph*sical things8 /ut it is different "ith commodities8 'here, the e9istence of the things &u% commodities, and the )alue relation bet"een the products of labour "hich stamps them as commodities, ha)e absolutel* no connection "ith their ph*sical properties and "ith the material relations arising therefrom8 'here it is a definite social relation bet"een men, that assumes, in their e*es, the fantastic form of a relation bet"een things8 >n order, therefore, to find an analog*, "e must ha)e recourse to the mist4en)eloped regions of the religious "orld8 >n that "orld the productions of the human brain appear as independent beings endo"ed "ith life, and entering into relation both "ith one another and the human race8 So it is in the "orld of commodities "ith the products of men?s hands8 'his > call the Fetishism "hich attaches itself to the products of labour, so soon as the* are produced as commodities, and "hich is therefore inseparable from the production of commodities8 'his Fetishism of commodities has its origin, as the foregoing anal*sis has alread* sho"n, in the peculiar social character of the labour that produces them8 (s a general rule, articles of utilit* become commodities, onl* because the* are products of the labour of pri)ate indi)iduals or groups of indi)iduals "ho carr* on their "or+ independentl* of each other8 'he sum total of the labour of all these pri)ate indi)iduals forms the aggregate labour of societ*8 Since the producers do not come into social contact "ith each other until the* e9change their products, the specific social character of each producer?s labour does not sho" itself e9cept in the act of e9change8 >n other "ords, the labour of the indi)idual asserts itself as a part of the labour of societ*, onl* b* means of the relations "hich the act of e9change establishes directl* bet"een the products, and indirectl*, through them, bet"een the producers8 'o the latter, therefore, the relations connecting the labour of one indi)idual "ith that of the rest appear, not as direct social relations bet"een indi)iduals at "or+, but as "hat the* reall* are, material relations bet"een persons and social relations bet"een things8 >t is onl* b* being e9changed that the products of labour acIuire, as )alues, one uniform social status, distinct from their )aried forms of e9istence as obDects of utilit*8 'his di)ision of a product into a useful thing and a )alue becomes practicall* important, onl* "hen e9change has acIuired such an e9tension that useful articles are produced for the purpose of being e9changed, and their character as )alues has therefore to be ta+en into account, beforehand, during production8 From this moment the labour of the indi)idual producer acIuires sociall* a t"ofold character8 =n the one hand, it must, as a definite useful +ind of labour, satisf* a definite social "ant, and thus hold its place as part and parcel of the collecti)e labour of all, as a branch of a social di)ision of labour that has sprung up spontaneousl*8 =n the other hand, it can satisf* the manifold "ants of the indi)idual producer himself, onl* in so far as the mutual e9changeabilit* of all +inds of useful pri)ate labour is an established social fact, and therefore the pri)ate useful labour of each producer ran+s on an eIualit* "ith that of all others8 'he eIualisation of the most different +inds of labour can be the result onl* of an abstraction from their ineIualities, or of reducing them to their common denominator, )i18 e9penditure of human labour po"er or human labour in the abstract8 'he t"ofold social character of the labour of the indi)idual appears to him, "hen reflected in his brain, onl* under those forms "hich are impressed upon that labour in e)er*4da* practice b* the e9change of products8 >n this "a*, the character that his o"n labour possesses of being sociall* useful ta+es the form of the condition, that the product must be not onl* useful, but useful for

5hapter 1

others, and the social character that his particular labour has of being the eIual of all other particular +inds of labour, ta+es the form that all the ph*sicall* different articles that are the products of labour8 ha)e one common Iualit*, )i18, that of ha)ing )alue8 -ence, "hen "e bring the products of our labour into relation "ith each other as )alues, it is not because "e see in these articles the material receptacles of homogeneous human labour8 Kuite the contrar*: "hene)er, b* an e9change, "e eIuate as )alues our different products, b* that )er* act, "e also eIuate, as human labour, the different +inds of labour e9pended upon them8 Be are not a"are of this, ne)ertheless "e do it868 ;alue, therefore, does not stal+ about "ith a label describing "hat it is8 >t is )alue, rather, that con)erts e)er* product into a social hierogl*phic8 <ater on, "e tr* to decipher the hierogl*phic, to get behind the secret of our o"n social products; for to stamp an obDect of utilit* as a )alue, is Dust as much a social product as language8 'he recent scientific disco)er*, that the products of labour, so far as the* are )alues, are but material e9pressions of the human labour spent in their production, mar+s, indeed, an epoch in the histor* of the de)elopment of the human race, but, b* no means, dissipates the mist through "hich the social character of labour appears to us to be an obDecti)e character of the products themsel)es8 'he fact, that in the particular form of production "ith "hich "e are dealing, )i18, the production of commodities, the specific social character of pri)ate labour carried on independentl*, consists in the eIualit* of e)er* +ind of that labour, b* )irtue of its being human labour, "hich character, therefore, assumes in the product the form of )alue F this fact appears to the producers, not"ithstanding the disco)er* abo)e referred to, to be Dust as real and final, as the fact, that, after the disco)er* b* science of the component gases of air, the atmosphere itself remained unaltered8 Bhat, first of all, practicall* concerns producers "hen the* ma+e an e9change, is the Iuestion, ho" much of some other product the* get for their o"nE in "hat proportions the products are e9changeableE Bhen these proportions ha)e, b* custom, attained a certain stabilit*, the* appear to result from the nature of the products, so that, for instance, one ton of iron and t"o ounces of gold appear as naturall* to be of eIual )alue as a pound of gold and a pound of iron in spite of their different ph*sical and chemical Iualities appear to be of eIual "eight8 'he character of ha)ing )alue, "hen once impressed upon products, obtains fi9it* onl* b* reason of their acting and re4acting upon each other as Iuantities of )alue8 'hese Iuantities )ar* continuall*, independentl* of the "ill, foresight and action of the producers8 'o them, their o"n social action ta+es the form of the action of obDects, "hich rule the producers instead of being ruled b* them8 >t reIuires a full* de)eloped production of commodities before, from accumulated e9perience alone, the scientific con)iction springs up, that all the different +inds of pri)ate labour, "hich are carried on independentl* of each other, and *et as spontaneousl* de)eloped branches of the social di)ision of labour, are continuall* being reduced to the Iuantitati)e proportions in "hich societ* reIuires them8 (nd "h*E /ecause, in the midst of all the accidental and e)er fluctuating e9change relations bet"een the products, the labour time sociall* necessar* for their production forcibl* asserts itself li+e an o)er4riding la" of Cature8 'he la" of gra)it* thus asserts itself "hen a house falls about our ears8 62 'he determination of the magnitude of )alue b* labour time is therefore a secret, hidden under the apparent fluctuations in the relati)e )alues of commodities8 >ts disco)er*, "hile remo)ing all appearance of mere accidentalit* from the determination of the magnitude of the )alues of products, *et in no "a* alters the mode in "hich that determination ta+es place8 $an?s reflections on the forms of social life, and conseIuentl*, also, his scientific anal*sis of those forms, ta+e a course directl* opposite to that of their actual historical de)elopment8 -e begins, post festum, "ith the results of the process of de)elopment read* to hand before him8 'he characters that stamp products as commodities, and "hose establishment is a necessar* preliminar* to the circulation of commodities, ha)e alread* acIuired the stabilit* of natural, self4

5hapter 1

understood forms of social life, before man see+s to decipher, not their historical character, for in his e*es the* are immutable, but their meaning8 5onseIuentl* it "as the anal*sis of the prices of commodities that alone led to the determination of the magnitude of )alue, and it "as the common e9pression of all commodities in mone* that alone led to the establishment of their characters as )alues8 >t is, ho"e)er, Dust this ultimate mone* form of the "orld of commodities that actuall* conceals, instead of disclosing, the social character of pri)ate labour, and the social relations bet"een the indi)idual producers8 Bhen > state that coats or boots stand in a relation to linen, because it is the uni)ersal incarnation of abstract human labour, the absurdit* of the statement is self4e)ident8 Ce)ertheless, "hen the producers of coats and boots compare those articles "ith linen, or, "hat is the same thing, "ith gold or sil)er, as the uni)ersal eIui)alent, the* e9press the relation bet"een their o"n pri)ate labour and the collecti)e labour of societ* in the same absurd form8 'he categories of bourgeois econom* consist of such li+e forms8 'he* are forms of thought e9pressing "ith social )alidit* the conditions and relations of a definite, historicall* determined mode of production, )i18, the production of commodities8 'he "hole m*ster* of commodities, all the magic and necromanc* that surrounds the products of labour as long as the* ta+e the form of commodities, )anishes therefore, so soon as "e come to other forms of production8 Since &obinson 5rusoe?s e9periences are a fa)ourite theme "ith political economists, :7 let us ta+e a loo+ at him on his island8 $oderate though he be, *et some fe" "ants he has to satisf*, and must therefore do a little useful "or+ of )arious sorts, such as ma+ing tools and furniture, taming goats, fishing and hunting8 =f his pra*ers and the li+e "e ta+e no account, since the* are a source of pleasure to him, and he loo+s upon them as so much recreation8 >n spite of the )ariet* of his "or+, he +no"s that his labour, "hate)er its form, is but the acti)it* of one and the same &obinson, and conseIuentl*, that it consists of nothing but different modes of human labour8 Cecessit* itself compels him to apportion his time accuratel* bet"een his different +inds of "or+8 Bhether one +ind occupies a greater space in his general acti)it* than another, depends on the difficulties, greater or less as the case ma* be, to be o)ercome in attaining the useful effect aimed at8 'his our friend &obinson soon learns b* e9perience, and ha)ing rescued a "atch, ledger, and pen and in+ from the "rec+, commences, li+e a true4born /riton, to +eep a set of boo+s8 -is stoc+4boo+ contains a list of the obDects of utilit* that belong to him, of the operations necessar* for their production; and lastl*, of the labour time that definite Iuantities of those obDects ha)e, on an a)erage, cost him8 (ll the relations bet"een &obinson and the obDects that form this "ealth of his o"n creation, are here so simple and clear as to be intelligible "ithout e9ertion, e)en to $r8 Sedle* 'a*lor8 (nd *et those relations contain all that is essential to the determination of )alue8 <et us no" transport oursel)es from &obinson?s island bathed in light to the European middle ages shrouded in dar+ness8 -ere, instead of the independent man, "e find e)er*one dependent, serfs and lords, )assals and su1erains, la*men and clerg*8 #ersonal dependence here characterises the social relations of production Dust as much as it does the other spheres of life organised on the basis of that production8 /ut for the )er* reason that personal dependence forms the ground4"or+ of societ*, there is no necessit* for labour and its products to assume a fantastic form different from their realit*8 'he* ta+e the shape, in the transactions of societ*, of ser)ices in +ind and pa*ments in +ind8 -ere the particular and natural form of labour, and not, as in a societ* based on production of commodities, its general abstract form is the immediate social form of labour8 5ompulsor* labour is Dust as properl* measured b* time, as commodit*4producing labour; but e)er* serf +no"s that "hat he e9pends in the ser)ice of his lord, is a definite Iuantit* of his o"n personal labour po"er8 'he tithe to be rendered to the priest is more matter of fact than his blessing8 Co matter, then, "hat "e ma* thin+ of the parts pla*ed b* the different classes of people themsel)es in this societ*, the social relations bet"een indi)iduals in the performance of

37

5hapter 1

their labour, appear at all e)ents as their o"n mutual personal relations, and are not disguised under the shape of social relations bet"een the products of labour8 For an e9ample of labour in common or directl* associated labour, "e ha)e no occasion to go bac+ to that spontaneousl* de)eloped form "hich "e find on the threshold of the histor* of all ci)ilised races8:1 Be ha)e one close at hand in the patriarchal industries of a peasant famil*, that produces corn, cattle, *arn, linen, and clothing for home use8 'hese different articles are, as regards the famil*, so man* products of its labour, but as bet"een themsel)es, the* are not commodities8 'he different +inds of labour, such as tillage, cattle tending, spinning, "ea)ing and ma+ing clothes, "hich result in the )arious products, are in themsel)es, and such as the* are, direct social functions, because functions of the famil*, "hich, Dust as much as a societ* based on the production of commodities, possesses a spontaneousl* de)eloped s*stem of di)ision of labour8 'he distribution of the "or+ "ithin the famil*, and the regulation of the labour time of the se)eral members, depend as "ell upon differences of age and se9 as upon natural conditions )ar*ing "ith the seasons8 'he labour po"er of each indi)idual, b* its )er* nature, operates in this case merel* as a definite portion of the "hole labour po"er of the famil*, and therefore, the measure of the e9penditure of indi)idual labour po"er b* its duration, appears here b* its )er* nature as a social character of their labour8 <et us no" picture to oursel)es, b* "a* of change, a communit* of free indi)iduals, carr*ing on their "or+ "ith the means of production in common, in "hich the labour po"er of all the different indi)iduals is consciousl* applied as the combined labour po"er of the communit*8 (ll the characteristics of &obinson?s labour are here repeated, but "ith this difference, that the* are social, instead of indi)idual8 E)er*thing produced b* him "as e9clusi)el* the result of his o"n personal labour, and therefore simpl* an obDect of use for himself8 'he total product of our communit* is a social product8 =ne portion ser)es as fresh means of production and remains social8 /ut another portion is consumed b* the members as means of subsistence8 ( distribution of this portion amongst them is conseIuentl* necessar*8 'he mode of this distribution "ill )ar* "ith the producti)e organisation of the communit*, and the degree of historical de)elopment attained b* the producers8 Be "ill assume, but merel* for the sa+e of a parallel "ith the production of commodities, that the share of each indi)idual producer in the means of subsistence is determined b* his labour time8 <abour time "ould, in that case, pla* a double part8 >ts apportionment in accordance "ith a definite social plan maintains the proper proportion bet"een the different +inds of "or+ to be done and the )arious "ants of the communit*8 =n the other hand, it also ser)es as a measure of the portion of the common labour borne b* each indi)idual, and of his share in the part of the total product destined for indi)idual consumption8 'he social relations of the indi)idual producers, "ith regard both to their labour and to its products, are in this case perfectl* simple and intelligible, and that "ith regard not onl* to production but also to distribution8 'he religious "orld is but the refle9 of the real "orld8 (nd for a societ* based upon the production of commodities, in "hich the producers in general enter into social relations "ith one another b* treating their products as commodities and )alues, "hereb* the* reduce their indi)idual pri)ate labour to the standard of homogeneous human labour F for such a societ*, 5hristianit* "ith its cultus of abstract man, more especiall* in its bourgeois de)elopments, #rotestantism, 0eism, Pc8, is the most fitting form of religion8 >n the ancient (siatic and other ancient modes of production, "e find that the con)ersion of products into commodities, and therefore the con)ersion of men into producers of commodities, holds a subordinate place, "hich, ho"e)er, increases in importance as the primiti)e communities approach nearer and nearer to their dissolution8 'rading nations, properl* so called, e9ist in the ancient "orld onl* in its interstices, li+e the gods of Epicurus in the >ntermundia, or li+e Le"s in the pores of #olish

31

5hapter 1

societ*8 'hose ancient social organisms of production are, as compared "ith bourgeois societ*, e9tremel* simple and transparent8 /ut the* are founded either on the immature de)elopment of man indi)iduall*, "ho has not *et se)ered the umbilical cord that unites him "ith his fello"men in a primiti)e tribal communit*, or upon direct relations of subDection8 'he* can arise and e9ist onl* "hen the de)elopment of the producti)e po"er of labour has not risen be*ond a lo" stage, and "hen, therefore, the social relations "ithin the sphere of material life, bet"een man and man, and bet"een man and Cature, are correspondingl* narro"8 'his narro"ness is reflected in the ancient "orship of Cature, and in the other elements of the popular religions8 'he religious refle9 of the real "orld can, in an* case, onl* then finall* )anish, "hen the practical relations of e)er*4 da* life offer to man none but perfectl* intelligible and reasonable relations "ith regard to his fello"men and to Cature8 'he life4process of societ*, "hich is based on the process of material production, does not strip off its m*stical )eil until it is treated as production b* freel* associated men, and is consciousl* regulated b* them in accordance "ith a settled plan8 'his, ho"e)er, demands for societ* a certain material ground4"or+ or set of conditions of e9istence "hich in their turn are the spontaneous product of a long and painful process of de)elopment8 #olitical Econom* has indeed anal*sed, ho"e)er incompletel*, :6 )alue and its magnitude, and has disco)ered "hat lies beneath these forms8 /ut it has ne)er once as+ed the Iuestion "h* labour is represented b* the )alue of its product and labour time b* the magnitude of that )alue8 :: 'hese formul^, "hich bear it stamped upon them in unmista+able letters that the* belong to a state of societ*, in "hich the process of production has the master* o)er man, instead of being controlled b* him, such formul^ appear to the bourgeois intellect to be as much a self4e)ident necessit* imposed b* Cature as producti)e labour itself8 -ence forms of social production that preceded the bourgeois form, are treated b* the bourgeoisie in much the same "a* as the Fathers of the 5hurch treated pre45hristian religions8: 'o "hat e9tent some economists are misled b* the Fetishism inherent in commodities, or b* the obDecti)e appearance of the social characteristics of labour, is sho"n, amongst other "a*s, b* the dull and tedious Iuarrel o)er the part pla*ed b* Cature in the formation of e9change )alue8 Since e9change )alue is a definite social manner of e9pressing the amount of labour besto"ed upon an obDect, Cature has no more to do "ith it, than it has in fi9ing the course of e9change8 'he mode of production in "hich the product ta+es the form of a commodit*, or is produced directl* for e9change, is the most general and most embr*onic form of bourgeois production8 >t therefore ma+es its appearance at an earl* date in histor*, though not in the same predominating and characteristic manner as no"4a4da*s8 -ence its Fetish character is comparati)el* eas* to be seen through8 /ut "hen "e come to more concrete forms, e)en this appearance of simplicit* )anishes8 Bhence arose the illusions of the monetar* s*stemE 'o it gold and sil)er, "hen ser)ing as mone*, did not represent a social relation bet"een producers, but "ere natural obDects "ith strange social properties8 (nd modern econom*, "hich loo+s do"n "ith such disdain on the monetar* s*stem, does not its superstition come out as clear as noon4da*, "hene)er it treats of capitalE -o" long is it since econom* discarded the ph*siocratic illusion, that rents gro" out of the soil and not out of societ*E /ut not to anticipate, "e "ill content oursel)es "ith *et another e9ample relating to the commodit* form8 5ould commodities themsel)es spea+, the* "ould sa*: =ur use )alue ma* be a thing that interests men8 >t is no part of us as obDects8 Bhat, ho"e)er, does belong to us as obDects, is our )alue8 =ur natural intercourse as commodities pro)es it8 >n the e*es of each other "e are nothing but e9change )alues8 Co" listen ho" those commodities spea+ through the mouth of the economist8

36

5hapter 1

@;alueA F (i$e$, e9change )alue! @is a propert* of things, richesA F ( i$e$, use )alue! @of man8 ;alue, in this sense, necessaril* implies e9changes, riches do not8A :3 @&ichesA (use )alue! @are the attribute of men, )alue is the attribute of commodities8 ( man or a communit* is rich, a pearl or a diamond is )aluable888A ( pearl or a diamond is )aluable as a pearl or a diamond8 :6 So far no chemist has e)er disco)ered e9change )alue either in a pearl or a diamond8 'he economic disco)erers of this chemical element, "ho b*4the4b*e la* special claim to critical acumen, find ho"e)er that the use )alue of obDects belongs to them independentl* of their material properties, "hile their )alue, on the other hand, forms a part of them as obDects8 Bhat confirms them in this )ie", is the peculiar circumstance that the use )alue of obDects is realised "ithout e9change, b* means of a direct relation bet"een the obDects and man, "hile, on the other hand, their )alue is realised onl* b* e9change, that is, b* means of a social process8 Bho fails here to call to mind our good friend, 0ogberr*, "ho informs neighbour Seacoal, that, @'o be a "ell4fa)oured man is the gift of fortune; but reading and "riting comes b* Cature8A :7

(ha)ter 2* Exchan#e
>t is plain that commodities cannot go to mar+et and ma+e e9changes of their o"n account8 Be must, therefore, ha)e recourse to their guardians, "ho are also their o"ners8 5ommodities are things, and therefore "ithout po"er of resistance against man8 >f the* are "anting in docilit* he can use force; in other "ords, he can ta+e possession of them8 1 >n order that these obDects ma* enter into relation "ith each other as commodities, their guardians must place themsel)es in relation to one another, as persons "hose "ill resides in those obDect, and must beha)e in such a "a* that each does not appropriate the commodit* of the other, and part "ith his o"n, e9cept b* means of an act done b* mutual consent8 'he* must therefore, mutuall* recognise in each other the rights of pri)ate proprietors8 'his Duridical relation, "hich thus e9presses itself in a contract, "hether such contract be part of a de)eloped legal s*stem or not, is a relation bet"een t"o "ills, and is but the refle9 of the real economic relation bet"een the t"o8 >t is this economic relation that determines the subDect4matter comprised in each such Duridical act8 6 'he persons e9ist for one another merel* as representati)es of, and, therefore8 as o"ners of, commodities8 >n the course of our in)estigation "e shall find, in general, that the characters "ho appear on the economic stage are but the personifications of the economic relations that e9ist bet"een them8 Bhat chiefl* distinguishes a commodit* from its o"ner is the fact, that it loo+s upon e)er* other commodit* as but the form of appearance of its o"n )alue8 ( born le)eller and a c*nic, it is al"a*s read* to e9change not onl* soul, but bod*, "ith an* and e)er* other commodit*, be the same more repulsi)e than $aritornes herself8 'he o"ner ma+es up for this lac+ in the commodit* of a sense of the concrete, b* his o"n fi)e and more senses8 -is commodit* possesses for himself no immediate use4)alue8 =ther"ise, he "ould not bring it to the mar+et8 >t has use4)alue for others; but for himself its onl* direct use4)alue is that of being a depositor* of e9change4)alue, and, conseIuentl*, a means of e9change8 : 'herefore, he ma+es up his mind to part "ith it for commodities "hose )alue in use is of ser)ice to him8 (ll commodities are non4use4)alues for their o"ners, and use4)alues for their non4o"ners8 5onseIuentl*, the* must all change hands8 /ut this change of hands is "hat constitutes their e9change, and the latter puts them in relation "ith each other as )alues, and realises them as )alues8 -ence commodities must be realised as )alues before the* can be realised as use4)alues8 =n the other hand, the* must sho" that the* are use4)alues before the* can be realised as )alues8 For the labour spent upon them counts effecti)el*, onl* in so far as it is spent in a form that is useful for others8 Bhether that labour is useful for others, and its product conseIuentl* capable of satisf*ing the "ants of others, can be pro)ed onl* b* the act of e9change8 E)er* o"ner of a commodit* "ishes to part "ith it in e9change onl* for those commodities "hose use4)alue satisfies some "ant of his8 <oo+ed at in this "a*, e9change is for him simpl* a pri)ate transaction8 =n the other hand, he desires to realise the )alue of his commodit*, to con)ert it into an* other suitable commodit* of eIual )alue, irrespecti)e of "hether his o"n commodit* has or has not an* use4)alue for the o"ner of the other8 From this point of )ie", e9change is for him a social transaction of a general character8 /ut one and the same set of transactions cannot be simultaneousl* for all o"ners of commodities both e9clusi)el* pri)ate and e9clusi)el* social and general8

5hapter 6

<et us loo+ at the matter a little closer8 'o the o"ner of a commodit*, e)er* other commodit* is, in regard to his o"n, a particular eIui)alent, and conseIuentl* his o"n commodit* is the uni)ersal eIui)alent for all the others8 /ut since this applies to e)er* o"ner, there is, in fact, no commodit* acting as uni)ersal eIui)alent, and the relati)e )alue of commodities possesses no general form under "hich the* can be eIuated as )alues and ha)e the magnitude of their )alues compared8 So far, therefore, the* do not confront each other as commodities, but onl* as products or use4)alues8 >n their difficulties our commodit* o"ners thin+ li+e Faust: @>m (nfang "ar die 'at8A G@>n the beginning "as the deed8A F Goethe, !aust8H 'he* therefore acted and transacted before the* thought8 >nstincti)el* the* conform to the la"s imposed b* the nature of commodities8 'he* cannot bring their commodities into relation as )alues, and therefore as commodities, e9cept b* comparing them "ith some one other commodit* as the uni)ersal eIui)alent8 'hat "e sa" from the anal*sis of a commodit*8 /ut a particular commodit* cannot become the uni)ersal eIui)alent e9cept b* a social act8 'he social action therefore of all other commodities, sets apart the particular commodit* in "hich the* all represent their )alues8 'hereb* the bodil* form of this commodit* becomes the form of the sociall* recognised uni)ersal eIui)alent8 'o be the uni)ersal eIui)alent, becomes, b* this social process, the specific function of the commodit* thus e9cluded b* the rest8 'hus it becomes F mone*8 @>lli unum consilium habent et )irtutem et potestatem suam bestiae tradunt8 Et ne Iuis possit emere aut )endere, nisi Iui habet characterem aut nomen bestiae aut numerum nominis eDus8A G@'hese ha)e one mind, and shall gi)e their po"er and strength unto the beast8A &e)elations, 17:1:; @(nd that no man might bu* or sell, sa)e he that had the mar+, or the name of the beast, or the number of his name8A &e)elations, 1::178H (Apocalypse8! $one* is a cr*stal formed of necessit* in the course of the e9changes, "hereb* different products of labour are practicall* eIuated to one another and thus b* practice con)erted into commodities8 'he historical progress and e9tension of e9changes de)elops the contrast, latent in commodities, bet"een use4)alue and )alue8 'he necessit* for gi)ing an e9ternal e9pression to this contrast for the purposes of commercial intercourse, urges on the establishment of an independent form of )alue, and finds no rest until it is once for all satisfied b* the differentiation of commodities into commodities and mone*8 (t the same rate, then, as the con)ersion of products into commodities is being accomplished, so also is the con)ersion of one special commodit* into mone*8 'he direct barter of products attains the elementar* form of the relati)e e9pression of )alue in one respect, but not in another8 'hat form is 9 5ommodit* ( Y * 5ommodit* /8 'he form of direct barter is 9 use4)alue ( Y * use4)alue /8 3 'he articles ( and / in this case are not as *et commodities, but become so onl* b* the act of barter8 'he first step made b* an obDect of utilit* to"ards acIuiring e9change4)alue is "hen it forms a non4use4)alue for its o"ner, and that happens "hen it forms a superfluous portion of some article reIuired for his immediate "ants8 =bDects in themsel)es are e9ternal to man, and conseIuentl* alienable b* him8 >n order that this alienation ma* be reciprocal, it is onl* necessar* for men, b* a tacit understanding, to treat each other as pri)ate o"ners of those alienable obDects, and b* implication as independent indi)iduals8 /ut such a state of reciprocal independence has no e9istence in a primiti)e societ* based on propert* in common, "hether such a societ* ta+es the form of a patriarchal famil*, an ancient >ndian communit*, or a #eru)ian >nca State8 'he e9change of commodities, therefore, first begins on the boundaries of such communities, at their points of contact "ith other similar communities, or "ith members of the latter8 So soon, ho"e)er, as products once become commodities in the e9ternal relations of a communit*, the* also, b* reaction, become so in its internal intercourse8 'he proportions in "hich the* are e9changeable are at first Iuite a matter of chance8 Bhat ma+es them e9changeable is the mutual desire of their o"ners to alienate them8 $eantime the need for foreign obDects of utilit* graduall* establishes itself8 'he constant repetition of e9change ma+es it

33

5hapter 6

a normal social act8 >n the course of time, therefore, some portion at least of the products of labour must be produced "ith a special )ie" to e9change8 From that moment the distinction becomes firml* established bet"een the utilit* of an obDect for the purposes of consumption, and its utilit* for the purposes of e9change8 >ts use4)alue becomes distinguished from its e9change4 )alue8 =n the other hand, the Iuantitati)e proportion in "hich the articles are e9changeable, becomes dependent on their production itself8 5ustom stamps them as )alues "ith definite magnitudes8 >n the direct barter of products, each commodit* is directl* a means of e9change to its o"ner, and to all other persons an eIui)alent, but that onl* in so far as it has use4)alue for them8 (t this stage, therefore, the articles e9changed do not acIuire a )alue4form independent of their o"n use4 )alue, or of the indi)idual needs of the e9changers8 'he necessit* for a )alue4form gro"s "ith the increasing number and )ariet* of the commodities e9changed8 'he problem and the means of solution arise simultaneousl*8 5ommodit*4o"ners ne)er eIuate their o"n commodities to those of others, and e9change them on a large scale, "ithout different +inds of commodities belonging to different o"ners being e9changeable for, and eIuated as )alues to, one and the same special article8 Such last4mentioned article, b* becoming the eIui)alent of )arious other commodities, acIuires at once, though "ithin narro" limits, the character of a general social eIui)alent8 'his character comes and goes "ith the momentar* social acts that called it into life8 >n turns and transientl* it attaches itself first to this and then to that commodit*8 /ut "ith the de)elopment of e9change it fi9es itself firml* and e9clusi)el* to particular sorts of commodities, and becomes cr*stallised b* assuming the mone*4form8 'he particular +ind of commodit* to "hich it stic+s is at first a matter of accident8 Ce)ertheless there are t"o circumstances "hose influence is decisi)e8 'he mone*4form attaches itself either to the most important articles of e9change from outside, and these in fact are primiti)e and natural forms in "hich the e9change4)alue of home products finds e9pression; or else it attaches itself to the obDect of utilit* that forms, li+e cattle, the chief portion of indigenous alienable "ealth8 Comad races are the first to de)elop the mone*4form, because all their "orldl* goods consist of mo)eable obDects and are therefore directl* alienable; and because their mode of life, b* continuall* bringing them into contact "ith foreign communities, solicits the e9change of products8 $an has often made man himself, under the form of sla)es, ser)e as the primiti)e material of mone*, but has ne)er used land for that purpose8 Such an idea could onl* spring up in a bourgeois societ* alread* "ell de)eloped8 >t dates from the last third of the 17th centur*, and the first attempt to put it in practice on a national scale "as made a centur* after"ards, during the French bourgeois re)olution8 >n proportion as e9change bursts its local bonds, and the )alue of commodities more and more e9pands into an embodiment of human labour in the abstract, in the same proportion the character of mone* attaches itself to commodities that are b* Cature fitted to perform the social function of a uni)ersal eIui)alent8 'hose commodities are the precious metals8 'he truth of the proposition that, @although gold and sil)er are not b* Cature mone*, mone* is b* Cature gold and sil)er,A6 is sho"n b* the fitness of the ph*sical properties of these metals for the functions of mone*87 %p to this point, ho"e)er, "e are acIuainted onl* "ith one function of mone*, namel*, to ser)e as the form of manifestation of the )alue of commodities, or as the material in "hich the magnitudes of their )alues are sociall* e9pressed8 (n adeIuate form of manifestation of )alue, a fit embodiment of abstract, undifferentiated, and therefore eIual human labour, that material alone can be "hose e)er* sample e9hibits the same uniform Iualities8 =n the other hand, since the difference bet"een the magnitudes of )alue is purel* Iuantitati)e, the mone* commodit* must be susceptible of merel* Iuantitati)e differences, must therefore be di)isible at "ill, and eIuall* capable of being reunited8 Gold and sil)er possess these properties b* Cature8

36

5hapter 6

'he use4)alue of the mone*4commodit* becomes t"o4fold8 >n addition to its special use4)alue as a commodit* (gold, for instance, ser)ing to stop teeth, to form the ra" material of articles of lu9ur*, Pc8!, it acIuires a formal use4)alue, originating in its specific social function8 Since all commodities are merel* particular eIui)alents of mone*, the latter being their uni)ersal eIui)alent, the*, "ith regard to the latter as the uni)ersal commodit*, pla* the parts of particular commodities8 8 Be ha)e seen that the mone*4form is but the refle9, thro"n upon one single commodit*, of the )alue relations bet"een all the rest8 'hat mone* is a commodit* 2 is therefore a ne" disco)er* onl* for those "ho, "hen the* anal*se it, start from its full* de)eloped shape8 'he act of e9change gi)es to the commodit* con)erted into mone*, not its )alue, but its specific )alue4form8 /* confounding these t"o distinct things some "riters ha)e been led to hold that the )alue of gold and sil)er is imaginar*8 17 'he fact that mone* can, in certain functions, be replaced b* mere s*mbols of itself, ga)e rise to that other mista+en notion, that it is itself a mere s*mbol8 Ce)ertheless under this error lur+ed a presentiment that the mone*4form of an obDect is not an inseparable part of that obDect, but is simpl* the form under "hich certain social relations manifest themsel)es8 >n this sense e)er* commodit* is a s*mbol, since, in so far as it is )alue, it is onl* the material en)elope of the human labour spent upon it8 11 /ut if it be declared that the social characters assumed b* obDects, or the material forms assumed b* the social Iualities of labour under the rRgime of a definite mode of production, are mere s*mbols, it is in the same breath also declared that these characteristics are arbitrar* fictions sanctioned b* the so4called uni)ersal consent of man+ind8 'his suited the mode of e9planation in fa)our during the 18th centur*8 %nable to account for the origin of the pu11ling forms assumed b* social relations bet"een man and man, people sought to denude them of their strange appearance b* ascribing to them a con)entional origin8 >t has alread* been remar+ed abo)e that the eIui)alent form of a commodit* does not impl* the determination of the magnitude of its )alue8 'herefore, although "e ma* be a"are that gold is mone*, and conseIuentl* directl* e9changeable for all other commodities, *et that fact b* no means tells ho" much 17 lbs8, for instance, of gold is "orth8 $one*, li+e e)er* other commodit*, cannot e9press the magnitude of its )alue e9cept relati)el* in other commodities8 'his )alue is determined b* the labour4time reIuired for its production, and is e9pressed b* the Iuantit* of an* other commodit* that costs the same amount of labour4time8 16 Such Iuantitati)e determination of its relati)e )alue ta+es place at the source of its production b* means of barter8 Bhen it steps into circulation as mone*, its )alue is alread* gi)en8 >n the last decades of the 17th centur* it had alread* been sho"n that mone* is a commodit*, but this step mar+s onl* the infanc* of the anal*sis8 'he difficult* lies, not in comprehending that mone* is a commodit*, but in disco)ering ho", "h*, and b* "hat means a commodit* becomes mone*8 1: Be ha)e alread* seen, from the most elementar* e9pression of )alue, 9 commodit* ( Y * commodit* /, that the obDect in "hich the magnitude of the )alue of another obDect is represented, appears to ha)e the eIui)alent form independentl* of this relation, as a social propert* gi)en to it b* Cature8 Be follo"ed up this false appearance to its final establishment, "hich is complete so soon as the uni)ersal eIui)alent form becomes identified "ith the bodil* form of a particular commodit*, and thus cr*stallised into the mone*4form8 Bhat appears to happen is, not that gold becomes mone*, in conseIuence of all other commodities e9pressing their )alues in it, but, on the contrar*, that all other commodities uni)ersall* e9press their )alues in gold, because it is mone*8 'he intermediate steps of the process )anish in the result and lea)e no trace behind8 5ommodities find their o"n )alue alread* completel* represented, "ithout an* initiati)e on their part, in another commodit* e9isting in compan* "ith them8 'hese obDects, gold

37

5hapter 6

and sil)er, Dust as the* come out of the bo"els of the earth, are forth"ith the direct incarnation of all human labour8 -ence the magic of mone*8 >n the form of societ* no" under consideration, the beha)iour of men in the social process of production is purel* atomic8 -ence their relations to each other in production assume a material character independent of their control and conscious indi)idual action8 'hese facts manifest themsel)es at first b* products as a general rule ta+ing the form of commodities8 Be ha)e seen ho" the progressi)e de)elopment of a societ* of commodit*4producers stamps one pri)ileged commodit* "ith the character of mone*8 -ence the riddle presented b* mone* is but the riddle presented b* commodities; onl* it no" stri+es us in its most glaring form8

(ha)ter * Mone+, ,r the (irc%$ation of (ommodities

Section 1: The $easure of Values
'hroughout this "or+, > assume, for the sa+e of simplicit*, gold as the mone*4commodit*8 'he first chief function of mone* is to suppl* commodities "ith the material for the e9pression of their )alues, or to represent their )alues as magnitudes of the same denomination, Iualitati)el* eIual, and Iuantitati)el* comparable8 >t thus ser)es as a universal measure of value8 (nd onl* b* )irtue of this function does gold, the eIui)alent commodit* par excellence, become mone*8 >t is not mone* that renders commodities commensurable8 Lust the contrar*8 >t is because all commodities, as )alues, are realised human labour, and therefore commensurable, that their )alues can be measured b* one and the same special commodit*, and the latter be con)erted into the common measure of their )alues, i$e8, into mone*8 $one* as a measure of )alue, is the phenomenal form that must of necessit* be assumed b* that measure of )alue "hich is immanent in commodities, labour4time81 'he e9pression of the )alue of a commodit* in gold F x commodit* ( Y y mone*4commodit* F is its mone*4form or price8 ( single eIuation, such as 1 ton of iron Y 6 ounces of gold, no" suffices to e9press the )alue of the iron in a sociall* )alid manner8 'here is no longer an* need for this eIuation to figure as a lin+ in the chain of eIuations that e9press the )alues of all other commodities, because the eIui)alent commodit*, gold, no" has the character of mone*8 'he general form of relati)e )alue has resumed its original shape of simple or isolated relati)e )alue8 =n the other hand, the e9panded e9pression of relati)e )alue, the endless series of eIuations, has no" become the form peculiar to the relati)e )alue of the mone*4commodit*8 'he series itself, too, is no" gi)en, and has social recognition in the prices of actual commodities8 Be ha)e onl* to read the Iuotations of a price4list bac+"ards, to find the magnitude of the )alue of mone* e9pressed in all sorts of commodities8 /ut mone* itself has no price8 >n order to put it on an eIual footing "ith all other commodities in this respect, "e should be obliged to eIuate it to itself as its o"n eIui)alent8 'he price or mone*4form of commodities is, li+e their form of )alue generall*, a form Iuite distinct from their palpable bodil* form; it is, therefore, a purel* ideal or mental form8 (lthough in)isible, the )alue of iron, linen and corn has actual e9istence in these )er* articles: it is ideall* made perceptible b* their eIualit* "ith gold, a relation that, so to sa*, e9ists onl* in their o"n heads8 'heir o"ner must, therefore, lend them his tongue, or hang a tic+et on them, before their prices can be communicated to the outside "orld8 6 Since the e9pression of the )alue of commodities in gold is a merel* ideal act, "e ma* use for this purpose imaginar* or ideal mone*8 E)er* trader +no"s, that he is far from ha)ing turned his goods into mone*, "hen he has e9pressed their )alue in a price or in imaginar* mone*, and that it does not reIuire the least bit of real gold, to estimate in that metal millions of pounds? "orth of goods8 Bhen, therefore, mone* ser)es as a measure of )alue; it is emplo*ed onl* as imaginar* or ideal mone*8 'his circumstance has gi)en rise to the "ildest theories8 : /ut, although the mone* that performs the functions of a measure of )alue is onl* ideal mone*, price depends entirel* upon the actual substance that is mone*8 'he )alue, or in other "ords, the Iuantit* of human labour contained in a ton of iron, is

32

5hapter :

e9pressed in imagination b* such a Iuantit* of the mone*4commodit* as contains the same amount of labour as the iron8 (ccording, therefore, as the measure of )alue is gold, sil)er, or copper, the )alue of the ton of iron "ill be e9pressed b* )er* different prices, or "ill be represented b* )er* different Iuantities of those metals respecti)el*8 >f, therefore, t"o different commodities, such as gold and sil)er, are simultaneousl* measures of )alue, all commodities ha)e t"o prices F one a gold4price, the other a sil)er4price8 'hese e9ist Iuietl* side b* side, so long as the ratio of 'he )alue of sil)er to that of gold remains unchanged, sa*, at 13:18 E)er* change in their ratio disturbs the ratio "hich e9ists bet"een the gold4prices and the sil)er4prices of commodities, and thus pro)es, b* facts, that a double standard of )alue is inconsistent "ith the functions of a standard8 5ommodities "ith definite prices present themsel)es under the form; a commodit* ( Y 9 gold; b commodit* / Y 1 gold; c commodit* 5 Y * gold, 'c8, "here a, b, c, represent definite Iuantities of the commodities (, /, 5 and 9, 1, *, definite Iuantities of gold8 'he )alues of these commodities are, therefore, changed in imagination into so man* different Iuantities of gold8 -ence, in spite of the confusing )ariet* of the commodities themsel)es, their )alues become magnitudes of the same denomination, gold4magnitudes8 'he* are no" capable of being compared "ith each other and measured, and the "ant becomes technicall* felt of comparing them "ith some fi9ed Iuantit* of gold as a unit measure8 'his unit, b* subseIuent di)ision into aliIuot parts, becomes itself the standard or scale8 /efore the* become mone*, gold, sil)er, and copper alread* possess such standard measures in their standards of "eight, so that, for e9ample, a pound "eight, "hile ser)ing as the unit, is, on the one hand, di)isible into ounces, and, on the other, ma* be combined to ma+e up hundred"eights8 3 >t is o"ing to this that, in all metallic currencies, the names gi)en to the standards of mone* or of price "ere originall* ta+en from the pre4e9isting names of the standards of "eight8 (s measure of #alue, and as standard of price, mone* has t"o entirel* distinct functions to perform8 >t is the measure of )alue inasmuch as it is the sociall* recognised incarnation of human labour; it is the standard of price inasmuch as it is a fi9ed "eight of metal8 (s the measure of )alue it ser)es to con)ert the )alues of all the manifold commodities into prices, into imaginar* Iuantities of gold; as the standard of price it measures those Iuantities of gold8 'he measure of )alues measures commodities considered as )alues; the standard of price measures, on the contrar*, Iuantities of gold b* a unit Iuantit* of gold, not the )alue of one Iuantit* of gold b* the "eight of another8 >n order to ma+e gold a standard of price, a certain "eight must be fi9ed upon as the unit8 >n this case, as in all cases of measuring Iuantities of the same denomination, the establishment of an un)ar*ing unit of measure is all4important8 -ence, the less the unit is subDect to )ariation, so much the better does the standard of price fulfil its office8 /ut onl* in so far as it is itself a product of labour, and, therefore, potentiall* )ariable in )alue, can gold ser)e as a measure of )alue8 6 >t is, in the first place, Iuite clear that a change in the )alue of gold does not, in an* "a*, affect its function as a standard of price8 Co matter ho" this )alue )aries, the proportions bet"een the )alues of different Iuantities of the metal remain constant8 -o"e)er great the fall in its )alue, 16 ounces of gold still ha)e 16 times the )alue of 1 ounce; and in prices, the onl* thing considered is the relation bet"een different Iuantities of gold8 Since, on the other hand, no rise or fall in the )alue of an ounce of gold can alter its "eight, no alteration can ta+e place in the "eight of its aliIuot parts8 'hus gold al"a*s renders the same ser)ice as an in)ariable standard of price, ho"e)er much its )alue ma* )ar*8 >n the second place, a change in the )alue of gold does not interfere "ith its functions as a measure of )alue8 'he change affects all commodities simultaneousl*, and, therefore, caeteris

67

5hapter :

paribus, lea)es their relati)e )alues inter se, unaltered, although those )alues are no" e9pressed in higher or lo"er gold4prices8 Lust as "hen "e estimate the )alue of an* commodit* b* a definite Iuantit* of the use4)alue of some other commodit*, so in estimating the )alue of the former in gold, "e assume nothing more than that the production of a gi)en Iuantit* of gold costs, at the gi)en period, a gi)en amount of labour8 (s regards the fluctuations of prices generall*, the* are subDect to the la"s of elementar* relati)e )alue in)estigated in a former chapter8 ( general rise in the prices of commodities can result onl*, either from a rise in their )alues F the )alue of mone* remaining constant F or from a fall in the )alue of mone*, the )alues of commodities remaining constant8 =n the other hand, a general fall in prices can result onl*, either from a fall in the )alues of commodities F the )alue of mone* remaining constant F or from a rise in the )alue of mone*, the )alues of commodities remaining constant8 >t therefore b* no means follo"s, that a rise in the )alue of mone* necessaril* implies a proportional fall in the prices of commodities; or that a fall in the )alue of mone* implies a proportional rise in prices8 Such change of price holds good onl* in the case of commodities "hose )alue remains constant8 Bith those, for e9ample, "hose )alue rises, simultaneousl* "ith, and proportionall* to, that of mone*, there is no alteration in price8 (nd if their )alue rise either slo"er or faster than that of mone*, the fall or rise in their prices "ill be determined b* the difference bet"een the change in their )alue and that of mone*; and so on8 <et us no" go bac+ to the consideration of the price4form8 /* degrees there arises a discrepanc* bet"een the current mone*names of the )arious "eights of the precious metal figuring as mone*, and the actual "eights "hich those names originall* represented8 'his discrepanc* is the result of historical causes, among "hich the chief are: F (1! 'he importation of foreign mone* into an imperfectl* de)eloped communit*8 'his happened in &ome in its earl* da*s, "here gold and sil)er coins circulated at first as foreign commodities8 'he names of these foreign coins ne)er coincide "ith those of the indigenous "eights8 (6! (s "ealth increases, the less precious metal is thrust out b* the more precious from its place as a measure of )alue, copper b* sil)er, sil)er b* gold, ho"e)er much this order of seIuence ma* be in contradiction "ith poetical chronolog*8 7'he "ord pound, for instance, "as the mone*4name gi)en to an actual pound "eight of sil)er8 Bhen gold replaced sil)er as a measure of )alue, the same name "as applied according to the ratio bet"een the )alues of sil)er and gold, to perhaps 14 13th of a pound of gold8 'he "ord pound, as a mone*4name, thus becomes differentiated from the same "ord as a "eight4name8 8 (:! 'he debasing of mone* carried on for centuries b* +ings and princes to such an e9tent that, of the original "eights of the coins, nothing in fact remained but the names82 'hese historical causes con)ert the separation of the mone*4name from the "eight4name into an established habit "ith the communit*8 Since the standard of mone* is on the one hand purel* con)entional, and must on the other hand find general acceptance, it is in the end regulated b* la"8 ( gi)en "eight of one of the precious metals, an ounce of gold, for instance, becomes officiall* di)ided into aliIuot parts, "ith legall* besto"ed names, such as pound, dollar, Pc8 'hese aliIuot parts, "hich thenceforth ser)e as units of mone*, are then subdi)ided into other aliIuot parts "ith legal names, such as shilling, penn*, Pc8 17 /ut, both before and after these di)isions are made, a definite "eight of metal is the standard of metallic mone*8 'he sole alteration consists in the subdi)ision and denomination8 'he prices, or Iuantities of gold, into "hich the )alues of commodities are ideall* changed, are therefore no" e9pressed in the names of coins, or in the legall* )alid names of the subdi)isions of the gold standard8 -ence, instead of sa*ing: ( Iuarter of "heat is "orth an ounce of gold; "e

61

5hapter :

sa*, it is "orth ]: 17s8 17 1J6d8 >n this "a* commodities e9press b* their prices ho" much the* are "orth, and mone* ser)es as money of account "hene)er it is a Iuestion of fi9ing the )alue of an article in its mone*4form8 11 'he name of a thing is something distinct from the Iualities of that thing8 > +no" nothing of a man, b* +no"ing that his name is Lacob8 >n the same "a* "ith regard to mone*, e)er* trace of a )alue4relation disappears in the names pound, dollar, franc, ducat, Pc8 'he confusion caused b* attributing a hidden meaning to these cabalistic signs is all the greater, because these mone*4 names e9press both the )alues of commodities, and, at the same time, aliIuot parts of the "eight of the metal that is the standard of mone*8 16 =n the other hand, it is absolutel* necessar* that )alue, in order that it ma* be distinguished from the )aried bodil* forms of commodities, should assume this material and unmeaning, but, at the same time, purel* social form8 1: #rice is the mone*4name of the labour realised in a commodit*8 -ence the e9pression of the eIui)alence of a commodit* "ith the sum of mone* constituting its price, is a tautolog* 1 , Dust as in general the e9pression of the relati)e )alue of a commodit* is a statement of the eIui)alence of t"o commodities8 /ut although price, being the e9ponent of the magnitude of a commodit*?s )alue, is the e9ponent of its e9change4ratio "ith mone*, it does not follo" that the e9ponent of this e9change4ratio is necessaril* the e9ponent of the magnitude of the commodit*?s )alue8 Suppose t"o eIual Iuantities of sociall* necessar* labour to be respecti)el* represented b* 1 Iuarter of "heat and ]6 (nearl* 1J6 o18 of gold!, ]6 is the e9pression in mone* of the magnitude of the )alue of the Iuarter of "heat, or is its price8 >f no" circumstances allo" of this price being raised to ]:, or compel it to be reduced to ]1, then although ]1 and ]: ma* be too small or too great properl* to e9press the magnitude of the "heat?s )alue; ne)ertheless the* are its prices, for the* are, in the first place, the form under "hich its )alue appears, i$e8, mone*; and in the second place, the e9ponents of its e9change4ratio "ith mone*8 >f the conditions of production, in other "ords, if the producti)e po"er of labour remain constant, the same amount of social labour4time must, both before and after the change in price, be e9pended in the reproduction of a Iuarter of "heat8 'his circumstance depends, neither on the "ill of the "heat producer, nor on that of the o"ners of other commodities8 $agnitude of )alue e9presses a relation of social production, it e9presses the conne9ion that necessaril* e9ists bet"een a certain article and the portion of the total labour4time of societ* reIuired to produce it8 (s soon as magnitude of )alue is con)erted into price, the abo)e necessar* relation ta+es the shape of a more or less accidental e9change4ratio bet"een a single commodit* and another, the mone*4commodit*8 /ut this e9change4ratio ma* e9press either the real magnitude of that commodit*?s )alue, or the Iuantit* of gold de)iating from that )alue, for "hich, according to circumstances, it ma* be parted "ith8 'he possibilit*, therefore, of Iuantitati)e incongruit* bet"een price and magnitude of )alue, or the de)iation of the former from the latter, is inherent in the price4form itself8 'his is no defect, but, on the contrar*, admirabl* adapts the price4form to a mode of production "hose inherent la"s impose themsel)es onl* as the mean of apparentl* la"less irregularities that compensate one another8 'he price4form, ho"e)er, is not onl* compatible "ith the possibilit* of a Iuantitati)e incongruit* bet"een magnitude of )alue and price, i$e8, bet"een the former and its e9pression in mone*, but it ma* also conceal a Iualitati)e inconsistenc*, so much so, that, although mone* is nothing but the )alue4form of commodities, price ceases altogether to e9press )alue8 =bDects that in themsel)es are no commodities, such as conscience, honour, Pc8, are capable of being offered for sale b* their holders, and of thus acIuiring, through their price, the form of commodities8 -ence an obDect ma* ha)e a price "ithout ha)ing )alue8 'he price in that case is imaginar*, li+e certain Iuantities in mathematics8 =n the other hand, the imaginar* price4form ma* sometimes conceal

66

5hapter :

either a direct or indirect real )alue4relation; for instance, the price of unculti)ated land, "hich is "ithout )alue, because no human labour has been incorporated in it8 #rice, li+e relati)e )alue in general, e9presses the )alue of a commodit* (e$ 8, a ton of iron!, b* stating that a gi)en Iuantit* of the eIui)alent (e$ 8, an ounce of gold!, is directl* e9changeable for iron8 /ut it b* no means states the con)erse, that iron is directl* e9changeable for gold8 >n order, therefore, that a commodit* ma* in practice act effecti)el* as e9change4)alue, it must Iuit its bodil* shape, must transform itself from mere imaginar* into real gold, although to the commodit* such transubstantiation ma* be more difficult than to the -egelian @concept,A the transition from @necessit*A to @freedom,A or to a lobster the casting of his shell, or to Saint Lerome the putting off of the old (dam8 13 'hough a commodit* ma*, side b* side "ith its actual form (iron, for instance!, ta+e in our imagination the form of gold, *et it cannot at one and the same time actuall* be both iron and gold8 'o fi9 its price, it suffices to eIuate it to gold in imagination8 /ut to enable it to render to its o"ner the ser)ice of a uni)ersal eIui)alent, it must be actuall* replaced b* gold8 >f the o"ner of the iron "ere to go to the o"ner of some other commodit* offered for e9change, and "ere to refer him to the price of the iron as proof that it "as alread* mone*, he "ould get the same ans"er as St8 #eter ga)e in hea)en to 0ante, "hen the latter recited the creed F @(ssad bene e trascorsa 0?esta moneta gia la lega e?l peso, $a dimmi se tu l?hai nella tua borsa8A ( price therefore implies both that a commodit* is e9changeable for mone*, and also that it must be so e9changed8 =n the other hand, gold ser)es as an ideal measure of )alue, onl* because it has alread*, in the process of e9change, established itself as the mone*4commodit*8 %nder the ideal measure of )alues there lur+s the hard cash8

Section ': The $edium of Circulation

&. The %etamorphosis of 'ommodities
Be sa" in a former chapter that the e9change of commodities implies contradictor* and mutuall* e9clusi)e conditions8 'he differentiation of commodities into commodities and mone* does not s"eep a"a* these inconsistencies, but de)elops a modus vivendi, a form in "hich the* can e9ist side b* side8 'his is generall* the "a* in "hich real contradictions are reconciled8 For instance, it is a contradiction to depict one bod* as constantl* falling to"ards another, and as, at the same time, constantl* fl*ing a"a* from it8 'he ellipse is a form of motion "hich, "hile allo"ing this contradiction to go on, at the same time reconciles it8 >n so far as e9change is a process, b* "hich commodities are transferred from hands in "hich the* are non4use4)alues, to hands in "hich the* become use4)alues, it is a social circulation of matter8 'he product of one form of useful labour replaces that of another8 Bhen once a commodit* has found a resting4place, "here it can ser)e as a use4)alue, it falls out of the sphere of e9change into that of consumption8 /ut the former sphere alone interests us at present8 Be ha)e, therefore, no" to consider e9change from a formal point of )ie"; to in)estigate the change of form or metamorphosis of commodities "hich effectuates the social circulation of matter8 'he comprehension of this change of form is, as a rule, )er* imperfect8 'he cause of this imperfection is, apart from indistinct notions of )alue itself, that e)er* change of form in a commodit* results from the e9change of t"o commodities, an ordinar* one and the mone*4 commodit*8 >f "e +eep in )ie" the material fact alone that a commodit* has been e9changed for gold, "e o)erloo+ the )er* thing that "e ought to obser)e F namel*, "hat has happened to the

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form of the commodit*8 Be o)erloo+ the facts that gold, "hen a mere commodit*, is not mone*, and that "hen other commodities e9press their prices in gold, this gold is but the mone*4form of those commodities themsel)es8 5ommodities, first of all, enter into the process of e9change Dust as the* are8 'he process then differentiates them into commodities and mone*, and thus produces an e9ternal opposition corresponding to the internal opposition inherent in them, as being at once use4)alues and )alues8 5ommodities as use4)alues no" stand opposed to mone* as e9change4)alue8 =n the other hand, both opposing sides are commodities, unities of use4)alue and )alue8 /ut this unit* of differences manifests itself at t"o opposite poles, and at each pole in an opposite "a*8 /eing poles the* are as necessaril* opposite as the* are connected8 =n the one side of the eIuation "e ha)e an ordinar* commodit*, "hich is in realit* a use4)alue8 >ts )alue is e9pressed onl* ideall* in its price, b* "hich it is eIuated to its opponent, the gold, as to the real embodiment of its )alue8 =n the other hand, the gold, in its metallic realit*, ran+s as the embodiment of )alue, as mone*8 Gold, as gold, is e9change4)alue itself8 (s to its use4)alue, that has onl* an ideal e9istence, represented b* the series of e9pressions of relati)e )alue in "hich it stands face to face "ith all other commodities, the sum of "hose uses ma+es up the sum of the )arious uses of gold8 'hese antagonistic forms of commodities are the real forms in "hich the process of their e9change mo)es and ta+es place8 <et us no" accompan* the o"ner of some commodit* F sa*, our old friend the "ea)er of linen F to the scene of action, the mar+et8 -is 67 *ards of linen has a definite price, ]68 -e e9changes it for the ]6, and then, li+e a man of the good old stamp that he is, he parts "ith the ]6 for a famil* /ible of the same price8 'he linen, "hich in his e*es is a mere commodit*, a depositor* of )alue, he alienates in e9change for gold, "hich is the linen?s )alue4form, and this form he again parts "ith for another commodit*, the /ible, "hich is destined to enter his house as an obDect of utilit* and of edification to its inmates8 'he e9change becomes an accomplished fact b* t"o metamorphoses of opposite *et supplementar* character F the con)ersion of the commodit* into mone*, and the re4con)ersion of the mone* into a commodit*8 16 'he t"o phases of this metamorphosis are both of them distinct transactions of the "ea)er F selling, or the e9change of the commodit* for mone*; bu*ing, or the e9change of the mone* for a commodit*; and, the unit* of the t"o acts, selling in order to bu*8 'he result of the "hole transaction, as regards the "ea)er, is this, that instead of being in possession of the linen, he no" has the /ible; instead of his original commodit*, he no" possesses another of the same )alue but of different utilit*8 >n li+e manner he procures his other means of subsistence and means of production8 From his point of )ie", the "hole process effectuates nothing more than the e9change of the product of his labour for the product of some one else?s, nothing more than an e9change of products8 'he e9change of commodities is therefore accompanied b* the follo"ing changes in their form8 5ommodit* F $one* F 5ommodit*8 5FFFFFF $ FFFFFF58 'he result of the "hole process is, so far as concerns the obDects themsel)es, 5 F 5, the e9change of one commodit* for another, the circulation of materialised social labour8 Bhen this result is attained, the process is at an end8

' ( %. First metamorphosis, or sale

'he leap ta+en b* )alue from the bod* of the commodit*, into the bod* of the gold, is, as > ha)e else"here called it, the salto mortale of the commodit*8 >f it falls short, then, although the commodit* itself is not harmed, its o"ner decidedl* is8 'he social di)ision of labour causes his

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labour to be as one4sided as his "ants are man*4sided8 'his is precisel* the reason "h* the product of his labour ser)es him solel* as e9change4)alue8 /ut it cannot acIuire the properties of a sociall* recognised uni)ersal eIui)alent, e9cept b* being con)erted into mone*8 'hat mone*, ho"e)er, is in some one else?s poc+et8 >n order to entice the mone* out of that poc+et, our friend?s commodit* must, abo)e all things, be a use4)alue to the o"ner of the mone*8 For this, it is necessar* that the labour e9pended upon it, be of a +ind that is sociall* useful, of a +ind that constitutes a branch of the social di)ision of labour8 /ut di)ision of labour is a s*stem of production "hich has gro"n up spontaneousl* and continues to gro" behind the bac+s of the producers8 'he commodit* to be e9changed ma* possibl* be the product of some ne" +ind of labour, that pretends to satisf* ne"l* arisen reIuirements, or e)en to gi)e rise itself to ne" reIuirements8 ( particular operation, though *esterda*, perhaps, forming one out of the man* operations conducted b* one producer in creating a gi)en commodit*, ma* to4da* separate itself from this conne9ion, ma* establish itself as an independent branch of labour and send its incomplete product to mar+et as an independent commodit*8 'he circumstances ma* or ma* not be ripe for such a separation8 'o4da* the product satisfies a social "ant8 'omorro" the article ma*, either altogether or partiall*, be superseded b* some other appropriate product8 $oreo)er, although our "ea)er?s labour ma* be a recognised branch of the social di)ision of labour, *et that fact is b* no means sufficient to guarantee the utilit* of his 67 *ards of linen8 >f the communit*?s "ant of linen, and such a "ant has a limit li+e e)er* other "ant, should alread* be saturated b* the products of ri)al "ea)ers8 our friend?s product is superfluous, redundant, and conseIuentl* useless8 (lthough people do not loo+ a gift4horse in the mouth, our friend does not freIuent the mar+et for the purpose of ma+ing presents8 /ut suppose his product turn out a real use4)alue, and thereb* attracts mone*E 'he Iuestion arises, ho" much "ill it attractE Co doubt the ans"er is alread* anticipated in the price of the article, in the e9ponent of the magnitude of its )alue8 Be lea)e out of consideration here an* accidental miscalculation of )alue b* our friend, a mista+e that is soon rectified in the mar+et8 Be suppose him to ha)e spent on his product onl* that amount of labour4time that is on an a)erage sociall* necessar*8 'he price then, is merel* the mone*name of the Iuantit* of social labour realised in his commodit*8 /ut "ithout the lea)e, and behind the bac+, of our "ea)er, the old4fashioned mode of "ea)ing undergoes a change8 'he labour4time that *esterda* "as "ithout doubt sociall* necessar* to the production of a *ard of linen, ceases to be so to4da*, a fact "hich the o"ner of the mone* is onl* too eager to pro)e from the prices Iuoted b* our friend?s competitors8 %nluc+il* for him, "ea)ers are not fe" and far bet"een8 <astl*, suppose that e)er* piece of linen in the mar+et contains no more labour4time than is sociall* necessar*8 >n spite of this, all these pieces ta+en as a "hole, ma* ha)e had superfluous labour4time spent upon them8 >f the mar+et cannot stomach the "hole Iuantit* at the normal price of 6 shillings a *ard, this pro)es that too great a portion of the total labour of the communit* has been e9pended in the form of "ea)ing8 'he effect is the same as if each indi)idual "ea)er had e9pended more labour4time upon his particular product than is sociall* necessar*8 -ere "e ma* sa*, "ith the German pro)erb: caught together, hung together8 (ll the linen in the mar+et counts but as one article of commerce, of "hich each piece is onl* an aliIuot part8 (nd as a matter of fact, the )alue also of each single *ard is but the materialised form of the same definite and sociall* fi9ed Iuantit* of homogeneous human labour8 17 Be see then, commodities are in lo)e "ith mone*, but @the course of true lo)e ne)er did run smooth8A 'he Iuantitati)e di)ision of labour is brought about in e9actl* the same spontaneous and accidental manner as its Iualitati)e di)ision8 'he o"ners of commodities therefore find out, that the same di)ision of labour that turns them into independent pri)ate producers, also frees the social process of production and the relations of the indi)idual producers to each other "ithin that process, from all dependence on the "ill of those producers, and that the seeming mutual

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independence of the indi)iduals is supplemented b* a s*stem of general and mutual dependence through or b* means of the products8 'he di)ision of labour con)erts the product of labour into a commodit*, and thereb* ma+es necessar* its further con)ersion into mone*8 (t the same time it also ma+es the accomplishment of this transubstantiation Iuite accidental8 -ere, ho"e)er, "e are onl* concerned "ith the phenomenon in its integrit*, and "e therefore assume its progress to be normal8 $oreo)er, if the con)ersion ta+e place at all, that is, if the commodit* be not absolutel* unsaleable, its metamorphosis does ta+e place although the price realised ma* be abnormall* abo)e or belo" the )alue8 'he seller has his commodit* replaced b* gold, the bu*er has his gold replaced b* a commodit*8 'he fact "hich here stares us in the face is, that a commodit* and gold, 67 *ards of linen and ]6, ha)e changed hands and places, in other "ords, that the* ha)e been e9changed8 /ut for "hat is the commodit* e9changedE For the shape assumed b* its o"n )alue, for the uni)ersal eIui)alent8 (nd for "hat is the gold e9changedE For a particular form of its o"n use4)alue8 Bh* does gold ta+e the form of mone* face to face "ith the linenE /ecause the linen?s price of ]6, its denomination in mone*, has alread* eIuated the linen to gold in its character of mone*8 ( commodit* strips off its original commodit*4form on being alienated, i$e8, on the instant its use4 )alue actuall* attracts the gold, that before e9isted onl* ideall* in its price8 'he realisation of a commodit*?s price, or of its ideal )alue4form, is therefore at the same time the realisation of the ideal use4)alue of mone*; the con)ersion of a commodit* into mone*, is the simultaneous con)ersion of mone* into a commodit*8 'he apparentl* single process is in realit* a double one8 From the pole of the commodit*4o"ner it is a sale, from the opposite pole of the mone*4o"ner, it is a purchase8 >n other "ords, a sale is a purchase, 5F$ is also $F58 18 %p to this point "e ha)e considered men in onl* one economic capacit*, that of o"ners of commodities, a capacit* in "hich the* appropriate the produce of the labour of others, b* alienating that of their o"n labour8 -ence, for one commodit*4o"ner to meet "ith another "ho has mone*, it is necessar*, either, that the product of the labour of the latter person, the bu*er, should be in itself mone*, should be gold, the material of "hich mone* consists, or that his product should alread* ha)e changed its s+in and ha)e stripped off its original form of a useful obDect8 >n order that it ma* pla* the part of mone*, gold must of course enter the mar+et at some point or other8 'his point is to be found at the source of production of the metal, at "hich place gold is bartered, as the immediate product of labour, for some other product of eIual )alue8 From that moment it al"a*s represents the realised price of some commodit*8 12 (part from its e9change for other commodities at the source of its production, gold, in "hose4so4e)er hands it ma* be, is the transformed shape of some commodit* alienated b* its o"ner; it is the product of a sale or of the first metamorphosis 5F$8 67 Gold, as "e sa", became ideal mone*, or a measure of )alues, in conseIuence of all commodities measuring their )alues b* it, and thus contrasting it ideall* "ith their natural shape as useful obDects, and ma+ing it the shape of their )alue8 >t became real mone*, b* the general alienation of commodities, b* actuall* changing places "ith their natural forms as useful obDects, and thus becoming in realit* the embodiment of their )alues8 Bhen the* assume this mone*4shape, commodities strip off e)er* trace of their natural use4)alue, and of the particular +ind of labour to "hich the* o"e their creation, in order to transform themsel)es into the uniform, sociall* recognised incarnation of homogeneous human labour8 Be cannot tell from the mere loo+ of a piece of mone*, for "hat particular commodit* it has been e9changed8 %nder their mone*4form all commodities loo+ ali+e8 -ence, mone* ma* be dirt, although dirt is not mone*8 Be "ill assume that the t"o gold pieces, in consideration of "hich our "ea)er has parted "ith his linen, are the metamorphosed shape of a Iuarter of "heat8 'he sale of the linen, 5F$, is at the same time its purchase, $F58 /ut the sale is the first act of a

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process that ends "ith a transaction of an opposite nature, namel*, the purchase of a /ible; the purchase of the linen, on the other hand, ends a mo)ement that began "ith a transaction of an opposite nature, namel*, "ith the sale of the "heat8 5F$ (linenFmone*!, "hich is the first phase of 5F$UF5 (linenFmone*F/ible!, is also $F5 (mone*Flinen!, the last phase of another mo)ement 5F$F5 ("heatFmone*Flinen!8 'he first metamorphosis of one commodit*, its transformation from a commodit* into mone*, is therefore also in)ariabl* the second metamorphosis of some other commodit*, the retransformation of the latter from mone* into a commodit*861

%('# or purchase. The second and concluding metamorphosis of a commodity

/ecause mone* is the metamorphosed shape of all other commodities, the result of their general alienation, for this reason it is alienable itself "ithout restriction or condition8 >t reads all prices bac+"ards, and thus, so to sa*, depicts itself in the bodies of all other commodities, "hich offer to it the material for the realisation of its o"n use4)alue8 (t the same time the prices, "ooing glances cast at mone* b* commodities, define the limits of its con)ertibilit*, b* pointing to its Iuantit*8 Since e)er* commodit*, on becoming mone*, disappears as a commodit*, it is impossible to tell from the mone* itself, ho" it got into the hands of its possessor, or "hat article has been changed into it8 Con olet, from "hate)er source it ma* come8 &epresenting on the one hand a sold commodit*, it represents on the other a commodit* to be bought8 66 $F5, a purchase, is, at the same time, 5F$, a sale; the concluding metamorphosis of one commodit* is the first metamorphosis of another8 Bith regard to our "ea)er, the life of his commodit* ends "ith the /ible, into "hich he has recon)erted his ]68 /ut suppose the seller of the /ible turns the ]6 set free b* the "ea)er into brand* $F5, the concluding phase of 5F$F5 (linenFmone*F/ible!, is also 5F$, the first phase of 5F$F5 (/ibleFmone*Fbrand*!8 'he producer of a particular commodit* has that one article alone to offer; this he sells )er* often in large Iuantities, but his man* and )arious "ants compel him to split up the price realised, the sum of mone* set free, into numerous purchases8 -ence a sale leads to man* purchases of )arious articles8 'he concluding metamorphosis of a commodit* thus constitutes an aggregation of first metamorphoses of )arious other commodities8 >f "e no" consider the completed metamorphosis of a commodit*, as a "hole, it appears in the first place, that it is made up of t"o opposite and complementar* mo)ements, 5F$ and $F58 'hese t"o antithetical transmutations of a commodit* are brought about b* t"o antithetical social acts on the part of the o"ner, and these acts in their turn stamp the character of the economic parts pla*ed b* him8 (s the person "ho ma+es a sale, he is a seller; as the person "ho ma+es a purchase, he is a bu*er8 /ut Dust as, upon e)er* such transmutation of a commodit*, its t"o forms, commodit*4form and mone*4form, e9ist simultaneousl* but at opposite poles, so e)er* seller has a bu*er opposed to him, and e)er* bu*er a seller8 Bhile one particular commodit* is going through its t"o transmutations in succession, from a commodit* into mone* and from mone* into another commodit*, the o"ner of the commodit* changes in succession his part from that of seller to that of bu*er8 'hese characters of seller and bu*er are therefore not permanent, but attach themsel)es in turns to the )arious persons engaged in the circulation of commodities8 'he complete metamorphosis of a commodit*, in its simplest form, implies four e9tremes, and three dramatic personae8 First, a commodit* comes face to face "ith mone*; the latter is the form ta+en b* the )alue of the former, and e9ists in all its hard realit*, in the poc+et of the bu*er8 ( commodit*4o"ner is thus brought into contact "ith a possessor of mone*8 So soon, no", as the commodit* has been changed into mone*, the mone* becomes its transient eIui)alent4form, the use4)alue of "hich eIui)alent4form is to be found in the bodies of other commodities8 $one*, the

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final term of the first transmutation, is at the same time the starting4point for the second8 'he person "ho is a seller in the first transaction thus becomes a bu*er in the second, in "hich a third commodit*4o"ner appears on the scene as a seller8 6: 'he t"o phases, each in)erse to the other, that ma+e up the metamorphosis of a commodit* constitute together a circular mo)ement, a circuit: commodit*4form, stripping off of this form, and return to the commodit*4form8 Co doubt, the commodit* appears here under t"o different aspects8 (t the starting4point it is not a use4)alue to its o"ner; at the finishing point it is8 So, too, the mone* appears in the first phase as a solid cr*stal of )alue, a cr*stal into "hich the commodit* eagerl* solidifies, and in the second, dissol)es into the mere transient eIui)alent4form destined to be replaced b* a use4)alue8 'he t"o metamorphoses constituting the circuit are at the same time t"o in)erse partial metamorphoses of t"o other commodities8 =ne and the same commodit*, the linen, opens the series of its o"n metamorphoses, and completes the metamorphosis of another (the "heat!8 >n the first phase or sale, the linen pla*s these t"o parts in its o"n person8 /ut, then, changed into gold, it completes its o"n second and final metamorphosis, and helps at the same time to accomplish the first metamorphosis of a third commodit*8 -ence the circuit made b* one commodit* in the course of its metamorphoses is ine9tricabl* mi9ed up "ith the circuits of other commodities8 'he total of all the different circuits constitutes the circulation of commodities8 'he circulation of commodities differs from the direct e9change of products (barter!, not onl* in form, but in substance8 =nl* consider the course of e)ents8 'he "ea)er has, as a matter of fact, e9changed his linen for a /ible, his o"n commodit* for that of some one else8 /ut this is true onl* so far as he himself is concerned8 'he seller of the /ible, "ho prefers something to "arm his inside, no more thought of e9changing his /ible for linen than our "ea)er +ne" that "heat had been e9changed for his linen8 /?s commodit* replaces that of (, but ( and / do not mutuall* e9change those commodities8 >t ma*, of course, happen that ( and / ma+e simultaneous purchases, the one from the other; but such e9ceptional transactions are b* no means the necessar* result of the general conditions of the circulation of commodities8 Be see here, on the one hand, ho" the e9change of commodities brea+s through all local and personal bounds inseparable from direct barter, and de)elops the circulation of the products of social labour; and on the other hand, ho" it de)elops a "hole net"or+ of social relations spontaneous in their gro"th and entirel* be*ond the control of the actors8 >t is onl* because the farmer has sold his "heat that the "ea)er is enabled to sell his linen, onl* because the "ea)er has sold his linen that our -otspur is enabled to sell his /ible, and onl* because the latter has sold the "ater of e)erlasting life that the distiller is enabled to sell his eau)de)vie, and so on8 'he process of circulation, therefore, does not, li+e direct barter of products, become e9tinguished upon the use4)alues changing places and hands8 'he mone* does not )anish on dropping out of the circuit of the metamorphosis of a gi)en commodit*8 >t is constantl* being precipitated into ne" places in the arena of circulation )acated b* other commodities8 >n the complete metamorphosis of the linen, for e9ample, linen F mone* F /ible, the linen first falls out of circulation, and mone* steps into its place8 'hen the /ible falls out of circulation, and again mone* ta+es its place8 Bhen one commodit* replaces another, the mone*4commodit* al"a*s stic+s to the hands of some third person86 5irculation s"eats mone* from e)er* pore8 Cothing can be more childish than the dogma, that because e)er* sale is a purchase, and e)er* purchase a sale, therefore the circulation of commodities necessaril* implies an eIuilibrium of sales and purchases8 >f this means that the number of actual sales is eIual to the number of purchases, it is mere tautolog*8 /ut its real purport is to pro)e that e)er* seller brings his bu*er to mar+et "ith him8 Cothing of the +ind8 'he sale and the purchase constitute one identical act, an

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e9change bet"een a commodit*4o"ner and an o"ner of mone*, bet"een t"o persons as opposed to each other as the t"o poles of a magnet8 'he* form t"o distinct acts, of polar and opposite characters, "hen performed b* one single person8 -ence the identit* of sale and purchase implies that the commodit* is useless, if, on being thro"n into the alchemistical retort of circulation, it does not come out again in the shape of mone*; if, in other "ords, it cannot be sold b* its o"ner, and therefore be bought b* the o"ner of the mone*8 'hat identit* further implies that the e9change, if it does ta+e place, constitutes a period of rest, an inter)al, long or short, in the life of the commodit*8 Since the first metamorphosis of a commodit* is at once a sale and a purchase, it is also an independent process in itself8 'he purchaser has the commodit*, the seller has the mone*, i$e8, a commodit* read* to go into circulation at an* time8 Co one can sell unless some one else purchases8 /ut no one is forth"ith bound to purchase, because he has Dust sold8 5irculation bursts through all restrictions as to time, place, and indi)iduals, imposed b* direct barter, and this it effects b* splitting up, into the antithesis of a sale and a purchase, the direct identit* that in barter does e9ist bet"een the alienation of one?s o"n and the acIuisition of some other man?s product8 'o sa* that these t"o independent and antithetical acts ha)e an intrinsic unit*, are essentiall* one, is the same as to sa* that this intrinsic oneness e9presses itself in an e9ternal antithesis8 >f the inter)al in time bet"een the t"o complementar* phases of the complete metamorphosis of a commodit* become too great, if the split bet"een the sale and the purchase become too pronounced, the intimate conne9ion bet"een them, their oneness, asserts itself b* producing F a crisis8 'he antithesis, use4)alue and )alue; the contradictions that pri)ate labour is bound to manifest itself as direct social labour, that a particularised concrete +ind of labour has to pass for abstract human labour; the contradiction bet"een the personification of obDects and the representation of persons b* things; all these antitheses and contradictions, "hich are immanent in commodities, assert themsel)es, and de)elop their modes of motion, in the antithetical phases of the metamorphosis of a commodit*8 'hese modes therefore impl* the possibilit*, and no more than the possibilit*, of crises8 'he con)ersion of this mere possibilit* into a realit* is the result of a long series of relations, that, from our present standpoint of simple circulation, ha)e as *et no e9istence8 63

B. The currency !" of money

'he change of form, 5F$F5, b* "hich the circulation of the material products of labour is brought about, reIuires that a gi)en )alue in the shape of a commodit* shall begin the process, and shall, also in the shape of a commodit*, end it8 'he mo)ement of the commodit* is therefore a circuit8 =n the other hand, the form of this mo)ement precludes a circuit from being made b* the mone*8 'he result is not the return of the mone*, but its continued remo)al further and further a"a* from its starting4point8 So long as the seller stic+s fast to his mone*, "hich is the transformed shape of his commodit*, that commodit* is still in the first phase of its metamorphosis, and has completed onl* half its course8 /ut so soon as he completes the process, so soon as he supplements his sale b* a purchase, the mone* again lea)es the hands of its possessor8 >t is true that if the "ea)er, after bu*ing the /ible, sell more linen, mone* comes bac+ into his hands8 /ut this return is not o"ing to the circulation of the first 67 *ards of linen; that circulation resulted in the mone* getting into the hands of the seller of the /ible8 'he return of mone* into the hands of the "ea)er is brought about onl* b* the rene"al or repetition of the process of circulation "ith a fresh commodit*, "hich rene"ed process ends "ith the same result as its predecessor did8 -ence the mo)ement directl* imparted to mone* b* the circulation of commodities ta+es the form of a constant motion a"a* from its starting4point, of a course from the hands of one commodit*4o"ner into those of another8 'his course constitutes its currenc* (cours de la monnaie!8

62

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'he currenc* of mone* is the constant and monotonous repetition of the same process8 'he commodit* is al"a*s in the hands of the seller; the mone*, as a means of purchase, al"a*s in the hands of the bu*er8 (nd mone* ser)es as a means of purchase b* realising the price of the commodit*8 'his realisation transfers the commodit* from the seller to the bu*er and remo)es the mone* from the hands of the bu*er into those of the seller, "here it again goes through the same process "ith another commodit*8 'hat this one4sided character of the mone*?s motion arises out of the t"o4sided character of the commodit*?s motion, is a circumstance that is )eiled o)er8 'he )er* nature of the circulation of commodities begets the opposite appearance8 'he first metamorphosis of a commodit* is )isibl*, not onl* the mone*?s mo)ement, but also that of the commodit* itself; in the second metamorphosis, on the contrar*, the mo)ement appears to us as the mo)ement of the mone* alone8 >n the first phase of its circulation the commodit* changes place "ith the mone*8 'hereupon the commodit*, under its aspect of a useful obDect, falls out of circulation into consumption867 >n its stead "e ha)e its )alue4shape F the mone*8 >t then goes through the second phase of its circulation, not under its o"n natural shape, but under the shape of mone*8 'he continuit* of the mo)ement is therefore +ept up b* the mone* alone, and the same mo)ement that as regards the commodit* consists of t"o processes of an antithetical character, is, "hen considered as the mo)ement of the mone*, al"a*s one and the same process, a continued change of places "ith e)er fresh commodities8 -ence the result brought about b* the circulation of4commodities, namel*, the replacing of one commodit* b* another, ta+es the appearance of ha)ing been effected not b* means of the change of form of the commodities but rather b* the mone* acting as a medium of circulation, b* an action that circulates commodities, to all appearance motionless in themsel)es, and transfers them from hands in "hich the* are non4use4 )alues, to hands in "hich the* are use4)alues; and that in a direction constantl* opposed to the direction of the mone*8 'he latter is continuall* "ithdra"ing commodities from circulation and stepping into their places, and in thus "a* continuall* mo)ing further and further from its starting4point -ence although the mo)ement of the mone* is merel* the e9pression of the circulation of commodities, *et the contrar* appears to be the actual fact, and the circulation of commodities seems to be the result of the mo)ement of the mone*8 68 (gain, mone* functions as a means of circulation onl* because in it the )alues of commodities ha)e independent realit*8 -ence its mo)ement, as the medium of circulation, is, in fact, merel* the mo)ement of commodities "hile changing their forms8 'his fact must therefore ma+e itself plainl* )isible in the currenc* of mone*8 'hus the linen for instance, first of all changes its commodit*4form into its mone*form8 'he second term of its first metamorphosis, 5F$, the mone* form, then becomes the first term of its final metamorphosis, $F5, its re4con)ersion into the /ible8 /ut each of these t"o changes of form is accomplished b* an e9change bet"een commodit* and mone*, b* their reciprocal displacement8 'he same pieces of coin come into the seller?s hand as the alienated form of the commodity and lea)e it as the absolutely alienable form of the commodity8 'he* are displaced t"ice8 'he first metamorphosis of the linen puts these coins into the "ea)er?s poc+et, the second dra"s them out of it8 'he t"o in)erse changes undergone b* the same commodit* are reflected in the displacement, t"ice repeated, but in opposite directions, of the same pieces of coin8 >f, on the contrar*, onl* one phase of the metamorphosis is gone through, if there are onl* sales or onl* purchases, then a gi)en piece of mone* changes its place onl* once8 >ts second change of place al"a*s e9presses the second metamorphosis of the commodit*, its re4con)ersion from mone*8 'he freIuent repetition of the displacement of the same coins reflects not onl* the series of metamorphoses that a single commodit* has gone through, but also the intert"ining of the innumerable metamorphoses in the "orld of commodities in general8 >t is a matter of course, that

77

5hapter :

all this is applicable to the simple circulation of commodities alone, the onl* form that "e are no" considering8 E)er* commodit*, "hen it first steps into circulation, and undergoes its first change of form, does so onl* to fall out of circulation again and to be replaced b* other commodities8 $one*, on the contrar*, as the medium of circulation, +eeps continuall* "ithin the sphere of circulation, and mo)es about in it8 'he Iuestion therefore arises, ho" much mone* this sphere constantl* absorbsE >n a gi)en countr* there ta+e place e)er* da* at the same time, but in different localities, numerous one4sided metamorphoses of commodities, or, in other "ords, numerous sales and numerous purchases8 'he commodities are eIuated beforehand in imagination, b* their prices, to definite Iuantities of mone*8 (nd since, in the form of circulation no" under consideration, mone* and commodities al"a*s come bodil* face to face, one at the positi)e pole of purchase, the other at the negati)e pole of sale, it is clear that the amount of the means of circulation reIuired, is determined beforehand b* the sum of the prices of all these commodities8 (s a matter of fact, the mone* in realit* represents the Iuantit* or sum of gold ideall* e9pressed beforehand b* the sum of the prices of the commodities8 'he eIualit* of these t"o sums is therefore self4 e)ident8 Be +no", ho"e)er, that, the )alues of commodities remaining constant, their prices )ar* "ith the )alue of gold (the material of mone*!, rising in proportion as it falls, and falling in proportion as it rises8 Co" if, in conseIuence of such a rise or fall in the )alue of gold, the sum of the prices of commodities fall or rise, the Iuantit* of mone* in currenc* must fall or rise to the same e9tent8 'he change in the Iuantit* of the circulating medium is, in this case, it is true, caused b* the mone* itself, *et not in )irtue of its function as a medium of circulation, but of its function as a measure of )alue8 First, the price of the commodities )aries in)ersel* as the )alue of the mone*, and then the Iuantit* of the medium of circulation )aries directl* as the price of the commodities8 E9actl* the same thing "ould happen if, for instance, instead of the )alue of gold falling, gold "ere replaced b* sil)er as the measure of )alue, or if, instead of the )alue of sil)er rising, gold "ere to thrust sil)er out from being the measure of )alue8 >n the one case, more sil)er "ould be current than gold "as before; in the other case, less gold "ould be current than sil)er "as before8 >n each case the )alue of the material of mone*, i8 e8, the )alue of the commodit* that ser)es as the measure of )alue, "ould ha)e undergone a change, and therefore so, too, "ould the prices of commodities "hich e9press their )alues in mone*, and so, too, "ould the Iuantit* of mone* current "hose function it is to realise those prices8 Be ha)e alread* seen, that the sphere of circulation has an opening through "hich gold (or the material of mone* generall*! enters into it as a commodit* "ith a gi)en )alue8 -ence, "hen mone* enters on its functions as a measure of )alue, "hen it e9presses prices, its )alue is alread* determined8 >f no" its )alue fall, this fact is first e)idenced b* a change in the prices of those commodities that are directl* bartered for the precious metals at the sources of their production8 'he greater part of all other commodities, especiall* in the imperfectl* de)eloped stages of ci)il societ*, "ill continue for a long time to be estimated b* the former antiIuated and illusor* )alue of the measure of )alue8 Ce)ertheless, one commodit* infects another through their common )alue4relation, so that their prices, e9pressed in gold or in sil)er, graduall* settle do"n into the proportions determined b* their comparati)e )alues, until finall* the )alues of all commodities are estimated in terms of the ne" )alue of the metal that constitutes mone*8 'his process is accompanied b* the continued increase in the Iuantit* of the precious metals, an increase caused b* their streaming in to replace the articles directl* bartered for them at their sources of production8 >n proportion therefore as commodities in general acIuire their true prices, in proportion as their )alues become estimated according to the fallen )alue of the precious metal, in the same proportion the Iuantit* of that metal necessar* for realising those ne" prices is pro)ided beforehand8 ( one4sided obser)ation of the results that

71

5hapter :

follo"ed upon the disco)er* of fresh supplies of gold and sil)er, led some economists in the 17th, and particularl* in the 18th centur*, to the false conclusion, that the prices of commodities had gone up in conseIuence of the increased Iuantit* of gold and sil)er ser)ing as means of circulation8 -enceforth "e shall consider the )alue of gold to be gi)en, as, in fact, it is momentaril*, "hene)er "e estimate the price of a commodit*8 =n this supposition then, the Iuantit* of the medium of circulation is determined b* the sum of the prices that ha)e to be realised8 >f no" "e further suppose the price of each commodit* to be gi)en, the sum of the prices clearl* depends on the mass of commodities in circulation8 >t reIuires but little rac+ing of brains to comprehend that if one Iuarter of "heat costs ]6,177 Iuarters "ill cost ]677, 677 Iuarters ] 77, and so on, that conseIuentl* the Iuantit* of mone* that changes place "ith the "heat, "hen sold, must increase "ith the Iuantit* of that "heat8 >f the mass of commodities remain constant, the Iuantit* of circulating mone* )aries "ith the fluctuations in the prices of those commodities8 >t increases and diminishes because the sum of the prices increases or diminishes in conseIuence of the change of price8 'o produce this effect, it is b* no means reIuisite that the prices of all commodities should rise or fall simultaneousl*8 ( rise or a fall in the prices of a number of leading articles, is sufficient in the one case to increase, in the other to diminish, the sum of the prices of all commodities, and, therefore, to put more or less mone* in circulation8 Bhether the change in the price correspond to an actual change of )alue in the commodities, or "hether it be the result of mere fluctuations in mar+et4prices, the effect on the Iuantit* of the medium of circulation remains the same8 Suppose the follo"ing articles to be sold or partiall* metamorphosed simultaneousl* in different localities: sa*, one Iuarter of "heat, 67 *ards of linen, one /ible, and gallons of brand*8 >f the price of each article be ]6, and the sum of the prices to be realised be conseIuentl* ]8, it follo"s that ]8 in mone* must go into circulation8 >f, on the other hand, these same articles are lin+s in the follo"ing chain of metamorphoses: 1 Iuarter of "heat F ]6 F 67 *ards of linen F ]6 F 1 /ible F ]6 F gallons of brand* F ]6, a chain that is alread* "ell +no"n to us, in that case the ]6 cause the different commodities to circulate one after the other, and after realising their prices successi)el*, and therefore the sum of those prices, ]8, the* come to rest at last in the poc+et of the distiller8 'he ]6 thus ma+e four mo)es8 'his repeated change of place of the same pieces of mone* corresponds to the double change in form of the commodities, to their motion in opposite directions through t"o stages of circulation8 and to the interlacing of the metamorphoses of different commodities8 62 'hese antithetic and complementar* phases, of "hich the process of metamorphosis consists, are gone through, not simultaneousl*, but successi)el*8 'ime is therefore reIuired for the completion of the series8 -ence the )elocit* of the currenc* of mone* is measured b* the number of mo)es made b* a gi)en piece of mone* in a gi)en time8 Suppose the circulation of the articles ta+es a da*8 'he sum of the prices to be realised in the da* is ]8, the number of mo)es of the t"o pieces of mone* is four, and the Iuantit* of mone* circulating is ]68 -ence, for a gi)en inter)al of time during the process of circulation, "e ha)e the follo"ing relation: the Iuantit* of mone* functioning as the circulating medium is eIual to the sum of the prices of the commodities di)ided b* the number of mo)es made b* coins of the same denomination8 'his la" holds generall*8 'he total circulation of commodities in a gi)en countr* during a gi)en period is made up on the one hand of numerous isolated and simultaneous partial metamorphoses, sales "hich are at the same time purchases, in "hich each coin changes its place onl* once, or ma+es onl* one mo)e; on the other hand, of numerous distinct series of metamorphoses partl* running side b* side, and partl* coalescing "ith each other, in each of "hich series each coin ma+es a number of mo)es, the number being greater or less according to circumstances8 'he total number of mo)es made b* all the circulating coins of one denomination being gi)en, "e can arri)e at the a)erage number of

76

5hapter :

mo)es made b* a single coin of that denomination, or at the a)erage )elocit* of the currenc* of mone*8 'he Iuantit* of mone* thro"n into the circulation at the beginning of each da* is of course determined b* the sum of the prices of all the commodities circulating simultaneousl* side b* side8 /ut once in circulation, coins are, so to sa*, made responsible for one another8 >f the one increase its )elocit*, the other either retards its o"n, or altogether falls out of circulation; for the circulation can absorb onl* such a Iuantit* of gold as "hen multiplied b* the mean number of mo)es made b* one single coin or element, is eIual to the sum of the prices to be realised8 -ence if the number of mo)es made b* the separate pieces increase, the total number of those pieces in circulation diminishes8 >f the number of the mo)es diminish, the total number of pieces increases8 Since the Iuantit* of mone* capable of being absorbed b* the circulation is gi)en for a gi)en mean )elocit* of currenc*, all that is necessar* in order to abstract a gi)en number of so)ereigns from the circulation is to thro" the same number of one4pound notes into it, a tric+ "ell +no"n to all ban+ers8 Lust as the currenc* of mone*, generall* considered, is but a refle9 of the circulation of commodities, or of the antithetical metamorphoses the* undergo, so, too, the )elocit* of that currenc* reflects the rapidit* "ith "hich commodities change their forms, the continued interlacing of one series of metamorphoses "ith another, the hurried social interchange of matter, the rapid disappearance of commodities from the sphere of circulation, and the eIuall* rapid substitution of fresh ones in their places8 -ence, in the )elocit* of the currenc* "e ha)e the fluent unit* of the antithetical and complementar* phases, the unit* of the con)ersion of the useful aspect of commodities into their )alue4aspect, and their re4con)ersion from the latter aspect to the former, or the unit* of the t"o processes of sale and purchase8 =n the other hand, the retardation of the currenc* reflects the separation of these t"o processes into isolated antithetical phases, reflects the stagnation in the change of form, and therefore, in the social interchange of matter8 'he circulation itself, of course, gi)es no clue to the origin of this stagnation; it merel* puts in e)idence the phenomenon itself8 'he general public, "ho, simultaneousl* "ith the retardation of the currenc*, see mone* appear and disappear less freIuentl* at the peripher* of circulation, naturall* attribute this retardation to a Iuantitati)e deficienc* in the circulating medium8 :7 'he total Iuantit* of mone* functioning during a gi)en period as the circulating medium, is determined, on the one hand, b* the sum of the prices of the circulating commodities, and on the other hand, b* the rapidit* "ith "hich the antithetical phases of the metamorphoses follo" one another8 =n this rapidit* depends "hat proportion of the sum of the prices can, on the a)erage, be realised b* each single coin8 /ut the sum of the prices of the circulating commodities depends on the Iuantit*, as "ell as on the prices, of the commodities8 'hese three factors, ho"e)er, state of prices, Iuantit* of circulating commodities, and )elocit* of mone*4currenc*, are all )ariable8 -ence, the sum of the prices to be realised, and conseIuentl* the Iuantit* of the circulating medium depending on that sum, "ill )ar* "ith the numerous )ariations of these three factors in combination8 =f these )ariations "e shall consider those alone that ha)e been the most important in the histor* of prices8 Bhile prices remain constant, the Iuantit* of the circulating medium ma* increase o"ing to the number of circulating commodities increasing, or to the )elocit* of currenc* decreasing, or to a combination of the t"o8 =n the other hand the Iuantit* of the circulating medium ma* decrease "ith a decreasing number of commodities, or "ith an increasing rapidit* of their circulation8 Bith a general rise in the prices of commodities, the Iuantit* of the circulating medium "ill remain constant, pro)ided the number of commodities in circulation decrease proportionall* to the increase in their prices, or pro)ided the )elocit* of currenc* increase at the same rate as prices rise, the number of commodities in circulation remaining constant8 'he Iuantit* of the circulating

7:

5hapter :

medium ma* decrease, o"ing to the number of commodities decreasing more rapidl*; or to the )elocit* of currenc* rise8 Bith a general fall in the prices of commodities, the Iuantit* of the circulating medium "ill remain constant, pro)ided the number of commodities increase proportionall* to their fall in price, or pro)ided the )elocit* of currenc* decrease in the same proportion8 'he Iuantit* of the circulating medium "ill increase, pro)ided the number of commodities increase Iuic+er, or the rapidit* of circulation decrease Iuic+er, than the prices fall8 'he )ariations of the different factors ma* mutuall* compensate each other, so that not"ithstanding their continued instabilit*, the sum of the prices to be realised and the Iuantit* of mone* in circulation remain constant; conseIuentl*, "e find, especiall* if "e ta+e long periods into consideration, that the de)iations from the a)erage le)el, of the Iuantit* of mone* current in an* countr*, are much smaller than "e should at first sight e9pect, apart of course from e9cessi)e perturbations periodicall* arising from industrial and commercial crises, or less freIuentl*, from fluctuations in the )alue of mone*8 'he la", that the Iuantit* of the circulating medium is determined b* the sum of the prices of the commodities circulating, and the a)erage )elocit* of currenc* :1 ma* also be stated as follo"s: gi)en the sum of the )alues of commodities, and the a)erage rapidit* of their metamorphoses, the Iuantit* of precious metal current as mone* depends on the )alue of that precious metal8 'he erroneous opinion that it is, on the contrar*, prices that are determined b* the Iuantit* of the circulating medium, and that the latter depends on the Iuantit* of the precious metals in a countr*;:6 this opinion "as based b* those "ho first held it, on the absurd h*pothesis that commodities are "ithout a price, and mone* "ithout a )alue, "hen the* first enter into circulation, and that, once in the circulation, an aliIuot part of the medle* of commodities is e9changed for an aliIuot part of the heap of precious metals8 ::

C. Coin and #ym$ol# of value

'hat mone* ta+es the shape of coin, springs from its function as the circulating medium8 'he "eight of gold represented in imagination b* the prices or mone*4names of commodities, must confront those commodities, "ithin the circulation, in the shape of coins or pieces of gold of a gi)en denomination8 5oining, li+e the establishment of a standard of prices, is the business of the State8 'he different national uniforms "orn at home b* gold and sil)er as coins, and doffed again in the mar+et of the "orld, indicate the separation bet"een the internal or national spheres of the circulation of commodities, and their uni)ersal sphere8 'he onl* difference, therefore, bet"een coin and bullion, is one of shape, and gold can at an* time pass from one form to the other8 : /ut no sooner does coin lea)e the mint, than it immediatel* finds itself on the high4road to the melting pot8 0uring their currenc*, coins "ear a"a*, some more, others less8 Came and substance, nominal "eight and real "eight, begin their process of separation8 5oins of the same denomination become different in )alue, because the* are different in "eight8 'he "eight of gold fi9ed upon as the standard of prices, de)iates from the "eight that ser)es as the circulating medium, and the latter thereb* ceases an* longer to be a real eIui)alent of the commodities "hose prices it realises8 'he histor* of coinage during the middle ages and do"n into the 18th centur*, records the e)er rene"ed confusion arising from this cause8 'he natural tendenc* of circulation to con)ert coins into a mere semblance of "hat the* profess to be, into a s*mbol of the "eight of metal the* are officiall* supposed to contain, is recognised b* modern legislation, "hich fi9es the loss of "eight sufficient to demonetise a gold coin, or to ma+e it no longer legal tender8

5hapter :

'he fact that the currenc* of coins itself effects a separation bet"een their nominal and their real "eight, creating a distinction bet"een them as mere pieces of metal on the one hand, and as coins "ith a definite function on the other F this fact implies the latent possibilit* of replacing metallic coins b* to+ens of some other material, b* s*mbols ser)ing the same purposes as coins8 'he practical difficulties in the "a* of coining e9tremel* minute Iuantities of gold or sil)er, and the circumstance that at first the less precious metal is used as a measure of )alue instead of the4more precious, copper instead of sil)er, sil)er instead of gold, and that the less precious circulates as mone* until dethroned b* the more precious F all these facts e9plain the parts historicall* pla*ed b* sil)er and copper to+ens as substitutes for gold coins8 Sil)er and copper to+ens ta+e the place of gold in those regions of the circulation "here coins pass from hand to hand most rapidl*, and are subDect to the ma9imum amount of "ear and tear8 'his occurs "here sales and purchases on a )er* small scale are continuall* happening8 >n order to pre)ent these satellites from establishing themsel)es permanentl* in the place of gold, positi)e enactments determine the e9tent to "hich the* must be compulsoril* recei)ed as pa*ment instead of gold8 'he particular trac+s pursued b* the different species of coin in currenc*, run naturall* into each other8 'he to+ens +eep compan* "ith gold, to pa* fractional parts of the smallest gold coin; gold is, on the one hand, constantl* pouring into retail circulation, and on the other hand is as constantl* being thro"n out again b* being changed into to+ens8:3 'he "eight of metal in the sil)er and copper to+ens is arbitraril* fi9ed b* la"8 Bhen in currenc*, the* "ear a"a* e)en more rapidl* than gold coins8 -ence their functions are totall* independent of their "eight, and conseIuentl* of all )alue8 'he function of gold as coin becomes completel* independent of the metallic )alue of that gold8 'herefore things that are relati)el* "ithout )alue, such as paper notes, can ser)e as coins in its place8 'his purel* s*mbolic character is to a certain e9tent mas+ed in metal to+ens8 >n paper mone* it stands out plainl*8 >n fact, ce n?est Iue le premier pas Iui coSte8 Be allude here onl* to incon)ertible paper mone* issued b* the State and ha)ing compulsor* circulation8 >t has its immediate origin in the metallic currenc*8 $one* based upon credit implies on the other hand conditions, "hich, from our standpoint of the simple circulation of commodities, are as *et totall* un+no"n to us8 /ut "e ma* affirm this much, that Dust as true paper mone* ta+es its rise in the function of mone* as the circulating medium, so mone* based upon credit ta+es root spontaneousl* in the function of mone* as the means of pa*ment8 :6 'he State puts in circulation bits of paper on "hich their )arious denominations, sa* ]1, ]3, Pc8, are printed8 >n so far as the* actuall* ta+e the place of gold to the same amount, their mo)ement is subDect to the la"s that regulate the currenc* of mone* itself8 ( la" peculiar to the circulation of paper mone* can spring up onl* from the proportion in "hich that paper mone* represents gold8 Such a la" e9ists; stated simpl*, it is as follo"s: the issue of paper mone* must not e9ceed in amount the gold (or sil)er as the case ma* be! "hich "ould actuall* circulate if not replaced b* s*mbols8 Co" the Iuantit* of gold "hich the circulation can absorb, constantl*4fluctuates about a gi)en le)el8 Still, the mass of the circulating medium in a gi)en countr* ne)er sin+s belo" a certain minimum easil* ascertained b* actual e9perience8 'he fact that this minimum mass continuall* undergoes changes in its constituent parts, or that the pieces of gold of "hich it consists are being constantl* replaced b* fresh ones, causes of course no change either in its amount or in the continuit* of its circulation8 >t can therefore be replaced b* paper s*mbols8 >f, on the other hand, all the conduits of circulation "ere to4da* filled "ith paper mone* to the full e9tent of their capacit* for absorbing mone*, the* might to4morro" be o)erflo"ing in conseIuence of a fluctuation in the circulation of commodities8 'here "ould no longer be an* standard8 >f the paper mone* e9ceed its proper limit, "hich is the amount in gold coins of the li+e denomination that can actuall* be current, it "ould, apart from the danger of falling into general

73

5hapter :

disrepute, represent onl* that Iuantit* of gold, "hich, in accordance "ith the la"s of the circulation of commodities, is reIuired, and is alone capable of being represented b* paper8 >f the Iuantit* of paper mone* issued be double "hat it ought to be, then, as a matter of fact, ]1 "ould be the mone*4name not of 1J of an ounce, but of 1J8 of an ounce of gold8 'he effect "ould be the same as if an alteration had ta+en place in the function of gold as a standard of prices8 'hose )alues that "ere pre)iousl* e9pressed b* the price of ]1 "ould no" be e9pressed b* the price of ]68 #aper mone* is a to+en representing gold or mone*8 'he relation bet"een it and the )alues of commodities is this, that the latter are ideall* e9pressed in the same Iuantities of gold that are s*mbolicall* represented b* the paper8 =nl* in so far as paper mone* represents gold, "hich li+e all other commodities has )alue, is it a s*mbol of )alue8 :7 Finall*, some one ma* as+ "h* gold is capable of being replaced b* to+ens that ha)e no )alueE /ut, as "e ha)e alread* seen, it is capable of being so replaced onl* in so far as it functions e9clusi)el* as coin, or as the circulating medium, and as nothing else8 Co", mone* has other functions besides this one, and the isolated function of ser)ing as the mere circulating medium is not necessaril* the onl* one attached to gold coin, although this is the case "ith those abraded coins that continue to circulate8 Each piece of mone* is a mere coin, or means of circulation, onl* so long as it actuall* circulates8 /ut this is Dust the case "ith that minimum mass of gold, "hich is capable of being replaced b* paper mone*8 'hat mass remains constantl* "ithin the sphere of circulation, continuall* functions as a circulating medium, and e9ists e9clusi)el* for that purpose8 >ts mo)ement therefore represents nothing but the continued alternation of the in)erse phases of the metamorphosis 5F$F5, phases in "hich commodities confront their )alue4forms, onl* to disappear again immediatel*8 'he independent e9istence of the e9change4)alue of a commodit* is here a transient apparition, b* means of "hich the commodit* is immediatel* replaced b* another commodit*8 -ence, in this process "hich continuall* ma+es mone* pass from hand to hand, the mere s*mbolical e9istence of mone* suffices8 >ts functional e9istence absorbs, so to sa*, its material e9istence8 /eing a transient and obDecti)e refle9 of the prices of commodities, it ser)es onl* as a s*mbol of itself, and is therefore capable of being replaced b* a to+en8 :8 =ne thing is, ho"e)er, reIuisite; this to+en must ha)e an obDecti)e social )alidit* of its o"n, and this the paper s*mbol acIuires b* its forced currenc*8 'his compulsor* action of the State can ta+e effect onl* "ithin that inner sphere of circulation "hich is coterminous "ith the territories of the communit*, but it is also onl* "ithin that sphere that mone* completel* responds to its function of being the circulating medium, or becomes coin8

Section *: $one
'he commodit* that functions as a measure of )alue, and, either in its o"n person or b* a representati)e, as the medium of circulation, is mone*8 Gold (or sil)er! is therefore mone*8 >t functions as mone*, on the one hand, "hen it has to be present in its o"n golden person8 >t is then the mone*4commodit*, neither merel* ideal, as in its function of a measure of )alue, nor capable of being represented, as in its function of circulating medium8 =n the other hand, it also functions as mone*, "hen b* )irtue of its function, "hether that function be performed in person or b* representati)e, it congeals into the sole form of )alue, the onl* adeIuate form of e9istence of e9change4)alue, in opposition to use4)alue, represented b* all other commodities8

A. %oardin&
'he continual mo)ement in circuits of the t"o antithetical metamorphoses of commodities, or the ne)er ceasing alternation of sale and purchase, is reflected in the restless currenc* of mone*, or in

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the function that mone* performs of a perpetuum mobile of circulation8 /ut so soon as the series of metamorphoses is interrupted, so soon as sales are not supplemented b* subseIuent purchases, mone* ceases to be mobilised; it is transformed, as /oisguillebert sa*s, from @meubleA into @immeuble,A from mo)able into immo)able, from coin into mone*8 Bith the )er* earliest de)elopment of the circulation of commodities, there is also de)eloped the necessit*, and the passionate desire, to hold fast the product of the first metamorphosis8 'his product is the transformed shape of the commodit*, or its gold4chr*salis8 :2 5ommodities are thus sold not for the purpose of bu*ing others, but in order to replace their commodit*4form b* their mone*4form8 From being the mere means of effecting the circulation of commodities, this change of form becomes the end and aim8 'he changed form of the commodit* is thus pre)ented from functioning as its unconditionall* alienable form, or as its merel* transient mone*4form8 'he mone* becomes petrified into a hoard, and the seller becomes a hoarder of mone*8 >n the earl* stages of the circulation of commodities, it is the surplus use4)alues alone that are con)erted into mone*8 Gold and sil)er thus become of themsel)es social e9pressions for superfluit* or "ealth8 'his nai)e form of hoarding becomes perpetuated in those communities in "hich the traditional mode of production is carried on for the suppl* of a fi9ed and limited circle of home "ants8 >t is thus "ith the people of (sia, and particularl* of the East >ndies8 ;anderlint, "ho fancies that the prices of commodities in a countr* are determined b* the Iuantit* of gold and sil)er to be found in it, as+s himself "h* >ndian commodities are so cheap8 (ns"er: /ecause the -indus bur* their mone*8 From 1676 to 17: , he remar+s, the* buried 137 millions of pounds sterling of sil)er, "hich originall* came from (merica to Europe8 7 >n the 17 *ears from 1836 to 1866, England e9ported to >ndia and 5hina ]167,777,777 in sil)er, "hich had been recei)ed in e9change for (ustralian gold8 $ost of the sil)er e9ported to 5hina ma+es its "a* to >ndia8 (s the production of commodities further de)elops, e)er* producer of commodities is compelled8 to ma+e sure of the ne9us rerum or the social pledge8 1 -is "ants are constantl* ma+ing themsel)es felt, and necessitate the continual purchase of other people?s commodities, "hile the production and sale of his o"n goods reIuire time, and depend upon circumstances8 >n order then to be able to bu* "ithout selling, he must ha)e sold pre)iousl* "ithout bu*ing8 'his operation, conducted on a general scale, appears to impl* a contradiction8 /ut the precious metals at the sources of their production are directl* e9changed for other commodities8 (nd here "e ha)e sales (b* the o"ners of commodities! "ithout purchases (b* the o"ners of gold or sil)er!8 6(nd subseIuent sales, b* other producers, unfollo"ed b* purchases, merel* bring about the distribution of the ne"l* produced precious metals among all the o"ners of commodities8 >n this "a*, all along the line of e9change, hoards of gold and sil)er of )aried e9tent are accumulated8 Bith the possibilit* of holding and storing up e9change4)alue in the shape of a particular commodit*, arises also the greed for gold8 (long "ith the e9tension of circulation, increases the po"er of mone*, that absolutel* social form of "ealth e)er read* for use8 @Gold is a "onderful thingQ Bhoe)er possesses it is lord of all he "ants8 /* means of gold one can e)en get souls into #aradise8A (5olumbus in his letter from Lamaica, 137:8! Since gold does not disclose "hat has been transformed into it, e)er*thing, commodit* or not, is con)ertible into gold8 E)er*thing becomes saleable and bu*able8 'he circulation becomes the great social retort into "hich e)er*thing is thro"n, to come out again as a gold4cr*stal8 Cot e)en are the bones of saints, and still less are more delicate res sacrosanctae, e9tra commercium hominum able to "ithstand this alchem*8 : Lust as e)er* Iualitati)e difference bet"een commodities is e9tinguished in mone*, so mone*, on its side, li+e the radical le)eller that it is, does a"a* "ith all distinctions8 :a /ut mone* itself is a commodit*, an e9ternal obDect, capable of becoming the pri)ate propert* of an* indi)idual8 'hus social po"er becomes the pri)ate po"er of pri)ate persons8 'he ancients therefore denounced mone* as sub)ersi)e of the economic and moral order of things8 :b $odern

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societ*, "hich, soon after its birth, pulled #lutus b* the hair of his head from the bo"els of the earth, greets gold as its -ol* Grail, as the glittering incarnation of the )er* principle of its o"n life8 ( commodit*, in its capacit* of a use4)alue, satisfies a particular "ant, and is a particular element of material "ealth8 /ut the )alue of a commodit* measures the degree of its attraction for all other elements of material "ealth, and therefore measures the social "ealth of its o"ner8 'o a barbarian o"ner of commodities, and e)en to a Best4European peasant, )alue is the same as )alue4form, and therefore8 to him the increase in his hoard of gold and sil)er is an increase in )alue8 >t is true that the )alue of mone* )aries, at one time in conseIuence of a )ariation in its o"n )alue, at another, in conseIuence of a change in the )alues of commodities8 /ut this, on the one hand, does not pre)ent 677 ounces of gold from still containing more )alue than 177 ounces, nor, on the other hand, does it hinder the actual metallic form of this article from continuing to be the uni)ersal eIui)alent form of all other commodities, and the immediate social incarnation of all human labour8 'he desire after hoarding is in its )er* nature unsatiable8 >n its Iualitati)e aspect, or formall* considered, mone* has no bounds to its efficac*, i$e8, it is the uni)ersal representati)e of material "ealth, because it is directl* con)ertible into an* other commodit*8 /ut, at the same time, e)er* actual sum of mone* is limited in amount, and, therefore, as a means of purchasing, has onl* a limited efficac*8 'his antagonism bet"een the Iuantitati)e limits of mone* and its Iualitati)e boundlessness, continuall* acts as a spur to the hoarder in his Sis*phus4 li+e labour of accumulating8 >t is "ith him as it is "ith a conIueror "ho sees in e)er* ne" countr* anne9ed, onl* a ne" boundar*8 >n order that gold ma* be held as mone*, and made to form a hoard, it must be pre)ented from circulating, or from transforming itself into a means of enDo*ment8 'he hoarder, therefore, ma+es a sacrifice of the lusts of the flesh to his gold fetish8 -e acts in earnest up to the Gospel of abstention8 =n the other hand, he can "ithdra" from circulation no more than "hat he has thro"n into it in the shape of commodities8 'he more he produces, the more he is able to sell8 -ard "or+, sa)ing, and a)arice are, therefore, his three cardinal )irtues, and to sell much and bu* little the sum of his political econom*8 3 /* the side of the gross form of a hoard, "e find also its aesthetic form in the possession of gold and sil)er articles8 'his gro"s "ith the "ealth of ci)il societ*8 @So*ons riches ou paraissons richesA (0iderot!8 >n this "a* there is created, on the one hand, a constantl* e9tending mar+et for gold and sil)er, unconnected "ith their functions as mone*, and, on the other hand, a latent source of suppl*, to "hich recourse is had principall* in times of crisis and social disturbance8 -oarding ser)es )arious purposes in the econom* of the metallic circulation8 >ts first function arises out of the conditions to "hich the currenc* of gold and sil)er coins is subDect8 Be ha)e seen ho", along "ith the continual fluctuations in the e9tent and rapidit* of the circulation of commodities and in their prices, the Iuantit* of mone* current unceasingl* ebbs and flo"s8 'his mass must, therefore, be capable of e9pansion and contraction8 (t one time mone* must be attracted in order to act as circulating coin, at another, circulating coin must be repelled in order to act again as more or less stagnant mone*8 >n order that the mass of mone*, actuall* current, ma* constantl* saturate the absorbing po"er of the circulation, it is necessar* that the Iuantit* of gold and sil)er in a countr* be greater than the Iuantit* reIuired to function as coin8 'his condition is fulfilled b* mone* ta+ing the form of hoards8 'hese reser)es ser)e as conduits for the suppl* or "ithdra"al of mone* to or from the circulation, "hich in this "a* ne)er o)erflo"s its ban+s8 6

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B. Mean# of 'ayment
>n the simple form of the circulation of commodities hitherto considered, "e found a gi)en )alue al"a*s presented to us in a double shape, as a commodit* at one pole, as mone* at the opposite pole8 'he o"ners of commodities came therefore into contact as the respecti)e representati)es of "hat "ere alread* eIui)alents8 /ut "ith the de)elopment of circulation, conditions arise under "hich the alienation of commodities becomes separated, b* an inter)al of time, from the realisation of their prices8 >t "ill be sufficient to indicate the most simple of these conditions8 =ne sort of article reIuires a longer, another a shorter time for its production8 (gain, the production of different commodities depends on different seasons of the *ear8 =ne sort of commodit* ma* be born on its o"n mar+et place, another has to ma+e a long Dourne* to mar+et8 5ommodit*4o"ner Co8 1, ma* therefore be read* to sell, before Co8 6 is read* to bu*8 Bhen the same transactions are continuall* repeated bet"een the same persons, the conditions of sale are regulated in accordance "ith the conditions of production8 =n the other hand, the use of a gi)en commodit*, of a house, for instance, is sold (in common parlance, let! for a definite period8 -ere, it is onl* at the end of the term that the bu*er has actuall* recei)ed the use4)alue of the commodit*8 -e therefore bu*s it before he pa*s for it8 'he )endor sells an e9isting commodit*, the purchaser bu*s as the mere representati)e of mone*, or rather of future mone*8 'he )endor becomes a creditor, the purchaser becomes a debtor8 Since the metamorphosis of commodities, or the de)elopment of their )alue4form, appears here under a ne" aspect, mone* also acIuires a fresh function; it becomes the means of pa*ment8 'he character of creditor, or of debtor, results here from the simple circulation8 'he change in the form of that circulation stamps bu*er and seller "ith this ne" die8 (t first, therefore, these ne" parts are Dust as transient and alternating as those of seller and bu*er, and are in turns pla*ed b* the same actors8 /ut the opposition is not nearl* so pleasant, and is far more capable of cr*stallisation8 7 'he same characters can, ho"e)er, be assumed independentl* of the circulation of commodities8 'he class4struggles of the ancient "orld too+ the form chiefl* of a contest bet"een debtors and creditors, "hich in &ome ended in the ruin of the plebeian debtors8 'he* "ere displaced b* sla)es8 >n the middle ages the contest ended "ith the ruin of the feudal debtors, "ho lost their political po"er together "ith the economic basis on "hich it "as established8 Ce)ertheless, the mone* relation of debtor and creditor that e9isted at these t"o periods reflected onl* the deeper4l*ing antagonism bet"een the general economic conditions of e9istence of the classes in Iuestion8 <et us return to the circulation of commodities8 'he appearance of the t"o eIui)alents, commodities and mone*, at the t"o poles of the process of sale, has ceased to be simultaneous8 'he mone* functions no", first as a measure of )alue in the determination of the price of the commodit* sold; the price fi9ed b* the contract measures the obligation of the debtor, or the sum of mone* that he has to pa* at a fi9ed date8 Secondl*, it ser)es as an ideal means of purchase8 (lthough e9isting onl* in the promise of the bu*er to pa*, it causes the commodit* to change hands8 >t is not before the da* fi9ed for pa*ment that the means of pa*ment actuall* steps into circulation, lea)es the hand of the bu*er for that of the seller8 'he circulating medium "as transformed into a hoard, because the process stopped short after the first phase, because the con)erted shape of the commodit*, )i18, the mone*, "as "ithdra"n from circulation8 'he means of pa*ment enters the circulation, but onl* after the commodit* has left it8 'he mone* is no longer the means that brings about the process8 >t onl* brings it to a close, b* stepping in as the absolute form of e9istence of e9change4)alue, or as the uni)ersal commodit*8 'he seller turned his commodit* into mone*, in order thereb* to satisf* some "ant, the hoarder did the same in order to +eep his commodit* in its mone*4shape, and the debtor in order to be able to pa*; if he

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do not pa*, his goods "ill be sold b* the sheriff8 'he )alue4form of commodities, mone*, is therefore no" the end and aim of a sale, and that o"ing to a social necessit* springing out of the process of circulation itself8 'he bu*er con)erts mone* bac+ into commodities before he has turned commodities into mone*: in other "ords, he achie)es the second metamorphosis of commodities before the first8 'he seller?s commodit* circulates, and realises its price, but onl* in the shape of a legal claim upon mone*8 >t is con)erted into a use4)alue before it has been con)erted into mone*8 'he completion of its first metamorphosis follo"s onl* at a later period8 8 'he obligations falling due "ithin a gi)en period, represent the sum of the prices of the commodities, the sale of "hich ga)e rise to those obligations8 'he Iuantit* of gold necessar* to realise this sum, depends, in the first instance, on the rapidit* of currenc* of the means of pa*ment8 'hat Iuantit* is conditioned b* t"o circumstances: first the relations bet"een debtors and creditors form a sort of chain, in such a "a* that (, "hen he recei)es mone* from his debtor /, straight"a* hands it o)er to 5 his creditor, and so on; the second circumstance is the length of the inter)als bet"een the different due4da*s of the obligations8 'he continuous chain of pa*ments, or retarded first metamorphoses, is essentiall* different from that interlacing of the series of metamorphoses "hich "e considered on a former page8 /* the currenc* of the circulating medium, the conne9ion bet"een bu*ers and sellers, is not merel* e9pressed8 'his conne9ion is originated b*, and e9ists in, the circulation alone8 5ontrari"ise, the mo)ement of the means of pa*ment e9presses a social relation that "as in e9istence long before8 'he fact that a number of sales ta+e place simultaneousl*, and side b* side, limits the e9tent to "hich coin can be replaced b* the rapidit* of currenc*8 =n the other hand, this fact is a ne" le)er in economising the means of pa*ment8 >n proportion as pa*ments are concentrated at one spot, special institutions and methods are de)eloped for their liIuidation8 Such in the middle ages "ere the virements at <*ons8 'he debts due to ( from /, to / from 5, to 5 from (, and so on, ha)e onl* to be confronted "ith each other, in order to annul each other to a certain e9tent li+e positi)e and negati)e Iuantities8 'here thus remains onl* a single balance to pa*8 'he greater the amount of the pa*ments concentrated, the less is this balance relati)el* to that amount, and the less is the mass of the means of pa*ment in circulation8 'he function of mone* as the means of pa*ment implies a contradiction "ithout a terminus medius8 >n so far as the pa*ments balance one another, mone* functions onl* ideall* as mone* of account, as a measure of )alue8 >n so far as actual pa*ments ha)e to be made, mone* does not ser)e as a circulating medium, as a mere transient agent in the interchange of products, but as the indi)idual incarnation of social labour, as the independent form of e9istence of e9change4)alue, as the uni)ersal commodit*8 'his contradiction comes to a head in those phases of industrial and commercial crises "hich are +no"n as monetar* crises8 2 Such a crisis occurs onl* "here the e)er4lengthening chain of pa*ments, and an artificial s*stem of settling them, has been full* de)eloped8 Bhene)er there is a general and e9tensi)e disturbance of this mechanism, no matter "hat its cause, mone* becomes suddenl* and immediatel* transformed, from its merel* ideal shape of mone* of account, into hard cash8 #rofane commodities can no longer replace it8 'he use4)alue of commodities becomes )alueless, and their )alue )anishes in the presence of its o"n independent form8 =n the e)e of the crisis, the bourgeois, "ith the self4sufficienc* that springs from into9icating prosperit*, declares mone* to be a )ain imagination8 5ommodities alone are mone*8 /ut no" the cr* is e)er*"here: mone* alone is a commodit*Q (s the hart pants after fresh "ater, so pants his soul after mone*, the onl* "ealth8 37 >n a crisis, the antithesis bet"een commodities and their )alue4form, mone*, becomes heightened into an absolute contradiction8 -ence, in such e)ents, the form under "hich mone* appears is of no importance8 'he mone*

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famine continues, "hether pa*ments ha)e to be made in gold or in credit mone* such as ban+4 notes831 >f "e no" consider the sum total of the mone* current during a gi)en period, "e shall find that, gi)en the rapidit* of currenc* of the circulating medium and of the means of pa*ment, it is eIual to the sum of the prices to be realised, plus the sum of the pa*ments falling due, minus the pa*ments that balance each other, minus finall* the number of circuits in "hich the same piece of coin ser)es in turn as means of circulation and of pa*ment8 -ence, e)en "hen prices, rapidit* of currenc*, and the e9tent of the econom* in pa*ments, are gi)en, the Iuantit* of mone* current and the mass of commodities circulating during a gi)en period, such as a da*, no longer correspond8 $one* that represents commodities long "ithdra"n from circulation, continues to be current8 5ommodities circulate, "hose eIui)alent in mone* "ill not appear on the scene till some future da*8 $oreo)er, the debts contracted each da*, and the pa*ments falling due on the same da*, are Iuite incommensurable Iuantities836 5redit4mone* springs directl* out of the function of mone* as a means of pa*ment8 5ertificates of the debts o"ing for the purchased commodities circulate for the purpose of transferring those debts to others8 =n the other hand, to the same e9tent as the s*stem of credit is e9tended, so is the function of mone* as a means of pa*ment8 >n that character it ta+es )arious forms peculiar to itself under "hich it ma+es itself at home in the sphere of great commercial transactions8 Gold and sil)er coin, on the other hand, are mostl* relegated to the sphere of retail trade8 3: Bhen the production of commodities has sufficientl* e9tended itself, mone* begins to ser)e as the means of pa*ment be*ond the sphere of the circulation of commodities8 >t becomes the commodit* that is the uni)ersal subDect4matter of all contracts8 3 &ents, ta9es, and such li+e pa*ments are transformed from pa*ments in +ind into mone* pa*ments8 'o "hat e9tent this transformation depends upon the general conditions of production, is sho"n, to ta+e one e9ample, b* the fact that the &oman Empire t"ice failed in its attempt to le)* all contributions in mone*8 'he unspea+able miser* of the French agricultural population under <ouis O>;8, a miser* so eloIuentl* denounced b* /oisguillebert, $arshal ;auban, and others, "as due not onl* to the "eight of the ta9es, but also to the con)ersion of ta9es in +ind into mone* ta9es8 33 >n (sia, on the other hand, the fact that state ta9es are chiefl* composed of rents pa*able in +ind, depends on conditions of production that are reproduced "ith the regularit* of natural phenomena8 (nd this mode of pa*ment tends in its turn to maintain the ancient form of production8 >t is one of the secrets of the conser)ation of the =ttoman Empire8 >f the foreign trade, forced upon Lapan b* Europeans, should lead to the substitution of mone* rents for rents in +ind, it "ill be all up "ith the e9emplar* agriculture of that countr*8 'he narro" economic conditions under "hich that agriculture is carried on, "ill be s"ept a"a*8 >n e)er* countr*, certain da*s of the *ear become b* habit recognised settling da*s for )arious large and recurrent pa*ments8 'hese dates depend, apart from other re)olutions in the "heel of reproduction, on conditions closel* connected "ith the seasons8 'he* also regulate the dates for pa*ments that ha)e no direct conne9ion "ith the circulation of commodities such as ta9es, rents, and so on8 'he Iuantit* of mone* reIuisite to ma+e the4pa*ments, falling due on those dates all o)er the countr*, causes periodical, though merel* superficial, perturbations in the econom* of the medium of pa*ment836 From the la" of the rapidit* of currenc* of the means of pa*ment, it follo"s that the Iuantit* of the means of pa*ment reIuired for all periodical pa*ments, "hate)er their source, is in in)erse 37 proportion to the length of their periods838 'he de)elopment of mone* into a medium of pa*ment ma+es it necessar* to accumulate mone* against the dates fi9ed for the pa*ment of the sums o"ing8 Bhile hoarding, as a distinct mode of

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acIuiring riches, )anishes "ith the progress of ci)il societ*, the formation of reser)es of the means of pa*ment gro"s "ith that progress8

C. (niver#al Money
Bhen mone* lea)es the home sphere of circulation, it strips off the local garbs "hich it there assumes, of a standard of prices, of coin, of to+ens, and of a s*mbol of )alue, and returns to its original form of bullion8 >n the trade bet"een the mar+ets of the "orld, the )alue of commodities is e9pressed so as to be uni)ersall* recognised8 -ence their independent )alue4form also, in these cases, confronts them under the shape of uni)ersal mone*8 >t is onl* in the mar+ets of the "orld that mone* acIuires to the full e9tent the character of the commodit* "hose bodil* form is also the immediate social incarnation of human labour in the abstract8 >ts real mode of e9istence in this sphere adeIuatel* corresponds to its ideal concept8 Bithin the sphere of home circulation, there can be but one commodit* "hich, b* ser)ing as a measure of )alue, becomes mone*8 >n the mar+ets of the "orld a double measure of )alue holds s"a*, gold and sil)er832 $one* of the "orld ser)es as the uni)ersal medium of pa*ment, as the uni)ersal means of purchasing, and as the uni)ersall* recognised embodiment of all "ealth8 >ts function as a means of pa*ment in the settling of international balances is its chief one8 -ence the "atch"ord of the mercantilists, balance of trade867 Gold and sil)er ser)e as international means of purchasing chiefl* and necessaril* in those periods "hen the customar* eIuilibrium in the interchange of products bet"een different nations is suddenl* disturbed8 (nd lastl*, it ser)es as the uni)ersall* recognised embodiment of social "ealth, "hene)er the Iuestion is not of bu*ing or pa*ing, but of transferring "ealth from one countr* to another, and "hene)er this transference in the form of commodities is rendered impossible, either b* special conDunctures in the mar+ets or b* the purpose itself that is intended861 Lust as e)er* countr* needs a reser)e of mone* for its home circulation so, too, it reIuires one for e9ternal circulation in the mar+ets of the "orld8 'he functions of hoards, therefore, arise in part out of the function of mone*, as the medium of the home circulation and home pa*ments, and in part out of its function of mone* of the "orld8 66 For this latter function, the genuine mone*4 commodit*, actual gold and sil)er, is necessar*8 =n that account, Sir Lames Steuart, in order to distinguish them from their purel* local substitutes, calls gold and sil)er @mone* of the "orld8A 'he current of the stream of gold and sil)er is a double one8 =n the one hand, it spreads itself from its sources o)er all the mar+ets of the "orld, in order to become absorbed, to )arious e9tents, into the different national spheres of circulation, to fill the conduits of currenc*, to replace abraded gold and sil)er coins, to suppl* the material of articles of lu9ur*, and to petrif* into hoards86: 'his first current is started b* the countries that e9change their labour, realised in commodities, for the labour embodied in the precious metals b* gold and sil)er4producing countries8 =n the other hand, there is a continual flo"ing bac+"ards and for"ards of gold and sil)er bet"een the different national spheres of circulation, a current "hose motion depends on the ceaseless fluctuations in the course of e9change8 6 5ountries in "hich the bourgeois form of production is de)eloped to a certain e9tent, limit the hoards concentrated in the strong rooms of the ban+s to the minimum reIuired for the proper performance of their peculiar functions8 63 Bhene)er these hoards are stri+ingl* abo)e their a)erage le)el, it is, "ith some e9ceptions, an indication of stagnation in the circulation of commodities, of an interruption in the e)en flo" of their metamorphoses8 66

86

5hapter :

Part ': Transformation of $one into Capital

(ha)ter -* "he Genera$ Form%$a for (a)ita$
'he circulation of commodities is the starting4point of capital8 'he production of commodities, their circulation, and that more de)eloped form of their circulation called commerce, these form the historical ground4"or+ from "hich it rises8 'he modern histor* of capital dates from the creation in the 16th centur* of a "orld4embracing commerce and a "orld4embracing mar+et8 >f "e abstract from the material substance of the circulation of commodities, that is, from the e9change of the )arious use4)alues, and consider onl* the economic forms produced b* this process of circulation, "e find its final result to be mone*: this final product of the circulation of commodities is the first form in "hich capital appears8 (s a matter of histor*, capital, as opposed to landed propert*, in)ariabl* ta+es the form at first of mone*; it appears as mone*ed "ealth, as the capital of the merchant and of the usurer8 1 /ut "e ha)e no need to refer to the origin of capital in order to disco)er that the first form of appearance of capital is mone*8 Be can see it dail* under our )er* e*es8 (ll ne" capital, to commence "ith, comes on the stage, that is, on the mar+et, "hether of commodities, labour, or mone*, e)en in our da*s, in the shape of mone* that b* a definite process has to be transformed into capital8 'he first distinction "e notice bet"een mone* that is mone* onl*, and mone* that is capital, is nothing more than a difference in their form of circulation8 'he simplest form of the circulation of commodities is 54$45, the transformation of commodities into mone*, and the change of the mone* bac+ again into commodities; or selling in order to bu*8 /ut alongside of this form "e find another specificall* different form: $454$, the transformation of mone* into commodities, and the change of commodities bac+ again into mone*; or bu*ing in order to sell8 $one* that circulates in the latter manner is thereb* transformed into, becomes capital, and is alread* potentiall* capital8 Co" let us e9amine the circuit $454$ a little closer8 >t consists, li+e the other, of t"o antithetical phases8 >n the first phase, $45, or the purchase, the mone* is changed into a commodit*8 >n the second phase, 54$, or the sale, the commodit* is changed bac+ again into mone*8 'he combination of these t"o phases constitutes the single mo)ement "hereb* mone* is e9changed for a commodit*, and the same commodit* is again e9changed for mone*; "hereb* a commodit* is bought in order to be sold, or, neglecting the distinction in form bet"een bu*ing and selling, "hereb* a commodit* is bought "ith mone*, and then mone* is bought "ith a commodit*8 6 'he result, in "hich the phases of the process )anish, is the e9change of mone* for mone*, $4$8 >f > purchase 6,777 lbs8 of cotton for ]177, and resell the 6,777 lbs8 of cotton for ]117, > ha)e, in fact, e9changed ]177 for ]117, mone* for mone*8 Co" it is e)ident that the circuit $454$ "ould be absurd and "ithout meaning if the intention "ere to e9change b* this means t"o eIual sums of mone*, ]177 for ]1778 'he miser?s plan "ould be far simpler and surer; he stic+s to his ]177 instead of e9posing it to the dangers of circulation8 (nd *et, "hether the merchant "ho has paid ]177 for his cotton sells it for ]117, or lets it go for ]177, or e)en ]37, his mone* has, at all e)ents, gone through a characteristic and

5hapter

original mo)ement, Iuite different in +ind from that "hich it goes through in the hands of the peasant "ho sells corn, and "ith the mone* thus set free bu*s clothes8 Be ha)e therefore to e9amine first the distinguishing characteristics of the forms of the circuits $454$ and 54$45, and in doing this the real difference that underlies the mere difference of form "ill re)eal itself8 <et us see, in the first place, "hat the t"o forms ha)e in common8 /oth circuits are resol)able into the same t"o antithetical phases, 54$, a sale, and $45, a purchase8 >n each of these phases the same material elements 4 a commodit*, and mone*, and the same economic dramatis personae, a bu*er and a seller 4 confront one another8 Each circuit is the unit* of the same t"o antithetical phases, and in each case this unit* is brought about b* the inter)ention of three contracting parties, of "hom one onl* sells, another onl* bu*s, "hile the third both bu*s and sells8 Bhat, ho"e)er, first and foremost distinguishes the circuit 54$45 from the circuit $454$, is the in)erted order of succession of the t"o phases8 'he simple circulation of commodities begins "ith a sale and ends "ith a purchase, "hile the circulation of mone* as capital begins "ith a purchase and ends "ith a sale8 >n the one case both the starting4point and the goal are commodities, in the other the* are mone*8 >n the first form the mo)ement is brought about b* the inter)ention of mone*, in the second b* that of a commodit*8 >n the circulation 54$45, the mone* is in the end con)erted into a commodit*, that ser)es as a use4)alue; it is spent once for all8 >n the in)erted form, $454$, on the contrar*, the bu*er la*s out mone* in order that, as a seller, he ma* reco)er mone*8 /* the purchase of his commodit* he thro"s mone* into circulation, in order to "ithdra" it again b* the sale of the same commodit*8 -e lets the mone* go, but onl* "ith the sl* intention of getting it bac+ again8 'he mone*, therefore, is not spent, it is merel* ad)anced8 : >n the circuit 54$45, the same piece of mone* changes its place t"ice8 'he seller gets it from the bu*er and pa*s it a"a* to another seller8 'he complete circulation, "hich begins "ith the receipt, concludes "ith the pa*ment, of mone* for commodities8 >t is the )er* contrar* in the circuit $454 $8 -ere it is not the piece of mone* that changes its place t"ice, but the commodit*8 'he bu*er ta+es it from the hands of the seller and passes it into the hands of another bu*er8 Lust as in the simple circulation of commodities the double change of place of the same piece of mone* effects its passage from one hand into another, so here the double change of place of the same commodit* brings about the reflu9 of the mone* to its point of departure8 Such reflu9 is not dependent on the commodit* being sold for more than "as paid for it8 'his circumstance influences onl* the amount of the mone* that comes bac+8 'he reflu9 itself ta+es place, so soon as the purchased commodit* is resold, in other "ords, so soon as the circuit $454 $ is completed8 Be ha)e here, therefore, a palpable difference bet"een the circulation of mone* as capital, and its circulation as mere mone*8 'he circuit 54$45 comes completel* to an end, so soon as the mone* brought in b* the sale of one commodit* is abstracted again b* the purchase of another8 >f, ne)ertheless, there follo"s a reflu9 of mone* to its starting4point, this can onl* happen through a rene"al or repetition of the operation8 >f > sell a Iuarter of corn for ]:, and "ith this ]: bu* clothes, the mone*, so far as > am concerned, is spent and done "ith8 >t belongs to the clothes merchant8 >f > no" sell a second Iuarter of corn, mone* indeed flo"s bac+ to me, not ho"e)er as a seIuel to the first transaction, but in conseIuence of its repetition8 'he mone* again lea)es me, so soon as > complete this second transaction b* a fresh purchase8 'herefore, in the circuit 54$4 5, the e9penditure of mone* has nothing to do "ith its reflu98 =n the other hand, in $454$, the reflu9 of the mone* is conditioned b* the )er* mode of its e9penditure8 Bithout this reflu9, the

83

5hapter

operation fails, or the process is interrupted and incomplete, o"ing to the absence of its complementar* and final phase, the sale8 'he circuit 54$45 starts "ith one commodit*, and finishes "ith another, "hich falls out of circulation and into consumption8 5onsumption, the satisfaction of "ants, in one "ord, use4)alue, is its end and aim8 'he circuit $454$, on the contrar*, commences "ith mone* and ends "ith mone*8 >ts leading moti)e, and the goal that attracts it, is therefore mere e9change4)alue8 >n the simple circulation of commodities, the t"o e9tremes of the circuit ha)e the same economic form8 'he* are both commodities, and commodities of eIual )alue8 /ut the* are also use4)alues differing in their Iualities, as, for e9ample, corn and clothes8 'he e9change of products, of the different materials in "hich the labour of societ* is embodied, forms here the basis of the mo)ement8 >t is other"ise in the circulation $454$, "hich at first sight appears purposeless, because tautological8 /oth e9tremes ha)e the same economic form8 'he* are both mone*, and therefore are not Iualitati)el* different use4)alues; for mone* is but the con)erted form of commodities, in "hich their particular use4)alues )anish8 'o e9change ]177 for cotton, and then this same cotton again for ]177, is merel* a roundabout "a* of e9changing mone* for mone*, the same for the same, and appears to be an operation Dust as purposeless as it is absurd8 =ne sum of mone* is distinguishable from another onl* b* its amount8 'he character and tendenc* of the process $454$, is therefore not due to an* Iualitati)e difference bet"een its e9tremes, both being mone*, but solel* to their Iuantitati)e difference8 $ore mone* is "ithdra"n from circulation at the finish than "as thro"n into it at the start8 'he cotton that "as bought for ]177 is perhaps resold for ]177 _ ]17 or ]1178 'he e9act form of this process is therefore $454$U, "here $U Y $ _ 0 $ Y the original sum ad)anced, plus an increment8 'his increment or e9cess o)er the original )alue > call @surplus )alue8A 'he )alue originall* ad)anced, therefore, not onl* remains intact "hile in circulation, but adds to itself a surplus )alue or e9pands itself8 >t is this mo)ement that con)erts it into capital8 =f course, it is also possible, that in 54$45, the t"o e9tremes 545, sa* corn and clothes, ma* represent different Iuantities of )alue8 'he farmer ma* sell his corn abo)e its )alue, or ma* bu* the clothes at less than their )alue8 -e ma*, on the other hand, @be doneA b* the clothes merchant8 Net, in the form of circulation no" under consideration, such differences in )alue are purel* accidental8 'he fact that the corn and the clothes are eIui)alents, does not depri)e the process of all meaning, as it does in $454$8 'he eIui)alence of their )alues is rather a necessar* condition to its normal course8 'he repetition or rene"al of the act of selling in order to bu*, is +ept "ithin bounds b* the )er* obDect it aims at, namel*, consumption or the satisfaction of definite "ants, an aim that lies altogether outside the sphere of circulation8 /ut "hen "e bu* in order to sell, "e, on the contrar*, begin and end "ith the same thing, mone*, e9change4)alue; and thereb* the mo)ement becomes interminable8 Co doubt, $ becomes $ _ 0 $, ]177 become ]1178 /ut "hen )ie"ed in their Iualitati)e aspect alone, ]117 are the same as ]177, namel* mone*; and considered Iuantitati)el*, ]117 is, li+e ]177, a sum of definite and limited )alue8 >f no", the ]117 be spent as mone*, the* cease to pla* their part8 'he* are no longer capital8 Bithdra"n from circulation, the* become petrified into a hoard, and though the* remained in that state till doomsda*, not a single farthing "ould accrue to them8 >f, then, the e9pansion of )alue is once aimed at, there is Dust the same inducement to augment the )alue of the ]117 as that of the ]177; for both are but limited e9pressions for e9change4)alue, and therefore both ha)e the same )ocation to approach, b* Iuantitati)e increase, as near as possible to absolute "ealth8 $omentaril*, indeed, the )alue originall* ad)anced, the ]177 is distinguishable from the surplus )alue of ]17 that is anne9ed to it during circulation; but the distinction )anishes immediatel*8 (t the end of the process, "e do not

86

5hapter

recei)e "ith one hand the original ]177, and "ith the other, the surplus )alue of ]178 Be simpl* get a )alue of ]117, "hich is in e9actl* the same condition and fitness for commencing the e9panding process, as the original ]177 "as8 $one* ends the mo)ement onl* to begin it again8 3 'herefore, the final result of e)er* separate circuit, in "hich a purchase and conseIuent sale are completed, forms of itself the starting4point of a ne" circuit8 'he simple circulation of commodities 4 selling in order to bu* 4 is a means of carr*ing out a purpose unconnected "ith circulation, namel*, the appropriation of use4)alues, the satisfaction of "ants8 'he circulation of mone* as capital is, on the contrar*, an end in itself, for the e9pansion of )alue ta+es place onl* "ithin this constantl* rene"ed mo)ement8 'he circulation of capital has therefore no limits8 6 (s the conscious representati)e of this mo)ement, the possessor of mone* becomes a capitalist8 -is person, or rather his poc+et, is the point from "hich the mone* starts and to "hich it returns8 'he e9pansion of )alue, "hich is the obDecti)e basis or main4spring of the circulation $454$, becomes his subDecti)e aim, and it is onl* in so far as the appropriation of e)er more and more "ealth in the abstract becomes the sole moti)e of his operations, that he functions as a capitalist, that is, as capital personified and endo"ed "ith consciousness and a "ill8 %se4)alues must therefore ne)er be loo+ed upon as the real aim of the capitalist; 7 neither must the profit on an* single transaction8 'he restless ne)er4ending process of profit4ma+ing alone is "hat he aims at8 8 'his boundless greed after riches, this passionate chase after e9change4)alue 2, is common to the capitalist and the miser; but "hile the miser is merel* a capitalist gone mad, the capitalist is a rational miser8 'he ne)er4ending augmentation of e9change4)alue, "hich the miser stri)es after, b* see+ing to sa)e17 his mone* from circulation, is attained b* the more acute capitalist, b* constantl* thro"ing it afresh into circulation811 'he independent form, i$e$, the mone*4form, "hich the )alue of commodities assumes in the case of simple circulation, ser)es onl* one purpose, namel*, their e9change, and )anishes in the final result of the mo)ement8 =n the other hand, in the circulation $454$, both the mone* and the commodit* represent onl* different modes of e9istence of )alue itself, the mone* its general mode, and the commodit* its particular, or, so to sa*, disguised mode8 16 >t is constantl* changing from one form to the other "ithout thereb* becoming lost, and thus assumes an automaticall* acti)e character8 >f no" "e ta+e in turn each of the t"o different forms "hich self4e9panding )alue successi)el* assumes in the course of its life, "e then arri)e at these t"o propositions: 5apital is mone*: 5apital is commodities8 1: >n truth, ho"e)er, )alue is here the acti)e factor in a process, in "hich, "hile constantl* assuming the form in turn of mone* and commodities, it at the same time changes in magnitude, differentiates itself b* thro"ing off surplus )alue from itself; the original )alue, in other "ords, e9pands spontaneousl*8 For the mo)ement, in the course of "hich it adds surplus )alue, is its o"n mo)ement, its e9pansion, therefore, is automatic e9pansion8 /ecause it is )alue, it has acIuired the occult Iualit* of being able to add )alue to itself8 >t brings forth li)ing offspring, or, at the least, la*s golden eggs8 ;alue, therefore, being the acti)e factor in such a process, and assuming at one time the form of mone*, at another that of commodities, but through all these changes preser)ing itself and e9panding, it reIuires some independent form, b* means of "hich its identit* ma* at an* time be established8 (nd this form it possesses onl* in the shape of mone*8 >t is under the form of mone* that )alue begins and ends, and begins again, e)er* act of its o"n spontaneous generation8 >t began b* being ]177, it is no" ]117, and so on8 /ut the mone* itself is onl* one of the t"o forms of )alue8 %nless it ta+es the form of some commodit*, it does not become capital8 'here is here no antagonism, as in the case of hoarding, bet"een the mone* and commodities8 'he capitalist +no"s that all commodities, ho"e)er scur)* the* ma* loo+, or ho"e)er badl* the* ma* smell, are in faith and in truth mone*, in"ardl* circumcised Le"s, and "hat is more, a "onderful means "hereb* out of mone* to ma+e more mone*8

87

5hapter

>n simple circulation, 54$45, the )alue of commodities attained at the most a form independent of their use4)alues, i$e$, the form of mone*; but that same )alue no" in the circulation $454$, or the circulation of capital, suddenl* presents itself as an independent substance, endo"ed "ith a motion of its o"n, passing through a life4process of its o"n, in "hich mone* and commodities are mere forms "hich it assumes and casts off in turn8 Ca*, more: instead of simpl* representing the relations of commodities, it enters no", so to sa*, into pri)ate relations "ith itself8 >t differentiates itself as original )alue from itself as surplus )alue; as the father differentiates himself from himself Iua the son, *et both are one and of one age: for onl* b* the surplus )alue of ]17 does the ]177 originall* ad)anced become capital, and so soon as this ta+es place, so soon as the son, and b* the son, the father, is begotten, so soon does their difference )anish, and the* again become one, ]1178 ;alue therefore no" becomes )alue in process, mone* in process, and, as such, capital8 >t comes out of circulation, enters into it again, preser)es and multiplies itself "ithin its circuit, comes bac+ out of it "ith e9panded bul+, and begins the same round e)er afresh8 1 $4$U, mone* "hich begets mone*, such is the description of 5apital from the mouths of its first interpreters, the $ercantilists8 /u*ing in order to sell, or, more accuratel*, bu*ing in order to sell dearer, $454$U, appears certainl* to be a form peculiar to one +ind of capital alone, namel*, merchants? capital8 /ut industrial capital too is mone*, that is changed into commodities, and b* the sale of these commodities, is re4con)erted into more mone*8 'he e)ents that ta+e place outside the sphere of circulation, in the inter)al bet"een the bu*ing and selling, do not affect the form of this mo)ement8 <astl*, in the case of interest4bearing capital, the circulation $454$U appears abridged8 Be ha)e its result "ithout the intermediate stage, in the form $4$U, @en st*le lapidaireA so to sa*, mone* that is "orth more mone*, )alue that is greater than itself8 $454$U is therefore in realit* the general formula of capital as it appears prima facie "ithin the sphere of circulation8

(ha)ter !* (ontradictions in the Genera$ Form%$a of (a)ita$

'he form "hich circulation ta+es "hen mone* becomes capital, is opposed to all the la"s "e ha)e hitherto in)estigated bearing on the nature of commodities, )alue and mone*, and e)en of circulation itself8 Bhat distinguishes this form from that of the simple circulation of commodities, is the in)erted order of succession of the t"o antithetical processes, sale and purchase8 -o" can this purel* formal distinction bet"een these processes change their character as it "ere b* magicE /ut that is not all8 'his in)ersion has no e9istence for t"o out of the three persons "ho transact business together8 (s capitalist, > bu* commodities from ( and sell them again to /, but as a simple o"ner of commodities, > sell them to / and then purchase fresh ones from (8 ( and / see no difference bet"een the t"o sets of transactions8 'he* are merel* bu*ers or sellers8 (nd > on each occasion meet them as a mere o"ner of either mone* or commodities, as a bu*er or a seller, and, "hat is more, in both sets of transactions, > am opposed to ( onl* as a bu*er and to / onl* as a seller, to the one onl* as mone*, to the other onl* as commodities, and to neither of them as capital or a capitalist, or as representati)e of an*thing that is more than mone* or commodities, or that can produce an* effect be*ond "hat mone* and commodities can8 For me the purchase from ( and the sale to / are part of a series8 /ut the conne9ion bet"een the t"o acts e9ists for me alone8 ( does not trouble himself about m* transaction "ith /, nor does / about m* business "ith (8 (nd if > offered to e9plain to them the meritorious nature of m* action in in)erting the order of succession, the* "ould probabl* point out to me that > "as mista+en as to that order of succession, and that the "hole transaction, instead of beginning "ith a purchase and ending "ith a sale, began, on the contrar*, "ith a sale and "as concluded "ith a purchase8 >n truth, m* first act, the purchase, "as from the standpoint of (, a sale, and m* second act, the sale, "as from the standpoint of /, a purchase8 Cot content "ith that, ( and / "ould declare that the "hole series "as superfluous and nothing but -o+us #o+us; that for the future ( "ould bu* direct from /, and / sell direct to (8 'hus the "hole transaction "ould be reduced to a single act forming an isolated, non4complemented phase in the ordinar* circulation of commodities, a mere sale from (?s point of )ie", and from /?s, a mere purchase8 'he in)ersion, therefore, of the order of succession, does not ta+e us outside the sphere of the simple circulation of commodities, and "e must rather loo+, "hether there is in this simple circulation an*thing permitting an e9pansion of the )alue that enters into circulation, and, conseIuentl*, a creation of surplus )alue8 <et us ta+e the process of circulation in a form under "hich it presents itself as a simple and direct e9change of commodities8 'his is al"a*s the case "hen t"o o"ners of commodities bu* from each other, and on the settling da* the amounts mutuall* o"ing are eIual and cancel each other8 'he mone* in this case is mone* of account and ser)es to e9press the )alue of the commodities b* their prices, but is not, itself, in the shape of hard cash, confronted "ith them8 So far as regards use4)alues, it is clear that both parties ma* gain some ad)antage8 /oth part "ith goods that, as use4)alues, are of no ser)ice to them, and recei)e others that the* can ma+e use of8 (nd there ma* also be a further gain8 (, "ho sells "ine and bu*s corn, possibl* produces more "ine, "ith gi)en labour4time, than farmer / could, and / on the other hand, more corn than "ine4gro"er ( could8 (, therefore, ma* get, for the same e9change4)alue, more corn, and / more "ine, than each "ould respecti)el* get "ithout an* e9change b* producing his o"n corn and "ine8 Bith reference, therefore, to use4)alue, there is good ground for sa*ing that @e9change

82

5hapter 3

is a transaction b* "hich both sides gain8A 1 >t is other"ise "ith e9change4)alue8 @( man "ho has plent* of "ine and no corn treats "ith a man "ho has plent* of corn and no "ine; an e9change ta+es place bet"een them of corn to the )alue of 37, for "ine of the same )alue8 'his act produces no increase of e9change4)alue either for the one or the other; for each of them alread* possessed, before the e9change, a )alue eIual to that "hich he acIuired b* means of that operation8A6 'he result is not altered b* introducing mone*, as a medium of circulation, bet"een the commodities, and ma+ing the sale and the purchase t"o distinct acts8 : 'he )alue of a commodit* is e9pressed in its price before it goes into circulation, and is therefore a precedent condition of circulation, not its result8 (bstractedl* considered, that is, apart from circumstances not immediatel* flo"ing from the la"s of the simple circulation of commodities, there is in an e9change nothing (if "e e9cept the replacing of one use4)alue b* another! but a metamorphosis, a mere change in the form of the commodit*8 'he same e9change4)alue, i8e8, the same Iuantit* of incorporated social labour, remains throughout in the hands of the o"ner of the commodit*, first in the shape of his o"n commodit*, then in the form of the mone* for "hich he e9changed it, and lastl*, in the shape of the commodit* he bu*s "ith that mone*8 'his change of form does not impl* a change in the magnitude of the )alue8 /ut the change, "hich the )alue of the commodit* undergoes in this process, is limited to a change in its mone*4form8 'his form e9ists first as the price of the commodit* offered for sale, then as an actual sum of mone*, "hich, ho"e)er, "as alread* e9pressed in the price, and lastl*, as the price of an eIui)alent commodit*8 'his change of form no more implies, ta+en alone, a change in the Iuantit* of )alue, than does the change of a ]3 note into so)ereigns, half so)ereigns and shillings8 So far therefore as the circulation of commodities effects a change in the form alone of their )alues, and is free from disturbing influences, it must be the e9change of eIui)alents8 <ittle as ;ulgar4Econom* +no"s about the nature of )alue, *et "hene)er it "ishes to consider the phenomena of circulation in their purit*, it assumes that suppl* and demand are eIual, "hich amounts to this, that their effect is nil8 >f therefore, as regards the use4)alues e9changed, both bu*er and seller ma* possibl* gain something, this is not the case as regards the e9change4)alues8 -ere "e must rather sa*, @Bhere eIualit* e9ists there can be no gain8A3 >t is true, commodities ma* be sold at prices de)iating from their )alues, but these de)iations are to be considered as infractions of the la"s of the e9change of commodities 6, "hich in its normal state is an e9change of eIui)alents, conseIuentl*, no method for increasing )alue87 -ence, "e see that behind all attempts to represent the circulation of commodities as a source of surplus )alue, there lur+s a &uid pro &uo, a mi9ing up of use4)alue and e9change4)alue8 For instance, 5ondillac sa*s: @>t is not true that on an e9change of commodities "e gi)e )alue for )alue8 =n the contrar*, each of the t"o contracting parties in e)er* case, gi)es a less for a greater )alue8 888 >f "e reall* e9changed eIual )alues, neither part* could ma+e a profit8 (nd *et, the* both gain, or ought to gain8 Bh*E 'he )alue of a thing consists solel* in its relation to our "ants8 Bhat is more to the one is less to the other, and vice vers%8 888 >t is not to be assumed that "e offer for sale articles reIuired for our o"n consumption8 888 Be "ish to part "ith a useless thing, in order to get one that "e need; "e "ant to gi)e less for more8 888 >t "as natural to thin+ that, in an e9change, )alue "as gi)en for )alue, "hene)er each of the articles e9changed "as of eIual )alue "ith the same Iuantit* of gold8 888 /ut there is another point to be considered in our calculation8 'he Iuestion is, "hether "e both e9change something superfluous for something necessar*8A 8 Be see in this passage, ho" 5ondillac not onl* confuses use4)alue "ith e9change4)alue, but in a reall* childish manner assumes, that in a societ*, in "hich the production of commodities is "ell de)eloped, each producer produces his o"n means of subsistence, and thro"s into circulation onl* the e9cess o)er his o"n reIuirements 2 Still, 5ondillac?s argument is freIuentl* used b*

27

5hapter 3

modern economists, more especiall* "hen the point is to sho", that the e9change of commodities in its de)eloped form, commerce, is producti)e of surplus )alue8 For instance, @5ommerce 888 adds )alue to products, for the same products in the hands of consumers, are "orth more than in the hands of producers, and it ma* strictl* be considered an act of production8A 17 /ut commodities are not paid for t"ice o)er, once on account of their use4)alue, and again on account of their )alue8 (nd though the use4)alue of a commodit* is more ser)iceable to the bu*er than to the seller, its mone*4form is more ser)iceable to the seller8 Bould he other"ise sell itE Be might therefore Dust as "ell sa* that the bu*er performs @strictl* an act of production,A b* con)erting stoc+ings, for e9ample, into mone*8 >f commodities, or commodities and mone*, of eIual e9change4)alue, and conseIuentl* eIui)alents, are e9changed, it is plain that no one abstracts more )alue from, than he thro"s into, circulation8 'here is no creation of surplus )alue8 (nd, in its normal form, the circulation of commodities demands the e9change of eIui)alents8 /ut in actual practice, the process does not retain its normal form8 <et us, therefore, assume an e9change of non4eIui)alents8 >n an* case the mar+et for commodities is onl* freIuented b* o"ners of commodities, and the po"er "hich these persons e9ercise o)er each other, is no other than the po"er of their commodities8 'he material )ariet* of these commodities is the material incenti)e to the act of e9change, and ma+es bu*ers and sellers mutuall* dependent, because none of them possesses the obDect of his o"n "ants, and each holds in his hand the obDect of another?s "ants8 /esides these material differences of their use4)alues, there is onl* one other difference bet"een commodities, namel*, that bet"een their bodil* form and the form into "hich the* are con)erted b* sale, the difference bet"een commodities and mone*8 (nd conseIuentl* the o"ners of commodities are distinguishable onl* as sellers, those "ho o"n commodities, and bu*ers, those "ho o"n mone*8 Suppose then, that b* some ine9plicable pri)ilege, the seller is enabled to sell his commodities abo)e their )alue, "hat is "orth 177 for 117, in "hich case the price is nominall* raised 17`8 'he seller therefore poc+ets a surplus )alue of 178 /ut after he has sold he becomes a bu*er8 ( third o"ner of commodities comes to him no" as seller, "ho in this capacit* also enDo*s the pri)ilege of selling his commodities 17` too dear8 =ur friend gained 17 as a seller onl* to lose it again as a bu*er811 'he net result is, that all o"ners of commodities sell their goods to one another at 17` abo)e their )alue, "hich comes precisel* to the same as if the* sold them at their true )alue8 Such a general and nominal rise of prices has the same effect as if the )alues had been e9pressed in "eight of sil)er instead of in "eight of gold8 'he nominal prices of commodities "ould rise, but the real relation bet"een their )alues "ould remain unchanged8 <et us ma+e the opposite assumption, that the bu*er has the pri)ilege of purchasing commodities under their )alue8 >n this case it is no longer necessar* to bear in mind that he in his turn "ill become a seller8 -e "as so before he became bu*er; he had alread* lost 17` in selling before he gained 17` as bu*er816 E)er*thing is Dust as it "as8 'he creation of surplus )alue, and therefore the con)ersion of mone* into capital, can conseIuentl* be e9plained neither on the assumption that commodities are sold abo)e their )alue, nor that the* are bought belo" their )alue81: 'he problem is in no "a* simplified b* introducing irrele)ant matters after the manner of 5ol8 'orrens: @Effectual demand consists in the po"er and inclination (Q!, on the part of consumers, to gi)e for commodities, either b* immediate or circuitous barter, some greater portion of 888 capital than their production costs8A1 >n relation to circulation, producers and consumers meet onl* as bu*ers and sellers8 'o assert that the surplus )alue acIuired b* the producer has its origin in the fact that consumers pa* for commodities more than their )alue, is onl* to sa* in other "ords: 'he o"ner of commodities possesses, as a seller, the pri)ilege of selling too dear8 'he seller has

21

5hapter 3

himself produced the commodities or represents their producer, but the bu*er has to no less e9tent produced the commodities represented b* his mone*, or represents their producer8 'he distinction bet"een them is, that one bu*s and the other sells8 'he fact that the o"ner of the commodities, under the designation of producer, sells them o)er their )alue, and under the designation of consumer, pa*s too much for them, does not carr* us a single step further8 13 'o be consistent therefore, the upholders of the delusion that surplus )alue has its origin in a nominal rise of prices or in the pri)ilege "hich the seller has of selling too dear, must assume the e9istence of a class that onl* bu*s and does not sell, i8e8, onl* consumes and does not produce8 'he e9istence of such a class is ine9plicable from the standpoint "e ha)e so far reached, )i18, that of simple circulation8 /ut let us anticipate8 'he mone* "ith "hich such a class is constantl* ma+ing purchases, must constantl* flo" into their poc+ets, "ithout an* e9change, gratis, b* might or right, from the poc+ets of the commodit*4o"ners themsel)es8 'o sell commodities abo)e their )alue to such a class, is onl* to crib bac+ again a part of the mone* pre)iousl* gi)en to it816 'he to"ns of (sia $inor thus paid a *earl* mone* tribute to ancient &ome8 Bith this mone* &ome purchased from them commodities, and purchased them too dear8 'he pro)incials cheated the &omans, and thus got bac+ from their conIuerors, in the course of trade, a portion of the tribute8 Net, for all that, the conIuered "ere the reall* cheated8 'heir goods "ere still paid for "ith their o"n mone*8 'hat is not the "a* to get rich or to create surplus )alue8 <et us therefore +eep "ithin the bounds of e9change "here sellers are also bu*ers, and bu*ers, sellers8 =ur difficult* ma* perhaps ha)e arisen from treating the actors as personifications instead of as indi)iduals8 ( ma* be cle)er enough to get the ad)antage of / or 5 "ithout their being able to retaliate8 ( sells "ine "orth ] 7 to /, and obtains from him in e9change corn to the )alue of ]378 ( has con)erted his ] 7 into ]37, has made more mone* out of less, and has con)erted his commodities into capital8 <et us e9amine this a little more closel*8 /efore the e9change "e had ] 7 "orth of "ine in the hands of (, and ]37 "orth of corn in those of /, a total )alue of ]278 (fter the e9change "e ha)e still the same total )alue of ]278 'he )alue in circulation has not increased b* one iota, it is onl* distributed differentl* bet"een ( and /8 Bhat is a loss of )alue to / is surplus )alue to (; "hat is @minusA to one is @plusA to the other8 'he same change "ould ha)e ta+en place, if (, "ithout the formalit* of an e9change, had directl* stolen the ]17 from /8 'he sum of the )alues in circulation can clearl* not be augmented b* an* change in their distribution, an* more than the Iuantit* of the precious metals in a countr* b* a Le" selling a Kueen (nne?s farthing for a guinea8 'he capitalist class, as a "hole, in an* countr*, cannot o)er4reach themsel)es817 'urn and t"ist then as "e ma*, the fact remains unaltered8 >f eIui)alents are e9changed, no surplus )alue results, and if non4eIui)alents are e9changed, still no surplus )alue8 18 5irculation, or the e9change of commodities, begets no )alue8 12 'he reason is no" therefore plain "h*, in anal*sing the standard form of capital, the form under "hich it determines the economic organisation of modern societ*, "e entirel* left out of consideration its most popular, and, so to sa*, antedilu)ian forms, merchants? capital and mone*4 lenders? capital8 'he circuit $454$, bu*ing in order to sell dearer, is seen most clearl* in genuine merchants? capital8 /ut the mo)ement ta+es place entirel* "ithin the sphere of circulation8 Since, ho"e)er, it is impossible, b* circulation alone, to account for the con)ersion of mone* into capital, for the formation of surplus )alue, it "ould appear, that merchants? capital is an impossibilit*, so long as eIui)alents are e9changed;67 that, therefore, it can onl* ha)e its origin in the t"o4fold ad)antage gained, o)er both the selling and the bu*ing producers, b* the merchant "ho parasiticall* sho)es

26

5hapter 3

himself in bet"een them8 >t is in this sense that Fran+lin sa*s, @"ar is robber*, commerce is generall* cheating8A61 >f the transformation of merchants? mone* into capital is to be e9plained other"ise than b* the producers being simpl* cheated, a long series of intermediate steps "ould be necessar*, "hich, at present, "hen the simple circulation of commodities forms our onl* assumption, are entirel* "anting8 Bhat "e ha)e said "ith reference to merchants? capital, applies still more to mone*4lenders? capital8 >n merchants? capital, the t"o e9tremes, the mone* that is thro"n upon the mar+et, and the augmented mone* that is "ithdra"n from the mar+et, are at least connected b* a purchase and a sale, in other "ords b* the mo)ement of the circulation8 >n mone*4lenders? capital the form $454$ is reduced to the t"o e9tremes "ithout a mean, $4$ , mone* e9changed for more mone*, a form that is incompatible "ith the nature of mone*, and therefore remains ine9plicable from the standpoint of the circulation of commodities8 -ence (ristotle: @since chrematistic is a double science, one part belonging to commerce, the other to economic, the latter being necessar* and praise"orth*, the former based on circulation and "ith Dustice disappro)ed (for it is not based on Cature, but on mutual cheating!, therefore the usurer is most rightl* hated, because mone* itself is the source of his gain, and is not used for the purposes for "hich it "as in)ented8 For it originated for the e9change of commodities, but interest ma+es out of mone*, more mone*8 -ence its name (abcb\ interest and offspring!8 For the begotten are li+e those "ho beget them8 /ut interest is mone* of mone*, so that of all modes of ma+ing a li)ing, this is the most contrar* to Cature8A66 >n the course of our in)estigation, "e shall find that both merchants? capital and interest4bearing capital are deri)ati)e forms, and at the same time it "ill become clear, "h* these t"o forms appear in the course of histor* before the modern standard form of capital8 Be ha)e sho"n that surplus )alue cannot be created b* circulation, and, therefore, that in its formation, something must ta+e place in the bac+ground, "hich is not apparent in the circulation itself86: /ut can surplus )alue possibl* originate an*"here else than in circulation, "hich is the sum total of all the mutual relations of commodit*4o"ners, as far as the* are determined b* their commoditiesE (part from circulation, the commodit*4o"ner is in relation onl* "ith his o"n commodit*8 So far as regards )alue, that relation is limited to this, that the commodit* contains a Iuantit* of his o"n labour, that Iuantit* being measured b* a definite social standard8 'his Iuantit* is e9pressed b* the )alue of the commodit*, and since the )alue is rec+oned in mone* of account, this Iuantit* is also e9pressed b* the price, "hich "e "ill suppose to be ]178 /ut his labour is not represented both b* the )alue of the commodit*, and b* a surplus o)er that )alue, not b* a price of 17 that is also a price of 11, not b* a )alue that is greater than itself8 'he commodit* o"ner can, b* his labour, create )alue, but not self4e9panding )alue8 -e can increase the )alue of his commodit*, b* adding fresh labour, and therefore more )alue to the )alue in hand, b* ma+ing, for instance, leather into boots8 'he same material has no" more )alue, because it contains a greater Iuantit* of labour8 'he boots ha)e therefore more )alue than the leather, but the )alue of the leather remains "hat it "as; it has not e9panded itself, has not, during the ma+ing of the boots, anne9ed surplus )alue8 >t is therefore impossible that outside the sphere of circulation, a producer of commodities can, "ithout coming into contact "ith other commodit*4 o"ners, e9pand )alue, and conseIuentl* con)ert mone* or commodities into capital8

2:

5hapter 3

>t is therefore impossible for capital to be produced b* circulation, and it is eIuall* impossible for it to originate apart from circulation8 >t must ha)e its origin both in circulation and *et not in circulation8 Be ha)e, therefore, got a double result8 'he con)ersion of mone* into capital has to be e9plained on the basis of the la"s that regulate the e9change of commodities, in such a "a* that the starting4point is the e9change of eIui)alents8 6 =ur friend, $one*bags, "ho as *et is onl* an embr*o capitalist, must bu* his commodities at their )alue, must sell them at their )alue, and *et at the end of the process must "ithdra" more )alue from circulation than he thre" into it at starting8 -is de)elopment into a full4gro"n capitalist must ta+e place, both "ithin the sphere of circulation and "ithout it8 'hese are the conditions of the problem8 *ic Rhodus+ hic salta!63

(ha)ter 6* "he .%+in# and Se$$in# of /a0o%r1 Power

'he change of )alue that occurs in the case of mone* intended to be con)erted into capital, cannot ta+e place in the mone* itself, since in its function of means of purchase and of pa*ment, it does no more than realise the price of the commodit* it bu*s or pa*s for; and, as hard cash, it is )alue petrified, ne)er )ar*ing81 Lust as little can it originate in the second act of circulation, the re4sale of the commodit*, "hich does no more than transform the article from its bodil* form bac+ again into its mone*4form8 'he change must, therefore, ta+e place in the commodit* bought b* the first act, $45, but not in its )alue, for eIui)alents are e9changed, and the commodit* is paid for at its full )alue8 Be are, therefore, forced to the conclusion that the change originates in the use4)alue, as such, of the commodit*, i8e8, in its consumption8 >n order to be able to e9tract )alue from the consumption of a commodit*, our friend, $one*bags, must be so luc+* as to find, "ithin the sphere of circulation, in the mar+et, a commodit*, "hose use4)alue possesses the peculiar propert* of being a source of )alue, "hose actual consumption, therefore, is itself an embodiment of labour, and, conseIuentl*, a creation of )alue8 'he possessor of mone* does find on the mar+et such a special commodit* in capacit* for labour or labour4po"er8 /* labour4po"er or capacit* for labour is to be understood the aggregate of those mental and ph*sical capabilities e9isting in a human being, "hich he e9ercises "hene)er he produces a use4 )alue of an* description8 /ut in order that our o"ner of mone* ma* be able to find labour4po"er offered for sale as a commodit*, )arious conditions must first be fulfilled8 'he e9change of commodities of itself implies no other relations of dependence than those "hich, result from its o"n nature8 =n this assumption, labour4po"er can appear upon the mar+et as a commodit*, onl* if, and so far as, its possessor, the indi)idual "hose labour4po"er it is, offers it for sale, or sells it, as a commodit*8 >n order that he ma* be able to do this, he must ha)e it at his disposal, must be the untrammelled o"ner of his capacit* for labour, i8e8, of his person8 6 -e and the o"ner of mone* meet in the mar+et, and deal "ith each other as on the basis of eIual rights, "ith this difference alone, that one is bu*er, the other seller; both, therefore, eIual in the e*es of the la"8 'he continuance of this relation demands that the o"ner of the labour4po"er should sell it onl* for a definite period, for if he "ere to sell it rump and stump, once for all, he "ould be selling himself, con)erting himself from a free man into a sla)e, from an o"ner of a commodit* into a commodit*8 -e must constantl* loo+ upon his labour4po"er as his o"n propert*, his o"n commodit*, and this he can onl* do b* placing it at the disposal of the bu*er temporaril*, for a definite period of time8 /* this means alone can he a)oid renouncing his rights of o"nership o)er it8 : 'he second essential condition to the o"ner of mone* finding labour4po"er in the mar+et as a commodit* is this F that the labourer instead of being in the position to sell commodities in "hich his labour is incorporated, must be obliged to offer for sale as a commodit* that )er* labour4 po"er, "hich e9ists onl* in his li)ing self8 >n order that a man ma* be able to sell commodities other than labour4po"er, he must of course ha)e the means of production, as ra" material, implements, Pc8 Co boots can be made "ithout leather8 -e reIuires also the means of subsistence8 Cobod* F not e)en @a musician of the futureA F can li)e upon future products, or upon use4)alues in an unfinished state; and e)er since the first

23

5hapter 6

moment of his appearance on the "orld?s stage, man al"a*s has been, and must still be a consumer, both before and "hile he is producing8 >n a societ* "here all products assume the form of commodities, these commodities must be sold after the* ha)e been produced, it is onl* after their sale that the* can ser)e in satisf*ing the reIuirements of their producer8 'he time necessar* for their sale is superadded to that necessar* for their production8 For the con)ersion of his mone* into capital, therefore, the o"ner of mone* must meet in the mar+et "ith the free labourer, free in the double sense, that as a free man he can dispose of his labour4po"er as his o"n commodit*, and that on the other hand he has no other commodit* for sale, is short of e)er*thing necessar* for the realisation of his labour4po"er8 'he Iuestion "h* this free labourer confronts him in the mar+et, has no interest for the o"ner of mone*, "ho regards the labour4mar+et as a branch of the general mar+et for commodities8 (nd for the present it interests us Dust as little8 Be cling to the fact theoreticall*, as he does practicall*8 =ne thing, ho"e)er, is clear F Cature does not produce on the one side o"ners of mone* or commodities, and on the other men possessing nothing but their o"n labour4po"er8 'his relation has no natural basis, neither is its social basis one that is common to all historical periods8 >t is clearl* the result of a past historical de)elopment, the product of man* economic re)olutions, of the e9tinction of a "hole series of older forms of social production8 So, too, the economic categories, alread* discussed b* us, bear the stamp of histor*8 0efinite historical conditions are necessar* that a product ma* become a commodit*8 >t must not be produced as the immediate means of subsistence of the producer himself8 -ad "e gone further, and inIuired under "hat circumstances all, or e)en the maDorit* of products ta+e the form of commodities, "e should ha)e found that this can onl* happen "ith production of a )er* specific +ind, capitalist production8 Such an inIuir*, ho"e)er, "ould ha)e been foreign to the anal*sis of commodities8 #roduction and circulation of commodities can ta+e place, although the great mass of the obDects produced are intended for the immediate reIuirements of their producers, are not turned into commodities, and conseIuentl* social production is not *et b* a long "a* dominated in its length and breadth b* e9change4)alue8 'he appearance of products as commodities pre4 supposes such a de)elopment of the social di)ision of labour, that the separation of use4)alue from e9change4)alue, a separation "hich first begins "ith barter, must alread* ha)e been completed8 /ut such a degree of de)elopment is common to man* forms of societ*, "hich in other respects present the most )ar*ing historical features8 =n the other hand, if "e consider mone*, its e9istence implies a definite stage in the e9change of commodities8 'he particular functions of mone* "hich it performs, either as the mere eIui)alent of commodities, or as means of circulation, or means of pa*ment, as hoard or as uni)ersal mone*, point, according to the e9tent and relati)e preponderance of the one function or the other, to )er* different stages in the process of social production8 Net "e +no" b* e9perience that a circulation of commodities relati)el* primiti)e, suffices for the production of all these forms8 =ther"ise "ith capital8 'he historical conditions of its e9istence are b* no means gi)en "ith the mere circulation of mone* and commodities8 >t can spring into life, onl* "hen the o"ner of the means of production and subsistence meets in the mar+et "ith the free labourer selling his labour4po"er8 (nd this one historical condition comprises a "orld?s histor*8 5apital, therefore, announces from its first appearance a ne" epoch in the process of social production8 Be must no" e9amine more closel* this peculiar commodit*, labour4po"er8 <i+e all others it has a )alue83 -o" is that )alue determinedE 'he )alue of labour4po"er is determined, as in the case of e)er* other commodit*, b* the labour4 time necessar* for the production, and conseIuentl* also the reproduction, of this special article8 So far as it has )alue, it represents no more than a definite Iuantit* of the a)erage labour of

26

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societ* incorporated in it8 <abour4po"er e9ists onl* as a capacit*, or po"er of the li)ing indi)idual8 >ts production conseIuentl* pre4supposes his e9istence8 Gi)en the indi)idual, the production of labour4po"er consists in his reproduction of himself or his maintenance8 For his maintenance he reIuires a gi)en Iuantit* of the means of subsistence8 'herefore the labour4time reIuisite for the production of labour4po"er reduces itself to that necessar* for the production of those means of subsistence; in other "ords, the )alue of labour4po"er is the )alue of the means of subsistence necessar* for the maintenance of the labourer8 <abour4po"er, ho"e)er, becomes a realit* onl* b* its e9ercise; it sets itself in action onl* b* "or+ing8 /ut thereb* a definite Iuantit* of human muscle, ner)e8 brain, Pc8, is "asted, and these reIuire to be restored8 'his increased e9penditure demands a larger income8 6 >f the o"ner of labour4po"er "or+s to4da*, to4morro" he must again be able to repeat the same process in the same conditions as regards health and strength8 -is means of subsistence must therefore be sufficient to maintain him in his normal state as a labouring indi)idual8 -is natural "ants, such as food, clothing, fuel, and housing, )ar* according to the climatic and other ph*sical conditions of his countr*8 =n the other hand, the number and e9tent of his so4called necessar* "ants, as also the modes of satisf*ing them, are themsel)es the product of historical de)elopment, and depend therefore to a great e9tent on the degree of ci)ilisation of a countr*, more particularl* on the conditions under "hich, and conseIuentl* on the habits and degree of comfort in "hich, the class of free labourers has been formed87 >n contradistinction therefore to the case of other commodities, there enters into the determination of the )alue of labour4po"er a historical and moral element8 Ce)ertheless, in a gi)en countr*, at a gi)en period, the a)erage Iuantit* of the means of subsistence necessar* for the labourer is practicall* +no"n8 'he o"ner of labour4po"er is mortal8 >f then his appearance in the mar+et is to be continuous, and the continuous con)ersion of mone* into capital assumes this, the seller of labour4po"er must perpetuate himself, @in the "a* that e)er* li)ing indi)idual perpetuates himself, b* procreation8A8 'he labour4po"er "ithdra"n from the mar+et b* "ear and tear and death, must be continuall* replaced b*, at the )er* least, an eIual amount of fresh labour4po"er8 -ence the sum of the means of subsistence necessar* for the production of labour4po"er must include the means necessar* for the labourer?s substitutes, i8e8, his children, in order that this race of peculiar commodit*4o"ners ma* perpetuate its appearance in the mar+et8 2 >n order to modif* the human organism, so that it ma* acIuire s+ill and handiness in a gi)en branch of industr*, and become labour4po"er of a special +ind, a special education or training is reIuisite, and this, on its part, costs an eIui)alent in commodities of a greater or less amount8 'his amount )aries according to the more or less complicated character of the labour4po"er8 'he e9penses of this education (e9cessi)el* small in the case of ordinar* labour4po"er!, enter pro tanto into the total )alue spent in its production8 'he )alue of labour4po"er resol)es itself into the )alue of a definite Iuantit* of the means of subsistence8 >t therefore )aries "ith the )alue of these means or "ith the Iuantit* of labour reIuisite for their production8 Some of the means of subsistence, such as food and fuel, are consumed dail*, and a fresh suppl* must be pro)ided dail*8 =thers such as clothes and furniture last for longer periods and reIuire to be replaced onl* at longer inter)als8 =ne article must be bought or paid for dail*, another "ee+l*, another Iuarterl*, and so on8 /ut in "hate)er "a* the sum total of these outla*s ma* be spread o)er the *ear, the* must be co)ered b* the a)erage income, ta+ing one da* "ith another8 >f the total of the commodities reIuired dail* for the production of labour4po"er Y (, and those reIuired "ee+l* Y /, and those reIuired Iuarterl* Y 5, and so on, the dail* a)erage of these commodities Y (:63( _ 36/ _ 5 _ Pc! J :638 Suppose that in this mass of commodities

27

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reIuisite for the a)erage da* there are embodied 6 hours of social labour, then there is incorporated dail* in labour4po"er half a da*?s a)erage social labour, in other "ords, half a da*?s labour is reIuisite for the dail* production of labour4po"er8 'his Iuantit* of labour forms the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er or the )alue of the labour4po"er dail* reproduced8 >f half a da*?s a)erage social labour is incorporated in three shillings, then three shillings is the price corresponding to the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er8 >f its o"ner therefore offers it for sale at three shillings a da*, its selling price is eIual to its )alue, and according to our supposition, our friend $one*bags, "ho is intent upon con)erting his three shillings into capital, pa*s this )alue8 'he minimum limit of the )alue of labour4po"er is determined b* the )alue of the commodities, "ithout the dail* suppl* of "hich the labourer cannot rene" his )ital energ*, conseIuentl* b* the )alue of those means of subsistence that are ph*sicall* indispensable8 >f the price of labour4po"er fall to this minimum, it falls belo" its )alue, since under such circumstances it can be maintained and de)eloped onl* in a crippled state8 /ut the )alue of e)er* commodit* is determined b* the labour4time reIuisite to turn it out so as to be of normal Iualit*8 >t is a )er* cheap sort of sentimentalit* "hich declares this method of determining the )alue of labour4po"er, a method prescribed b* the )er* nature of the case, to be a brutal method, and "hich "ails "ith &ossi that, @'o comprehend capacit* for labour (puissance de tra)ail! at the same time that "e ma+e abstraction from the means of subsistence of the labourers during the process of production, is to comprehend a phantom (dtre de raison!8 Bhen "e spea+ of labour, or capacit* for labour, "e spea+ at the same time of the labourer and his means of subsistence, of labourer and "ages8A17 Bhen "e spea+ of capacit* for labour, "e do not spea+ of labour, an* more than "hen "e spea+ of capacit* for digestion, "e spea+ of digestion8 'he latter process reIuires something more than a good stomach8 Bhen "e spea+ of capacit* for labour, "e do not abstract from the necessar* means of subsistence8 =n the contrar*, their )alue is e9pressed in its )alue8 >f his capacit* for labour remains unsold, the labourer deri)es no benefit from it, but rather he "ill feel it to be a cruel nature4imposed necessit* that this capacit* has cost for its production a definite amount of the means of subsistence and that it "ill continue to do so for its reproduction8 -e "ill then agree "ith Sismondi: @that capacit* for labour 888 is nothing unless it is sold8A 11 =ne conseIuence of the peculiar nature of labour4po"er as a commodit* is, that its use4)alue does not, on the conclusion of the contract bet"een the bu*er and seller, immediatel* pass into the hands of the former8 >ts )alue, li+e that of e)er* other commodit*, is alread* fi9ed before it goes into circulation, since a definite Iuantit* of social labour has been spent upon it; but its use4 )alue consists in the subseIuent e9ercise of its force8 'he alienation of labour4po"er and its actual appropriation b* the bu*er, its emplo*ment as a use4)alue, are separated b* an inter)al of time8 /ut in those cases in "hich the formal alienation b* sale of the use4)alue of a commodit*, is not simultaneous "ith its actual deli)er* to the bu*er, the mone* of the latter usuall* functions as means of pa*ment816 >n e)er* countr* in "hich the capitalist mode of production reigns, it is the custom not to pa* for labour4po"er before it has been e9ercised for the period fi9ed b* the contract, as for e9ample, the end of each "ee+8 >n all cases, therefore, the use4)alue of the labour4 po"er is ad)anced to the capitalist: the labourer allo"s the bu*er to consume it before he recei)es pa*ment of the price; he e)er*"here gi)es credit to the capitalist8 'hat this credit is no mere fiction, is sho"n not onl* b* the occasional loss of "ages on the ban+ruptc* of the capitalist, 1: but also b* a series of more enduring conseIuences8 1 Ce)ertheless, "hether mone* ser)es as a means of purchase or as a means of pa*ment, this ma+es no alteration in the nature of the e9change of commodities8 'he price of the labour4po"er is fi9ed b* the contract, although it is not realised till later, li+e the rent of a house8 'he labour4po"er is sold, although it is onl* paid for at a later period8 >t "ill, therefore, be useful, for a clear comprehension of the relation of the

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parties, to assume pro)isionall*, that the possessor of labour4po"er, on the occasion of each sale, immediatel* recei)es the price stipulated to be paid for it8 Be no" +no" ho" the )alue paid b* the purchaser to the possessor of this peculiar commodit*, labour4po"er, is determined8 'he use4)alue "hich the former gets in e9change, manifests itself onl* in the actual utilisation, in the consumption of the labour4po"er8 'he mone*4o"ner bu*s e)er*thing necessar* for this purpose, such as ra" material, in the mar+et, and pa*s for it at its full )alue8 'he consumption of labour4po"er is at one and the same time the production of commodities and of surplus )alue8 'he consumption of labour4po"er is completed, as in the case of e)er* other commodit*, outside the limits of the mar+et or of the sphere of circulation8 (ccompanied b* $r8 $one*bags and b* the possessor of labour4po"er, "e therefore ta+e lea)e for a time of this nois* sphere, "here e)er*thing ta+es place on the surface and in )ie" of all men, and follo" them both into the hidden abode of production, on "hose threshold there stares us in the face @Co admittance e9cept on business8A -ere "e shall see, not onl* ho" capital produces, but ho" capital is produced8 Be shall at last force the secret of profit ma+ing8 'his sphere that "e are deserting, "ithin "hose boundaries the sale and purchase of labour4po"er goes on, is in fact a )er* Eden of the innate rights of man8 'here alone rule Freedom, EIualit*, #ropert* and /entham8 Freedom, because both bu*er and seller of a commodit*, sa* of labour4 po"er, are constrained onl* b* their o"n free "ill8 'he* contract as free agents, and the agreement the* come to, is but the form in "hich the* gi)e legal e9pression to their common "ill8 EIualit*, because each enters into relation "ith the other, as "ith a simple o"ner of commodities, and the* e9change eIui)alent for eIui)alent8 #ropert*, because each disposes onl* of "hat is his o"n8 (nd /entham, because each loo+s onl* to himself8 'he onl* force that brings them together and puts them in relation "ith each other, is the selfishness, the gain and the pri)ate interests of each8 Each loo+s to himself onl*, and no one troubles himself about the rest, and Dust because the* do so, do the* all, in accordance "ith the pre4established harmon* of things, or under the auspices of an all4shre"d pro)idence, "or+ together to their mutual ad)antage, for the common "eal and in the interest of all8 =n lea)ing this sphere of simple circulation or of e9change of commodities, "hich furnishes the @Free4trader ;ulgarisA "ith his )ie"s and ideas, and "ith the standard b* "hich he Dudges a societ* based on capital and "ages, "e thin+ "e can percei)e a change in the ph*siognom* of our dramatis personae8 -e, "ho before "as the mone*4o"ner, no" strides in front as capitalist; the possessor of labour4po"er follo"s as his labourer8 'he one "ith an air of importance, smir+ing, intent on business; the other, timid and holding bac+, li+e one "ho is bringing his o"n hide to mar+et and has nothing to e9pect but F a hiding8

Part 3: The Production of Absolute urplus !alue

(ha)ter 7* "he /a0o%r1Process and the Process of Prod%cin# S%r)$%s 2a$%e
Section 1: The (abour"Process or the Production of !se"Values
'he capitalist bu*s labour4po"er in order to use it; and labour4po"er in use is labour itself8 'he purchaser of labour4po"er consumes it b* setting the seller of it to "or+8 /* "or+ing, the latter becomes actuall*, "hat before he onl* "as potentiall*, labour4po"er in action, a labourer8 >n order that his labour ma* re4appear in a commodit*, he must, before all things, e9pend it on something useful, on something capable of satisf*ing a "ant of some sort8 -ence, "hat the capitalist sets the labourer to produce, is a particular use4)alue, a specified article8 'he fact that the production of use4)alues, or goods, is carried on under the control of a capitalist and on his behalf, does not alter the general character of that production8 Be shall, therefore, in the first place, ha)e to consider the labour4process independentl* of the particular form it assumes under gi)en social conditions8 <abour is, in the first place, a process in "hich both man and Cature participate, and in "hich man of his o"n accord starts, regulates, and controls the material re4actions bet"een himself and Cature8 -e opposes himself to Cature as one of her o"n forces, setting in motion arms and legs, head and hands, the natural forces of his bod*, in order to appropriate Cature?s productions in a form adapted to his o"n "ants8 /* thus acting on the e9ternal "orld and changing it, he at the same time changes his o"n nature8 -e de)elops his slumbering po"ers and compels them to act in obedience to his s"a*8 Be are not no" dealing "ith those primiti)e instincti)e forms of labour that remind us of the mere animal8 (n immeasurable inter)al of time separates the state of things in "hich a man brings his labour4po"er to mar+et for sale as a commodit*, from that state in "hich human labour "as still in its first instincti)e stage8 Be pre4suppose labour in a form that stamps it as e9clusi)el* human8 ( spider conducts operations that resemble those of a "ea)er, and a bee puts to shame man* an architect in the construction of her cells8 /ut "hat distinguishes the "orst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in realit*8 (t the end of e)er* labour4process, "e get a result that alread* e9isted in the imagination of the labourer at its commencement8 -e not onl* effects a change of form in the material on "hich he "or+s, but he also realises a purpose of his o"n that gi)es the la" to his modus operandi, and to "hich he must subordinate his "ill8 (nd this subordination is no mere momentar* act8 /esides the e9ertion of the bodil* organs, the process demands that, during the "hole operation, the "or+man?s "ill be steadil* in consonance "ith his purpose8 'his means close attention8 'he less he is attracted b* the nature of the "or+, and the mode in "hich it is carried on, and the less, therefore, he enDo*s it as something "hich gi)es pla* to his bodil* and mental po"ers, the more close his attention is forced to be8

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'he elementar* factors of the labour4process are 1, the personal acti)it* of man, i$e8, "or+ itself, 6, the subDect of that "or+, and :, its instruments8 'he soil (and this, economicall* spea+ing, includes "ater! in the )irgin state in "hich it supplies 1 man "ith necessaries or the means of subsistence read* to hand, e9ists independentl* of him, and is the uni)ersal subDect of human labour8 (ll those things "hich labour merel* separates from immediate conne9ion "ith their en)ironment, are subDects of labour spontaneousl* pro)ided b* Cature8 Such are fish "hich "e catch and ta+e from their element, "ater, timber "hich "e fell in the )irgin forest, and ores "hich "e e9tract from their )eins8 >f, on the other hand, the subDect of labour has, so to sa*, been filtered through pre)ious labour, "e call it ra" material; such is ore alread* e9tracted and read* for "ashing8 (ll ra" material is the subDect of labour, but not e)er* subDect of labour is ra" material: it can onl* become so, after it has undergone some alteration b* means of labour8 (n instrument of labour is a thing, or a comple9 of things, "hich the labourer interposes bet"een himself and the subDect of his labour, and "hich ser)es as the conductor of his acti)it*8 -e ma+es use of the mechanical, ph*sical, and chemical properties of some substances in order to ma+e other substances subser)ient to his aims8 6 <ea)ing out of consideration such read*4made means of subsistence as fruits, in gathering "hich a man?s o"n limbs ser)e as the instruments of his labour, the first thing of "hich the labourer possesses himself is not the subDect of labour but its instrument8 'hus Cature becomes one of the organs of his acti)it*, one that he anne9es to his o"n bodil* organs, adding stature to himself in spite of the /ible8 (s the earth is his original larder, so too it is his original tool house8 >t supplies him, for instance, "ith stones for thro"ing, grinding, pressing, cutting, Pc8 'he earth itself is an instrument of labour, but "hen used as such in agriculture implies a "hole series of other instruments and a comparati)el* high de)elopment of labour8: Co sooner does labour undergo the least de)elopment, than it reIuires speciall* prepared instruments8 'hus in the oldest ca)es "e find stone implements and "eapons8 >n the earliest period of human histor* domesticated animals, i$e8, animals "hich ha)e been bred for the purpose, and ha)e undergone modifications b* means of labour, pla* the chief part as instruments of labour along "ith speciall* prepared stones, "ood, bones, and shells8 'he use and fabrication of instruments of labour, although e9isting in the germ among certain species of animals, is specificall* characteristic of the human labour4process, and Fran+lin therefore defines man as a tool4ma+ing animal8 &elics of b*gone instruments of labour possess the same importance for the in)estigation of e9tinct economic forms of societ*, as do fossil bones for the determination of e9tinct species of animals8 >t is not the articles made, but ho" the* are made, and b* "hat instruments, that enables us to distinguish different economic epochs8 3 >nstruments of labour not onl* suppl* a standard of the degree of de)elopment to "hich human labour has attained, but the* are also indicators of the social conditions under "hich that labour is carried on8 (mong the instruments of labour, those of a mechanical nature, "hich, ta+en as a "hole, "e ma* call the bone and muscles of production, offer much more decided characteristics of a gi)en epoch of production, than those "hich, li+e pipes, tubs, bas+ets, Dars, Pc8, ser)e onl* to hold the materials for labour, "hich latter class, "e ma* in a general "a*, call the )ascular s*stem of production8 'he latter first begins to pla* an important part in the chemical industries8 >n a "ider sense "e ma* include among the instruments of labour, in addition to those things that are used for directl* transferring labour to its subDect, and "hich therefore, in one "a* or another, ser)e as conductors of acti)it*, all such obDects as are necessar* for carr*ing on the labour4 process8 'hese do not enter directl* into the process, but "ithout them it is either impossible for it to ta+e place at all, or possible onl* to a partial e9tent8 =nce more "e find the earth to be a uni)ersal instrument of this sort, for it furnishes a locus standi to the labourer and a field of

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emplo*ment for his acti)it*8 (mong instruments that are the result of pre)ious labour and also belong to this class, "e find "or+shops, canals, roads, and so forth8 >n the labour4process, therefore, man?s acti)it*, "ith the help of the instruments of labour, effects an alteration, designed from the commencement, in the material "or+ed upon8 'he process disappears in the product, the latter is a use4)alue, Cature?s material adapted b* a change of form to the "ants of man8 <abour has incorporated itself "ith its subDect: the former is materialised, the latter transformed8 'hat "hich in the labourer appeared as mo)ement, no" appears in the product as a fi9ed Iualit* "ithout motion8 'he blac+smith forges and the product is a forging8 >f "e e9amine the "hole process from the point of )ie" of its result, the product, it is plain that both the instruments and the subDect of labour, are means of production, 6 and that the labour itself is producti)e labour87 'hough a use4)alue, in the form of a product, issues from the labour4process, *et other use4 )alues, products of pre)ious labour, enter into it as means of production8 'he same4use4)alue is both the product of a pre)ious process, and a means of production in a later process8 #roducts are therefore not onl* results, but also essential conditions of labour8 Bith the e9ception of the e9tracti)e industries, in "hich the material for labour is pro)ided immediatel* b* Cature, such as mining, hunting, fishing, and agriculture (so far as the latter is confined to brea+ing up )irgin soil!, all branches of industr* manipulate ra" material, obDects alread* filtered through labour, alread* products of labour8 Such is seed in agriculture8 (nimals and plants, "hich "e are accustomed to consider as products of Cature, are in their present form, not onl* products of, sa* last *ear?s labour, but the result of a gradual transformation, continued through man* generations, under man?s superintendence, and b* means of his labour8 /ut in the great maDorit* of cases, instruments of labour sho" e)en to the most superficial obser)er, traces of the labour of past ages8 &a" material ma* either form the principal substance of a product, or it ma* enter into its formation onl* as an accessor*8 (n accessor* ma* be consumed b* the instruments of labour, as coal under a boiler, oil b* a "heel, ha* b* draft4horses, or it ma* be mi9ed "ith the ra" material in order to produce some modification thereof, as chlorine into unbleached linen, coal "ith iron, d*e4stuff "ith "ool, or again, it ma* help to carr* on the "or+ itself, as in the case of the materials used for heating and lighting "or+shops8 'he distinction bet"een principal substance and accessor* )anishes in the true chemical industries, because there none of the ra" material re4 appears, in its original composition, in the substance of the product8 8 E)er* obDect possesses )arious properties, and is thus capable of being applied to different uses8 =ne and the same product ma* therefore ser)e as ra" material in )er* different processes8 5orn, for e9ample, is a ra" material for millers, starch4manufacturers, distillers, and cattlebreeders8 >t also enters as ra" material into its o"n production in the shape of seed; coal, too, is at the same time the product of, and a means of production in, coal4mining8 (gain, a particular product ma* be used in one and the same process, both as an instrument of labour and as ra" material8 'a+e, for instance, the fattening of cattle, "here the animal is the ra" material, and at the same time an instrument for the production of manure8 ( product, though read* for immediate consumption, ma* *et ser)e as ra" material for a further product, as grapes "hen the* become the ra" material for "ine8 =n the other hand, labour ma* gi)e us its product in such a form, that "e can use it onl* as ra" material, as is the case "ith cotton, thread, and *arn8 Such a ra" material, though itself a product, ma* ha)e to go through a "hole series of different processes: in each of these in turn, it ser)es, "ith constantl* )ar*ing form, as ra" material, until the last process of the series lea)es it a perfect product, read* for indi)idual consumption, or for use as an instrument of labour8

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-ence "e see, that "hether a use4)alue is to be regarded as ra" material, as instrument of labour, or as product, this is determined entirel* b* its function in the labour4process, b* the position it there occupies: as this )aries, so does its character8 Bhene)er therefore a product enters as a means of production into a ne" labour4process, it thereb* loses its character of product, and becomes a mere factor in the process8 ( spinner treats spindles onl* as implements for spinning, and fla9 onl* as the material that he spins8 =f course it is impossible to spin "ithout material and spindles; and therefore the e9istence of these things as products, at the commencement of the spinning operation, must be presumed: but in the process itself, the fact that the* are products of pre)ious labour, is a matter of utter indifference; Dust as in the digesti)e process, it is of no importance "hate)er, that bread is the produce of the pre)ious labour of the farmer, the miller, and the ba+er8 =n the contrar*, it is generall* b* their imperfections as products, that the means of production in an* process assert themsel)es in their character of products8 ( blunt +nife or "ea+ thread forcibl* remind us of $r8 (8, the cutler, or $r8 /8, the spinner8 >n the finished product the labour b* means of "hich it has acIuired its useful Iualities is not palpable, has apparentl* )anished8 ( machine "hich does not ser)e the purposes of labour, is useless8 >n addition, it falls a pre* to the destructi)e influence of natural forces8 >ron rusts and "ood rots8 Narn "ith "hich "e neither "ea)e nor +nit, is cotton "asted8 <i)ing labour must sei1e upon these things and rouse them from their death4sleep, change them from mere possible use4)alues into real and effecti)e ones8 /athed in the fire of labour, appropriated as part and parcel of labour?s organism, and, as it "ere, made ali)e for the performance of their functions in the process, the* are in truth consumed, but consumed "ith a purpose, as elementar* constituents of ne" use4)alues, of ne" products, e)er read* as means of subsistence for indi)idual consumption, or as means of production for some ne" labour4process8 >f then, on the one hand, finished products are not onl* results, but also necessar* conditions, of the labour4process, on the other hand, their assumption into that process, their contact "ith li)ing labour, is the sole means b* "hich the* can be made to retain their character of use4)alues, and be utilised8 <abour uses up its material factors, its subDect and its instruments, consumes them, and is therefore a process of consumption8 Such producti)e consumption is distinguished from indi)idual consumption b* this, that the latter uses up products, as means of subsistence for the li)ing indi)idual; the former, as means "hereb* alone, labour, the labour4po"er of the li)ing indi)idual, is enabled to act8 'he product, therefore, of indi)idual consumption, is the consumer himself; the result of producti)e consumption, is a product distinct from the consumer8 >n so far then, as its instruments and subDects are themsel)es products, labour consumes products in order to create products, or in other "ords, consumes one set of products b* turning them into means of production for another set8 /ut, Dust as in the beginning, the onl* participators in the labour4process "ere man and the earth, "hich latter e9ists independentl* of man, so e)en no" "e still emplo* in the process man* means of production, pro)ided directl* b* Cature, that do not represent an* combination of natural substances "ith human labour8 'he labour4process, resol)ed as abo)e into its simple elementar* factors, is human action "ith a )ie" to the production of use4)alues, appropriation of natural substances to human reIuirements; it is the necessar* condition for effecting e9change of matter bet"een man and Cature; it is the e)erlasting Cature4imposed condition of human e9istence, and therefore is independent of e)er* social phase of that e9istence, or rather, is common to e)er* such phase8 >t "as, therefore, not necessar* to represent our labourer in conne9ion "ith other labourers; man and his labour on one side, Cature and its materials on the other, sufficed8 (s the taste of the porridge does not tell *ou

17:

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"ho gre" the oats, no more does this simple process tell *ou of itself "hat are the social conditions under "hich it is ta+ing place, "hether under the sla)e4o"ner?s brutal lash, or the an9ious e*e of the capitalist, "hether 5incinnatus carries it on in tilling his modest farm or a sa)age in +illing "ild animals "ith stones82 <et us no" return to our "ould4be capitalist8 Be left him Dust after he had purchased, in the open mar+et, all the necessar* factors of the labour process; its obDecti)e factors, the means of production, as "ell as its subDecti)e factor, labour4po"er8 Bith the +een e*e of an e9pert, he has selected the means of production and the +ind of labour4po"er best adapted to his particular trade, be it spinning, bootma+ing, or an* other +ind8 -e then proceeds to consume the commodit*, the labour4po"er that he has Dust bought, b* causing the labourer, the impersonation of that labour4po"er, to consume the means of production b* his labour8 'he general character of the labour4process is e)identl* not changed b* the fact, that the labourer "or+s for the capitalist instead of for himself; moreo)er, the particular methods and operations emplo*ed in bootma+ing or spinning are not immediatel* changed b* the inter)ention of the capitalist8 -e must begin b* ta+ing the labour4po"er as he finds it in the mar+et, and conseIuentl* be satisfied "ith labour of such a +ind as "ould be found in the period immediatel* preceding the rise of capitalists8 5hanges in the methods of production b* the subordination of labour to capital, can ta+e place onl* at a later period, and therefore "ill ha)e to be treated of in a later chapter8 'he labour4process, turned into the process b* "hich the capitalist consumes labour4po"er, e9hibits t"o characteristic phenomena8 First, the labourer "or+s under the control of the capitalist to "hom his labour belongs; the capitalist ta+ing good care that the "or+ is done in a proper manner, and that the means of production are used "ith intelligence, so that there is no unnecessar* "aste of ra" material, and no "ear and tear of the implements be*ond "hat is necessaril* caused b* the "or+8 Secondl*, the product is the propert* of the capitalist and not that of the labourer, its immediate producer8 Suppose that a capitalist pa*s for a da*?s labour4po"er at its )alue; then the right to use that po"er for a da* belongs to him, Dust as much as the right to use an* other commodit*, such as a horse that he has hired for the da*8 'o the purchaser of a commodit* belongs its use, and the seller of labour4po"er, b* gi)ing his labour, does no more, in realit*, than part "ith the use4)alue that he has sold8 From the instant he steps into the "or+shop, the use4)alue of his labour4po"er, and therefore also its use, "hich is labour, belongs to the capitalist8 /* the purchase of labour4 po"er, the capitalist incorporates labour, as a li)ing ferment, "ith the lifeless constituents of the product8 From his point of )ie", the labour4process is nothing more than the consumption of the commodit* purchased, i$ e$+ of labour4po"er; but this consumption cannot be effected e9cept b* suppl*ing the labour4po"er "ith the means of production8 'he labour4process is a process bet"een things that the capitalist has purchased, things that ha)e become his propert*8 'he product of this process belongs, therefore, to him, Dust as much as does the "ine "hich is the product of a process of fermentation completed in his cellar8 17

Section ': The Production of Surplus Value

'he product appropriated b* the capitalist is a use4)alue, as *arn, for e9ample, or boots8 /ut, although boots are, in one sense, the basis of all social progress, and our capitalist is a decided @progressist,A *et he does not manufacture boots for their o"n sa+e8 %se4)alue is, b* no means, the thing @Iu?on aime pour lui4mdmeA in the production of commodities8 %se4)alues are onl* produced b* capitalists, because, and in so far as, the* are the material substratum, the depositories of e9change4)alue8 =ur capitalist has t"o obDects in )ie": in the first place, he "ants to produce a use4)alue that has a )alue in e9change, that is to sa*, an article destined to be sold, a

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commodit*; and secondl*, he desires to produce a commodit* "hose )alue shall be greater than the sum of the )alues of the commodities used in its production, that is, of the means of production and the labour4po"er, that he purchased "ith his good mone* in the open mar+et8 -is aim is to produce not onl* a use4)alue, but a commodit* also; not onl* use4)alue, but )alue; not onl* )alue, but at the same time surplus )alue8 >t must be borne in mind, that "e are no" dealing "ith the production of commodities, and that, up to this point, "e ha)e onl* considered one aspect of the process8 Lust as commodities are, at the same time, use4)alues and )alues, so the process of producing them must be a labour4process, and at the same time, a process of creating )alue8 11 <et us no" e9amine production as a creation of )alue8 Be +no" that the )alue of each commodit* is determined b* the Iuantit* of labour e9pended on and materialised in it, b* the "or+ing4time necessar*, under gi)en social conditions, for its production8 'his rule also holds good in the case of the product that accrued to our capitalist, as the result of the labour4process carried on for him8 (ssuming this product to be 17 lbs8 of *arn, our first step is to calculate the Iuantit* of labour realised in it8 For spinning the *arn, ra" material is reIuired; suppose in this case 17 lbs8 of cotton8 Be ha)e no need at present to in)estigate the )alue of this cotton, for our capitalist has, "e "ill assume, bought it at its full )alue, sa* of ten shillings8 >n this price the labour reIuired for the production of the cotton is alread* e9pressed in terms of the a)erage labour of societ*8 Be "ill further assume that the "ear and tear of the spindle, "hich, for our present purpose, ma* represent all other instruments of labour emplo*ed, amounts to the )alue of 6s8 >f, then, t"ent*4four hours? labour, or t"o "or+ing da*s, are reIuired to produce the Iuantit* of gold represented b* t"el)e shillings, "e ha)e here, to begin "ith, t"o da*s? labour alread* incorporated in the *arn8 Be must not let oursel)es be misled b* the circumstance that the cotton has ta+en a ne" shape "hile the substance of the spindle has to a certain e9tent been used up8 /* the general la" of )alue, if the )alue of 7 lbs8 of *arn Y the )alue of 7 lbs8 of cotton _ the )alue of a "hole spindle, i$ e$+ if the same "or+ing4time is reIuired to produce the commodities on either side of this eIuation, then 17 lbs8 of *arn are an eIui)alent for 17 lbs8 of cotton, together "ith one4fourth of a spindle8 >n the case "e are considering the same "or+ing4time is materialised in the 17 lbs8 of *arn on the one hand, and in the 17 lbs8 of cotton and the fraction of a spindle on the other8 'herefore, "hether )alue appears in cotton, in a spindle, or in *arn, ma+es no difference in the amount of that )alue8 'he spindle and cotton, instead of resting Iuietl* side b* side, Doin together in the process, their forms are altered, and the* are turned into *arn; but their )alue is no more affected b* this fact than it "ould be if the* had been simpl* e9changed for their eIui)alent in *arn8 'he labour reIuired for the production of the cotton, the ra" material of the *arn, is part of the labour necessar* to produce the *arn, and is therefore contained in the *arn8 'he same applies to the labour embodied in the spindle, "ithout "hose "ear and tear the cotton could not be spun8 -ence, in determining the )alue of the *arn, or the labour4time reIuired for its production, all the special processes carried on at )arious times and in different places, "hich "ere necessar*, first to produce the cotton and the "asted portion of the spindle, and then "ith the cotton and spindle to spin the *arn, ma* together be loo+ed on as different and successi)e phases of one and the same process8 'he "hole of the labour in the *arn is past labour; and it is a matter of no importance that the operations necessar* for the production of its constituent elements "ere carried on at times "hich, referred to the present, are more remote than the final operation of spinning8 >f a definite Iuantit* of labour, sa* thirt* da*s, is reIuisite to build a house, the total amount of labour incorporated in it is not altered b* the fact that the "or+ of the last da* is done

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t"ent*4nine da*s later than that of the first8 'herefore the labour contained in the ra" material and the instruments of labour can be treated Dust as if it "ere labour e9pended in an earlier stage of the spinning process, before the labour of actual spinning commenced8 'he )alues of the means of production, i$ e$+ the cotton and the spindle, "hich )alues are e9pressed in the price of t"el)e shillings, are therefore constituent parts of the )alue of the *arn, or, in other "ords, of the )alue of the product8 '"o conditions must ne)ertheless be fulfilled8 First, the cotton and spindle must concur in the production of a use4)alue; the* must in the present case become *arn8 ;alue is independent of the particular use4)alue b* "hich it is borne, but it must be embodied in a use4)alue of some +ind8 Secondl*, the time occupied in the labour of production must not e9ceed the time reall* necessar* under the gi)en social conditions of the case8 'herefore, if no more than 1 lb8 of cotton be reIuisite to spin 1 lbs8 of *arn, care must be ta+en that no more than this "eight of cotton is consumed in the production of 1 lbs8 of *arn; and similarl* "ith regard to the spindle8 'hough the capitalist ha)e a hobb*, and use a gold instead of a steel spindle, *et the onl* labour that counts for an*thing in the )alue of the *arn is that "hich "ould be reIuired to produce a steel spindle, because no more is necessar* under the gi)en social conditions8 Be no" +no" "hat portion of the )alue of the *arn is o"ing to the cotton and the spindle8 >t amounts to t"el)e shillings or the )alue of t"o da*s? "or+8 'he ne9t point for our consideration is, "hat portion of the )alue of the *arn is added to the cotton b* the labour of the spinner8 Be ha)e no" to consider this labour under a )er* different aspect from that "hich it had during the labour4process; there, "e )ie"ed it solel* as that particular +ind of human acti)it* "hich changes cotton into *arn; there, the more the labour "as suited to the "or+, the better the *arn, other circumstances remaining the same8 'he labour of the spinner "as then )ie"ed as specificall* different from other +inds of producti)e labour, different on the one hand in its special aim, )i18, spinning, different, on the other hand, in the special character of its operations, in the special nature of its means of production and in the special use4)alue of its product8 For the operation of spinning, cotton and spindles are a necessit*, but for ma+ing rifled cannon the* "ould be of no use "hate)er8 -ere, on the contrar*, "here "e consider the labour of the spinner onl* so far as it is )alue4creating, i$e$, a source of )alue, his labour differs in no respect from the labour of the man "ho bores cannon, or ("hat here more nearl* concerns us!, from the labour of the cotton4planter and spindle4ma+er incorporated in the means of production8 >t is solel* b* reason of this identit*, that cotton planting, spindle ma+ing and spinning, are capable of forming the component parts differing onl* Iuantitati)el* from each other, of one "hole, namel*, the )alue of the *arn8 -ere, "e ha)e nothing more to do "ith the Iualit*, the nature and the specific character of the labour, but merel* "ith its Iuantit*8 (nd this simpl* reIuires to be calculated8 Be proceed upon the assumption that spinning is simple, uns+illed labour, the a)erage labour of a gi)en state of societ*8 -ereafter "e shall see that the contrar* assumption "ould ma+e no difference8 Bhile the labourer is at "or+, his labour constantl* undergoes a transformation: from being motion, it becomes an obDect "ithout motion; from being the labourer "or+ing, it becomes the thing produced8 (t the end of one hour?s spinning, that act is represented b* a definite Iuantit* of *arn; in other "ords, a definite Iuantit* of labour, namel* that of one hour, has become embodied in the cotton8 Be sa* labour, i$e8, the e9penditure of his )ital force b* the spinner, and not spinning labour, because the special "or+ of spinning counts here, onl* so far as it is the e9penditure of labour4po"er in general, and not in so far as it is the specific "or+ of the spinner8 >n the process "e are no" considering it is of e9treme importance, that no more time be consumed in the "or+ of transforming the cotton into *arn than is necessar* under the gi)en

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social conditions8 >f under normal, i$e8, a)erage social conditions of production, a pounds of cotton ought to be made into b pounds of *arn b* one hour?s labour, then a da*?s labour does not count as 16 hours? labour unless 16 a pounds of cotton ha)e been made into 16 b pounds of *arn; for in the creation of )alue, the time that is sociall* necessar* alone counts8 Cot onl* the labour, but also the ra" material and the product no" appear in Iuite a ne" light, )er* different from that in "hich "e )ie"ed them in the labour4process pure and simple8 'he ra" material ser)es no" merel* as an absorbent of a definite Iuantit* of labour8 /* this absorption it is in fact changed into *arn, because it is spun, because labour4po"er in the form of spinning is added to it; but the product, the *arn, is no" nothing more than a measure of the labour absorbed b* the cotton8 >f in one hour 1 6J: lbs8 of cotton can be spun into 1 6J: lbs8 of *arn, then 17 lbs8 of *arn indicate the absorption of 6 hours? labour8 0efinite Iuantities of product, these Iuantities being determined b* e9perience, no" represent nothing but definite Iuantities of labour, definite masses of cr*stallised labour4time8 'he* are nothing more than the materialisation of so man* hours or so man* da*s of social labour8 Be are here no more concerned about the facts, that the labour is the specific "or+ of spinning, that its subDect is cotton and its product *arn, than "e are about the fact that the subDect itself is alread* a product and therefore ra" material8 >f the spinner, instead of spinning, "ere "or+ing in a coal mine, the subDect of his labour, the coal, "ould be supplied b* Cature; ne)ertheless, a definite Iuantit* of e9tracted coal, a hundred"eight for e9ample, "ould represent a definite Iuantit* of absorbed labour8 Be assumed, on the occasion of its sale, that the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er is three shillings, and that si9 hours? labour is incorporated in that sum; and conseIuentl* that this amount of labour is reIuisite to produce the necessaries of life dail* reIuired on an a)erage b* the labourer8 >f no" our spinner b* "or+ing for one hour, can con)ert 1 6J: lbs8 of cotton into 1 6J: lbs8 of *arn, 16it follo"s that in si9 hours he "ill con)ert 17 lbs8 of cotton into 17 lbs8 of *arn8 -ence, during the spinning process, the cotton absorbs si9 hours? labour8 'he same Iuantit* of labour is also embodied in a piece of gold of the )alue of three shillings8 5onseIuentl* b* the mere labour of spinning, a )alue of three shillings is added to the cotton8 <et us no" consider the total )alue of the product, the 17 lbs8 of *arn8 '"o and a half da*s? labour has been embodied in it, of "hich t"o da*s "ere contained in the cotton and in the substance of the spindle "orn a"a*, and half a da* "as absorbed during the process of spinning8 'his t"o and a half da*s? labour is also represented b* a piece of gold of the )alue of fifteen shillings8 -ence, fifteen shillings is an adeIuate price for the 17 lbs8 of *arn, or the price of one pound is eighteenpence8 =ur capitalist stares in astonishment8 'he )alue of the product is e9actl* eIual to the )alue of the capital ad)anced8 'he )alue so ad)anced has not e9panded, no surplus )alue has been created, and conseIuentl* mone* has not been con)erted into capital8 'he price of the *arn is fifteen shillings, and fifteen shillings "ere spent in the open mar+et upon the constituent elements of the product, or, "hat amounts to the same thing, upon the factors of the labour4process; ten shillings "ere paid for the cotton, t"o shillings for the substance of the spindle "orn a"a*, and three shillings for the labour4po"er8 'he s"ollen )alue of the *arn is of no a)ail, for it is merel* the sum of the )alues formerl* e9isting in the cotton, the spindle, and the labour4po"er: out of such a simple addition of e9isting )alues, no surplus )alue can possibl* arise8 1: 'hese separate )alues are no" all concentrated in one thing; but so the* "ere also in the sum of fifteen shillings, before it "as split up into three parts, b* the purchase of the commodities8 'here is in realit* nothing )er* strange in this result8 'he )alue of one pound of *arn being eighteenpence, if our capitalist bu*s 17 lbs8 of *arn in the mar+et, he must pa* fifteen shillings for

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them8 >t is clear that, "hether a man bu*s his house read* built, or gets it built for him, in neither case "ill the mode of acIuisition increase the amount of mone* laid out on the house8 =ur capitalist, "ho is at home in his )ulgar econom*, e9claims: ,-h! but . advanced my money for the express purpose of ma"in more money$, 'he "a* to -ell is pa)ed "ith good intentions, and he might Dust as easil* ha)e intended to ma+e mone*, "ithout producing at all8 1 -e threatens all sorts of things8 -e "on?t be caught napping again8 >n future he "ill bu* the commodities in the mar+et, instead of manufacturing them himself8 /ut if all his brother capitalists "ere to do the same, "here "ould he find his commodities in the mar+etE (nd his mone* he cannot eat8 -e tries persuasion8 @5onsider m* abstinence; > might ha)e pla*ed duc+s and dra+es "ith the 13 shillings; but instead of that > consumed it producti)el*, and made *arn "ith it8A ;er* "ell, and b* "a* of re"ard he is no" in possession of good *arn instead of a bad conscience; and as for pla*ing the part of a miser, it "ould ne)er do for him to relapse into such bad "a*s as that; "e ha)e seen before to "hat results such asceticism leads8 /esides, "here nothing is, the +ing has lost his rights; "hate)er ma* be the merit of his abstinence, there is nothing "here"ith speciall* to remunerate it, because the )alue of the product is merel* the sum of the )alues of the commodities that "ere thro"n into the process of production8 <et him therefore console himself "ith the reflection that )irtue is its o"n re"ard, /ut no, he becomes importunate8 -e sa*s: @ /he yarn is of no use to me0 . produced it for sale$ A >n that case let him sell it, or, still better, let him for the future produce onl* things for satisf*ing his personal "ants, a remed* that his ph*sician $ac5ulloch has alread* prescribed as infallible against an epidemic of o)er4production8 -e no" gets obstinate8 @5an the labourer,A he as+s, @merel* "ith his arms and legs, produce commodities out of nothingE 0id > not suppl* him "ith the materials, b* means of "hich, and in "hich alone, his labour could be embodiedE (nd as the greater part of societ* consists of such ne?er4do4"ells, ha)e > not rendered societ* incalculable ser)ice b* m* instruments of production, m* cotton and m* spindle, and not onl* societ*, but the labourer also, "hom in addition > ha)e pro)ided "ith the necessaries of lifeE (nd am > to be allo"ed nothing in return for all this ser)iceEA Bell, but has not the labourer rendered him the eIui)alent ser)ice of changing his cotton and spindle into *arnE $oreo)er, there is here no Iuestion of ser)ice8 13 ( ser)ice is nothing more than the useful effect of a use4)alue, be it of a commodit*, or be it of labour8 16 /ut here "e are dealing "ith e9change4)alue8 'he capitalist paid to the labourer a )alue of : shillings, and the labourer ga)e him bac+ an e9act eIui)alent in the )alue of : shillings, added b* him to the cotton: he ga)e him )alue for )alue8 =ur friend, up to this time so purse4proud, suddenl* assumes the modest demeanour of his o"n "or+man, and e9claims: ,*ave . myself not 1or"ed2 *ave . not performed the labour of superintendence and of overloo"in the spinner2 And does not this labour+ too+ create value2, -is o)erloo+er and his manager tr* to hide their smiles8 $ean"hile, after a heart* laugh, he re4assumes his usual mien8 'hough he chanted to us the "hole creed of the economists, in realit*, he sa*s, he "ould not gi)e a brass farthing for it8 -e lea)es this and all such li+e subterfuges and Duggling tric+s to the professors of #olitical Econom*, "ho are paid for it8 -e himself is a practical man; and though he does not al"a*s consider "hat he sa*s outside his business, *et in his business he +no"s "hat he is about8 <et us e9amine the matter more closel*8 'he )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er amounts to : shillings, because on our assumption half a da*?s labour is embodied in that Iuantit* of labour4 po"er, i$e$, because the means of subsistence that are dail* reIuired for the production of labour4 po"er, cost half a da*?s labour8 /ut the past labour that is embodied in the labour4po"er, and the li)ing labour that it can call into action; the dail* cost of maintaining it, and its dail* e9penditure in "or+, are t"o totall* different things8 'he former determines the e9change4)alue of the labour4 po"er, the latter is its use4)alue8 'he fact that half a da*?s labour is necessar* to +eep the labourer ali)e during 6 hours, does not in an* "a* pre)ent him from "or+ing a "hole da*8

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'herefore, the )alue of labour4po"er, and the )alue "hich that labour4po"er creates in the labour4process, are t"o entirel* different magnitudes; and this difference of the t"o )alues "as "hat the capitalist had in )ie", "hen he "as purchasing the labour4po"er8 'he useful Iualities that labour4po"er possesses, and b* )irtue of "hich it ma+es *arn or boots, "ere to him nothing more than a conditio sine Iua non; for in order to create )alue, labour must be e9pended in a useful manner8 Bhat reall* influenced him "as the specific use4)alue "hich this commodit* possesses of being a source not only of value+ but of more value than it has itself$ 'his is the special ser)ice that the capitalist e9pects from labour4po"er, and in this transaction he acts in accordance "ith the @eternal la"sA of the e9change of commodities8 'he seller of labour4po"er, li+e the seller of an* other commodit*, realises its e9change4)alue, and parts "ith its use4)alue8 -e cannot ta+e the one "ithout gi)ing the other8 'he use4)alue of labour4po"er, or in other "ords, labour, belongs Dust as little to its seller, as the use4)alue of oil after it has been sold belongs to the dealer "ho has sold it8 'he o"ner of the mone* has paid the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er; his, therefore, is the use of it for a da*; a da*?s labour belongs to him8 'he circumstance, that on the one hand the dail* sustenance of labour4po"er costs onl* half a da*?s labour, "hile on the other hand the )er* same labour4po"er can "or+ during a "hole da*, that conseIuentl* the )alue "hich its use during one da* creates, is double "hat he pa*s for that use, this circumstance is, "ithout doubt, a piece of good luc+ for the bu*er, but b* no means an inDur* to the seller8 =ur capitalist foresa" this state of things, and that "as the cause of his laughter8 'he labourer therefore finds, in the "or+shop, the means of production necessar* for "or+ing, not onl* during si9, but during t"el)e hours8 Lust as during the si9 hours? process our 17 lbs8 of cotton absorbed si9 hours? labour, and became 17 lbs8 of *arn, so no", 67 lbs8 of cotton "ill absorb 16 hours? labour and be changed into 67 lbs8 of *arn8 <et us no" e9amine the product of this prolonged process8 'here is no" materialised in this 67 lbs8 of *arn the labour of fi)e da*s, of "hich four da*s are due to the cotton and the lost steel of the spindle, the remaining da* ha)ing been absorbed b* the cotton during the spinning process8 E9pressed in gold, the labour of fi)e da*s is thirt* shillings8 'his is therefore the price of the 67 lbs8 of *arn, gi)ing, as before, eighteenpence as the price of a pound8 /ut the sum of the )alues of the commodities that entered into the process amounts to 67 shillings8 'he )alue of the *arn is :7 shillings8 'herefore the )alue of the product is 1J2 greater than the )alue ad)anced for its production; 67 shillings ha)e been transformed into :7 shillings; a surplus )alue of : shillings has been created8 'he tric+ has at last succeeded; mone* has been con)erted into capital8 E)er* condition of the problem is satisfied, "hile the la"s that regulate the e9change of commodities, ha)e been in no "a* )iolated8 EIui)alent has been e9changed for eIui)alent8 For the capitalist as bu*er paid for each commodit*, for the cotton, the spindle and the labour4po"er, its full )alue8 -e then did "hat is done b* e)er* purchaser of commodities; he consumed their use4)alue8 'he consumption of the labour4po"er, "hich "as also the process of producing commodities, resulted in 67 lbs8 of *arn, ha)ing a )alue of :7 shillings8 'he capitalist, formerl* a bu*er, no" returns to mar+et as a seller, of commodities8 -e sells his *arn at eighteenpence a pound, "hich is its e9act )alue8 Net for all that he "ithdra"s : shillings more from circulation than he originall* thre" into it8 'his metamorphosis, this con)ersion of mone* into capital, ta+es place both "ithin the sphere of circulation and also outside it; "ithin the circulation, because conditioned b* the purchase of the labour4po"er in the mar+et; outside the circulation, because "hat is done "ithin it is onl* a stepping4stone to the production of surplus )alue, a process "hich is entirel* confined to the sphere of production8 'hus @ tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles8A G@E)er*thing is for the best in the best of all possible "orlds8A F ;oltaire, CandideH

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/* turning his mone* into commodities that ser)e as the material elements of a ne" product, and as factors in the labour4process, b* incorporating li)ing labour "ith their dead substance, the capitalist at the same time con)erts )alue, i$e$, past, materialised, and dead labour into capital, into )alue big "ith )alue, a li)e monster that is fruitful and multiplies8 >f "e no" compare the t"o processes of producing )alue and of creating surplus )alue, "e see that the latter is nothing but the continuation of the former be*ond a definite point8 >f on the one hand the process be not carried be*ond the point, "here the )alue paid b* the capitalist for the labour4po"er is replaced b* an e9act eIui)alent, it is simpl* a process of producing )alue; if, on the other hand, it be continued be*ond that point, it becomes a process of creating surplus )alue8 >f "e proceed further, and compare the process of producing )alue "ith the labour4process, pure and simple, "e find that the latter consists of the useful labour, the "or+, that produces use4 )alues8 -ere "e contemplate the labour as producing a particular article; "e )ie" it under its Iualitati)e aspect alone, "ith regard to its end and aim8 /ut )ie"ed as a )alue4creating process, the same labour4process presents itself under its Iuantitati)e aspect alone8 -ere it is a Iuestion merel* of the time occupied b* the labourer in doing the "or+; of the period during "hich the labour4po"er is usefull* e9pended8 -ere, the commodities that ta+e part in the process, do not count an* longer as necessar* adDuncts of labour4po"er in the production of a definite, useful obDect8 'he* count merel* as depositories of so much absorbed or materialised labour; that labour, "hether pre)iousl* embodied in the means of production, or incorporated in them for the first time during the process b* the action of labour4po"er, counts in either case onl* according to its duration; it amounts to so man* hours or da*s as the case ma* be8 $oreo)er, onl* so much of the time spent in the production of an* article is counted, as, under the gi)en social conditions, is necessar*8 'he conseIuences of this are )arious8 >n the first place, it becomes necessar* that the labour should be carried on under normal conditions8 >f a self4acting mule is the implement in general use for spinning, it "ould be absurd to suppl* the spinner "ith a distaff and spinning "heel8 'he cotton too must not be such rubbish as to cause e9tra "aste in being "or+ed, but must be of suitable Iualit*8 =ther"ise the spinner "ould be found to spend more time in producing a pound of *arn than is sociall* necessar*, in "hich case the e9cess of time "ould create neither )alue nor mone*8 /ut "hether the material factors of the process are of normal Iualit* or not, depends not upon the labourer, but entirel* upon the capitalist8 'hen again, the labour4po"er itself must be of a)erage efficac*8 >n the trade in "hich it is being emplo*ed, it must possess the a)erage s+ill, handiness and Iuic+ness pre)alent in that trade, and our capitalist too+ good care to bu* labour4po"er of such normal goodness8 'his po"er must be applied "ith the a)erage amount of e9ertion and "ith the usual degree of intensit*; and the capitalist is as careful to see that this is done, as that his "or+men are not idle for a single moment8 -e has bought, the use of the labour4po"er for a definite period, and he insists upon his rights8 -e has no intention of being robbed8 <astl*, and for this purpose our friend has a penal code of his o"n, all "asteful consumption of ra" material or instruments of labour is strictl* forbidden, because "hat is so "asted, represents labour superfluousl* e9pended, labour that does not count in the product or enter into its )alue817 Be no" see, that the difference bet"een labour, considered on the one hand as producing utilities, and on the other hand, as creating )alue, a difference "hich "e disco)ered b* our anal*sis of a commodit*, resol)es itself into a distinction bet"een t"o aspects of the process of production8 'he process of production, considered on the one hand as the unit* of the labour4process and the process of creating )alue, is production of commodities; considered on the other hand as the unit*

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of the labour4process and the process of producing surplus )alue, it is the capitalist process of production, or capitalist production of commodities8 Be stated, on a pre)ious page, that in the creation of surplus )alue it does not in the least matter, "hether the labour appropriated b* the capitalist be simple uns+illed labour of a)erage Iualit* or more complicated s+illed labour8 (ll labour of a higher or more complicated character than a)erage labour is e9penditure of labour4po"er of a more costl* +ind, labour4po"er "hose production has cost more time and labour, and "hich therefore has a higher )alue, than uns+illed or simple labour4po"er8 'his po"er being higher4)alue, its consumption is labour of a higher class, labour that creates in eIual times proportionall* higher )alues than uns+illed labour does8 Bhate)er difference in s+ill there ma* be bet"een the labour of a spinner and that of a De"eller, the portion of his labour b* "hich the De"eller merel* replaces the )alue of his o"n labour4 po"er, does not in an* "a* differ in Iualit* from the additional portion b* "hich he creates surplus )alue8 >n the ma+ing of De"eller*, Dust as in spinning, the surplus )alue results onl* from a Iuantitati)e e9cess of labour, from a lengthening4out of one and the same labour4process, in the one case, of the process of ma+ing De"els, in the other of the process of ma+ing *arn8 18 /ut on the other hand, in e)er* process of creating )alue, the reduction of s+illed labour to a)erage social labour, e$ $, one da* of s+illed to si9 da*s of uns+illed labour, is una)oidable8 12Be therefore sa)e oursel)es a superfluous operation, and simplif* our anal*sis, b* the assumption, that the labour of the "or+man emplo*ed b* the capitalist is uns+illed a)erage labour8

(ha)ter 8* (onstant (a)ita$ and 2aria0$e (a)ita$

'he )arious factors of the labour4process pla* different parts in forming the )alue of the product8 'he labourer adds fresh )alue to the subDect of his labour b* e9pending upon it a gi)en amount of additional labour, no matter "hat the specific character and utilit* of that labour ma* be8 =n the other hand, the )alues of the means of production used up in the process are preser)ed, and present themsel)es afresh as constituent parts of the )alue of the product; the )alues of the cotton and the spindle, for instance, re4appear again in the )alue of the *arn8 'he )alue of the means of production is therefore preser)ed, b* being transferred to the product8 'his transfer ta+es place during the con)ersion of those means into a product, or in other "ords, during the labour4process8 >t is brought about b* labour; but ho"E 'he labourer does not perform t"o operations at once, one in order to add )alue to the cotton, the other in order to preser)e the )alue of the means of production, or, "hat amounts to the same thing, to transfer to the *arn, to the product, the )alue of the cotton on "hich he "or+s, and part of the )alue of the spindle "ith "hich he "or+s8 /ut, b* the )er* act of adding ne" )alue, he preser)es their former )alues8 Since, ho"e)er, the addition of ne" )alue to the subDect of his labour, and the preser)ation of its former )alue, are t"o entirel* distinct results, produced simultaneousl* b* the labourer, during one operation, it is plain that this t"o4fold nature of the result can be e9plained onl* b* the t"o4fold nature of his labour; at one and the same time, it must in one character create )alue, and in another character preser)e or transfer )alue8 Co", in "hat manner does e)er* labourer add ne" labour and conseIuentl* ne" )alueE E)identl*, onl* b* labouring producti)el* in a particular "a*; the spinner b* spinning, the "ea)er b* "ea)ing, the smith b* forging8 /ut, "hile thus incorporating labour generall*, that is )alue, it is b* the particular form alone of the labour, b* the spinning, the "ea)ing and the forging respecti)el*, that the means of production, the cotton and spindle, the *arn and loom, and the iron and an)il become constituent elements of the product, of a ne" use4)alue8 1 Each use4 )alue disappears, but onl* to re4appear under a ne" form in a ne" use4)alue8 Co", "e sa", "hen "e "ere considering the process of creating )alue, that, if a use4)alue be effecti)el* consumed in the production of a ne" use4)alue, the Iuantit* of labour e9pended in the production of the consumed article, forms a portion of the Iuantit* of labour necessar* to produce the ne" use4 )alue; this portion is therefore labour transferred from the means of production to the ne" product8 -ence, the labourer preser)es the )alues of the consumed means of production, or transfers them as portions of its )alue to the product, not b* )irtue of his additional labour, abstractedl* considered, but b* )irtue of the particular useful character of that labour, b* )irtue of its special producti)e form8 >n so far then as labour is such specific producti)e acti)it*, in so far as it is spinning, "ea)ing, or forging, it raises, b* mere contact, the means of production from the dead, ma+es them li)ing factors of the labour4process, and combines "ith them to form the ne" products8 >f the special producti)e labour of the "or+man "ere not spinning, he could not con)ert the cotton into *arn, and therefore could not transfer the )alues of the cotton and spindle to the *arn8 Suppose the same "or+man "ere to change his occupation to that of a Doiner, he "ould still b* a da*?s labour add )alue to the material he "or+s upon8 5onseIuentl*, "e see, first, that the

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addition of ne" )alue ta+es place not b* )irtue of his labour being spinning in particular, or Doinering in particular, but because it is labour in the abstract, a portion of the total labour of societ*; and "e see ne9t, that the )alue added is of a gi)en definite amount, not because his labour has a special utilit*, but because it is e9erted for a definite time8 =n the one hand, then, it is b* )irtue of its general character, as being e9penditure of human labour4po"er in the abstract, that spinning adds ne" )alue to the )alues of the cotton and the spindle; and on the other hand, it is b* )irtue of its special character, as being a concrete, useful process, that the same labour of spinning both transfers the )alues of the means of production to the product, and preser)es them in the product8 -ence at one and the same time there is produced a t"o4fold result8 /* the simple addition of a certain Iuantit* of labour, ne" )alue is added, and b* the Iualit* of this added labour, the original )alues of the means of production are preser)ed in the product8 'his t"o4fold effect, resulting from the t"o4fold character of labour, ma* be traced in )arious phenomena8 <et us assume, that some in)ention enables the spinner to spin as much cotton in 6 hours as he "as able to spin before in :6 hours8 -is labour is no" si9 times as effecti)e as it "as, for the purposes of useful production8 'he product of 6 hours? "or+ has increased si94fold, from 6 lbs8 to :6 lbs8 /ut no" the :6 lbs8 of cotton absorb onl* the same amount of labour as formerl* did the 6 lbs8 =ne4si9th as much ne" labour is absorbed b* each pound of cotton, and conseIuentl*, the )alue added b* the labour to each pound is onl* one4si9th of "hat it formerl* "as8 =n the other hand, in the product, in the :6 lbs8 of *arn, the )alue transferred from the cotton is si9 times as great as before8 /* the 6 hours? spinning, the )alue of the ra" material preser)ed and transferred to the product is si9 times as great as before, although the ne" )alue added b* the labour of the spinner to each pound of the )er* same ra" material is one4si9th "hat it "as formerl*8 'his sho"s that the t"o properties of labour, b* )irtue of "hich it is enabled in one case to preser)e )alue, and in the other to create )alue, are essentiall* different8 =n the one hand, the longer the time necessar* to spin a gi)en "eight of cotton into *arn, the greater is the ne" )alue added to the material; on the other hand, the greater the "eight of the cotton spun in a gi)en time, the greater is the )alue preser)ed, b* being transferred from it to the product8 <et us no" assume, that the producti)eness of the spinner?s labour, instead of )ar*ing, remains constant, that he therefore reIuires the same time as he formerl* did, to con)ert one pound of cotton into *arn, but that the e9change4)alue of the cotton )aries, either b* rising to si9 times its former )alue or falling to one4si9th of that )alue8 >n both these cases, the spinner puts the same Iuantit* of labour into a pound of cotton, and therefore adds as much )alue, as he did before the change in the )alue: he also produces a gi)en "eight of *arn in the same time as he did before8 Ce)ertheless, the )alue that he transfers from the cotton to the *arn is either one4si9th of "hat it "as before the )ariation, or, as the case ma* be, si9 times as much as before8 'he same result occurs "hen the )alue of the instruments of labour rises or falls, "hile their useful efficac* in the process remains unaltered8 (gain, if the technical conditions of the spinning process remain unchanged, and no change of )alue ta+es place in the means of production, the spinner continues to consume in eIual "or+ing4 times eIual Iuantities of ra" material, and eIual Iuantities of machiner* of un)ar*ing )alue8 'he )alue that he preser)es in the product is directl* proportional to the ne" )alue that he adds to the product8 >n t"o "ee+s he incorporates t"ice as much labour, and therefore t"ice as much )alue, as in one "ee+, and during the same time he consumes t"ice as much material, and "ears out t"ice as much machiner*, of double the )alue in each case: he therefore preser)es, in the product of t"o "ee+s, t"ice as much )alue as in the product of one "ee+8 So long as the conditions of production remain the same, the more )alue the labourer adds b* fresh labour, the more )alue he

11:

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transfers and preser)es; but he does so merel* because this addition of ne" )alue ta+es place under conditions that ha)e not )aried and are independent of his o"n labour8 =f course, it ma* be said in one sense, that the labourer preser)es old )alue al"a*s in proportion to the Iuantit* of ne" )alue that he adds8 Bhether the )alue of cotton rise from one shilling to t"o shillings, or fall to si9pence, the "or+man in)ariabl* preser)es in the product of one hour onl* one half as much )alue as he preser)es in t"o hours8 >n li+e manner, if the producti)eness of his o"n labour )aries b* rising or falling, he "ill in one hour spin either more or less cotton, as the case ma* be, than he did before, and "ill conseIuentl* preser)e in the product of one hour, more or less )alue of cotton; but, all the same, he "ill preser)e b* t"o hours? labour t"ice as much )alue as he "ill b* one8 ;alue e9ists onl* in articles of utilit*, in obDects: "e lea)e out of consideration its purel* s*mbolical representation b* to+ens8 ($an himself, )ie"ed as the impersonation of labour4po"er, is a natural obDect, a thing, although a li)ing conscious thing, and labour is the manifestation of this po"er residing in him8! >f therefore an article loses its utilit*, it also loses its )alue8 'he reason "h* means of production do not lose their )alue, at the same time that the* lose their use4 )alue, is this: the* lose in the labour4process the original form of their use4)alue, onl* to assume in the product the form of a ne" use4)alue8 /ut, ho"e)er important it ma* be to )alue, that it should ha)e some obDect of utilit* to embod* itself in, *et it is a matter of complete indifference "hat particular obDect ser)es this purpose; this "e sa" "hen treating of the metamorphosis of commodities8 -ence it follo"s that in the labour4process the means of production transfer their )alue to the product onl* so far as along "ith their use4)alue the* lose also their e9change4)alue8 'he* gi)e up to the product that )alue alone "hich the* themsel)es lose as means of production8 /ut in this respect the material factors of the labour4process do not all beha)e ali+e8 'he coal burnt under the boiler )anishes "ithout lea)ing a trace; so, too, the tallo" "ith "hich the a9les of "heels are greased8 0*e stuffs and other au9iliar* substances also )anish but re4 appear as properties of the product8 &a" material forms the substance of the product, but onl* after it has changed its form8 -ence ra" material and au9iliar* substances lose the characteristic form "ith "hich the* are clothed on entering the labour4process8 >t is other"ise "ith the instruments of labour8 'ools, machines, "or+shops, and )essels, are of use in the labour4process, onl* so long as the* retain their original shape, and are read* each morning to rene" the process "ith their shape unchanged8 (nd Dust as during their lifetime, that is to sa*, during the continued labour4process in "hich the* ser)e, the* retain their shape independent of the product, so, too, the* do after their death8 'he corpses of machines, tools, "or+shops, Pc8, are al"a*s separate and distinct from the product the* helped to turn out8 >f "e no" consider the case of an* instrument of labour during the "hole period of its ser)ice, from the da* of its entr* into the "or+shop, till the da* of its banishment into the lumber room, "e find that during this period its use4)alue has been completel* consumed, and therefore its e9change4)alue completel* transferred to the product8 For instance, if a spinning machine lasts for 17 *ears, it is plain that during that "or+ing period its total )alue is graduall* transferred to the product of the 17 *ears8 'he lifetime of an instrument of labour, therefore, is spent in the repetition of a greater or less number of similar operations8 >ts life ma* be compared "ith that of a human being8 E)er* da* brings a man 6 hours nearer to his gra)e: but ho" man* da*s he has still to tra)el on that road, no man can tell accuratel* b* merel* loo+ing at him8 'his difficult*, ho"e)er, does not pre)ent life insurance offices from dra"ing, b* means of the theor* of a)erages, )er* accurate, and at the same time )er* profitable conclusions8 So it is "ith the instruments of labour8 >t is +no"n b* e9perience ho" long on the a)erage a machine of a particular +ind "ill last8 Suppose its use4)alue in the labour4process to last onl* si9 da*s8 'hen, on the a)erage, it loses each da* one4si9th of its use4)alue, and therefore parts "ith one4si9th of its )alue to the dail* product8 'he "ear and tear of all instruments, their dail* loss of

11

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use4)alue, and the corresponding Iuantit* of )alue the* part "ith to the product, are accordingl* calculated upon this basis8 >t is thus stri+ingl* clear, that means of production ne)er transfer more )alue to the product than the* themsel)es lose during the labour4process b* the destruction of their o"n use4)alue8 >f such an instrument has no )alue to lose, if, in other "ords, it is not the product of human labour, it transfers no )alue to the product8 >t helps to create use4)alue "ithout contributing to the formation of e9change4)alue8 >n this class are included all means of production supplied b* Cature "ithout human assistance, such as land, "ind, "ater, metals in situ, and timber in )irgin forests8 Net another interesting phenomenon here presents itself8 Suppose a machine to be "orth ]1,777, and to "ear out in 1,777 da*s8 'hen one thousandth part of the )alue of the machine is dail* transferred to the da*?s product8 (t the same time, though "ith diminishing )italit*, the machine as a "hole continues to ta+e part in the labour4process8 'hus it appears, that one factor of the labour4process, a means of production, continuall* enters as a "hole into that process, "hile it enters into the process of the formation of )alue b* fractions onl*8 'he difference bet"een the t"o processes is here reflected in their material factors, b* the same instrument of production ta+ing part as a "hole in the labour4process, "hile at the same time as an element in the formation of )alue, it enters onl* b* fractions86 =n the other hand, a means of production ma* ta+e part as a "hole in the formation of )alue, "hile into the labour4process it enters onl* bit b* bit8 Suppose that in spinning cotton, the "aste for e)er* 113 lbs8 used amounts to 13 lbs8, "hich is con)erted, not into *arn, but into @de)il?s dust8A Co", although this 13 lbs8 of cotton ne)er becomes a constituent element of the *arn, *et assuming this amount of "aste to be normal and ine)itable under a)erage conditions of spinning, its )alue is Dust as surel* transferred to the )alue of the *arn, as is the )alue of the 177 lbs8 that form the substance of the *arn8 'he use4)alue of 13 lbs8 of cotton must )anish into dust, before 177 lbs8 of *arn can be made8 'he destruction of this cotton is therefore a necessar* condition in the production of the *arn8 (nd because it is a necessar* condition, and for no other reason, the )alue of that cotton is transferred to the product8 'he same holds good for e)er* +ind of refuse resulting from a labour4process, so tar at least as such refuse cannot be further emplo*ed as a means in the production of ne" and independent use4)alues8 Such an emplo*ment of refuse ma* be seen in the large machine "or+s at $anchester, "here mountains of iron turnings are carted a"a* to the foundr* in the e)ening, in order the ne9t morning to re4appear in the "or+shops as solid masses of iron8 Be ha)e seen that the means of production transfer )alue to the ne" product, so far onl* as during the labour4process the* lose )alue in the shape of their old use4)alue8 'he ma9imum loss of )alue that the* can suffer in the process, is plainl* limited b* the amount of the original )alue "ith "hich the* came into the process, or in other "ords, b* the labour4time necessar* for their production8 'herefore, the means of production can ne)er add more )alue to the product than the* themsel)es possess independentl* of the process in "hich the* assist8 -o"e)er useful a gi)en +ind of ra" material, or a machine, or other means of production ma* be, though it ma* cost ]137, or, sa*, 377 da*s? labour, *et it cannot, under an* circumstances, add to the )alue of the product more than ]1378 >ts )alue is determined not b* the labour4process into "hich it enters as a means of production, but b* that out of "hich it has issued as a product8 >n the labour4process it onl* ser)es as a mere use4)alue, a thing "ith useful properties, and could not, therefore, transfer an* )alue to the product, unless it possessed such )alue pre)iousl*8 : Bhile producti)e labour is changing the means of production into constituent elements of a ne" product, their )alue undergoes a metemps*chosis8 >t deserts the consumed bod*, to occup* the

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ne"l* created one8 /ut this transmigration ta+es place, as it "ere, behind the bac+ of the labourer8 -e is unable to add ne" labour, to create ne" )alue, "ithout at the same time preser)ing old )alues, and this, because the labour he adds must be of a specific useful +ind; and he cannot do "or+ of a useful +ind, "ithout emplo*ing products as the means of production of a ne" product, and thereb* transferring their )alue to the ne" product8 'he propert* therefore "hich labour4 po"er in action, li)ing labour, possesses of preser)ing )alue, at the same time that it adds it, is a gift of Cature "hich costs the labourer nothing, but "hich is )er* ad)antageous to the capitalist inasmuch as it preser)es the e9isting )alue of his capital8 So long as trade is good, the capitalist is too much absorbed in mone*4grubbing to ta+e notice of this gratuitous gift of labour8 ( )iolent interruption of the labour4process b* a crisis, ma+es him sensiti)el* a"are of it8 3 (s regards the means of production, "hat is reall* consumed is their use4)alue, and the consumption of this use4)alue b* labour results in the product8 'here is no consumption of their )alue, 6and it "ould therefore be inaccurate to sa* that it is reproduced8 >t is rather preser)ed; not b* reason of an* operation it undergoes itself in the process; but because the article in "hich it originall* e9ists, )anishes, it is true, but )anishes into some other article8 -ence, in the )alue of the product, there is a reappearance of the )alue of the means of production, but there is, strictl* spea+ing, no reproduction of that )alue8 'hat "hich is produced is a ne" use4)alue in "hich the old e9change4)alue reappears87 >t is other"ise "ith the subDecti)e factor of the labour4process, "ith labour4po"er in action8 Bhile the labourer, b* )irtue of his labour being of a specialised +ind that has a special obDect, preser)es and transfers to the product the )alue of the means of production, he at the same time, b* the mere act of "or+ing, creates each instant an additional or ne" )alue8 Suppose the process of production to be stopped Dust "hen the "or+man has produced an eIui)alent for the )alue of his o"n, labour4po"er, "hen, for e9ample, b* si9 hours? labour, he has added a )alue of three shillings8 'his )alue is the surplus, of the total )alue of the product, o)er the portion of its )alue that is due to the means of production8 >t is the onl* original bit of )alue formed during this process, the onl* portion of the )alue of the product created b* this process8 =f course, "e do not forget that this ne" )alue onl* replaces the mone* ad)anced b* the capitalist in the purchase of the labour4po"er, and spent b* the labourer on the necessaries of life8 Bith regard to the mone* spent, the ne" )alue is merel* a reproduction; but, ne)ertheless, it is an actual, and not, as in the case of the )alue of the means of production, onl* an apparent, reproduction8 'he substitution of one )alue for another, is here effected b* the creation of ne" )alue8 Be +no", ho"e)er, from "hat has gone before, that the labour4process ma* continue be*ond the time necessar* to reproduce and incorporate in the product a mere eIui)alent for the )alue of the labour4po"er8 >nstead of the si9 hours that are sufficient for the latter purpose, the process ma* continue for t"el)e hours8 'he action of labour4po"er, therefore, not onl* reproduces its o"n )alue, but produces )alue o)er and abo)e it8 'his surplus )alue is the difference bet"een the )alue of the product and the )alue of the elements consumed in the formation of that product, in other "ords, of the means of production and the labour4po"er8 /* our e9planation of the different parts pla*ed b* the )arious factors of the labour4process in the formation of the product?s )alue, "e ha)e, in fact, disclosed the characters of the different functions allotted to the different elements of capital in the process of e9panding its o"n )alue8 'he surplus of the total )alue of the product, o)er the sum of the )alues of its constituent factors, is the surplus of the e9panded capital o)er the capital originall* ad)anced8 'he means of production on the one hand, labour4po"er on the other, are merel* the different modes of e9istence "hich the )alue of the original capital assumed "hen from being mone* it "as transformed into the )arious factors of the labour4process8 'hat part of capital then, "hich is

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represented b* the means of production, b* the ra" material, au9iliar* material and the instruments of labour does not, in the process of production, undergo an* Iuantitati)e alteration of )alue8 > therefore call it the constant part of capital, or, more shortl*, constant capital$ =n the other hand, that part of capital, represented b* labour4po"er, does, in the process of production, undergo an alteration of )alue8 >t both reproduces the eIui)alent of its o"n )alue, and also produces an e9cess, a surplus )alue, "hich ma* itself )ar*, ma* be more or less according to circumstances8 'his part of capital is continuall* being transformed from a constant into a )ariable magnitude8 > therefore call it the )ariable part of capital, or, shortl*, variable capital$ 'he same elements of capital "hich, from the point of )ie" of the labour4process, present themsel)es respecti)el* as the obDecti)e and subDecti)e factors, as means of production and labour4po"er, present themsel)es, from the point of )ie" of the process of creating surplus )alue, as constant and )ariable capital8 'he definition of constant capital gi)en abo)e b* no means e9cludes the possibilit* of a change of )alue in its elements8 Suppose the price of cotton to be one da* si9pence a pound, and the ne9t da*, in conseIuence of a failure of the cotton crop, a shilling a pound8 Each pound of the cotton bought at si9pence, and "or+ed up after the rise in )alue, transfers to the product a )alue of one shilling; and the cotton alread* spun before the rise, and perhaps circulating in the mar+et as *arn, li+e"ise transfers to the product t"ice its, original )alue8 >t is plain, ho"e)er, that these changes of )alue are independent of the increment or surplus )alue added to the )alue of the cotton b* the spinning itself8 >f the old cotton had ne)er been spun, it could, after the rise, be resold at a shilling a pound instead of at si9pence8 Further, the fe"er the processes the cotton has gone through, the more certain is this result8 Be therefore find that speculators ma+e it a rule "hen such sudden changes in )alue occur, to speculate in that material on "hich the least possible Iuantit* of labour has been spent: to speculate, therefore, in *arn rather than in cloth, in cotton itself, rather than in *arn8 'he change of )alue in the case "e ha)e been considering, originates, not in the process in "hich the cotton pla*s the part of a means of production, and in "hich it therefore functions as constant capital, but in the process in "hich the cotton itself is produced8 'he )alue of a commodit*, it is true, is determined b* the Iuantit* of labour contained in it, but this Iuantit* is itself limited b* social conditions8 >f the time sociall* necessar* for the production of an* commodit* alters F and a gi)en "eight of cotton represents, after a bad har)est, more labour than after a good one F all pre)iousl* e9isting commodities of the same class are affected, because the* are, as it "ere, onl* indi)iduals of the species, 8 and their )alue at an* gi)en time is measured b* the labour sociall* necessar*, i$e$, b* the labour necessar* for their production under the then e9isting social conditions8 (s the )alue of the ra" material ma* change, so, too, ma* that of the instruments of labour, of the machiner*, Pc8, emplo*ed in the process; and conseIuentl* that portion of the )alue of the product transferred to it from them, ma* also change8 >f in conseIuence of a ne" in)ention, machiner* of a particular +ind can be produced b* a diminished e9penditure of labour, the old machiner* becomes depreciated more or less, and conseIuentl* transfers so much less )alue to the product8 /ut here again, the change in )alue originates outside the process in "hich the machine is acting as a means of production8 =nce engaged in this process, the machine cannot transfer more )alue than it possesses apart from the process8 Lust as a change in the )alue of the means of production, e)en after the* ha)e commenced to ta+e a part in the labour4process, does not alter their character as constant capital, so, too, a change in the proportion of constant to )ariable capital does not affect the respecti)e functions of these t"o +inds of capital8 'he technical conditions of the labour4process ma* be re)olutionised to such an e9tent, that "here formerl* ten men using ten implements of small )alue "or+ed up a relati)el*

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small Iuantit* of ra" material, one man ma* no", "ith the aid of one e9pensi)e machine, "or+ up one hundred times as much ra" material8 >n the latter case "e ha)e an enormous increase in the constant capital, that is represented b* the total )alue of the means of production used, and at the same time a great reduction in the )ariable capital, in)ested in labour4po"er8 Such a re)olution, ho"e)er, alters onl* the Iuantitati)e relation bet"een the constant and the )ariable capital, or the proportions in "hich the total capital is split up into its constant and )ariable constituents; it has not in the least degree affected the essential difference bet"een the t"o8

(ha)ter &* "he 3ate of S%r)$%s 4a$%e

Section 1: The -e%ree of )+ploitation of (abour"Power
'he surplus )alue generated in the process of production b* 5, the capital ad)anced, or in other "ords, the self4e9pansion of the )alue of the capital 5, presents itself for our consideration, in the first place, as a surplus, as the amount b* "hich the )alue of the product e9ceeds the )alue of its constituent elements8 'he capital 5 is made up of t"o components, one, the sum of mone* c laid out upon the means of production, and the other, the sum of mone* ) e9pended upon the labour4po"er; c represents the portion that has become constant capital, and ) the portion that has become )ariable capital8 (t first then, 5 Y c _ ): for e9ample, if ]377 is the capital ad)anced, its components ma* be such that the ]377 Y ] 17 const8 _ ]27 )ar8 Bhen the process of production is finished, "e get a commodit* "hose )alue Y (c _ )! _ s, "here s is the surplus )alue; or ta+ing our former figures, the )alue of this commodit* ma* be (] 17 const8 _ ]27 )ar8! _ ]27 surpl8 'he original capital has no" changed from 5 to 5U, from ]377 to ]3278 'he difference is s or a surplus )alue of ]278 Since the )alue of the constituent elements of the product is eIual to the )alue of the ad)anced capital, it is mere tautolog* to sa*, that the e9cess of the )alue of the product o)er the )alue of its constituent elements, is eIual to the e9pansion of the capital ad)anced or to the surplus )alue produced8 Ce)ertheless, "e must e9amine this tautolog* a little more closel*8 'he t"o things compared are, the )alue of the product and the )alue of its constituents consumed in the process of production8 Co" "e ha)e seen ho" that portion of the constant capital "hich consists of the instruments of labour, transfers to the production onl* a fraction of its )alue, "hile the remainder of that )alue continues to reside in those instruments8 Since this remainder pla*s no part in the formation of )alue, "e ma* at present lea)e it on one side8 'o introduce it into the calculation "ould ma+e no difference8 For instance, ta+ing our former e9ample, c Y ] 17: suppose this sum to consist of ]:16 )alue of ra" material, ] )alue of au9iliar* material, and ]3 )alue of the machiner* "orn a"a* in the process; and suppose that the total )alue of the machiner* emplo*ed is ]1,73 8 =ut of this latter sum, then, "e rec+on as ad)anced for the purpose of turning out the product, the sum of ]3 alone, "hich the machiner* loses b* "ear and tear in the process; for this is all it parts "ith to the product8 Co" if "e also rec+on the remaining ]1,777, "hich still continues in the machiner*, as transferred to the product, "e ought also to rec+on it as part of the )alue ad)anced, and thus ma+e it appear on both sides of our calculation8 1 Be should, in this "a*, get ]1,377 on one side and ]1,327 on the other8 'he difference of these t"o sums, or the surplus )alue, "ould still be ]278 'hroughout this /oo+ therefore, b* constant capital ad)anced for the production of )alue, "e al"a*s mean, unless the conte9t is repugnant thereto, the )alue of the means of production actuall* consumed in the process, and that )alue alone8 'his being so, let us return to the formula 5 Y c _ ), "hich "e sa" "as transformed into 5U Y (c _ )! _ s, 5 becoming 5U8 Be +no" that the )alue of the constant capital is transferred to, and merel* re4appears in the product8 'he ne" )alue actuall* created in the process, the )alue produced, or )alue4product, is therefore not the same as the )alue of the product; it is not, as it "ould at first sight appear (c _ )! _ s or ] 17 const8 _ ]27 )ar8 _ ]27 surpl8; but ) _ s or ]27 )ar8 _ ]27 surpl8, not ]327 but ]1878 >f c Y 7, or in other "ords, if there "ere branches of industr* in

112

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"hich the capitalist could dispense "ith all means of production made b* pre)ious labour, "hether the* be ra" material, au9iliar* material, or instruments of labour, emplo*ing onl* labour4po"er and materials supplied b* Cature, in that case, there "ould be no constant capital to transfer to the product8 'his component of the )alue of the product, i$e8, the ] 17 in our e9ample, "ould be eliminated, but the sum of ]187, the amount of ne" )alue created, or the )alue produced, "hich contains ]27 of surplus )alue, "ould remain Dust as great as if c represented the highest )alue imaginable8 Be should ha)e 5 Y (7 _ )! Y ) or 5U the e9panded capital Y ) _ s and therefore 5U 4 5 Y s as before8 =n the other hand, if s Y 7, or in other "ords, if the labour4po"er, "hose )alue is ad)anced in the form of )ariable capital, "ere to produce onl* its eIui)alent, "e should ha)e 5 Y c _ ) or 5U the )alue of the product Y (c _ )! _ 7 or 5 Y 5U8 'he capital ad)anced "ould, in this case, not ha)e e9panded its )alue8 From "hat has gone before, "e +no" that surplus )alue is purel* the result of a )ariation in the )alue of ), of that portion of the capital "hich is transformed into labour4po"er; conseIuentl*, ) _ s Y ) _ ), or ) plus an increment of )8 /ut the fact that it is ) alone that )aries, and the conditions of that )ariation, are obscured b* the circumstance that in conseIuence of the increase in the )ariable component of the capital, there is also an increase in the sum total of the ad)anced capital8 >t "as originall* ]377 and becomes ]3278 'herefore in order that our in)estigation ma* lead to accurate results, "e must ma+e abstraction from that portion of the )alue of the product, in "hich constant capital alone appears, and conseIuentl* must eIuate the constant capital to 1ero or ma+e c Y 78 'his is merel* an application of a mathematical rule, emplo*ed "hene)er "e operate "ith constant and )ariable magnitudes, related to each other b* the s*mbols of addition and subtraction onl*8 ( further difficult* is caused b* the original form of the )ariable capital8 >n our e9ample, 5U Y ] 17 const8 _ ]27 )ar8 _ ]27 surpl8; but ]27 is a gi)en and therefore a constant Iuantit*; hence it appears absurd to treat it as )ariable8 /ut in fact, the term ]27 )ar8 is here merel* a s*mbol to sho" that this )alue undergoes a process8 'he portion of the capital in)ested in the purchase of labour4po"er is a definite Iuantit* of materialised labour, a constant )alue li+e the )alue of the labour4po"er purchased8 /ut in the process of production the place of the ]27 is ta+en b* the labour4po"er in action, dead labour is replaced b* li)ing labour, something stagnant b* something flo"ing, a constant b* a )ariable8 'he result is the reproduction of ) plus an increment of )8 From the point of )ie" then of capitalist production, the "hole process appears as the spontaneous )ariation of the originall* constant )alue, "hich is transformed into labour4po"er8 /oth the process and its result, appear to be o"ing to this )alue8 >f, therefore, such e9pressions as @]27 )ariable capital,A or @so much self4e9panding )alue,A appear contradictor*, this is onl* because the* bring to the surface a contradiction immanent in capitalist production8 (t first sight it appears a strange proceeding, to eIuate the constant capital to 1ero8 Net it is "hat "e do e)er* da*8 >f, for e9ample, "e "ish to calculate the amount of England?s profits from the cotton industr*, "e first of all deduct the sums paid for cotton to the %nited States, >ndia, Eg*pt and other countries; in other "ords, the )alue of the capital that merel* re4appears in the )alue of the product, is put Y 78 =f course the ratio of surplus )alue not onl* to that portion of the capital from "hich it immediatel* springs, and "hose change of )alue it represents, but also to the sum total of the capital ad)anced is economicall* of )er* great importance8 Be shall, therefore, in the third boo+, treat of this ratio e9hausti)el*8 >n order to enable one portion of a capital to e9pand its )alue b* being con)erted into labour4po"er, it is necessar* that another portion be con)erted into means of production8 >n order that )ariable capital ma* perform its function, constant capital must be ad)anced in proper proportion, a proportion gi)en b* the special technical conditions of each

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labour4process8 'he circumstance, ho"e)er, that retorts and other )essels, are necessar* to a chemical process, does not compel the chemist to notice them in the result of his anal*sis8 >f "e loo+ at the means of production, in their relation to the creation of )alue, and to the )ariation in the Iuantit* of )alue, apart from an*thing else, the* appear simpl* as the material in "hich labour4po"er, the )alue4creator, incorporates itself8 Ceither the nature, nor the )alue of this material is of an* importance8 'he onl* reIuisite is that there be a sufficient suppl* to absorb the labour e9pended in the process of production8 'hat suppl* once gi)en, the material ma* rise or fall in )alue, or e)en be, as land and the sea, "ithout an* )alue in itself; but this "ill ha)e no influence on the creation of )alue or on the )ariation in the Iuantit* of )alue8 6 >n the first place then "e eIuate the constant capital to 1ero8 'he capital ad)anced is conseIuentl* reduced from c _ ) to ), and instead of the )alue of the product (c _ )! _ s "e ha)e no" the )alue produced () _ s!8 Gi)en the ne" )alue produced Y ]187, "hich sum conseIuentl* represents the "hole labour e9pended during the process, then subtracting from it ]27 the )alue of the )ariable capital, "e ha)e remaining ]27, the amount of the surplus )alue8 'his sum of ]27 or s e9presses the absolute Iuantit* of surplus )alue produced8 'he relati)e Iuantit* produced, or the increase per cent of the )ariable capital, is determined, it is plain, b* the ratio of the surplus )alue to the )ariable capital, or is e9pressed b* sJ)8 >n our e9ample this ratio is 27J27, "hich gi)es an increase of 177`8 'his relati)e increase in the )alue of the )ariable capital, or the relati)e magnitude of the surplus )alue, > call, @'he rate of surplus )alue8A : Be ha)e seen that the labourer, during one portion of the labour4process, produces onl* the )alue of his labour4po"er, that is, the )alue of his means of subsistence8 Co" since his "or+ forms part of a s*stem, based on the social di)ision of labour, he does not directl* produce the actual necessaries "hich he himself consumes; he produces instead a particular commodit*, *arn for e9ample, "hose )alue is eIual to the )alue of those necessaries or of the mone* "ith "hich the* can be bought8 'he portion of his da*?s labour de)oted to this purpose, "ill be greater or less, in proportion to the )alue of the necessaries that he dail* reIuires on an a)erage, or, "hat amounts to the same thing, in proportion to the labour4time reIuired on an a)erage to produce them8 >f the )alue of those necessaries represent on an a)erage the e9penditure of si9 hours? labour, the "or+man must on an a)erage "or+ for si9 hours to produce that )alue8 >f instead of "or+ing for the capitalist, he "or+ed independentl* on his o"n account, he "ould, other things being eIual, still be obliged to labour for the same number of hours, in order to produce the )alue of his labour4po"er, and thereb* to gain the means of subsistence necessar* for his conser)ation or continued reproduction8 /ut as "e ha)e seen, during that portion of his da*?s labour in "hich he produces the )alue of his labour4po"er, sa* three shillings, he produces onl* an eIui)alent for the )alue of his labour4po"er alread* ad)anced b* the capitalist; the ne" )alue created onl* replaces the )ariable capital ad)anced8 >t is o"ing to this fact, that the production of the ne" )alue of three shillings ta+es the semblance of a mere reproduction8 'hat portion of the "or+ing da*, then, during "hich this reproduction ta+es place, > call @ necessaryA labour time, and the labour e9pended during that time > call @necessaryA labour83 Cecessar*, as regards the labourer, because independent of the particular social form of his labour; necessar*, as regards capital, and the "orld of capitalists, because on the continued e9istence of the labourer depends their e9istence also8 0uring the second period of the labour4process, that in "hich his labour is no longer necessar* labour, the "or+man, it is true, labours, e9pends labour4po"er; but his labour, being no longer necessar* labour, he creates no )alue for himself8 -e creates surplus )alue "hich, for the capitalist, has all the charms of a creation out of nothing8 'his portion of the "or+ing da*, > name surplus labour4time, and to the labour e9pended during that time, > gi)e the name of surplus labour8 >t is e)er* bit as important, for a correct understanding of surplus )alue, to concei)e it as a

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mere congelation of surplus labour4time, as nothing but materialised surplus labour, as it is, for a proper comprehension of )alue, to concei)e it as a mere congelation of so man* hours of labour, as nothing but materialised labour8 'he essential difference bet"een the )arious economic forms of societ*, bet"een, for instance, a societ* based on sla)e4labour, and one based on "age4labour, lies onl* in the mode in "hich this surplus labour is in each case e9tracted from the actual producer, the labourer86 Since, on the one hand, the )alues of the )ariable capital and of the labour4po"er purchased b* that capital are eIual, and the )alue of this labour4po"er determines the necessar* portion of the "or+ing da*; and since, on the other hand, the surplus )alue is determined b* the surplus portion of the "or+ing da*, it follo"s that surplus )alue bears the same ratio to )ariable capital, that surplus labour does to necessar* labour, or in other "ords, the rate of surplus )alue, sJ) Y (surplus labour!J(necessar* labour!8 /oth ratios, sJ) and (surplus labour!J(necessar* labour!, e9press the same thing in different "a*s; in the one case b* reference to materialised, incorporated labour, in the other b* reference to li)ing, fluent labour8 'he rate of surplus )alue is therefore an e9act e9pression for the degree of e9ploitation of labour4 po"er b* capital, or of the labourer b* the capitalist8 7 Be assumed in our e9ample, that the )alue of the product ] 17 const8 _ ]27 )ar8 _ ]27 surpl8, and that the capital ad)anced Y ]3778 Since the surplus )alue Y ]27, and the ad)anced capital Y ]377, "e should, according to the usual "a* of rec+oning, get as the rate of surplus )alue (generall* confounded "ith rate of profits! 18`, a rate so lo" as possibl* to cause a pleasant surprise to $r8 5are* and other harmonisers8 /ut in truth, the rate of surplus )alue is not eIual to sJ5 or sJ(c_)!, but to sJ): thus it is not 27J377 but 27J27 or 177`, "hich is more than fi)e times the apparent degree of e9ploitation8 (lthough, in the case "e ha)e supposed, "e are ignorant of the actual length of the "or+ing da*, and of the duration in da*s or "ee+s of the labour4process, as also of the number of labourers emplo*ed, *et the rate of surplus )alue sJ) accuratel* discloses to us, b* means of its eIui)alent e9pression, surplus labourJnecessar* labour the relation bet"een the t"o parts of the "or+ing da*8 'his relation is here one of eIualit*, the rate being 177`8 -ence, it is plain, the labourer, in our e9ample, "or+s one half of the da* for himself, the other half for the capitalist8 'he method of calculating the rate of surplus )alue is therefore, shortl*, as follo"s8 Be ta+e the total )alue of the product and put the constant capital "hich merel* re4appears in it, eIual to 1ero8 Bhat remains, is the onl* )alue that has, in the process of producing the commodit*, been actuall* created8 >f the amount of surplus )alue be gi)en, "e ha)e onl* to deduct it from this remainder, to find the )ariable capital8 (nd vice vers%+ if the latter be gi)en, and "e reIuire to find the surplus )alue8 >f both be gi)en, "e ha)e onl* to perform the concluding operation, )i18, to calculate sJ), the ratio of the surplus )alue to the ) )ariable capital8 'hough the method is so simple, *et it ma* not be amiss, b* means of a fe" e9amples, to e9ercise the reader in the application of the no)el principles underl*ing it8 First "e "ill ta+e the case of a spinning mill containing 17,777 mule spindles, spinning Co8 :6 *arn from (merican cotton, and producing 1 lb8 of *arn "ee+l* per spindle8 Be assume the "aste to be 6`: under these circumstances 17,677 lbs8 of cotton are consumed "ee+l*, of "hich 677 lbs8 go to "aste8 'he price of the cotton in (pril, 1871, "as 7ed8 per lb8; the ra" material therefore costs in round numbers ]: 68 'he 17,777 spindles, including preparation4machiner*, and moti)e po"er, cost, "e "ill assume, ]1 per spindle, amounting to a total of ]17,7778 'he "ear and tear "e put at 17`, or ]1,777 *earl* Y ]67 "ee+l*8 'he rent of the building "e suppose to be ]:77 a *ear, or ]6 a "ee+8 5oal consumed (for 177 horse4po"er indicated, at lbs8 of coal per horse4po"er per hour during 67 hours, and inclusi)e of that consumed in heating the mill!, 11

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tons a "ee+ at 8s8 6d8 a ton, amounts to about ] [ a "ee+: gas, ]1 a "ee+, oil, Pc8, ] [ a "ee+8 'otal cost of the abo)e au9iliar* materials, ]17 "ee+l*8 'herefore the constant portion of the )alue of the "ee+?s product is ]:788 Bages amount to ]36 a "ee+8 'he price of the *arn is 16fd8 per8 lb8 "hich gi)es for the )alue of 17,777 lbs8 the sum of ]3178 'he surplus )alue is therefore in this case ]317 4 ] :7 Y ]878 Be put the constant part of the )alue of the product Y 7, as it pla*s no part in the creation of )alue8 'here remains ]1:6 as the "ee+l* )alue created, "hich Y ]36 )ar8 _ ]87 surpl8 'he rate of surplus )alue is therefore 87J36 Y 13: 11J1:`8 >n a "or+ing da* of 17 hours "ith a)erage labour the result is: necessar* labour Y : :1J:: hours, and surplus labour Y 6 6J::88 =ne more e9ample8 Lacob gi)es the follo"ing calculation for the *ear 18138 ="ing to the pre)ious adDustment of se)eral items it is )er* imperfect; ne)ertheless for our purpose it is sufficient8 >n it he assumes the price of "heat to be 8s8 a Iuarter, and the a)erage *ield per acre to be 66 bushels8 ;(<%E #&=0%5E0 #E& (5&E Seed ]1 2s8 7d8 'ithes, &ates, and ta9es, $anure ]6 17s8 7d8 &ent Bages ]: 17s8 7d8 Farmer?s #rofit and >nterest '='(< ]7 2s8 7d8 '='(< ]1 1s8 7d8 ]1 8s8 7d8 ]1 6s8 7d8 ]: 11s 7d8

(ssuming that the price of the product is the same as its )alue, "e here find the surplus )alue distributed under the )arious heads of profit, interest, rent, Pc8 Be ha)e nothing to do "ith these in detail; "e simpl* add them together, and the sum is a surplus )alue of ]: 11s8 7d8 'he sum of ]: 12s8 7d8, paid for seed and manure, is constant capital, and "e put it eIual to 1ero8 'here is left the sum of ]: 17s8 7d8, "hich is the )ariable capital ad)anced: and "e see that a ne" )alue of ]: 17s8 7d _ ]: 11s8 7d8 has been produced in its place8 'herefore sJ) Y ]: 11s8 7d8 J ]: 17s8 7d8, gi)ing a rate of surplus )alue of more than 177`8 'he labourer emplo*s more than one half of his "or+ing da* in producing the surplus )alue, "hich different persons, under different prete9ts, share amongst themsel)es82

Section ': The .epresentation of the Components of the Value of the Product b Correspondin% Proportional Parts of the Product Itself
<et us no" return to the e9ample b* "hich "e "ere sho"n ho" the capitalist con)erts mone* into capital8 'he product of a "or+ing da* of 16 hours is 67 lbs8 of *arn, ha)ing a )alue of :7s8 Co less than 8J17ths of this )alue, or 6 s8, is due to mere re4appearance in it, of the )alue of the means of production (67 lbs8 of cotton, )alue 67s8, and spindle "orn a"a*, s8!: it is therefore constant capital8 'he remaining 6J17ths or 6s8 is the ne" )alue created during the spinning process: of this one half replaces the )alue of the da*?s labour4po"er, or the )ariable capital, the remaining half constitutes a surplus )alue of :s8 'he total )alue then of the 67 lbs8 of *arn is made up as follo"s: :7s8 )alue of *arn Y 6 s8 const8 _ :s8 )ar8 _ :s8 surpl8

16:

5hapter 2

Since the "hole of this )alue is contained in the 67 lbs8 of *arn produced, it follo"s that the )arious component parts of this )alue, can be represented as being contained respecti)el* in corresponding parts of the product8 >f the )alue of :7s8 is contained in 67 lbs8 of *arn, then 8J17ths of this )alue, or the 6 s8 that form its constant part, is contained in 8J17ths of the product or in 16 lbs8 of *arn8 =f the latter 1: 1J: lbs8 represent the )alue of the ra" material, the 67s8 "orth of cotton spun, and 6 6J: lbs8 represent the s8 "orth of spindle, Pc8, "orn a"a* in the process8 -ence the "hole of the cotton used up in spinning the 67 lbs8 of *arn, is represented b* 1: 1J: lbs8 of *arn8 'his latter "eight of *arn contains, it is true, b* "eight, no more than 1: 1J: lbs8 of cotton, "orth 1: 1J: shillings; but the 6 6J: shillings additional )alue contained in it, are the eIui)alent for the cotton consumed in spinning the remaining 6 6J: lbs8 of *arn8 'he effect is the same as if these 6 6J: lbs8 of *arn contained no cotton at all, and the "hole 67 lbs8 of cotton "ere concentrated in the 1: 1J: lbs8 of *arn8 'he latter "eight, on the other hand, does not contain an atom either of the )alue of the au9iliar* materials and implements, or of the )alue ne"l* created in the process8 >n the same "a*, the 6 6J: lbs8 of *arn, in "hich the s8, the remainder of the constant capital, is embodied, represents nothing but the )alue of the au9iliar* materials and instruments of labour consumed in producing the 67 lbs8 of *arn8 Be ha)e, therefore, arri)ed at this result: although eight4tenths of the product, or 16 lbs8 of *arn, is, in its character of an article of utilit*, Dust as much the fabric of the spinner?s labour, as the remainder of the same product, *et "hen )ie"ed in this conne9ion, it does not contain, and has not absorbed an* labour e9pended during the process of spinning8 >t is Dust as if the cotton had con)erted itself into *arn, "ithout help; as if the shape it had assumed "as mere tric+er* and deceit: for so soon as our capitalist sells it for 6 s8, and "ith the mone* replaces his means of production, it becomes e)ident that this 16 lbs8 of *arn is nothing more than so much cotton and spindle4"aste in disguise8 =n the other hand, the remaining 6J17 ths of the product, or lbs of *arn, represent nothing but the ne" )alue of 6s8, created during the 16 hours? spinning process8 (ll the )alue transferred to those lbs, from the ra" material and instruments of labour consumed, "as, so to sa*, intercepted in order to be incorporated in the 16 lbs8 first spun8 >n this case, it is as if the spinner had spun lbs8 of *arn out of air, or, as if he had spun them "ith the aid of cotton and spindles, that, being the spontaneous gift of Cature, transferred no )alue to the product8 =f this lbs8 of *arn, in "hich the "hole of the )alue ne"l* created during the process, is condensed, one half represents the eIui)alent for the )alue of the labour consumed, or the :s8 )ariable capital, the other half represents the :s8 surplus )alue8 Since 16 "or+ing4hours of the spinner are embodied in 6s8, it follo"s that in *arn of the )alue of :7s8, there must be embodied 67 "or+ing4hours8 (nd this Iuantit* of labour4time does in fact e9ist in the 67 lbs of *arn; for in 8J17ths or 16 lbs there are materialised the 8 hours of labour e9pended, before the commencement of the spinning process, on the means of production; and in the remaining 6J17ths or lbs there are materialised the 16 hours? "or+ done during the process itself8 =n a former page "e sa" that the )alue of the *arn is eIual to the sum of the ne" )alue created during the production of that *arn plus the )alue pre)iousl* e9isting in the means of production8 >t has no" been sho"n ho" the )arious component parts of the )alue of the product, parts that differ functionall* from each other, ma* be represented b* corresponding proportional parts of the product itself8

16

5hapter 2

'o split up in this manner the product into different parts, of "hich one represents onl* the labour pre)iousl* spent on the means of production, or the constant capital, another, onl* the necessar* labour spent during the process of production, or the )ariable capital, and another and last part, onl* the surplus labour e9pended during the same process, or the surplus )alue; to do this, is, as "ill be seen later on from its application to complicated and hitherto unsol)ed problems, no less important than it is simple8 >n the preceding in)estigation "e ha)e treated the total product as the final result, read* for use, of a "or+ing da* of 16 hours8 Be can ho"e)er follo" this total product through all the stages of its production; and in this "a* "e shall arri)e at the same result as before, if "e represent the partial products, gi)en off at the different stages, as functionall* different parts of the final or total product8 'he spinner produces in 16 hours 67 lbs8 of *arn, or in 1 hour 1g lbs; conseIuentl* he produces in 8 hours 1:g lbs8, or a partial product eIual in )alue to all the cotton that is spun in a "hole da*8 >n li+e manner the partial product of the ne9t period of 1 hour and :6 minutes, is 6g lbs8 of *arn: this represents the )alue of the instruments of labour that are consumed in 16 hours8 >n the follo"ing hour and 16 minutes, the spinner produces 6 lbs8 of *arn "orth : shillings, a )alue eIual to the "hole )alue he creates in his 6 hours? necessar* labour8 Finall*, in the last hour and 16 minutes he produces another 6 lbs8 of *arn, "hose )alue is eIual to the surplus )alue, created b* his surplus labour during half a da*8 'his method of calculation ser)es the English manufacturer for e)er*4da* use; it sho"s, he "ill sa*, that in the first 8 hours, or g of the "or+ing da*, he gets bac+ the )alue of his cotton; and so on for the remaining hours8 >t is also a perfectl* correct method: being in fact the first method gi)en abo)e "ith this difference, that instead of being applied to space, in "hich the different parts of the completed product lie side b* side, it deals "ith time, in "hich those parts are successi)el* produced8 /ut it can also be accompanied b* )er* barbarian notions, more especiall* in the heads of those "ho are as much interested, practicall*, in the process of ma+ing )alue beget )alue, as the* are in misunderstanding that process theoreticall*8 Such people ma* get the notion into their heads, that our spinner, for e9ample, produces or replaces in the first 8 hours of his "or+ing da* the value of the cotton; in the follo"ing hour and :6 minutes the value of the instruments of labour "orn a"a*; in the ne9t hour and 16 minutes the value of the "ages; and that he de)otes to the production of surplus )alue for the manufacturer, onl* that "ell +no"n @last hour8A >n this "a* the poor spinner is made to perform the t"o4fold miracle not onl* of producing cotton, spindles, steam4engine, coal, oil, Pc8, at the same time that he spins "ith them, but also of turning one "or+ing da* into fi)e; for, in the e9ample "e are considering, the production of the ra" material and instruments of labour demands four "or+ing da*s of t"el)e hours each, and their con)ersion into *arn reIuires another such da*8 'hat the lo)e of lucre induces an eas* belief in such miracles, and that s*cophant doctrinaires are ne)er "anting to pro)e them, is )ouched for b* the follo"ing incident of historical celebrit*8

Section *: Senior/s 0(ast 1our2

=ne fine morning, in the *ear 18:6, Cassau B8 Senior, "ho ma* be called the bel4esprit of English economists, "ell +no"n, ali+e for his economic @science,A and for his beautiful st*le, "as summoned from =9ford to $anchester, to learn in the latter place, the #olitical Econom* that he taught in the former8 'he manufacturers elected him as their champion, not onl* against the ne"l* passed Factor* (ct, but against the still more menacing 'en4hours? agitation8 Bith their usual practical acuteness, the* had found out4 that the learned #rofessor @"anted a good deal of finishing;A it "as this disco)er* that caused them to "rite for him8 =n his side the #rofessor

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has embodied the lecture he recei)ed from the $anchester manufacturers, in a pamphlet, entitled: @<etters on the Factor* (ct, as it affects the cotton manufacture8A <ondon, 18:78 -ere "e find, amongst others, the follo"ing edif*ing passage: @%nder the present la", no mill in "hich persons under 18 *ears of age are emplo*ed, 888 can be "or+ed more than 11[ hours a da*, that is, 16 hours for 3 da*s in the "ee+, and nine on Saturda*8 @Co" the follo"ing anal*sis (Q! "ill sho" that in a mill so "or+ed, the "hole net profit is deri)ed from the last hour8 > "ill suppose a manufacturer to in)est ]177,777: F ]87,777 in his mill and machiner*, and ]67,777 in ra" material and "ages8 'he annual return of that mill, supposing the capital to be turned once a *ear, and gross profits to be 13 per cent8, ought to be goods "orth ]13,7778888 =f this ]113,777, each of the t"ent*4three half4hours of "or+ produces 34113ths or one t"ent*4third8 =f these 6:46:rds (constituting the "hole ]113,777! t"ent*, that is to sa* ]177,777 out of the ]113,777, simpl* replace the capital; F one t"ent*4 third (or ]3,777 out of the ]113,777! ma+es up for the deterioration of the mill and machiner*8 'he remaining 646:rds, that is, the last t"o of the t"ent*4three half4hours of e)er* da*, produce the net profit of 17 per cent8 >f, therefore (prices remaining the same!, the factor* could be +ept at "or+ thirteen hours instead of ele)en and a half, "ith an addition of about ]6,677 to the circulating capital, the net profit "ould be more than doubled8 =n the other hand, if the hours of "or+ing "ere reduced b* one hour per da* (prices remaining the same!, the net profit "ould be destro*ed F if the* "ere reduced b* one hour and a half, e)en the ross profit "ould be destro*ed8A17 (nd the #rofessor calls this an @anal*sisQA >f, gi)ing credence to the out4cries of the manufacturers, he belie)ed that the "or+men spend the best part of the da* in the production, i8e8, the reproduction or replacement of the )alue of the buildings, machiner*, cotton, coal, Pc8, then his anal*sis "as superfluous8 -is ans"er "ould simpl* ha)e been: F GentlemenQ if *ou "or+ *our mills for 17 hours instead of 11[, then, other things being eIual, the dail* consumption of cotton, machiner*, Pc8, "ill decrease in proportion8 Nou gain Dust as much as *ou lose8 Nour "or+4people "ill in future spend one hour and a half less time in reproducing or replacing the capital that has been ad)anced8 F >f, on the other hand, he did not belie)e them "ithout further inIuir*, but, as being an e9pert in such matters, deemed an anal*sis necessar*, then he ought, in a Iuestion that is concerned e9clusi)el* "ith the relations of net profit to the length of the "or+ing da*, before all things to ha)e as+ed the manufacturers, to be careful not to lump together machiner*, "or+shops, ra" material, and labour, but to be good enough to place the constant capital, in)ested in buildings, machiner*, ra" material, Pc8, on one side of the account, and the capital ad)anced in "ages on the other side8 >f the #rofessor then found, that in accordance "ith the calculation of the manufacturers, the "or+man reproduced or replaced his "ages in 6 half4 hours, in that case, he should ha)e continued his anal*sis thus: (ccording to *our figures, the "or+man in the last hour but one produces his "ages, and in the last hour *our surplus )alue or net profit8 Co", since in eIual periods he produces eIual )alues, the produce of the last hour but one, must ha)e the same )alue as that of the last hour8 Further, it is onl* "hile he labours that he produces an* )alue at all, and the amount of his labour is measured b* his labour4time8 'his *ou sa*, amounts to 11[ hours a da*8 -e emplo*s one portion of these 11[ hours, in producing or replacing his "ages, and the remaining portion in producing *our net profit8 /e*ond this he does absolutel* nothing8 /ut since, on *our assumption, his "ages, and the surplus )alue he *ields, are of eIual )alue, it is clear that he produces his "ages in

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3e hours, and *our net profit in the other 3e hours8 (gain, since the )alue of the *arn produced in 6 hours, is eIual to the sum of the )alues of his "ages and of *our net profit, the measure of the )alue of this *arn must be 11[ "or+ing4hours, of "hich 3e hours measure the )alue of the *arn produced in the last hour but one, and 3e, the )alue of the *arn produced in the last hour8 Be no" come to a tic+lish point; therefore, attentionQ 'he last "or+ing4hour but one is, li+e the first, an ordinar* "or+ing4hour, neither more nor less8 -o" then can the spinner produce in one hour, in the shape of *arn, a )alue that embodies 3e hours? labourE 'he truth is that he performs no such miracle8 'he use4)alue produced b* him in one hour, is a definite Iuantit* of *arn8 'he )alue of this *arn is measured b* 3e "or+ing4hours, of "hich e "ere, "ithout an* assistance from him, pre)iousl* embodied in the means of production, in the cotton, the machiner*, and so on; the remaining one hour alone is added b* him8 'herefore since his "ages are produced in 3e hours, and the *arn produced in one hour also contains 3e hours? "or+, there is no "itchcraft in the result, that the )alue created b* his 3e hours? spinning, is eIual to the )alue of the product spun in one hour8 Nou are altogether on the "rong trac+, if *ou thin+ that he loses a single moment of his "or+ing da*, in reproducing or replacing the )alues of the cotton, the machiner*, and so on8 =n the contrar*, it is because his labour con)erts the cotton and spindles into *arn, because he spins, that the )alues of the cotton and spindles go o)er to the *arn of their o"n accord8 'his result is o"ing to the Iualit* of his labour, not to its Iuantit*8 >t is true, he "ill in one hour transfer to the *arn more )alue, in the shape of cotton, than he "ill in half an hour; but that is onl* because in one hour he spins up more cotton than in half an hour8 Nou see then, *our assertion, that the "or+man produces, in the last hour but one, the )alue of his "ages, and in the last hour *our net profit, amounts to no more than this, that in the *arn produced b* him in 6 "or+ing4hours, "hether the* are the 6 first or the 6 last hours of the "or+ing da*, in that *arn, there are incorporated 11[ "or+ing4hours, or Dust a "hole da*?s "or+, i$e$, t"o hours of his o"n "or+ and 2[ hours of other people?s8 (nd m* assertion that, in the first 3e hours, he produces his "ages, and in the last 3e hours *our net profit, amounts onl* to this, that *ou pa* him for the former, but not for the latter8 >n spea+ing of pa*ment of labour, instead of pa*ment of labour4 po"er, > onl* tal+ *our o"n slang8 Co", gentlemen, if *ou compare the "or+ing4time *ou pa* for, "ith that "hich *ou do not pa* for, *ou "ill find that the* are to one another, as half a da* is to half a da*; this gi)es a rate of 177`, and a )er* prett* percentage it is8 Further, there is not the least doubt, that if *ou ma+e *ou @handsA toil for 1: hours, instead of 11[, and, as ma* be e9pected from *ou, treat the "or+ done in that e9tra one hour and a half, as pure surplus labour, then the latter "ill be increased from 3e hours? labour to 7f hours? labour, and the rate of surplus )alue from 177` to 166 6J6:`8 So that *ou are altogether too sanguine, in e9pecting that b* such an addition of 1[ hours to the "or+ing da*, the rate "ill rise from 177` to 677` and more, in other "ords that it "ill be @more than doubled8A =n the other hand4man?s heart is a "onderful thing, especiall* "hen carried in the purse F *ou ta+e too pessimist a )ie", "hen *ou fear, that "ith a reduction of the hours of labour from 11[ to 17, the "hole of *our net profit "ill go to the dogs8 Cot at all8 (ll other conditions remaining the same, the surplus labour "ill fall from 3e hours to e hours, a period that still gi)es a )er* profitable rate of surplus )alue, namel* 86 1 J6:`8 /ut this dreadful @last hour,A about "hich *ou ha)e in)ented more stories than ha)e the millenarians about the da* of Dudgment, is @all bosh8A >f it goes, it "ill cost neither *ou, *our net profit, nor the bo*s and girls "hom *ou emplo*, their @purit* of mind8A 11 Bhene)er *our @last hourA stri+es in earnest, thin+ of the =9ford #rofessor8 (nd no", gentlemen, @fare"ell, and ma* "e meet again in *onder better "orld, but not before8A Senior in)ented the battle cr* of the @last hourA in 18:68 16 >n the London Economist of the 13th (pril, 18 8, the same cr* "as again raised b* Lames Bilson, an economic mandarin of high standing: this time in opposition to the 17 hours? bill8

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Section ,: Surplus"Produce
'he portion of the product that represents the surplus )alue, (one tenth of the 67 lbs8, or 6 lbs8 of *arn, in the e9ample gi)en in Sec8 6! "e call @surplus4produce8A Lust as the rate of surplus )alue is determined b* its relation, not to the sum total of the capital, but to its )ariable part; in li+e manner, the relati)e Iuantit* of surplus4produce is determined b* the ratio that this produce bears, not to the remaining part of the total product, but to that part of it in "hich is incorporated the necessar* labour8 Since the production of surplus )alue is the chief end and aim of capitalist production, it is clear, that the greatness of a man?s or a nation?s "ealth should be measured, not b* the absolute Iuantit* produced, but b* the relati)e magnitude of the surplus4produce8 1: 'he sum of the necessar* labour and the surplus labour, i8e8, of the periods of time during "hich the "or+man replaces the )alue of his labour4po"er, and produces the surplus )alue, this sum constitutes the actual time during "hich he "or+s, i$e$, the "or+ing da*8

(ha)ter 1'* "he 5or6in# da+

Section 1: The (imits of the 3orkin% da
Be started "ith the supposition that labour4po"er is bought and sold at its )alue8 >ts )alue, li+e that of all other commodities, is determined b* the "or+ing4time necessar* to its production8 >f the production of the a)erage dail* means of subsistence of the labourer ta+es up 6 hours, he must "or+, on the a)erage, 6 hours e)er* da*, to produce his dail* labour4po"er, or to reproduce the )alue recei)ed as the result of its sale8 'he necessar* part of his "or+ing da* amounts to 6 hours, and is, therefore, caeteris paribus Gother things being eIualH, a gi)en Iuantit*8 /ut "ith this, the e9tent of the "or+ing da* itself is not *et gi)en8 <et us assume that the line (FFF/ represents the length of the necessar* "or+ing4time, sa* 6 hours8 >f the labour be prolonged 1, :, or 6 hours be*ond (FF/, "e ha)e : other lines: Bor+ing da* >8 Bor+ing da* >>8 Bor+ing da* >>>8 (FFF/F58 (FFF/FF58 (FFF/FFF58 representing : different "or+ing da*s of 7, 2, and 16 hours8 'he e9tension /FF5 of the line (FF/ represents the length of the surplus labour8 (s the "or+ing da* is (FF/ _ /FF5 or (FF5, it )aries "ith the )ariable Iuantit* /FF58 Since (FF/ is constant, the ratio of /FF5 to (FF/ can al"a*s be calculated8 >n "or+ing da* >, it is 1J6, in "or+ing da* >>, :J6, in "or+ing da* >>> 6J6 of (FF/8 Since further the ratio (surplus "or+ing4time!J(necessar* "or+ing4time!, determines the rate of the surplus )alue, the latter is gi)en b* the ratio of /F45 to (F4/8 >t amounts in the : different "or+ing da*s respecti)el* to 16 6J:, 37 and 177 per cent8 =n the other hand, the rate of surplus )alue alone "ould not gi)e us the e9tent of the "or+ing da*8 >f this rate, e$ 8, "ere 177 per cent8, the "or+ing da* might be of 8, 17, 16, or more hours8 >t "ould indicate that the 6 constituent parts of the "or+ing da*, necessar*4labour and surplus labour time, "ere eIual in e9tent, but not ho" long each of these t"o constituent parts "as8 'he "or+ing da* is thus not a constant, but a )ariable Iuantit*8 =ne of its parts, certainl*, is determined b* the "or+ing4time reIuired for the reproduction of the labour4po"er of the labourer himself8 /ut its total amount )aries "ith the duration of the surplus labour8 'he "or+ing da* is, therefore, determinable, but is, per se, indeterminate81 (lthough the "or+ing da* is not a fi9ed, but a fluent Iuantit*, it can, on the other hand, onl* )ar* "ithin certain limits8 'he minimum limit is, ho"e)er, not determinable; of course, if "e ma+e the e9tension line /F45 or the surplus labour Y 7, "e ha)e a minimum limit, i$e8, the part of the da* "hich the labourer must necessaril* "or+ for his o"n maintenance8 =n the basis of capitalist production, ho"e)er, this necessar* labour can form a part onl* of the "or+ing da*; the "or+ing da* itself can ne)er be reduced to this minimum8 =n the other hand, the "or+ing da* has a ma9imum limit8 >t cannot be prolonged be*ond a certain point8 'his ma9imum limit is conditioned b* t"o things8 First, b* the ph*sical bounds of labour4po"er8 Bithin the 6 hours of the natural da* a man can e9pend onl* a definite Iuantit* of his )ital force8 ( horse, in li+e manner, can onl* "or+ from da* to da*, 8 hours8 0uring part of the da* this force must rest, sleep; during another part the man has to satisf* other ph*sical needs, to feed, "ash, and clothe himself8 /esides these purel* ph*sical limitations, the e9tension of the "or+ing da* encounters moral ones8 'he labourer needs time for satisf*ing his intellectual and social "ants, the e9tent and number of "hich are conditioned b* the general state of social ad)ancement8 'he )ariation of the

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"or+ing da* fluctuates, therefore, "ithin ph*sical and social bounds8 /ut both these limiting conditions are of a )er* elastic nature, and allo" the greatest latitude8 So "e find "or+ing da*s of 8, 17, 16, 1 , 16, 18 hours, i8e8, of the most different lengths8 'he capitalist has bought the labour4po"er at its da*4rate8 'o him its use4)alue belongs during one "or+ing da*8 -e has thus acIuired the right to ma+e the labourer "or+ for him during one da*8 /ut, "hat is a "or+ing da*E 6 (t all e)ents, less than a natural da*8 /* ho" muchE 'he capitalist has his o"n )ie"s of this ultima /hule Gthe outermost limitH, the necessar* limit of the "or+ing da*8 (s capitalist, he is onl* capital personified8 -is soul is the soul of capital8 /ut capital has one single life impulse, the tendenc* to create )alue and surplus )alue, to ma+e its constant factor, the means of production, absorb the greatest possible amount of surplus labour8 : 5apital is dead labour, that, )ampire4li+e, onl* li)es b* suc+ing li)ing labour, and li)es the more, the more labour it suc+s8 'he time during "hich the labourer "or+s, is the time during "hich the capitalist consumes the labour4po"er he has purchased of him8 >f the labourer consumes his disposable time for himself, he robs the capitalist8 3 'he capitalist then ta+es his stand on the la" of the e9change of commodities8 -e, li+e all other bu*ers, see+s to get the greatest possible benefit out of the use4)alue of his commodit*8 Suddenl* the )oice of the labourer, "hich had been stifled in the storm and stress of the process of production, rises: 'he commodit* that > ha)e sold to *ou differs from the cro"d of other commodities, in that its use creates )alue, and a )alue greater than its o"n8 'hat is "h* *ou bought it8 'hat "hich on *our side appears a spontaneous e9pansion of capital, is on mine e9tra e9penditure of labour4po"er8 Nou and > +no" on the mar+et onl* one la", that of the e9change of commodities8 (nd the consumption of the commodit* belongs not to the seller "ho parts "ith it, but to the bu*er, "ho acIuires it8 'o *ou, therefore, belongs the use of m* dail* labour4po"er8 /ut b* means of the price that *ou pa* for it each da*, > must be able to reproduce it dail*, and to sell it again8 (part from natural e9haustion through age, Pc8, > must be able on the morro" to "or+ "ith the same normal amount of force, health and freshness as to4da*8 Nou preach to me constantl* the gospel of @sa)ingA and @abstinence8A GoodQ > "ill, li+e a sensible sa)ing o"ner, husband m* sole "ealth, labour4po"er, and abstain from all foolish "aste of it8 > "ill each da* spend, set in motion, put into action onl* as much of it as is compatible "ith its normal duration, and health* de)elopment8 /* an unlimited e9tension of the "or+ing da*, *ou ma* in one da* use up a Iuantit* of labour4 po"er greater than > can restore in three8 Bhat *ou gain in labour > lose in substance8 'he use of m* labour4po"er and the spoliation of it are Iuite different things8 >f the a)erage time that (doing a reasonable amount of "or+! an a)erage labourer can li)e, is :7 *ears, the )alue of m* labour4 po"er, "hich *ou pa* me from da* to da* is 1J(:63h:7! or 1J17237 of its total )alue8 /ut if *ou consume it in 17 *ears, *ou pa* me dail* 1J17237 instead of 1J:637 of its total )alue, i$e8, onl* 1J: of its dail* )alue, and *ou rob me, therefore, e)er* da* of 6J: of the )alue of m* commodit*8 Nou pa* me for one da*?s labour4po"er, "hilst *ou use that of : da*s8 'hat is against our contract and the la" of e9changes8 > demand, therefore, a "or+ing da* of normal length, and > demand it "ithout an* appeal to *our heart, for in mone* matters sentiment is out of place8 Nou ma* be a model citi1en, perhaps a member of the Societ* for the #re)ention of 5ruelt* to (nimals, and in the odour of sanctit* to boot; but the thing that *ou represent face to face "ith me has no heart in its breast8 'hat "hich seems to throb there is m* o"n heart4beating8 > demand the normal "or+ing da* because >, li+e e)er* other seller, demand the )alue of m* commodit*8 6 Be see then, that, apart from e9tremel* elastic bounds, the nature of the e9change of commodities itself imposes no limit to the "or+ing da*, no limit to surplus labour8 'he capitalist

1:7

5hapter 17

maintains his rights as a purchaser "hen he tries to ma+e the "or+ing da* as long as possible, and to ma+e, "hene)er possible, t"o "or+ing da*s out of one8 =n the other hand, the peculiar nature of the commodit* sold implies a limit to its consumption b* the purchaser, and the labourer maintains his right as seller "hen he "ishes to reduce the "or+ing da* to one of definite normal duration8 'here is here, therefore, an antinom*, right against right, both eIuall* bearing the seal of the la" of e9changes8 /et"een eIual rights force decides8 -ence is it that in the histor* of capitalist production, the determination of "hat is a "or+ing da*, presents itself as the result of a struggle, a struggle bet"een collecti)e capital, i$e$+ the class of capitalists, and collecti)e labour, i$e$+ the "or+ing4class8

Section ': The 4reed for Surplus"(abor5 $anufacturer and Bo ard

5apital has not in)ented surplus labour8 Bhere)er a part of societ* possesses the monopol* of the means of production, the labourer, free or not free, must add to the "or+ing4time necessar* for his o"n maintenance an e9tra "or+ing4time in order to produce the means of subsistence for the o"ners of the means of production7, "hether this proprietor be the (thenian ijkb\ ljijmb\ G"ell4 to4do manH, Etruscan theocrat, civis Romanus G&oman citi1enH, Corman baron, (merican sla)e4 o"ner, Ballachian /o*ard, modern landlord or capitalist8 8 >t is, ho"e)er, clear that in an* gi)en economic formation of societ*, "here not the e9change4)alue but the use4)alue of the product predominates, surplus labour "ill be limited b* a gi)en set of "ants "hich ma* be greater or less, and that here no boundless thirst for surplus labour arises from the nature of the production itself8 -ence in antiIuit* o)er4"or+ becomes horrible onl* "hen the obDect is to obtain e9change4)alue in its specific independent mone*4form; in the production of gold and sil)er8 5ompulsor* "or+ing to death is here the recognised form of o)er4"or+8 =nl* read 0iodorus Siculus8 2 Still these are e9ceptions in antiIuit*8 /ut as soon as people, "hose production still mo)es "ithin the lo"er forms of sla)e4labour, cor)Re4labour, Pc8, are dra"n into the "hirlpool of an international mar+et dominated b* the capitalistic mode of production, the sale of their products for e9port becoming their principal interest, the ci)ilised horrors of o)er4"or+ are grafted on the barbaric horrors of sla)er*, serfdom, Pc8 -ence the negro labour in the Southern States of the (merican %nion preser)ed something of a patriarchal character, so long as production "as chiefl* directed to immediate local consumption8 /ut in proportion, as the e9port of cotton became of )ital interest to these states, the o)er4"or+ing of the negro and sometimes the using up of his life in 7 *ears of labour became a factor in a calculated and calculating s*stem8 >t "as no longer a Iuestion of obtaining from him a certain Iuantit* of useful products8 >t "as no" a Iuestion of production of surplus labour itself: So "as it also "ith the cor)Re, e8g8, in the 0anubian #rincipalities (no" &oumania!8 'he comparison of the greed for surplus labour in the 0anubian #rincipalities "ith the same greed in English factories has a special interest, because surplus labour in the cor)Re has an independent and palpable form8 Suppose the "or+ing da* consists of 6 hours of necessar* labour, and 6 hours of surplus labour8 'hen the free labourer gi)es the capitalist e)er* "ee+ 6 9 6 or :6 hours of surplus labour8 >t is the same as if he "or+ed : da*s in the "ee+ for himself, and : da*s in the "ee+ gratis for the capitalist8 /ut this is not e)ident on the surface8 Surplus labour and necessar* labour glide one into the other8 > can, therefore, e9press the same relationship b* sa*ing, e8g8, that the labourer in e)er* minute "or+s :7 seconds for himself, and :7 for the capitalist, etc8 >t is other"ise "ith the cor)Re8 'he necessar* labour "hich the Ballachian peasant does for his o"n maintenance is distinctl* mar+ed off from his surplus labour on behalf of the /o*ard8 'he one he does on his

1:1

5hapter 17

o"n field, the other on the seignorial estate8 /oth parts of the labour4time e9ist, therefore, independentl*, side b* side one "ith the other8 >n the cor)Re the surplus labour is accuratel* mar+ed off from the necessar* labour8 'his, ho"e)er, can ma+e no difference "ith regard to the Iuantitati)e relation of surplus labour to necessar* labour8 'hree da*s? surplus labour in the "ee+ remain three da*s that *ield no eIui)alent to the labourer himself, "hether it be called cor)Re or "age4labour8 /ut in the capitalist the greed for surplus labour appears in the straining after an unlimited e9tension of the "or+ing da*, in the /o*ard more simpl* in a direct hunting after da*s of cor)Re817 >n the 0anubian #rincipalities the cor)Re "as mi9ed up "ith rents in +ind and other appurtenances of bondage, but it formed the most important tribute paid to the ruling class8 Bhere this "as the case, the cor)Re rarel* arose from serfdom; serfdom much more freIuentl* on the other hand too+ origin from the cor)Re8 11 'his is "hat too+ place in the &oumanian pro)inces8 'heir original mode of production "as based on communit* of the soil, but not in the Sla)onic or >ndian form8 #art of the land "as culti)ated in se)eralt* as freehold b* the members of the communit*, another part F a er publicus 3 "as culti)ated b* them in common8 'he products of this common labour ser)ed partl* as a reser)e fund against bad har)ests and other accidents, partl* as a public store for pro)iding the costs of "ar, religion, and other common e9penses8 >n course of time militar* and clerical dignitaries usurped, along "ith the common land, the labour spent upon it8 'he labour of the free peasants on their common land "as transformed into cor)Re for the thie)es of the common land8 'his cor)Re soon de)eloped into a ser)ile relationship e9isting in point of fact, not in point of la", until &ussia, the liberator of the "orld, made it legal under presence of abolishing serfdom8 'he code of the cor)Re, "hich the &ussian General .isseleff proclaimed in 18:1, "as of course dictated b* the /o*ards themsel)es8 'hus &ussia conIuered "ith one blo" the magnates of the 0anubian pro)inces, and the applause of liberal cretins throughout Europe8 (ccording to the @&nglement organiIue,A as this code of the cor)Re is called, e)er* Ballachian peasant o"es to the so4called landlord, besides a mass of detailed pa*ments in +ind: (45, 16 da*s of general labour; (65, one da* of field labour; (75, one da* of "ood carr*ing8 >n all, 1 da*s in the *ear8 Bith deep insight into #olitical Econom*, ho"e)er, the "or+ing da* is not ta+en in its ordinar* sense, but as the "or+ing da* necessar* to the production of an a)erage dail* product; and that a)erage dail* product is determined in so craft* a "a* that no 5*clops "ould be done "ith it in 6 hours8 >n dr* "ords, the &Rglement itself declares "ith true &ussian iron* that b* 16 "or+ing da*s one must understand the product of the manual labour of :6 da*s, b* 1 da* of field labour : da*s, and b* 1 da* of "ood carr*ing in li+e manner three times as much8 >n all, 6 cor)Re da*s8 'o this had to be added the so4called Dobagie, ser)ice due to the lord for e9traordinar* occasions8 >n proportion to the si1e of its population, e)er* )illage has to furnish annuall* a definite contingent to the Dobagie8 'his additional cor)Re is estimated at 1 da*s for each Ballachian peasant8 'hus the prescribed cor)Re amounts to 36 "or+ing da*s *earl*8 /ut the agricultural *ear in Ballachia numbers in conseIuence of the se)ere climate onl* 617 da*s, of "hich 7 for Sunda*s and holida*s, :7 on an a)erage for bad "eather, together 77 da*s, do not count8 1 7 "or+ing da*s remain8 'he ratio of the cor)Re to the necessar* labour 36J8 or 66 6J: ` gi)es a much smaller rate of surplus )alue than that "hich regulates the labour of the English agricultural or factor* labourer8 'his is, ho"e)er, onl* the legall* prescribed cor)Re8 (nd in a spirit *et more @liberalA than the English Factor* (cts, the @&nglement organiIueA has +no"n ho" to facilitate its o"n e)asion8 (fter it has made 36 da*s out of 16, the nominal da*?s "or+ of each of the 36 cor)Re da*s is again so arranged that a portion of it must fall on the ensuing da*8 >n one da*, e8g8, must be "eeded an e9tent of land, "hich, for this "or+, especiall* in mai1e plantations, needs t"ice as much time8 'he legal da*?s "or+ for some +inds of agricultural labour

1:6

5hapter 17

is interpretable in such a "a* that the da* begins in $a* and ends in =ctober8 >n $olda)ia conditions are still harder8 @'he 16 cor)Re da*s of the W&nglement organiIue? cried a /o*ard drun+ "ith )ictor*, amount to :63 da*s in the *ear8A16 >f the &nglement organiIue of the 0anubian pro)inces "as a positi)e e9pression of the greed for surplus labour "hich e)er* paragraph legalised, the English Factor* (cts are the negati)e e9pression of the same greed8 'hese acts curb the passion of capital for a limitless draining of labour4po"er, b* forcibl* limiting the "or+ing da* b* state regulations, made b* a state that is ruled b* capitalist4and landlord8 (part from the "or+ing4class mo)ement that dail* gre" more threatening, the limiting of factor* labour "as dictated b* the same necessit* "hich spread guano o)er the English fields8 'he same blind eagerness for plunder that in the one case e9hausted the soil, had, in the other, torn up b* the roots the li)ing force of the nation8 #eriodical epidemics spea+ on this point as clearl* as the diminishing militar* standard in German* and France8 1: 'he Factor* (ct of 1837 no" in force (1867! allo"s for the a)erage "or+ing da* 17 hours, i8e8, for the first 3 da*s 16 hours from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8, including [ an hour for brea+fast, and an hour for dinner, and thus lea)ing 17[ "or+ing4hours, and 8 hours for Saturda*, from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8, of "hich [ an hour is subtracted for brea+fast8 67 "or+ing4hours are left, 17[ for each of the first 3 da*s, 7[ for the last81 5ertain guardians of these la"s are appointed, Factor* >nspectors, directl* under the -ome Secretar*, "hose reports are published half4*earl*, b* order of #arliament8 'he* gi)e regular and official statistics of the capitalistic greed for surplus labour8 <et us listen, for a moment, to the Factor* >nspectors8 13 @'he fraudulent mill4o"ner begins "or+ a Iuarter of an hour (sometimes more, sometimes less! before 6 a8m8, and lea)es off a Iuarter of an hour (sometimes more, sometimes less! after 6 p8m8 -e ta+es 3 minutes from the beginning and from the end of the half hour nominall* allo"ed for brea+fast, and 17 minutes at the beginning and end of the hour nominall* allo"ed for dinner8 -e "or+s for a Iuarter of an hour (sometimes more, sometimes less! after 6 p8m8 on Saturda*8 'hus his gain is F /efore 6 a8m8, 13 minutes8 (fter 6 p8m8, 13 V (t brea+fast time, 17 V (t dinner time, 67 V Fi)e da*s F :77 minutes, 67 V =n Saturda* before 6 a8m8, 13 minutes8 (t brea+fast time, 17 V (fter 6 p8m8, 13 V 7 minutes8 'otal "ee+l*, : 7 minutes8 =r 3 hours and 7 minutes "ee+l*, "hich multiplied b* 37 "or+ing "ee+s in the *ear (allo"ing t"o for holida*s and occasional stoppages! is eIual to 67 "or+ing da*s8A16 @Fi)e minutes a da*?s increased "or+, multiplied b* "ee+s, are eIual to t"o and a half da*s of produce in the *ear8A17

1::

5hapter 17

@(n additional hour a da* gained b* small instalments before 6 a8m8, after 6 p8m8, and at the beginning and end of the times nominall* fi9ed for meals, is nearl* eIui)alent to "or+ing 1: months in the *ear8A18 5rises during "hich production is interrupted and the factories "or+ @short time,A i8e8, for onl* a part of the "ee+, naturall* do not affect the tendenc* to e9tend the "or+ing da*8 'he less business there is, the more profit has to be made on the business done8 'he less time spent in "or+, the more of that time has to be turned into surplus labour4time8 'hus the Factor* >nspector?s report on the period of the crisis from 1837 to 1838: @>t ma* seem inconsistent that there should be an* o)er"or+ing at a time "hen trade is so bad; but that )er* badness leads to the transgression b* unscrupulous men, the* get the e9tra profit of it8 888 >n the last half *ear, sa*s <eonard -orner, 166 mills in m* district ha)e been gi)en up; 1 : "ere found standing,A *et, o)er4 "or+ is continued be*ond the legal hours8A12 @For a great part of the time,A sa*s $r8 -o"ell, @o"ing to the depression of trade, man* factories "ere altogether closed, and a still greater number "ere "or+ing short time8 > continue, ho"e)er, to recei)e about the usual number of complaints that half, or three4Iuarters of an hour in the da*, are snatched from the "or+ers b* encroaching upon the times professedl* allo"ed for rest and refreshment8A 67 'he same phenomenon "as reproduced on a smaller scale during the frightful cotton4crises from 1861 to 1863861 @>t is sometimes ad)anced b* "a* of e9cuse, "hen persons are found at "or+ in a factor*, either at a meal hour, or at some illegal time, that the* "ill not lea)e the mill at the appointed hour, and that compulsion is necessar* to force them to cease "or+ Gcleaning their machiner*, Pc8H, especiall* on Saturda* afternoons8 /ut, if the hands remain in a factor* after the machiner* has ceased to re)ol)e 888 the* "ould not ha)e been so emplo*ed if sufficient time had been set apart speciall* for cleaning, Pc8, either before 6 a8m8 8sic$!9 or before 6 p8m8 on Saturda* afternoons8A 66 @'he profit to be gained b* it (o)er4"or+ing in )iolation of the (ct! appears to be, to man*, a greater temptation than the* can resist; the* calculate upon the chance of not being found out; and "hen the* see the small amount of penalt* and costs, "hich those "ho ha)e been con)icted ha)e had to pa*, the* find that if the* should be detected there "ill still be a considerable balance of gain8888 6: >n cases "here the additional time is gained b* a multiplication of small thefts in the course of the da*, there are insuperable difficulties to the inspectors ma+ing out a case8A 6 'hese @small theftsA of capital from the labourer?s meal and recreation time, the factor* inspectors also designate as @pett* pilferings of minutes,A 63@snatching a fe" minutes,A66 or, as the labourers technicall* called them, @nibbling and cribbling at meal4times8A 67 >t is e)ident that in this atmosphere the formation of surplus )alue b* surplus labour, is no secret8 @>f *ou allo" me,A said a highl* respectable master to me, @to "or+ onl* ten minutes in the da* o)er4time, *ou put one thousand a *ear in m* poc+et8A 68 @$oments are the elements of profit8A62 Cothing is from this point of )ie" more characteristic than the designation of the "or+ers "ho "or+ full time as @full4timers,A and the children under 1: "ho are onl* allo"ed to "or+ 6 hours

1:

5hapter 17

as @half4timers8A 'he "or+er is here nothing more than personified labour4time8 (ll indi)idual distinctions are merged in those of @full4timersA and @half4timersA :7

Section *: Branches of )n%lish Industr 3ithout (e%al (imits to )+ploitation

Be ha)e hitherto considered the tendenc* to the e9tension of the "or+ing da*, the "ere4"olf?s hunger for surplus labour in a department "here the monstrous e9actions, not surpassed, sa*s an English bourgeois economist, b* the cruelties of the Spaniards to the (merican red4s+ins :1, caused capital at last to be bound b* the chains of legal regulations8 Co", let us cast a glance at certain branches of production in "hich the e9ploitation of labour is either free from fetters to this da*, or "as so *esterda*8 $r8 /roughton 5harlton, count* magistrate, declared, as chairman of a meeting held at the (ssembl* &ooms, Cottingham, on the 1 th Lanuar*, 1867, @that there "as an amount of pri)ation and suffering among that portion of the population connected "ith the lace trade, un+no"n in other parts of the +ingdom, indeed, in the ci)ilised "orld 8888 5hildren of nine or ten *ears are dragged from their sIualid beds at t"o, three, or four o?cloc+ in the morning and compelled to "or+ for a bare subsistence until ten, ele)en, or t"el)e at night, their limbs "earing a"a*, their frames d"indling, their faces "hitening, and their humanit* absolutel* sin+ing into a stone4li+e torpor, utterl* horrible to contemplate8888 Be are not surprised that $r8 $allett, or an* other manufacturer, should stand for"ard and protest against discussion8888 'he s*stem, as the &e)8 $ontagu ;alp* describes it, is one of unmitigated sla)er*, sociall*, ph*sicall*, morall*, and spirituall*8888 Bhat can be thought of a to"n "hich holds a public meeting to petition that the period of labour for men shall be diminished to eighteen hours a da*E 8888 Be declaim against the ;irginian and 5arolinian cotton4planters8 >s their blac+4 mar+et, their lash, and their barter of human flesh more detestable than this slo" sacrifice of humanit* "hich ta+es place in order that )eils and collars ma* be fabricated for the benefit of capitalistsEA :6 'he potteries of Staffordshire ha)e, during the last 66 *ears, been the subDect of three parliamentar* inIuiries8 'he result is embodied in $r8 Scri)en?s &eport of 18 1 to the @5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommissioners,A in the report of 0r8 Greenho" of 1867 published b* order of the medical officer of the #ri)* 5ouncil (#ublic -ealth, :rd &eport, 116411:!, lastl*, in the report of $r8 <onge of 1866 in the @First &eport of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, of the 1:th Lune, 186:8A For m* purpose it is enough to ta+e, from the reports of 1867 and 186:, some depositions of the e9ploited children themsel)es8 From the children "e ma* form an opinion as to the adults, especiall* the girls and "omen, and that in a branch of industr* b* the side of "hich cotton4spinning appears an agreeable and healthful occupation8 :: Billiam Bood, 2 *ears old, "as 7 *ears and 17 months "hen he began to "or+8 -e @ran mouldsA (carried read*4moulded articles into the dr*ing4room, after"ards bringing bac+ the empt* mould! from the beginning8 -e came to "or+ e)er* da* in the "ee+ at 6 a8m8, and left off about 2 p8m8 @> "or+ till 2 o?cloc+ at night si9 da*s in the "ee+8 > ha)e done so se)en or eight "ee+s8A Fifteen hours of labour for a child 7 *ears oldQ L8 $urra*, 16 *ears of age, sa*s: @> turn Digger, and run moulds8 > come at 68 Sometimes > come at 8 > "or+ed all night last night, till 6 o?cloc+ this morning8 > ha)e not been in bed since the night before last8 'here "ere eight or nine other bo*s "or+ing last night8 (ll but one

1:3

5hapter 17

ha)e come this morning8 > get : shillings and si9pence8 > do not get an* more for "or+ing at night8 > "or+ed t"o nights last "ee+8A Fern*hough, a bo* of ten: @> ha)e not al"a*s an hour (for dinner!8 > ha)e onl* half an hour sometimes; on 'hursda*, Frida*, and Saturda*8A : 0r8 Greenho" states that the a)erage duration of life in the potter* districts of Sto+e4on4'rent, and Bolstanton is e9traordinaril* short8 (lthough in the district of Sto+e, onl* :686` and in Bolstanton onl* :78 ` of the adult male population abo)e 67 are emplo*ed in the potteries, among the men of that age in the first district more than half, in the second, nearl* 6J3 of the "hole deaths are the result of pulmonar* diseases among the potters8 0r8 /oothro*d, a medical practitioner at -anle*, sa*s: @Each successi)e generation of potters is more d"arfed and less robust than the preceding one8A >n li+e manner another doctor, $r8 $?/ean: @Since he began to practice among the potters 63 *ears ago, he had obser)ed a mar+ed degeneration especiall* sho"n in diminution of stature and breadth8A 'hese statements are ta+en from the report of 0r8 Greenho" in 18678 :3 From the report of the 5ommissioners in 186:, the follo"ing: 0r8 L8 '8 (rledge, senior ph*sician of the Corth Staffordshire >nfirmar*, sa*s: @'he potters as a class, both men and "omen, represent a degenerated population, both ph*sicall* and morall*8 'he* are, as a rule, stunted in gro"th, ill4shaped, and freIuentl* ill4formed in the chest; the* become prematurel* old, and are certainl* short4li)ed; the* are phlegmatic and bloodless, and e9hibit their debilit* of constitution b* obstinate attac+s of d*spepsia, and disorders of the li)er and +idne*s, and b* rheumatism8 /ut of all diseases the* are especiall* prone to chest4 disease, to pneumonia, phthisis, bronchitis, and asthma8 =ne form "ould appear peculiar to them, and is +no"n as potter?s asthma, or potter?s consumption8 Scrofula attac+ing the glands, or bones, or other parts of the bod*, is a disease of t"o4thirds or more of the potters 8888 'hat the Wdegenerescence? of the population of this district is not e)en greater than it is, is due to the constant recruiting from the adDacent countr*, and intermarriages "ith more health* races8A :6 $r8 5harles #arsons, late house surgeon of the same institution, "rites in a letter to 5ommissioner <onge, amongst other things: @> can onl* spea+ from personal obser)ation and not from statistical data, but > do not hesitate to assert that m* indignation has been aroused again and again at the sight of poor children "hose health has been sacrificed to gratif* the a)arice of either parents or emplo*ers8A -e enumerates the causes of the diseases of the potters, and sums them up in the phrase, @long hours8A 'he report of the 5ommission trusts that @a manufacture "hich has assumed so prominent a place in the "hole "orld, "ill not long be subDect to the remar+ that its great success is accompanied "ith the ph*sical deterioration, "idespread bodil* suffering, and earl* death of the "or+people 888 b* "hose labour and s+ill such great results ha)e been achie)ed8A :7 (nd all that holds of the potteries in England is true of those in Scotland8 :8 'he manufacture of lucifer matches dates from 18::, from the disco)er* of the method of appl*ing phosphorus to the match itself8 Since 18 3 this manufacture has rapidl* de)eloped in

1:6

5hapter 17

England, and has e9tended especiall* amongst the thic+l* populated parts of <ondon as "ell as in $anchester, /irmingham, <i)erpool, /ristol, Cor"ich, Ce"castle and Glasgo"8 Bith it has spread the form of loc+Da", "hich a ;ienna ph*sician in 18 3 disco)ered to be a disease peculiar to lucifer4matchma+ers8 -alf the "or+ers are children under thirteen, and *oung persons under eighteen8 'he manufacture is on account of its unhealthiness and unpleasantness in such bad odour that onl* the most miserable part of the labouring class, half4star)ed "ido"s and so forth, deli)er up their children to it, @the ragged, half4star)ed, untaught children8A :2 =f the "itnesses that 5ommissioner Bhite e9amined (186:!, 677 "ere under 18, 37 under 17, 17 onl* 8, and 3 onl* 6 *ears old8 ( range of the "or+ing da* from 16 to 1 or 13 hours, night4 labour, irregular meal4times, meals for the most part ta+en in the )er* "or+rooms that are pestilent "ith phosphorus8 0ante "ould ha)e found the "orst horrors of his >nferno surpassed in this manufacture8 >n the manufacture of paper4hangings the coarser sorts are printed b* machine; the finer b* hand (bloc+4printing!8 'he most acti)e business months are from the beginning of =ctober to the end of (pril8 0uring this time the "or+ goes on fast and furious "ithout intermission from 6 a8m8 to 17 p8m8 or further into the night8 L8 <each deposes: @<ast "inter si9 out of nineteen girls "ere a"a* from ill4health at one time from o)er4"or+8 > ha)e to ba"l at them to +eep them a"a+e8A B8 0uff*: @> ha)e seen "hen the children could none of them +eep their e*es open for the "or+; indeed, none of us could8A L8 <ightbourne: @(m 1: Be "or+ed last "inter till 2 (e)ening!, and the "inter before till 178 > used to cr* "ith sore feet e)er* night last "inter8A G8 (psden: @'hat bo* of mine "hen he "as 7 *ears old > used to carr* him on m* bac+ to and fro through the sno", and he used to ha)e 16 hours a da* 888 > ha)e often +nelt do"n to feed him as he stood b* the machine, for he could not lea)e it or stop8A Smith, the managing partner of a $anchester factor*: @Be (he means his @handsA "ho "or+ for @usA! "or+ on "ith no stoppage for meals, so that da*?s "or+ of 17[ hours is finished b* 8:7 p8m8, and all after that is o)er4time8A 7 (0oes this $r8 Smith ta+e no meals himself during 17[ hoursE! @Be (this same Smith! seldom lea)e off "or+ing before 6 p8m8 (he means lea)e off the consumption of @ourA labour4po"er machines!, so that "e (iterum 5rispinus! are reall* "or+ing o)er4time the "hole *ear round8 For all these, children and adults ali+e (136 children and *oung persons and 1 7 adults!, the a)erage "or+ for the last 18 months has been at the )er* least 7 da*s, 3 hours, or 78 1J6 hours a "ee+8 For the si9 "ee+s ending $a* 6nd this *ear (1866!, the a)erage "as higher F 8 da*s or 8 hours a "ee+8A Still this same $r8 Smith, "ho is so e9tremel* de)oted to the pluralis ma:estatis Gthe &o*al @"e,A i8e8, spea+ing on behalf of his subDectsH, adds "ith a smile, V$achine4"or+ is not great8A So the emplo*ers in the bloc+4printing sa*: @-and labour is more health* than machine "or+8A =n the "hole, manufacturers declare "ith indignation against the proposal @to stop the machines at least during meal4times8A @( clause,A sa*s $r8 =tle*, manager of a "all4paper factor* in the /orough, @"hich allo"ed "or+ bet"een, sa* 6 a8m8 and 2 p8m8 in "ould suit us (Q! )er* "ell, but the factor* hours, 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8, are not suitable8 =ur machine is al"a*s stopped for dinner8 (Bhat generosit*Q! 'here is no "aste of paper and colour to spea+ of8 /ut,A he adds s*mpatheticall*, @> can understand the loss of time not being li+ed8A

1:7

5hapter 17

'he report of the 5ommission opines "ith nao)etR that the fear of some @leading firmsA of losing time, i$e$+ the time for appropriating the labour of others, and thence losing profit is not a sufficient reason for allo"ing children under 1:, and *oung persons under 18, "or+ing 16 to 16 hours per da*, to lose their dinner, nor for gi)ing it to them as coal and "ater are supplied to the steam4engine, soap to "ool, oil to the "heel F as merel* au9iliar* material to the instruments of labour, during the process of production itself8 1 Co branch of industr* in England ("e do not ta+e into account the ma+ing of bread b* machiner* recentl* introduced! has preser)ed up to the present da* a method of production so archaic, so F as "e see from the poets of the &oman Empire F pre4christian, as ba+ing8 /ut capital, as "as said earlier, is at first indifferent as to the technical character of the labour4process; it begins b* ta+ing it Dust as it finds it8 'he incredible adulteration of bread, especiall* in <ondon, "as first re)ealed b* the -ouse of 5ommons 5ommittee @on the adulteration of articles of foodA (1833436!, and 0r8 -assall?s "or+, @(dulterations detected8A 6 'he conseIuence of these re)elations "as the (ct of (ugust 6th, 1867, @for pre)enting the adulteration of articles of food and drin+,A an inoperati)e la", as it naturall* sho"s the tenderest consideration for e)er* Free4trader "ho determines b* the bu*ing or selling of adulterated commodities @to turn an honest penn*8A :'he 5ommittee itself formulated more or less nao)el* its con)iction that Free4trade meant essentiall* trade "ith adulterated, or as the English ingeniousl* put it, @sophisticatedA goods8 >n fact this +ind of sophistr* +no"s better than #rotagoras ho" to ma+e "hite blac+, and blac+ "hite, and better than the Eleatics ho" to demonstrate ad oculos Gbefore *our o"n e*esH that e)er*thing is onl* appearance8 (t all e)ents the 5ommittee had directed the attention of the public to its @dail* bread,A and therefore to the ba+ing trade8 (t the same time in public meetings and in petitions to #arliament rose the cr* of the <ondon Dourne*men ba+ers against their o)er4"or+, Pc8 'he cr* "as so urgent that $r8 -8 S8 'remenheere, also a member of the 5ommission of 186: se)eral times mentioned, "as appointed &o*al 5ommissioner of >nIuir*8 -is report8 3 together "ith the e)idence gi)en, roused not the heart of the public but its stomach8 Englishmen, al"a*s "ell up in the /ible, +ne" "ell enough that man, unless b* electi)e grace a capitalist, or landlord, or sinecurist, is commanded to eat his bread in the s"eat of his bro", but the* did not +no" that he had to eat dail* in his bread a certain Iuantit* of human perspiration mi9ed "ith the discharge of abscesses, cob"ebs, dead blac+4beetles, and putrid German *east, "ithout counting alum, sand, and other agreeable mineral ingredients8 Bithout an* regard to his holiness, Free4trade, the free ba+ing4 trade "as therefore placed under the super)ision of the State inspectors (5lose of the #arliamentar* session of 186:!, and b* the same (ct of #arliament, "or+ from 2 in the e)ening to 3 in the morning "as forbidden for Dourne*men ba+ers under 188 'he last clause spea+s )olumes as to the o)er4"or+ in this old4fashioned, homel* line of business8 @'he "or+ of a <ondon Dourne*man ba+er begins, as a rule, at about ele)en at night8 (t that hour he Wma+es the dough,? F a laborious process, "hich lasts from half an hour to three Iuarters of an hour, according to the si1e of the batch or the labour besto"ed upon it8 -e then lies do"n upon the +neading4board, "hich is also the co)ering of the trough in "hich the dough is Wmade?; and "ith a sac+ under him, and another rolled up as a pillo", he sleeps for about a couple of hours8 -e is then engaged in a rapid and continuous labour for about fi)e hours F thro"ing out the dough, Wscaling it off,? moulding it, putting it into the o)en, preparing and ba+ing rolls and fanc* bread, ta+ing the batch bread out of the o)en, and up into the shop, Pc8, Pc8 'he temperature of a ba+ehouse ranges from about

1:8

5hapter 17

73 to up"ards of 27 degrees, and in the smaller ba+ehouses appro9imates usuall* to the higher rather than to the lo"er degree of heat8 Bhen the business of ma+ing the bread, rolls, Pc8, is o)er, that of its distribution begins, and a considerable proportion of the Dourne*men in the trade, after "or+ing hard in the manner described during the night, are upon their legs for man* hours during the da*, carr*ing bas+ets, or "heeling hand4carts, and sometimes again in the ba+ehouse, lea)ing off "or+ at )arious hours bet"een 1 and 6 p8m8 according to the season of the *ear, or the amount and nature of their master?s business; "hile others are again engaged in the ba+ehouse in Wbringing out? more batches until late in the afternoon8 6888 0uring "hat is called Wthe <ondon season,? the operati)es belonging to the Wfull4priced? ba+ers at the Best End of the to"n, generall* begin "or+ at 11 p8m8, and are engaged in ma+ing the bread, "ith one or t"o short (sometimes )er* short! inter)als of rest, up to 8 o?cloc+ the ne9t morning8 'he* are then engaged all da* long, up to , 3, 6, and as late as 7 o?cloc+ in the e)ening carr*ing out bread, or sometimes in the afternoon in the ba+ehouse again, assisting in the biscuit4ba+ing8 'he* ma* ha)e, after the* ha)e done their "or+, sometimes fi)e or si9, sometimes onl* four or fi)e hours? sleep before the* begin again8 =n Frida*s the* al"a*s begin sooner, some about ten o?cloc+, and continue in some cases, at "or+, either in ma+ing or deli)ering the bread up to 8 p8m8 on Saturda* night, but more generall* up to or 3 o?cloc+, Sunda* morning8 =n Sunda*s the men must attend t"ice or three times during the da* for an hour or t"o to ma+e preparations for the ne9t da*?s bread8888 'he men emplo*ed b* the underselling masters ("ho sell their bread under the Wfull price,? and "ho, as alread* pointed out, comprise three4fourths of the <ondon ba+ers! ha)e not onl* to "or+ on the a)erage longer hours, but their "or+ is almost entirel* confined to the ba+ehouse8 'he underselling masters generall* sell their bread888 in the shop8 >f the* send it out, "hich is not common, e9cept as suppl*ing chandlers? shops, the* usuall* emplo* other hands for that purpose8 >t is not their practice to deli)er bread from house to house8 'o"ards the end of the "ee+ 888 the men begin on 'hursda* night at 17 o?cloc+, and continue on "ith onl* slight intermission until late on Saturda* e)ening8A 7 E)en the bourgeois intellect understands the position of the @undersellingA masters8 @'he unpaid labour of the men "as made the source "hereb* the competition "as carried on8A 8 (nd the @full4pricedA ba+er denounces his underselling competitors to the 5ommission of >nIuir* as thie)es of foreign labour and adulterators8 @'he* onl* e9ist no" b* first defrauding the public, and ne9t getting 18 hours? "or+ out of their men for 16 hours? "ages8A 2 'he adulteration of bread and the formation of a class of ba+ers that sells the bread belo" the full price, date from the beginning of the 18th centur*, from the time "hen the corporate character of the trade "as lost, and the capitalist in the form of the miller or flour4factor, rises behind the nominal master ba+er837 'hus "as laid the foundation of capitalistic production in this trade, of the unlimited e9tension of the "or+ing da* and of night4labour, although the latter onl* since 186 gained a serious footing, e)en in <ondon8 31 (fter "hat has Dust been said, it "ill be understood that the &eport of the 5ommission classes Dourne*men ba+ers among the short4li)ed labourers, "ho, ha)ing b* good luc+ escaped the normal decimation of the children of the "or+ing4class, rarel* reach the age of 68 Ce)ertheless, the ba+ing trade is al"a*s o)er"helmed "ith applicants8 'he sources of the suppl* of these

1:2

5hapter 17

labour4po"ers to <ondon are Scotland, the "estern agricultural districts of England, and German*8 >n the *ears 1838467, the Dourne*men ba+ers in >reland organised at their o"n e9pense great meetings to agitate against night and Sunda* "or+8 'he public F e8g8, at the 0ublin meeting in $a*, 1867 F too+ their part "ith >rish "armth8 (s a result of this mo)ement, da*4labour alone "as successfull* established in Be9ford, .il+enn*, 5lonmel, Baterford, Pc8 @>n <imeric+, "here the grie)ances of the Dourne*men are demonstrated to be e9cessi)e, the mo)ement has been defeated b* the opposition of the master ba+ers, the miller ba+ers being the greatest opponents8 'he e9ample of <imeric+ led to a retrogression in Ennis and 'ipperar*8 >n 5or+, "here the strongest possible demonstration of feeling too+ place, the masters, b* e9ercising their po"er of turning the men out of emplo*ment, ha)e defeated the mo)ement8 >n 0ublin, the master ba+ers ha)e offered the most determined opposition to the mo)ement, and b* discountenancing as much as possible the Dourne*men promoting it, ha)e succeeded in leading the men into acIuiescence in Sunda* "or+ and night4"or+, contrar* to the con)ictions of the men8A 36 'he 5ommittee of the English Go)ernment, "hich Go)ernment, in >reland, is armed to the teeth, and generall* +no"s ho" to sho" it, remonstrates in mild, though funereal, tones "ith the implacable master ba+ers of 0ublin, <imeric+, 5or+, Pc8: @'he 5ommittee belie)e that the hours of labour are limited b* natural la"s, "hich cannot be )iolated "ith impunit*8 'hat for master ba+ers to induce their "or+men, b* the fear of losing emplo*ment, to )iolate their religious con)ictions and their better feelings, to disobe* the la"s of the land, and to disregard public opinion (this all refers to Sunda* labour!, is calculated to pro)o+e ill4feeling bet"een "or+men and masters, 888 and affords an e9ample dangerous to religion, moralit*, and social order8888 'he 5ommittee belie)e that an* constant "or+ be*ond 16 hours a4da* encroaches on the domestic and pri)ate life of the "or+ing4man, and so leads to disastrous moral results, interfering "ith each man?s home, and the discharge of his famil* duties as a son, a brother, a husband, a father8 'hat "or+ be*ond 16 hours has a tendenc* to undermine the health of the "or+ingman, and so leads to premature old age and death, to the great inDur* of families of "or+ing4men, thus depri)ed of the care and support of the head of the famil* "hen most reIuired8A 3: So far, "e ha)e dealt "ith >reland8 =n the other side of the channel, in Scotland, the agricultural labourer, the ploughman, protests against his 1:41 hours? "or+ in the most inclement climate, "ith hours? additional "or+ on Sunda* (in this land of SabbatariansQ!, 3 "hilst, at the same time, three rail"a* men are standing before a <ondon coroner?s Dur* F a guard, an engine4dri)er, a signalman8 ( tremendous rail"a* accident has hurried hundreds of passengers into another "orld8 'he negligence of the emplo*ee is the cause of the misfortune8 'he* declare "ith one )oice before the Dur* that ten or t"el)e *ears before, their labour onl* lasted eight hours a4da*8 0uring the last fi)e or si9 *ears it had been scre"ed up to 1 , 18, and 67 hours, and under a speciall* se)ere pressure of holida*4ma+ers, at times of e9cursion trains, it often lasted for 7 or 37 hours "ithout a brea+8 'he* "ere ordinar* men, not 5*clops8 (t a certain point their labour4 po"er failed8 'orpor sei1ed them8 'heir brain ceased to thin+, their e*es to see8 'he thoroughl* @respectableA /ritish Dur*men ans"ered b* a )erdict that sent them to the ne9t assi1es on a charge of manslaughter, and, in a gentle @riderA to their )erdict, e9pressed the pious hope that the capitalistic magnates of the rail"a*s "ould, in future, be more e9tra)agant in the purchase of a

1 7

5hapter 17

sufficient Iuantit* of labour4po"er, and more @abstemious,A more @self4den*ing,A more @thrift*,A in the draining of paid labour4po"er8 33 From the motle* cro"d of labourers of all callings, ages, se9es, that press on us more busil* than the souls of the slain on %l*sses, on "hom F "ithout referring to the /lue boo+s under their arms F "e see at a glance the mar+ of o)er4"or+, let us ta+e t"o more figures "hose stri+ing contrast pro)es that before capital all men are ali+e F a milliner and a blac+smith8 >n the last "ee+ of Lune, 186:, all the <ondon dail* papers published a paragraph "ith the @sensationalA heading, @0eath from simple o)er4"or+8A >t dealt "ith the death of the milliner, $ar* (nne Bal+le*, 67 *ears of age, emplo*ed in a highl*4respectable dressma+ing establishment, e9ploited b* a lad* "ith the pleasant name of Elise8 'he old, often4told stor*, 36 "as once more recounted8 'his girl "or+ed, on an a)erage, 16[ hours, during the season often :7 hours, "ithout a brea+, "hilst her failing labour4po"er "as re)i)ed b* occasional supplies of sherr*, port, or coffee8 >t "as Dust no" the height of the season8 >t "as necessar* to conDure up in the t"in+ling of an e*e the gorgeous dresses for the noble ladies bidden to the ball in honour of the ne"l*4imported #rincess of Bales8 $ar* (nne Bal+le* had "or+ed "ithout intermission for 66[ hours, "ith 67 other girls, :7 in one room, that onl* afforded 1J: of the cubic feet of air reIuired for them8 (t night, the* slept in pairs in one of the stifling holes into "hich the bedroom "as di)ided b* partitions of board8 37 (nd this "as one of the best milliner* establishments in <ondon8 $ar* (nne Bal+le* fell ill on the Frida*, died on Sunda*, "ithout, to the astonishment of $adame Elise, ha)ing pre)iousl* completed the "or+ in hand8 'he doctor, $r8 .e*s, called too late to the death4bed, dul* bore "itness before the coroner?s Dur* that @$ar* (nne Bal+le* had died from long hours of "or+ in an o)er4cro"ded "or+4 room, and a too small and badl* )entilated bedroom8A >n order to gi)e the doctor a lesson in good manners, the coroner?s Dur* thereupon brought in a )erdict that @the deceased had died of apople9*, but there "as reason to fear that her death had been accelerated b* o)er4"or+ in an o)er4cro"ded "or+room, Pc8A @=ur "hite sla)es,A cried the Mornin ;tar, the organ of the Free4traders, 5obden and /right, @our "hite sla)es, "ho are toiled into the gra)e, for the most part silentl* pine and die8A 38 @>t is not in dressma+ers? rooms that "or+ing to death is the order of the da*, but in a thousand other places; in e)er* place > had almost said, "here Wa thri)ing business? has to be done8888 Be "ill ta+e the blac+smith as a t*pe8 >f the poets "ere true, there is no man so heart*, so merr*, as the blac+smith; he rises earl* and stri+es his spar+s before the sun; he eats and drin+s and sleeps as no other man8 Bor+ing in moderation, he is, in fact, in one of the best of human positions, ph*sicall* spea+ing8 /ut "e follo" him into the cit* or to"n, and "e see the stress of "or+ on that strong man, and "hat then is his position in the death4rate of his countr*8 >n $ar*lebone, blac+smiths die at the rate of :1 per thousand per annum, or 11 abo)e the mean of the male adults of the countr* in its entiret*8 'he occupation, instincti)e almost as a portion of human art, unobDectionable as a branch of human industr*, is made b* mere e9cess of "or+, the destro*er of the man8 -e can stri+e so man* blo"s per da*, "al+ so man* steps, breathe so man* breaths, produce so much "or+, and li)e an a)erage, sa* of fift* *ears; he is made to stri+e so man* more blo"s, to "al+ so man* more steps, to breathe so man* more breaths per da*, and to increase altogether a fourth of his life8 -e meets the effort; the result is, that producing for a limited time a fourth more "or+, he dies at :7 for 378A 32

1 1

5hapter 17

Section ,: -a and 6i%ht 3ork7 The .ela S stem

5onstant capital, the means of production, considered from the standpoint of the creation of surplus )alue, onl* e9ist to absorb labour, and "ith e)er* drop of labour a proportional Iuantit* of surplus labour8 Bhile the* fail to do this, their mere e9istence causes a relati)e loss to the capitalist, for the* represent during the time the* lie fallo", a useless ad)ance of capital8 (nd this loss becomes positi)e and absolute as soon as the intermission of their emplo*ment necessitates additional outla* at the recommencement of "or+8 'he prolongation of the "or+ing da* be*ond the limits of the natural da*, into the night, onl* acts as a palliati)e8 >t Iuenches onl* in a slight degree the )ampire thirst for the li)ing blood of labour8 'o appropriate labour during all the 6 hours of the da* is, therefore, the inherent tendenc* of capitalist production8 /ut as it is ph*sicall* impossible to e9ploit the same indi)idual labour4po"er constantl* during the night as "ell as the da*, to o)ercome this ph*sical hindrance, an alternation becomes necessar* bet"een the "or+people "hose po"ers are e9hausted b* da*, and those "ho are used up b* night8 'his alternation ma* be effected in )arious "a*s; e8g8, it ma* be so arranged that part of the "or+ers are one "ee+ emplo*ed on da*4"or+, the ne9t "ee+ on night4"or+8 >t is "ell +no"n that this rela* s*stem, this alternation of t"o sets of "or+ers, held full s"a* in the full4blooded *outh4time of the English cotton manufacture, and that at the present time it still flourishes, among others, in the cotton spinning of the $osco" district8 'his 6 hours? process of production e9ists to4da* as a s*stem in man* of the branches of industr* of Great /ritain that are still @free,A in the blast4 furnaces, forges, plate4rolling mills, and other metallurgical establishments in England, Bales, and Scotland8 'he "or+ing4time here includes, besides the 6 hours of the 6 "or+ing da*s, a great part also of the 6 hours of Sunda*8 'he "or+ers consist of men and "omen, adults and children of both se9es8 'he ages of the children and *oung persons run through all intermediate grades, from 8 (in some cases from 6! to 188 67 >n some branches of industr*, the girls and "omen "or+ through the night together "ith the males8 61 #lacing on one side the generall* inDurious influence of night4labour, 66 the duration of the process of production, unbro+en during the 6 hours, offers )er* "elcome opportunities of e9ceeding the limits of the normal "or+ing da*, e8g8, in the branches of industr* alread* mentioned, "hich are of an e9ceedingl* fatiguing nature; the official "or+ing da* means for each "or+er usuall* 16 hours b* night or da*8 /ut the o)er4"or+ be*ond this amount is in man* cases, to use the "ords of the English official report, @trul* fearful8A 6: @>t is impossible,A the report continues, @for an* mind to realise the amount of "or+ described in the follo"ing passages as being performed b* bo*s of from 2 to 16 *ears of age 888 "ithout coming irresistibl* to the conclusion that such abuses of the po"er of parents and of emplo*ers can no longer be allo"ed to e9ist8A 6 V'he practice of bo*s "or+ing at all b* da* and night turns either in the usual course of things, or at pressing times, seems ine)itabl* to open the door to their not unfreIuentl* "or+ing undul* long hours8 'hese hours are, indeed, in some cases, not onl* cruell* but e)en incredibl* long for children8 (mongst a number of bo*s it "ill, of course, not unfreIuentl* happen that one or more are from some cause absent8 Bhen this happens, their place is made up b* one or more bo*s, "ho "or+ in the other turn8 'hat this is a "ell understood s*stem is plain 888 from the ans"er of the manager of some large rolling4mills, "ho, "hen > as+ed him

1 6

5hapter 17

ho" the place of the bo*s absent from their turn "as made up, W> daresa*, sir, *ou +no" that as "ell as > do,? and admitted the fact8A 63 @(t a rolling4mill "here the proper hours "ere from 6 a8m8 to 3[ p8m8, a bo* "or+ed about four nights e)er* "ee+ till 8[ p8m8 at least 888 and this for si9 months8 (nother, at 2 *ears old, sometimes made three 164hour shifts running, and, "hen 17, has made t"o da*s and t"o nights running8A ( third, @no" 17 888 "or+ed from 6 a8m8 till 16 p8m8 three nights, and till 2 p8m8 the other nights8A @(nother, no" 1:, 888 "or+ed from 6 p8m8 till 16 noon ne9t da*, for a "ee+ together, and sometimes for three shifts together, e8g8, from $onda* morning till 'uesda* night8A @(nother, no" 16, has "or+ed in an iron foundr* at Sta)el* from 6 a8m8 till 16 p8m8 for a fortnight on end; could not do it an* more8A @George (llins"orth, age 2, came here as cellar4bo* last Frida*; ne9t morning "e had to begin at :, so > stopped here all night8 <i)e fi)e miles off8 Slept on the floor of the furnace, o)er head, "ith an apron under me, and a bit of a Dac+et o)er me8 'he t"o other da*s > ha)e been here at 6 a8m8 (*eQ it is hot in here8 /efore > came here > "as nearl* a *ear at the same "or+ at some "or+s in the countr*8 /egan there, too, at : on Saturda* morning F al"a*s did, but "as )er* gain GnearH home, and could sleep at home8 =ther da*s > began at 6 in the morning, and gi?en o)er at 6 or 7 in the e)ening,A Pc8 66 <et us no" hear ho" capital itself regards this 6 hours? s*stem8 'he e9treme forms of the s*stem, its abuse in the @cruel and incredibleA e9tension of the "or+ing da* are naturall* passed o)er in silence8 5apital onl* spea+s of the s*stem in its @normalA form8 $essrs8 Ca*lor P ;ic+ers, steel manufacturers, "ho emplo* bet"een 677 and 777 persons, among "hom onl* 17 per cent are under 18, and of those, onl* 67 bo*s under 18 "or+ in night sets, thus e9press themsel)es: @'he bo*s do not suffer from the heat8 'he temperature is probabl* from 86p to 27p8888 (t the forges and in the rolling mills the hands "or+ night and da*, in rela*s, but all the other parts of the "or+ are da*4"or+, i$e$+ from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8 >n the forge the hours are from 16 to 168 Some of the hands al"a*s "or+ in the night, "ithout an* alternation of da* and night "or+8888 Be do not find an* difference in the health of those "ho "or+ regularl* b* night and those "ho "or+ b* da*, and probabl* people can sleep better if the* ha)e the same period of rest than if it is changed8888 (bout 67 of the bo*s under the age of 18 "or+ in the night sets8888 Be could not "ell do "ithout lads under 18 "or+ing b* night8 'he obDection "ould be the increase in the cost of production8888 S+illed hands and the heads in e)er* department are difficult to get, but of lads "e could get an* number8888 /ut from the small proportion of bo*s that "e emplo*, the subDect (i$e8, of restrictions on night4"or+! is of little importance or interest to us8A 67 $r8 L8 Ellis, one of the firm of $essrs8 Lohn /ro"n P 5o8, steel and iron "or+s, emplo*ing about :,777 men and bo*s, part of "hose operations, namel*, iron and hea)ier steel "or+, goes on night and da* b* rela*s, states @that in the hea)ier steel "or+ one or t"o bo*s are emplo*ed to a score or t"o men8A 'heir concern emplo*s up"ards of 377 bo*s under 18, of "hom about 1J: or 177 are under the age of 1:8 Bith reference to the proposed alteration of the la", $r8 Ellis sa*s: @> do not thin+ it "ould be )er* obDectionable to reIuire that no person under the age of 18 should "or+ more than 16 hours in the 6 8 /ut "e do not thin+ that an* line could be dra"n o)er the age of 16, at "hich bo*s could be dispensed "ith for night4"or+8 /ut "e "ould sooner be pre)ented from emplo*ing bo*s under the

1 :

5hapter 17

age of 1:, or e)en so high as 1 , at all, than not be allo"ed to emplo* bo*s that "e do ha)e at night8 'hose bo*s "ho "or+ in the da* sets must ta+e their turn in the night sets also8 because the men could not "or+ in the night sets onl*; it "ould ruin their health8888 Be thin+, ho"e)er, that night4"or+ in alternate "ee+s is no harm8A ($essrs8 Ca*lor P ;ic+ers, on the other hand, in conformit* "ith the interest of their business, considered that periodicall* changed night4labour might possibl* do more harm than continual night4labour8! @Be find the men "ho do it, as "ell as the others "ho do other "or+ onl* b* da*8888 =ur obDections to not allo"ing bo*s under 18 to "or+ at night, "ould be on account of the increase of e9pense, but this is the onl* reason8A (Bhat c*nical nao)etRQ! @Be thin+ that the increase "ould be more than the trade, "ith due regard to its being successfull* carried out, could fairl* bear8 (Bhat meal*4mouthed phraseolog*Q! <abour is scarce here, and might fall short if there "ere such a regulation8A (i$e$+ Ellis /ro"n P 5o8 might fall into the fatal perple9it* of being obliged to pa* labour4po"er its full )alue8! 68 'he @5*clops Steel and >ron Bor+s,A of $essrs8 5ammell P 5o8, are concocted on the same large scale as those of the abo)e4mentioned Lohn /ro"n P 5o8 'he managing director had handed in his e)idence to the Go)ernment 5ommissioner, $r8 Bhite, in "riting8 <ater he found it con)enient to suppress the $S8 "hen it had been returned to him for re)ision8 $r8 Bhite, ho"e)er, has a good memor*8 -e remembered Iuite clearl* that for the $essrs8 5*clops the forbidding of the night4labour of children and *oung persons @"ould be impossible, it "ould be tantamount to stopping their "or+s,A and *et their business emplo*s little more than 6` of bo*s under 18, and less than 1` under 1:8 62 =n the same subDect $r8 E8 F8 Sanderson, of the firm of Sanderson, /ros8, P 5o8, steel rolling4 mills and forges, (ttercliffe, sa*s: @Great difficult* "ould be caused b* pre)enting bo*s under 18 from "or+ing at night8 'he chief "ould be the increase of cost from emplo*ing men instead of bo*s8 > cannot sa* "hat this "ould be, but probabl* it "ould not be enough to enable the manufacturers to raise the price of steel, and conseIuentl* it "ould fall on them, as of course the men ("hat Iueer4headed fol+Q! "ould refuse to pa* it8A $r8 Sanderson does not +no" ho" much he pa*s the children, but @perhaps the *ounger bo*s get from s8 to 3s8 a "ee+8888 'he bo*s? "or+ is of a +ind for "hich the strength of the bo*s is generall* (Wgenerall*,? of course not al"a*s! Iuite sufficient, and conseIuentl* there "ould be no gain in the greater strength of the men to counterbalance the loss, or it "ould be onl* in the fe" cases in "hich the metal is hea)*8 'he men "ould not li+e so "ell not to ha)e bo*s under them, as men "ould be less obedient8 /esides, bo*s must begin *oung to learn the trade8 <ea)ing da*4"or+ alone open to bo*s "ould not ans"er this purpose8A (nd "h* notE Bh* could not bo*s learn their handicraft in the da*4timeE Nour reasonE @="ing to the men "or+ing da*s and nights in alternate "ee+s, the men "ould be separated half the time from their bo*s, and "ould lose half the profit "hich the* ma+e from them8 'he training "hich the* gi)e to an apprentice is considered as part of the return for the bo*s? labour, and thus enables the man to get it at a cheaper rate8 Each man "ould "ant half of this profit8A

5hapter 17

>n other "ords, $essrs8 Sanderson "ould ha)e to pa* part of the "ages of the adult men out of their o"n poc+ets instead of b* the night4"or+ of the bo*s8 $essrs8 Sanderson?s profit "ould thus fall to some e9tent, and this is the good Sandersonian reason "h* bo*s cannot learn their handicraft in the da*877 >n addition to this, it "ould thro" night4labour on those "ho "or+ed instead of the bo*s, "hich the* "ould not be able to stand8 'he difficulties in fact "ould be so great that the* "ould )er* li+el* lead to the gi)ing up of night4"or+ altogether, and @as far as the "or+ itself is concerned,A sa*s E8 F8 Sanderson, @this "ould suit as "ell, but F @/ut $essrs8 Sanderson ha)e something else to ma+e besides steel8 Steel4ma+ing is simpl* a prete9t for surplus )alue ma+ing8 'he smelting furnaces, rolling4mills, Pc8, the buildings, machiner*, iron, coal, Pc8, ha)e something more to do than transform themsel)es into steel8 'he* are there to absorb surplus labour, and naturall* absorb more in 6 hours than in 168 >n fact the* gi)e, b* grace of God and la", the Sandersons a cheIue on the "or+ing4time of a certain number of hands for all the 6 hours of the da*, and the* lose their character as capital, are therefore a pure loss for the Sandersons, as soon as their function of absorbing labour is interrupted8 @/ut then there "ould be the loss from so much e9pensi)e machiner*, l*ing idle half the time, and to get through the amount of "or+ "hich "e are able to do on the present s*stem, "e should ha)e to double our premises and plant, "hich "ould double the outla*8A /ut "h* should these Sandersons pretend to a pri)ilege not enDo*ed b* the other capitalists "ho onl* "or+ during the da*, and "hose buildings, machiner*, ra" material, therefore lie @idleA during the nightE E8 F8 Sanderson ans"ers in the name of all the Sandersons: @>t is true that there is this loss from machiner* l*ing idle in those manufactories in "hich "or+ onl* goes on b* da*8 /ut the use of furnaces "ould in)ol)e a further loss in our case8 >f the* "ere +ept up there "ould be a "aste of fuel (instead of, as no", a "aste of the li)ing substance of the "or+ers!, and if the* "ere not, there "ould be loss of time in la*ing the fires and getting the heat up ("hilst the loss of sleeping time, e)en to children of 8 is a gain of "or+ing4time for the Sanderson tribe!, and the furnaces themsel)es "ould suffer from the changes of temperature8A (Bhilst those same furnaces suffer nothing from the da* and night change of labour8! 71

Section 8: The Stru%%le for a 6ormal 3orkin% -a 7 Compulsor (aws for the )+tension of the 3orkin% -a from the $iddle of the 1,th to the )nd of the 19th Centur
@Bhat is a "or+ing da*E Bhat is the length of time during "hich capital ma* consume the labour4po"er "hose dail* )alue it bu*sE -o" far ma* the "or+ing da* be e9tended be*ond the "or+ing4time necessar* for the reproduction of labour4po"er itselfEA >t has been seen that to these Iuestions capital replies: the "or+ing da* contains the full 6 hours, "ith the deduction of the fe" hours of repose "ithout "hich labour4po"er absolutel* refuses its ser)ices again8 -ence it is self4e)ident that the labourer is nothing else, his "hole life through, than labour4po"er, that therefore all his disposable time is b* nature and la" labour4time, to be de)oted to the self4 e9pansion of capital8 'ime for education, for intellectual de)elopment, for the fulfilling of social functions and for social intercourse, for the free4pla* of his bodil* and mental acti)it*, e)en the rest time of Sunda* (and that in a countr* of SabbatariansQ! 76 F moonshineQ /ut in its blind unrestrainable passion, its "ere4"olf hunger for surplus labour, capital o)ersteps not onl* the

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5hapter 17

moral, but e)en the merel* ph*sical ma9imum bounds of the "or+ing da*8 >t usurps the time for gro"th, de)elopment, and health* maintenance of the bod*8 >t steals the time reIuired for the consumption of fresh air and sunlight8 >t higgles o)er a meal4time, incorporating it "here possible "ith the process of production itself, so that food is gi)en to the labourer as to a mere means of production, as coal is supplied to the boiler, grease and oil to the machiner*8 >t reduces the sound sleep needed for the restoration, reparation, refreshment of the bodil* po"ers to Dust so man* hours of torpor as the re)i)al of an organism, absolutel* e9hausted, renders essential8 >t is not the normal maintenance of the labour4po"er "hich is to determine the limits of the "or+ing da*; it is the greatest possible dail* e9penditure of labour4po"er, no matter ho" diseased, compulsor*, and painful it ma* be, "hich is to determine the limits of the labourers? period of repose8 5apital cares nothing for the length of life of labour4po"er8 (ll that concerns it is simpl* and solel* the ma9imum of labour4po"er, that can be rendered fluent in a "or+ing da*8 >t attains this end b* shortening the e9tent of the labourer?s life, as a greed* farmer snatches increased produce from the soil b* robbing it of its fertilit*8 'he capitalistic mode of production (essentiall* the production of surplus )alue, the absorption of surplus labour!, produces thus, "ith the e9tension of the "or+ing da*, not onl* the deterioration of human labour4po"er b* robbing it of its normal, moral and ph*sical, conditions of de)elopment and function8 >t produces also the premature e9haustion and death of this labour4 po"er itself87: >t e9tends the labourer?s time of production during a gi)en period b* shortening his actual life4time8 /ut the )alue of the labour4po"er includes the )alue of the commodities necessar* for the reproduction of the "or+er, or for the +eeping up of the "or+ing4class8 >f then the unnatural e9tension of the "or+ing da*, that capital necessaril* stri)es after in its unmeasured passion for self4e9pansion, shortens the length of life of the indi)idual labourer, and therefore the duration of his labour4po"er, the forces used up ha)e to be replaced at a more rapid rate and the sum of the e9penses for the reproduction of labour4po"er "ill be greater; Dust as in a machine the part of its )alue to be reproduced e)er* da* is greater the more rapidl* the machine is "orn out8 >t "ould seem therefore that the interest capital itself points in the direction of a normal "or+ing da*8 'he sla)e4o"ner bu*s his labourer as he bu*s his horse8 >f he loses his sla)e, he loses capital that can onl* be restored b* ne" outla* in the sla)e4mart8 /ut @the rice4grounds of Georgia, or the s"amps of the $ississippi ma* be fatall* inDurious to the human constitution; but the "aste of human life "hich the culti)ation of these districts necessitates, is not so great that it cannot be repaired from the teeming preser)es of ;irginia and .entuc+*8 5onsiderations of econom*, moreo)er, "hich, under a natural s*stem, afford some securit* for humane treatment b* identif*ing the master?s interest "ith the sla)e?s preser)ation, "hen once trading in sla)es is practiced, become reasons for rac+ing to the uttermost the toil of the sla)e; for, "hen his place can at once be supplied from foreign preser)es, the duration of his life becomes a matter of less moment than its producti)eness "hile it lasts8 >t is accordingl* a ma9im of sla)e management, in sla)e4importing countries, that the most effecti)e econom* is that "hich ta+es out of the human chattel in the shortest space of time the utmost amount of e9ertion it is capable of putting forth8 >t is in tropical culture, "here annual profits often eIual the "hole capital of plantations, that negro life is most rec+lessl* sacrificed8 >t is the agriculture of the Best >ndies, "hich has been for centuries prolific of fabulous "ealth, that has engulfed millions of the (frican race8 >t is in 5uba, at this da*, "hose re)enues are rec+oned b* millions, and

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"hose planters are princes, that "e see in the ser)ile class, the coarsest fare, the most e9hausting and unremitting toil, and e)en the absolute destruction of a portion of its numbers e)er* *ear8A7 Mutato nomine de te fabula narratur G>t is of *ou that the stor* is told F -oraceH8 For sla)e4trade read labour4mar+et, for .entuc+* and ;irginia, >reland and the agricultural districts of England, Scotland, and Bales, for (frica, German*8 Be heard ho" o)er4"or+ thinned the ran+s of the ba+ers in <ondon8 Ce)ertheless, the <ondon labour4mar+et is al"a*s o)er4stoc+ed "ith German and other candidates for death in the ba+eries8 #otter*, as "e sa", is one of the shortest4li)ed industries8 >s there an* "ant therefore of pottersE Losiah Bedg"ood, the in)entor of modern potter*, himself originall* a common "or+man, said in 1783 before the -ouse of 5ommons that the "hole trade emplo*ed from 13,777 to 67,777 people8 73 >n the *ear 1861 the population alone of the to"n centres of this industr* in Great /ritain numbered 171,:768 @'he cotton trade has e9isted for ninet* *ears8888 >t has e9isted for three generations of the English race, and > belie)e > ma* safel* sa* that during that period it has destro*ed nine generations of factor* operati)es8A 76 Co doubt in certain epochs of fe)erish acti)it* the labour4mar+et sho"s significant gaps8 >n 18: , e$ 8 /ut then the manufacturers proposed to the #oor <a" 5ommissioners that the* should send the @surplus4populationA of the agricultural districts to the north, "ith the e9planation @that the manufacturers "ould absorb and use it up8A 77 (gents "ere appointed "ith the consent of the #oor <a" 5ommissioners8 888 (n office "as set up in $anchester, to "hich lists "ere sent of those "or+people in the agricultural districts "anting emplo*ment, and their names "ere registered in boo+s8 'he manufacturers attended at these offices, and selected such persons as the* chose; "hen the* had selected such persons as their W"ants reIuired?, the* ga)e instructions to ha)e them for"arded to $anchester, and the* "ere sent, tic+eted li+e bales of goods, b* canals, or "ith carriers, others tramping on the road, and man* of them "ere found on the "a* lost and half4star)ed8 'his s*stem had gro"n up unto a regular trade8 'his -ouse "ill hardl* belie)e it, but > tell them, that this traffic in human flesh "as as "ell +ept up, the* "ere in effect as regularl* sold to these G$anchesterH manufacturers as sla)es are sold to the cotton4gro"er in the %nited States8888 >n 1867, Wthe cotton trade "as at its 1enith8? 888 'he manufacturers again found that the* "ere short of hands8888 'he* applied to the Wflesh agents, as the* are called8 'hose agents sent to the southern do"ns of England, to the pastures of 0orsetshire, to the glades of 0e)onshire, to the people tending +ine in Biltshire, but the* sought in )ain8 'he surplus4 population "as Wabsorbed8?A 'he <ury =uardian said, on the completion of the French treat*, that @17,777 additional hands could be absorbed b* <ancashire, and that :7,777 or 7,777 "ill be needed8A (fter the @flesh agents and sub4agentsA had in )ain sought through the agricultural districts, @a deputation came up to <ondon, and "aited on the right hon8 gentleman G$r8 ;illiers, #resident of the #oor <a" /oardH "ith a )ie" of obtaining poor children from certain union houses for the mills of <ancashire8A 78 Bhat e9perience sho"s to the capitalist generall* is a constant e9cess of population, i8e8, an e9cess in relation to the momentar* reIuirements of surplus labour4absorbing capital, although this e9cess is made up of generations of human beings stunted, short4li)ed, s"iftl* replacing each other, pluc+ed, so to sa*, before maturit*8 72 (nd, indeed, e9perience sho"s to the intelligent obser)er "ith "hat s"iftness and grip the capitalist mode of production, dating, historicall*

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spea+ing, onl* from *esterda*, has sei1ed the )ital po"er of the people b* the )er* root F sho"s ho" the degeneration of the industrial population is onl* retarded b* the constant absorption of primiti)e and ph*sicall* uncorrupted elements from the countr* F sho"s ho" e)en the countr* labourers, in spite of fresh air and the principle of natural selection, that "or+s so po"erfull* amongst them, and onl* permits the sur)i)al of the strongest, are alread* beginning to die off8 87 5apital that has such good reasons for den*ing the sufferings of the legions of "or+ers that surround it, is in practice mo)ed as much and as little b* the sight of the coming degradation and final depopulation of the human race, as b* the probable fall of the earth into the sun8 >n e)er* stoc+Dobbing s"indle e)er* one +no"s that some time or other the crash must come, but e)er* one hopes that it ma* fall on the head of his neighbour, after he himself has caught the sho"er of gold and placed it in safet*8 Apr>s moi le d?lu e! 8After me+ the flood9 is the "atch"ord of e)er* capitalist and of e)er* capitalist nation8 -ence 5apital is rec+less of the health or length of life of the labourer, unless under compulsion from societ*8 81 'o the out4cr* as to the ph*sical and mental degradation, the premature death, the torture of o)er4"or+, it ans"ers: =ught these to trouble us since the* increase our profitsE /ut loo+ing at things as a "hole, all this does not, indeed, depend on the good or ill "ill of the indi)idual capitalist8 Free competition brings out the inherent la"s of capitalist production, in the shape of e9ternal coerci)e la"s ha)ing po"er o)er e)er* indi)idual capitalist886 'he establishment of a normal "or+ing da* is the result of centuries of struggle bet"een capitalist and labourer8 'he histor* of this struggle sho"s t"o opposed tendencies8 5ompare, e8g8, the English factor* legislation of our time "ith the English labour Statutes from the 1 th centur* to "ell into the middle of the 18th8 8: Bhilst the modern Factor* (cts compulsoril* shortened the "or+ing da*, the earlier statutes tried to lengthen it b* compulsion8 =f course the pretensions of capital in embr*o F "hen, beginning to gro", it secures the right of absorbing a &uantum sufficit Gsufficient Iuantit*H of surplus labour, not merel* b* the force of economic relations, but b* the help of the State F appear )er* modest "hen put face to face "ith the concessions that, gro"ling and struggling, it has to ma+e in its adult condition8 >t ta+es centuries ere the @freeA labourer, than+s to the de)elopment of capitalistic production, agrees, i$e$+ is compelled b* social conditions, to sell the "hole of his acti)e life8 his )er* capacit* for "or+, for the price of the necessaries of life, his birth4right for a mess of pottage8 -ence it is natural that the lengthening of the "or+ing da*, "hich capital, from the middle of the 1 th to the end of the 17th centur*, tries to impose b* State4measures on adult labourers, appro9imatel* coincides "ith the shortening of the "or+ing da* "hich, in the second half of the 12th centur*, has here and there been effected b* the State to pre)ent the coining of children?s blood into capital8 'hat "hich to4da*, e$ 8, in the State of $assachusetts, until recentl* the freest State of the Corth4(merican &epublic, has been proclaimed as the statutor* limit of the labour of children under 16, "as in England, e)en in the middle of the 17th centur*, the normal "or+ing da* of able4bodied artisans, robust labourers, athletic blac+smiths88 'he first @Statute of <abourersA (6: Ed"ard >>>8, 1: 2! found its immediate prete9t (not its cause, for legislation of this +ind lasts centuries after the prete9t for it has disappeared! in the great plague that decimated the people, so that, as a 'or* "riter sa*s, @'he difficult* of getting men to "or+ on reasonable terms (i$e8, at a price that left their emplo*ers a reasonable Iuantit* of surplus labour! gre" to such a height as to be Iuite intolerable8A 83&easonable "ages "ere, therefore, fi9ed b* la" as "ell as the limits of the "or+ing da*8 'he latter point, the onl* one that here interests us, is repeated in the Statute of 1 26 (-enr* ;>>8!8 'he "or+ing da* for all artificers and field labourers from $arch to September ought, according to this statute ("hich, ho"e)er, could not be enforced!, to last from 3 in the morning to bet"een 7 and 8 in the e)ening8 /ut the meal4 times consist of 1 hour for brea+fast, 1[ hours for dinner, and [ an hour for @noon4meate,A i8e8,

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e9actl* t"ice as much as under the factor* acts no" in force8 86 >n "inter, "or+ "as to last from 3 in the morning until dar+, "ith the same inter)als8 ( statute of Eli1abeth of 1366 lea)es the length of the "or+ing da* for all labourers @hired for dail* or "ee+l* "ageA untouched, but aims at limiting the inter)als to 6[ hours in the summer, or to 6 in the "inter8 0inner is onl* to last 1 hour, and the @afternoon4sleep of half an hourA is onl* allo"ed bet"een the middle of $a* and the middle of (ugust8 For e)er* hour of absence 1d8 is to be subtracted from the "age8 >n practice, ho"e)er, the conditions "ere much more fa)ourable to the labourers than in the statute4 boo+8 Billiam #ett*, the father of #olitical Econom*, and to some e9tent the founder of Statistics, sa*s in a "or+ that he published in the last third of the 17th centur*: @<abouring4men (then meaning field4labourers! "or+ 17 hours per diem, and ma+e 67 meals per "ee+, )i18, : a da* for "or+ing da*s, and 6 on Sunda*s; "hereb* it is plain, that if the* could fast on Frida* nights, and dine in one hour and an half, "hereas the* ta+e t"o, from ele)en to one; thereb* thus "or+ing 1J67 more, and spending 1J67 less, the abo)e4mentioned (ta9! might be raised8A 87 Bas not 0r8 (ndre" %re right in cr*ing do"n the 16 hours? bill of 18:: as a retrogression to the times of the dar+ agesE >t is true these regulations contained in the statute mentioned b* #ett*, appl* also to apprentices8 /ut the condition of child4labour, e)en at the end of the 17th centur*, is seen from the follo"ing complaint: @?'is not their practice (in German*! as "ith us in this +ingdom, to bind an apprentice for se)en *ears; three or four is their common standard: and the reason is, because the* are educated from their cradle to something of emplo*ment, "hich renders them the more apt and docile, and conseIuentl* the more capable of attaining to a ripeness and Iuic+er proficienc* in business8 Bhereas our *outh, here in England, being bred to nothing before the* come to be apprentices, ma+e a )er* slo" progress and reIuire much longer time "herein to reach the perfection of accomplished artists8A88 Still, during the greater part of the 18th centur*, up to the epoch of $odern >ndustr* and machinism, capital in England had not succeeded in sei1ing for itself, b* the pa*ment of the "ee+l* )alue of labour4po"er, the "hole "ee+ of the labourer, "ith the e9ception, ho"e)er, of the agricultural labourers8 'he fact that the* could li)e for a "hole "ee+ on the "age of four da*s, did not appear to the labourers a sufficient reason that the* should "or+ the other t"o da*s for the capitalist8 =ne part* of English economists, in the interest of capital, denounces this obstinac* in the most )iolent manner, another part* defends the labourers8 <et us listen, e$ $+ to the contest bet"een #ostleth"a*t "hose 0ictionar* of 'rade then had the same reputation as the +indred "or+s of $ac5ulloch and $acGregor to4da*, and the author (alread* Iuoted! of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce8A 82 #ostleth"a*t sa*s among other things: @Be cannot put an end to those fe" obser)ations, "ithout noticing that trite remar+ in the mouth of too man*; that if the industrious poor can obtain enough to maintain themsel)es in fi)e da*s, the* "ill not "or+ the "hole si98 Bhence the* infer the necessit* of e)en the necessaries of life being made dear b* ta9es, or an* other means, to compel the "or+ing artisan and manufacturer to labour the "hole si9 da*s in the "ee+, "ithout ceasing8 > must beg lea)e to differ in sentiment from those great politicians, "ho contend for the perpetual sla)er* of the "or+ing people of this +ingdom; the* forget the )ulgar adage, all "or+ and no pla*8 -a)e not the English boasted of the ingenuit* and de9terit* of her "or+ing artists and manufacturers "hich ha)e heretofore gi)en credit and reputation to /ritish "ares

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in generalE Bhat has this been o"ing toE 'o nothing more probabl* than the rela9ation of the "or+ing people in their o"n "a*8 Bere the* obliged to toil the *ear round, the "hole si9 da*s in the "ee+, in a repetition of the same "or+, might it not blunt their ingenuit*, and render them stupid instead of alert and de9terous; and might not our "or+men lose their reputation instead of maintaining it b* such eternal sla)er*E 888 (nd "hat sort of "or+manship could "e e9pect from such hard4dri)en animalsE 888 $an* of them "ill e9ecute as much "or+ in four da*s as a Frenchman "ill in fi)e or si98 /ut if Englishmen are to be eternal drudges, Wtis to be feared the* "ill degenerate belo" the Frenchmen8 (s our people are famed for bra)er* in "ar, do "e not sa* that it is o"ing to good English roast beef and pudding in their bellies, as "ell as their constitutional spirit of libert*E (nd "h* ma* not the superior ingenuit* and de9terit* of, our artists and manufacturers, be o"ing to that freedom and libert* to direct themsel)es in their o"n "a*, and > hope "e shall ne)er ha)e them depri)ed of such pri)ileges and that good li)ing from "hence their ingenuit* no less than their courage ma* proceed8A27 'hereupon the author of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerceA replies: @>f the ma+ing of e)er* se)enth da* an holida* is supposed to be of di)ine institution, as it implies the appropriating the other si9 da*s to labourA (he means capital as "e shall soon see! @surel* it "ill not be thought cruel to enforce it 8888 'hat man+ind in general, are naturall* inclined to ease and indolence, "e fatall* e9perience to be true, from the conduct of our manufacturing populace, "ho do not labour, upon an a)erage, abo)e four da*s in a "ee+, unless pro)isions happen to be )er* dear8888 #ut all the necessaries of the poor under one denomination; for instance, call them all "heat, or suppose that 888 the bushel of "heat shall cost fi)e shillings and that he (a manufacturer! earns a shilling b* his labour, he then "ould be obliged to "or+ fi)e da*s onl* in a "ee+8 >f the bushel of "heat should cost but four shillings, he "ould be obliged to "or+ but four da*s; but as "ages in this +ingdom are much higher in proportion to the price of necessaries 888 the manufacturer, "ho labours four da*s, has a surplus of mone* to li)e idle "ith the rest of the "ee+ 8 888 > hope > ha)e said enough to ma+e it appear that the moderate labour of si9 da*s in a "ee+ is no sla)er*8 =ur labouring people do this, and to all appearance are the happiest of all our labouring poor, 21 but the 0utch do this in manufactures, and appear to be a )er* happ* people8 'he French do so, "hen holida*s do not inter)ene826 /ut our populace ha)e adopted a notion, that as Englishmen the* enDo* a birthright pri)ilege of being more free and independent than in an* countr* in Europe8 Co" this idea, as far as it ma* affect the bra)er* of our troops, ma* be of some use; but the less the manufacturing poor ha)e of it, certainl* the better for themsel)es and for the State8 'he labouring people should ne)er thin+ themsel)es independent of their superiors8888 >t is e9tremel* dangerous to encourage mobs in a commercial state li+e ours, "here, perhaps, se)en parts out of eight of the "hole, are people "ith little or no propert*8 'he cure "ill not be perfect, till our manufacturing poor are contented to labour si9 da*s for the same sum "hich the* no" earn in four da*s8A 2: 'o this end, and for @e9tirpating idleness debaucher* and e9cess,A promoting a spirit of industr*, @lo"ering the price of labour in our manufactories, and easing the lands of the hea)* burden of poor?s rates,A our @faithful Ec+artA of capital proposes this appro)ed de)ice: to shut up such labourers as become dependent on public support, in a "ord, paupers, in @an ideal 1or"house$@

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Such ideal "or+house must be made a @-ouse of 'error,A and not an as*lum for the poor, @"here the* are to be plentifull* fed, "arml* and decentl* clothed, and "here the* do but little "or+8A 2 >n this @-ouse of 'error,A this @ideal "or+house, the poor shall "or+ 1 hours in a da*, allo"ing proper time for meals, in such manner that there shall remain 16 hours of neat4labour8A 23 '"el)e "or+ing4hours dail* in the >deal Bor+house, in the @-ouse of 'errorA of 1777Q 6: *ears later, in 18::, "hen the English #arliament reduced the "or+ing da* for children of 1: to 18, in four branches of industr* to 16 full hours, the Dudgment da* of English >ndustr* had da"nedQ >n 1836, "hen <ouis /onaparte sought to secure his position "ith the bourgeoisie b* tampering "ith the legal "or+ing da*, the French "or+ing people cried out "ith one )oice @the la" that limits the "or+ing da* to 16 hours is the one good that has remained to us of the legislation of the &epublicQA 26 (t ,Trich the "or+ of children o)er 17, is limited to 16 hours; in (argau in 1866, the "or+ of children bet"een 1: and 16, "as reduced from 16[ to 16 hours; in (ustria in 1867, for children bet"een 1 and 16, the same reduction "as made8 27 @Bhat a progress,A since 1777Q $acaula* "ould shout "ith e9ultationQ 'he @-ouse of 'errorA for paupers of "hich the capitalistic soul of 1777 onl* dreamed, "as realised a fe" *ears later in the shape of a gigantic @Bor+houseA for the industrial "or+er himself8 >t is called the Factor*8 (nd the ideal this time fades before the realit*8

Section :: The Stru%%le for a 6ormal 3orkin% -a 7 Compulsor (imitation b (aw of the 3orkin%"Time7 )n%lish Factor ;cts5 1<**
(fter capital had ta+en centuries in e9tending the "or+ing da* to its normal ma9imum limit, and then be*ond this to the limit of the natural da* of 16 hours, 28 there follo"ed on the birth of machinism and modern industr* in the last third of the 18th centur*, a )iolent encroachment li+e that of an a)alanche in its intensit* and e9tent8 (ll bounds of morals and nature, age and se9, da* and night, "ere bro+en do"n8 E)en the ideas of da* and night, of rustic simplicit* in the old statutes, became so confused that an English Dudge, as late as 1867, needed a Iuite 'almudic sagacit* to e9plain @Dudiciall*A "hat "as da* and "hat "as night8 22 5apital celebrated its orgies8 (s soon as the "or+ing4class, stunned at first b* the noise and turmoil of the ne" s*stem of production, reco)ered, in some measure, its senses, its resistance began, and first in the nati)e land of machinism, in England8 For :7 *ears, ho"e)er, the concessions conIuered b* the "or+people "ere purel* nominal8 #arliament passed 3 labour <a"s bet"een 1876 and 18::, but "as shre"d enough not to )ote a penn* for their carr*ing out, for the reIuisite officials, Pc8 177 'he* remained a dead letter8 @'he fact is, that prior to the (ct of 18::, *oung persons and children "ere "or+ed all night, all da*, or both ad libitum8A171 ( normal "or+ing da* for modern industr* onl* dates from the Factor* (ct of 18::, "hich included cotton, "ool, fla9, and sil+ factories8 Cothing is more characteristic of the spirit of capital than the histor* of the English Factor* (cts from 18:: to 186 8 'he (ct of 18:: declares the ordinar* factor* "or+ing da* to be from half4past fi)e in the morning to half4past eight in the e)ening and "ithin these limits, a period of 13 hours, it is la"ful to emplo* *oung persons (i$e8, persons bet"een 1: and 18 *ears of age!, at an* time of the da*, pro)ided no one indi)idual *oung person should "or+ more than 16 hours in an* one da*, e9cept in certain cases especiall* pro)ided for8 'he 6th section of the (ct pro)ided8 @'hat there shall be allo"ed in the course of e)er* da* not less than one and a half hours for meals to e)er* such person restricted as hereinbefore pro)ided8A 'he emplo*ment of children under 2, "ith

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e9ceptions mentioned later "as forbidden; the "or+ of children bet"een 2 and 1: "as limited to 8 hours a da*, night4"or+, i$e8, according to this (ct, "or+ bet"een 8::7 p8m8 and 3::7 a8m8, "as forbidden for all persons bet"een 2 and 188 'he la"4ma+ers "ere so far from "ishing to trench on the freedom of capital to e9ploit adult labour4po"er, or, as the* called it, @the freedom of labour,A that the* created a special s*stem in order to pre)ent the Factor* (cts from ha)ing a conseIuence so outrageous8 @'he great e)il of the factor* s*stem as at present conducted,A sa*s the first report of the 5entral /oard of the 5ommission of Lune 68th 18::, @has appeared to us to be that it entails the necessit* of continuing the labour of children to the utmost length of that of the adults8 'he onl* remed* for this e)il, short of the limitation of the labour of adults "hich "ould, in our opinion, create an e)il greater than that "hich is sought to be remedied, appears to be the plan of "or+ing double sets of children8A 888 %nder the name of S*stem of &ela*s, this @planA "as therefore carried out, so that, e8g8, from 38:7 a8m8 until 18:7 in the afternoon, one set of children bet"een 2 and 1:, and from 18:7 p8m8 to 88:7 in the e)ening another set "ere @put to,A Pc8 >n order to re"ard the manufacturers for ha)ing, in the most barefaced "a*, ignored all the (cts as to children?s labour passed during the last t"ent*4t"o *ears, the pill "as *et further gilded for them8 #arliament decreed that after $arch 1st, 18: , no child under 11, after $arch 1st 18:3, no child under 16, and after $arch 1st, 18:6, no child under 1: "as to "or+ more than eight hours in a factor*8 'his @liberalism,A so full of consideration for @capital,A "as the more note"orth* as 0r8 Farre, Sir (8 5arlisle, Sir /8 /rodie, Sir 58 /ell, $r8 Guthrie, Pc8, in a "ord, the most distinguished ph*sicians and surgeons in <ondon, had declared in their e)idence before the -ouse of 5ommons, that there "as danger in dela*8 0r8 Farre e9pressed himself still more coarsel*8 @<egislation is necessar* for the pre)ention of death, in an* form in "hich it can be prematurel* inflicted, and certainl* this (i8e8, the factor* method! must be )ie"ed as a most cruel mode of inflicting it8A 'hat same @reformedA #arliament, "hich in its delicate consideration for the manufacturers, condemned children under 1:, for *ears to come, to 76 hours of "or+ per "ee+ in the Factor* -ell, on the other hand, in the Emancipation (ct, "hich also administered freedom drop b* drop, forbade the planters, from the outset, to "or+ an* negro sla)e more than 3 hours a "ee+8 /ut in no "ise conciliated, capital no" began a nois* agitation that "ent on for se)eral *ears8 >t turned chiefl* on the age of those "ho, under the name of children, "ere limited to 8 hours? "or+, and "ere subDect to a certain amount of compulsor* education8 (ccording to capitalistic anthropolog*, the age of childhood ended at 17, or at the outside, at 118 'he more nearl* the time approached for the coming into full force of the Factor* (ct, the fatal *ear 18:6, the more "ildl* raged the mob of manufacturers8 'he* managed, in fact, to intimidate the go)ernment to such an e9tent that in 18:3 it proposed to lo"er the limit of the age of childhood from 1: to 168 >n the meantime the pressure from "ithout gre" more threatening8 5ourage failed the -ouse of 5ommons8 >t refused to thro" children of 1: under the Luggernaut 5ar of capital for more than 8 hours a da*, and the (ct of 18:: came into full operation8 >t remained unaltered until Lune, 18 8 >n the ten *ears during "hich it regulated factor* "or+, first in part, and then entirel*, the official reports of the factor* inspectors teem "ith complaints as to the impossibilit* of putting the (ct into force8 (s the la" of 18:: left it optional "ith the lords of capital during the 13 hours, from 38:7 a8m8 to 88:7 p8m8, to ma+e e)er* @*oung person,A and e)er* @childA begin, brea+ off, resume, or end his 16 or 8 hours at an* moment the* li+ed, and also permitted them to assign to

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different persons, different times for meals, these gentlemen soon disco)ered a ne" @s*stem of rela*s,A b* "hich the labour4horses "ere not changed at fi9ed stations, but "ere constantl* re4 harnessed at changing stations8 Be do not pause longer on the beaut* of this s*stem, as "e shall ha)e to return to it later8 /ut this much is clear at the first glance: that this s*stem annulled the "hole Factor* (ct, not onl* in the spirit, but in the letter8 -o" could factor* inspectors, "ith this comple9 boo++eeping in respect to each indi)idual child or *oung person, enforce the legall* determined "or+4time and the granting of the legal mealtimesE >n a great man* of the factories, the old brutalities soon blossomed out again unpunished8 >n an inter)ie" "ith the -ome Secretar* (18 !, the factor* inspectors demonstrated the impossibilit* of an* control under the ne"l* in)ented rela* s*stem8176 >n the meantime, ho"e)er, circumstances had greatl* changed8 'he factor* hands, especiall* since 18:8, had made the 'en -ours? /ill their economic, as the* had made the 5harter their political, election4cr*8 Some of the manufacturers, e)en, "ho had managed their factories in conformit* "ith the (ct of 18::, o)er"helmed #arliament "ith memorials on the immoral competition of their false brethren "hom greater impudence, or more fortunate local circumstances, enabled to brea+ the la"8 $oreo)er, ho"e)er much the indi)idual manufacturer might gi)e the rein to his old lust for gain, the spo+esmen and political leaders of the manufacturing class ordered a change of front and of speech to"ards the "or+people8 'he* had entered upon the contest for the repeal of the 5orn <a"s, and needed the "or+ers to help them to )ictor*8 'he* promised therefore, not onl* a double4si1ed loaf of bread, but the enactment of the 'en -ours? /ill in the Free4trade millennium8 17: 'hus the* still less dared to oppose a measure intended onl* to ma+e the la" of 18:: a realit*8 'hreatened in their holiest interest, the rent of land, the 'ories thundered "ith philanthropic indignation against the @nefarious practicesA 17 of their foes8 'his "as the origin of the additional Factor* (ct of Lune 7th, 18 8 >t came into effect on September 17th, 18 8 >t places under protection a ne" categor* of "or+ers, )i18, the "omen o)er 188 'he* "ere placed in e)er* respect on the same footing as the *oung persons, their "or+ time limited to t"el)e hours, their night4labour forbidden, Pc8 For the first time, legislation sa" itself compelled to control directl* and officiall* the labour of adults8 >n the Factor* &eport of 18 4 18 3, it is said "ith iron*: @Co instances ha)e come to m* +no"ledge of adult "omen ha)ing e9pressed an* regret at their ri hts being thus far interfered "ith8A 173 'he "or+ing4time of children under 1: "as reduced to 61, and in certain circumstances to 7 hours a4 da*8176 'o get rid of the abuses of the @spurious rela* s*stem,A the la" established besides others the follo"ing important regulations: F @'hat the hours of "or+ of children and *oung persons shall be rec+oned from the time "hen an* child or *oung person shall begin to "or+ in the morning8A So that if (, e$ $+ begins "or+ at 8 in the morning, and / at 17, /?s "or+4da* must ne)ertheless end at the same hour as (?s8 @'he time shall be regulated b* a public cloc+,A for e9ample, the nearest rail"a* cloc+, b* "hich the factor* cloc+ is to be set8 'he occupier is to hang up a @legibleA printed notice stating the hours for the beginning and ending of "or+ and the times allo"ed for the se)eral meals8 5hildren beginning "or+ before 16 noon ma* not be again emplo*ed after 1 p8m8 'he afternoon shift must therefore consist of other children than those emplo*ed in the morning8 =f the hour and a half for meal4times, @one hour thereof at the least shall be gi)en before three of the cloc+ in the afternoon 888 and at the same period of the da*8 Co child or *oung person shall be emplo*ed more than fi)e hours before 1 p8m8 "ithout an inter)al for meal4time of

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at least :7 minutes8 Co child or *oung person Gor femaleH shall be emplo*ed or allo"ed to remain in an* room in "hich an* manufacturing process is then G i$e8, at mealtimesH carried on,A Pc8 >t has been seen that these minutiae, "hich, "ith militar* uniformit*, regulate b* stro+e of the cloc+ the times, limits, pauses of the "or+ "ere not at all the products of #arliamentar* fanc*8 'he* de)eloped graduall* out of circumstances as natural la"s of the modern mode of production8 'heir formulation, official recognition, and proclamation b* the State, "ere the result of a long struggle of classes8 =ne of their first conseIuences "as that in practice the "or+ing da* of the adult males in factories became subDect to the same limitations, since in most processes of production the co4operation of the children8 *oung persons, and "omen is indispensable8 =n the "hole, therefore, during the period from 18 to 18 7, the 16 hours? "or+ing da* became general and uniform in all branches of industr* under the Factor* (ct8 'he manufacturers, ho"e)er, did not allo" this @progressA "ithout a compensating @retrogression8A (t their instigation the -ouse of 5ommons reduced the minimum age for e9ploitable children from 2 to 8, in order to assure that additional suppl* of factor* children "hich is due to capitalists, according to di)ine and human la"8 177 'he *ears 18 64 7 are epoch4ma+ing in the economic histor* of England8 'he &epeal of the 5orn <a"s, and of the duties on cotton and other ra" material; Free4trade proclaimed as the guiding star of legislation; in a "ord, the arri)al of the millennium8 =n the other hand, in the same *ears, the 5hartist mo)ement and the 17 hours? agitation reached their highest point8 'he* found allies in the 'ories panting for re)enge8 0espite the fanatical opposition of the arm* of perDured Free4 traders, "ith /right and 5obden at their head, the 'en -ours? /ill, struggled for so long, "ent through #arliament8 'he ne" Factor* (ct of Lune 8th, 18 7, enacted that on Lul* 1st, 18 7, there should be a preliminar* shortening of the "or+ing da* for @*oung personsA (from 1: to 18!, and all females to 11 hours, but that on $a* 1st, 18 8, there should be a definite limitation of the "or+ing da* to 17 hours8 >n other respects, the (ct onl* amended and completed the (cts of 18:: and 18 8 5apital no" entered upon a preliminar* campaign in order to hinder the (ct from coming into full force on $a* 1st, 18 88 (nd the "or+ers themsel)es, under the presence that the* had been taught b* e9perience, "ere to help in the destruction of their o"n "or+8 'he moment "as cle)erl* chosen8 @>t must be remembered, too, that there has been more than t"o *ears of great suffering (in conseIuence of the terrible crisis of 18 64 7! among the factor* operati)es, from man* mills ha)ing "or+ed short time, and man* being altogether closed8 ( considerable number of the operati)es must therefore be in )er* narro" circumstances man*, it is to be feared, in debt; so that it might fairl* ha)e been presumed that at the present time the* "ould prefer "or+ing the longer time, in order to ma+e up for past losses, perhaps to pa* off debts, or get their furniture out of pa"n, or replace that sold, or to get a ne" suppl* of clothes for themsel)es and their families8A178 'he manufacturers tried to aggra)ate the natural effect of these circumstances b* a general reduction of "ages b* 17`8 'his "as done so to sa*, to celebrate the inauguration of the ne" Free4trade era8 'hen follo"ed a further reduction of 8 1J:` as soon as the "or+ing da* "as shortened to 11, and a reduction of double that amount as soon as it "as finall* shortened to 17 hours8 Bhere)er, therefore, circumstances allo"ed it, a reduction of "ages of at least 63` too+ place8172 %nder such fa)ourabl* prepared conditions the agitation among the factor* "or+ers for the repeal of the (ct of 18 7 "as begun8 Ceither lies, briber*, nor threats "ere spared in this

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attempt8 /ut all "as in )ain8 5oncerning the half4do1en petitions in "hich "or+people "ere made to complain of @their oppression b* the (ct,A the petitioners themsel)es declared under oral e9amination, that their signatures had been e9torted from them8 @'he* felt themsel)es oppressed, but not e9actl* b* the Factor* (ct8A117 /ut if the manufacturers did not succeed in ma+ing the "or+people spea+ as the* "ished, the* themsel)es shrie+ed all the louder in press and #arliament in the name of the "or+people8 'he* denounced the Factor* >nspectors as a +ind of re)olutionar* commissioners li+e those of the French Cational 5on)ention ruthlessl* sacrificing the unhapp* factor* "or+ers to their humanitarian crotchet8 'his manoeu)re also failed8 Factor* >nspector <eonard -orner conducted in his o"n person, and through his sub4inspectors, man* e9aminations of "itnesses in the factories of <ancashire8 (bout 77` of the "or+people e9amined declared in fa)our of 17 hours, a much smaller percentage in fa)our of 11, and an altogether insignificant minorit* for the old 16 hours8111 (nother @friendl*A dodge "as to ma+e the adult males "or+ 16 to 13 hours, and then to bla1on abroad this fact as the best proof of "hat the proletariat desired in its heart of hearts8 /ut the @ruthlessA Factor* >nspector <eonard -orner "as again to the fore8 'he maDorit* of the @o)er4 timesA declared: @'he* "ould much prefer "or+ing ten hours for less "ages, but that the* had no choice; that so man* "ere out of emplo*ment (so man* spinners getting )er* lo" "ages b* ha)ing to "or+ as piecers, being unable to do better!, that if the* refused to "or+ the longer time, others "ould immediatel* get their places, so that it "as a Iuestion "ith them of agreeing to "or+ the longer time, or of being thro"n out of emplo*ment altogether8A116 'he preliminar* campaign of capital thus came to grief, and the 'en -ours? (ct came into force $a* 1st, 18 88 /ut mean"hile the fiasco of the 5hartist part* "hose leaders "ere imprisoned, and "hose organisation "as dismembered, had sha+en the confidence of the English "or+ing4 class in its o"n strength8 Soon after this the Lune insurrection in #aris and its blood* suppression united, in England as on the 5ontinent, all fractions of the ruling classes, landlords and capitalists, stoc+4e9change "ol)es and shop4+eepers, #rotectionists and Freetraders, go)ernment and opposition, priests and freethin+ers, *oung "hores and old nuns, under the common cr* for the sal)ation of #ropert*, &eligion, the Famil* and Societ*8 'he "or+ing4class "as e)er*"here proclaimed, placed under a ban, under a )irtual la" of suspects8 'he manufacturers had no need an* longer to restrain themsel)es8 'he* bro+e out in open re)olt not onl* against the 'en -ours? (ct, but against the "hole of the legislation that since 18:: had aimed at restricting in some measure the @freeA e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 >t "as a pro4sla)er* rebellion in miniature, carried on for o)er t"o *ears "ith a c*nical rec+lessness, a terrorist energ* all the cheaper because the rebel capitalist ris+ed nothing e9cept the s+in of his @hands8A 'o understand that "hich follo"s "e must remember that the Factor* (cts of 18::, 18 , and 18 7 "ere all three in force so far as the one did not amend the other: that not one of these limited the "or+ing da* of the male "or+er o)er 18, and that since 18:: the 13 hours from 38:7 a8m8 to 88:7 p8m8 had remained the legal @da*,A "ithin the limits of "hich at first the 16, and later the 17 hours? labour of *oung persons and "omen had to be performed under the prescribed conditions8 'he manufacturers began b* here and there discharging a part of, in man* cases half of the *oung persons and "omen emplo*ed b* them, and then, for the adult males, restoring the almost obsolete night4"or+8 'he 'en -ours? (ct, the* cried, lea)es no other alternati)e8 11: 'heir second step dealt "ith the legal pauses for meals8 <et us hear the Factor* >nspectors8 @Since the restriction of the hours of "or+ to ten, the factor* occupiers maintain, although the* ha)e not *et practicall* gone the "hole length, that supposing the

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hours of "or+ to be from 2 a8m8 to 7 p8m8 the* fulfil the pro)isions of the statutes b* allo"ing an hour before 2 a8m8 and half an hour after 7 p8m8 Gfor mealsH8 >n some cases the* no" allo" an hour, or half an hour for dinner, insisting at the same time, that the* are not bound to allo" an* part of the hour and a half in the course of the factor* "or+ing da*8A11 'he manufacturers maintained therefore that the scrupulousl* strict pro)isions of the (ct of 18 "ith regard to meal4 times onl* ga)e the operati)es permission to eat and drin+ before coming into, and after lea)ing the factor* F i8e8, at home8 (nd "h* should not the "or+people eat their dinner before 2 in the morningE 'he cro"n la"*ers, ho"e)er, decided that the prescribed meal4times @must be in the inter)al during the "or+ing4hours, and that it "ill not be la"ful to "or+ for 17 hours continuousl*, from 2 a8m8 to 7 p8m8, "ithout an* inter)al8A 113 (fter these pleasant demonstrations, 5apital preluded its re)olt b* a step "hich agreed "ith the letter of the la" of 18 , and "as therefore legal8 'he (ct of 18 certainl* prohibited the emplo*ment after 1 p8m8 of such children, from 8 to 1:, as had been emplo*ed before noon8 /ut it did not regulate in an* "a* the 6[ hours? "or+ of the children "hose "or+4time began at 16 midda* or later8 5hildren of 8 might, if the* began "or+ at noon, be emplo*ed from 16 to 1, 1 hour; from 6 to in the afternoon, 6 hours; from 3 to 88:7 in the e)ening, :[ hours; in all, the legal 6[ hours8 =r better still8 >n order to ma+e their "or+ coincide "ith that of the adult male labourers up to 88:7 p8m8, the manufacturers onl* had to gi)e them no "or+ till 6 in the afternoon, the* could then +eep them in the factor* "ithout intermission till 88:7 in the e)ening8 @(nd it is no" e9pressl* admitted that the practice e9ists in England from the desire of mill4o"ners to ha)e their machiner* at "or+ for more than 17 hours a4 da*, to +eep the children at "or+ "ith male adults after all the *oung persons and "omen ha)e left, and until 88:7 p8m8 if the factor*4o"ners choose8A 116 Bor+men and factor* inspectors protested on h*gienic and moral grounds, but 5apital ans"ered: @$* deeds upon m* headQ > cra)e the la", 'he penalt* and forfeit of m* bond8A >n fact, according to statistics laid before the -ouse of 5ommons on Lul* 66th, 1837, in spite of all protests, on Lul* 13th, 1837, :,7 6 children "ere subDected to this @practiceA in 637 factories8117 Still, this "as not enough8 'he <*n9 e*e of 5apital disco)ered that the (ct of 18 did not allo" 3 hours? "or+ before mid4da* "ithout a pause of at least :7 minutes for refreshment, but prescribed nothing of the +ind for "or+ after mid4da*8 'herefore, it claimed and obtained the enDo*ment not onl* of ma+ing children of 8 drudge "ithout intermission from 6 to 88:7 p8m8, but also of ma+ing them hunger during that time8 @(*, his breast8 So sa*s the bond8A 'his Sh*loc+4clinging118 to the letter of the la" of 18 , so far as it regulated children?s labour, "as but to lead up to an open re)olt against the same la", so far as it regulated the labour of @*oung persons and "omen8A >t "ill be remembered that the abolition of the @false rela* s*stemA "as the chief aim and obDect of that la"8 'he masters began their re)olt "ith the simple declaration that the sections of the (ct of 18 "hich prohibited the ad libitum use of *oung persons and "omen in such short fractions of the da* of 13 hours as the emplo*er chose, "ere @comparati)el* harmlessA so long as the "or+4time "as fi9ed at 16 hours8 /ut under the 'en -ours? (ct the* "ere a @grie)ous hardship8A 112 'he* informed the inspectors in the coolest

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manner that the* should place themsel)es abo)e the letter of the la", and re4introduce the old s*stem on their o"n account8167 'he* "ere acting in the interests of the ill4ad)ised operati)es themsel)es, @in order to be able to pa* them higher "ages8A V'his "as the onl* possible plan b* "hich to maintain, under the 'en -ours? (ct, the industrial supremac* of Great /ritain8A @#erhaps it ma* be a little difficult to detect irregularities under the rela* s*stem; but "hat of thatE >s the great manufacturing interest of this countr* to be treated as a secondar* matter in order to sa)e some little trouble to >nspectors and Sub4>nspectors of FactoriesEA 161 (ll these shifts naturall* "ere of no a)ail8 'he Factor* >nspectors appealed to the <a" 5ourts8 /ut soon such a cloud of dust in the "a* of petitions from the masters o)er"helmed the -ome Secretar*, Sir George Gre*, that in a circular of (ugust 3th, 18 8, he recommends the inspectors not @to la* informations against mill4o"ners for a breach of the letter of the (ct, or for emplo*ment of *oung persons b* rela*s in cases in "hich there is no reason to belie)e that such *oung persons ha)e been actuall* emplo*ed for a longer period than that sanctioned b* la"8A -ereupon, Factor* >nspector L8 Stuart allo"ed the so4called rela* s*stem during the 13 hours of the factor* da* throughout Scotland, "here it soon flourished again as of old8 'he English Factor* >nspectors, on the other hand, declared that the -ome Secretar* had no po"er dictatoriall* to suspend the la", and continued their legal proceedings against the pro4sla)er* rebellion8 /ut "hat "as the good of summoning the capitalists "hen the 5ourts in this case the countr* magistrates F 5obbett?s @Great %npaidA F acIuitted themE >n these tribunals, the masters sat in Dudgment on themsel)es (n e9ample8 =ne Es+rigge, cotton4spinner, of the firm of .ersha", <eese, P 5o8, had laid before the Factor* >nspector of his district the scheme of a rela* s*stem intended for his mill8 &ecei)ing a refusal, he at first +ept Iuiet8 ( fe" months later, an indi)idual named &obinson, also a cotton4spinner, and if not his $an Frida*, at all e)ents related to Es+rigge, appeared before the borough magistrates of Stoc+port on a charge of introducing the identical plan of rela*s in)ented b* Es+rigge8 Four Lustices sat, among them three cottonspinners, at their head this same ine)itable Es+rigge8 Es+rigge acIuitted &obinson, and no" "as of opinion that "hat "as right for &obinson "as fair for Es+rigge8 Supported b* his o"n legal decision, he introduced the s*stem at once into his o"n factor*8 166 =f course, the composition of this tribunal "as in itself a )iolation of the la"816: 'hese Dudicial farces, e9claims >nspector -o"ell, @urgentl* call for a remed* F either that the la" should be so altered as to be made to conform to these decisions, or that it should be administered b* a less fallible tribunal, "hose decisions "ould conform to the la" 888 "hen these cases are brought for"ard8 > long for a stipendiar* magistrate8A16 'he cro"n la"*ers declared the masters? interpretation of the (ct of 18 8 absurd8 /ut the Sa)iours of Societ* "ould not allo" themsel)es to be turned from their purpose8 <eonard -orner reports, @-a)ing endea)oured to enforce the (ct 888 b* ten prosecutions in se)en magisterial di)isions, and ha)ing been supported b* the magistrates in one case onl* 888 > considered it useless to prosecute more for this e)asion of the la"8 'hat part of the (ct of 18 8 "hich "as framed for securing uniformit* in the hours of "or+, 888 is thus no longer in force in m* district (<ancashire!8 Ceither ha)e the sub4inspectors or m*self an* means of satisf*ing oursel)es, "hen "e inspect a

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mill "or+ing b* shifts, that the *oung persons and "omen are not "or+ing more than 17 hours a4da*8888 >n a return of the :7th (pril, 888 of millo"ners "or+ing b* shifts, the number amounts to 11 , and has been for some time rapidl* increasing8 >n general, the time of "or+ing the mill is e9tended to 1:[ hours? from 6 a8m8 to 7[ p8m8, 8888 in some instances it amounts to 13 hours, from 3[ a8m8 to 8[ p8m8A 163 (lread*, in 0ecember, 18 8, <eonard -orner had a list of 63 manufacturers and 62 o)erloo+ers "ho unanimousl* declared that no s*stem of super)ision could, under this rela* s*stem, pre)ent enormous o)er4"or+8166 Co", the same children and *oung persons "ere shifted from the spinning4room to the "ea)ing4room, no", during 13 hours, from one factor* to another8 167 -o" "as it possible to control a s*stem "hich, @under the guise of rela*s, is some one of the man* plans for shuffling Wthe hands? about in endless )ariet*, and shifting the hours of "or+ and of rest for different indi)iduals throughout the da*, so that *ou ma* ne)er ha)e one complete set of hands "or+ing together in the same room at the same time8A 168 /ut altogether independentl* of actual o)er4"or+, this so4called rela* s*stem "as an offspring of capitalistic fantas*, such as Fourier, in his humorous s+etches of @5ourses Seances,A has ne)er surpassed, e9cept that the @attraction of labourA "as changed into the attraction of capital8 <oo+, for e9ample, at those schemes of the masters "hich the @respectableA press praised as models of @"hat a reasonable degree of care and method can accomplish8A 'he personnel of the "or+people "as sometimes di)ided into from 16 to 1 categories, "hich themsel)es constantl* changed and recharged their constituent parts8 0uring the 13 hours of the factor* da*, capital dragged in the labourer no" for :7 minutes, no" for an hour, and then pushed him out again, to drag him into the factor* and to thrust him out afresh, hounding him hither and thither, in scattered shreds of time, "ithout e)er losing hold of him until the full 17 hours? "or+ "as done8 (s on the stage, the same persons had to appear in turns in the different scenes of the different acts8 /ut as an actor during the "hole course of the pla* belongs to the stage, so the operati)es, during 13 hours, belonged to the factor*, "ithout rec+oning the time for going and coming8 'hus the hours of rest "ere turned into hours of enforced idleness, "hich dro)e the *ouths to the pot4house, and the girls to the brothel8 (t e)er* ne" tric+ that the capitalist, from da* to da*, hit upon for +eeping his machiner* going 16 or 13 hours "ithout increasing the number of his hands, the "or+er had to s"allo" his meals no" in this fragment of time, no" in that8 (t the time of the 17 hours? agitation, the masters cried out that the "or+ing mob petitioned in the hope of obtaining 16 hours? "ages for 17 hours? "or+8 Co" the* re)ersed the medal8 'he* paid 17 hours? "ages for 16 or 13 hours? lordship o)er labour4po"er8 162 'his "as the gist of the matter, this the masters? interpretation of the 17 hours? la"Q 'hese "ere the same unctuous Free4traders, perspiring "ith the lo)e of humanit*, "ho for full 17 *ears, during the (nti45orn <a" agitation, had preached to the operati)es, b* a rec+oning of pounds, shillings, and pence, that "ith free importation of corn, and "ith the means possessed b* English industr*, 17 hours? labour "ould be Iuite enough to enrich the capitalists81:7 'his re)olt of capital, after t"o *ears "as at last cro"ned "ith )ictor* b* a decision of one of the four highest 5ourts of Lustice in England, the 5ourt of E9cheIuer, "hich in a case brought before it on Februar* 8th, 1837, decided that the manufacturers "ere certainl* acting against the sense of the (ct of 18 , but that this (ct itself contained certain "ords that rendered it meaningless8 @/* this decision, the 'en -ours? (ct "as abolished8A 1:1 ( cro"d of masters, "ho until then had been afraid of using the rela* s*stem for *oung persons and "omen, no" too+ it up heart and soul81:6 /ut on this apparentl* decisi)e )ictor* of capital, follo"ed at once a re)ulsion8 'he "or+people had hitherto offered a passi)e, although infle9ible and unremitting resistance8 'he* no" protested

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in <ancashire and Nor+shire in threatening meetings8 'he pretended 'en -ours? (ct "as thus simple humbug, parliamentar* cheating, had ne)er e9istedQ 'he Factor* >nspectors urgentl* "arned the Go)ernment that the antagonism of classes had arri)ed at an incredible tension8 Some of the masters themsel)es murmured: @=n account of the contradictor* decisions of the magistrates, a condition of things altogether abnormal and anarchical obtains8 =ne la" holds in Nor+shire, another in <ancashire, one la" in one parish of <ancashire, another in its immediate neighbourhood8 'he manufacturer in large to"ns could e)ade the la", the manufacturer in countr* districts could not find the people necessar* for the rela* s*stem, still less for the shifting of hands from one factor* to another,A Pc8 (nd the first birthright of capital is eIual e9ploitation of labour4po"er b* all capitalists8 %nder these circumstances a compromise bet"een masters and men "as effected that recei)ed the seal of #arliament in the additional Factor* (ct of (ugust 3th, 18378 'he "or+ing da* for @*oung persons and "omen,A "as raised from 17 to 17[ hours for the first fi)e da*s of the "ee+, and shortened to 7[ on the Saturda*8 'he "or+ "as to go on bet"een 6 a8m8 and 6 p8m8 1::, "ith pauses of not less than 1[ hours for meal4times, these meal4times to be allo"ed at one and the same time for all, and conformabl* to the conditions of 18 8 /* this an end "as put to the rela* s*stem once for all81: For children?s labour, the (ct of 18 remained in force8 =ne set of masters, this time as before, secured to itself special seigneurial rights o)er the children of the proletariat8 'hese "ere the sil+ manufacturers8 >n 18:: the* had ho"led out in threatening fashion, @if the libert* of "or+ing children of an* age for 17 hours a da* "ere ta+en a"a*, it "ould stop their "or+s8A1:3 >t "ould be impossible for them to bu* a sufficient number of children o)er 1:8 'he* e9torted the pri)ilege the* desired8 'he prete9t "as sho"n on subseIuent in)estigation to be a deliberate lie8 1:6 >t did not, ho"e)er, pre)ent them, during 17 *ears, from spinning sil+ 17 hours a da* out of the blood of little children "ho had to be placed upon stools for the performance of their "or+8 1:7 'he (ct of 18 certainl* @robbedA them of the @libert*A of emplo*ing children under 11 longer than 6[ hours a da*8 /ut it secured to them, on the other hand, the pri)ilege of "or+ing children bet"een 11 and 1:, 17 hours a da*, and of annulling in their case the education made compulsor* for all other factor* children8 'his time the prete9t "as @the delicate te9ture of the fabric in "hich the* "ere emplo*ed, reIuiring a lightness of touch, onl* to be acIuired b* their earl* introduction to these factories8A 1:8 'he children "ere slaughtered out4and4out for the sa+e of their delicate fingers, as in Southern &ussia the horned cattle for the sa+e of their hide and tallo"8 (t length, in 1837, the pri)ilege granted in 18 , "as limited to the departments of sil+4t"isting and sil+4"inding8 /ut here, to ma+e amends to capital bereft of its @freedom,A the "or+4lime for children from 11 to 1: "as raised from 17 to 17[ hours8 #rete9t: @<abour in sil+ mills "as lighter than in mills for other fabrics, and less li+el* in other respects also to be preDudicial to health8A 1:2 =fficial medical inIuiries pro)ed after"ards that, on the contrar*, @the a)erage death4rate is e9ceedingl* high in the sil+ districts and amongst the female part of the population is higher e)en than it is in the cotton districts of <ancashire8A1 7 0espite the protests of the Factor* >nspector, rene"ed e)er* 6 months, the mischief continues to this hour8 1 1 'he (ct of 1837 changed the 13 hours? time from 6 a8m8 to 88:7 p8m8, into the 16 hours from 6 a8m8 to 6 p8m8 for @*oung persons and "omenA onl*8 >t did not, therefore, affect children "ho

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could al"a*s be emplo*ed for half an hour before and 6[ hours after this period, pro)ided the "hole of their labour did not e9ceed 6[ hours8 Bhilst the bill "as under discussion, the Factor* >nspectors laid before #arliament statistics of the infamous abuses due to this anomal*8 'o no purpose8 >n the bac+ground lur+ed the intention of scre"ing up, during prosperous *ears, the "or+ing da* of adult males to 13 hours b* the aid of the children8 'he e9perience of the three follo"ing *ears sho"ed that such an attempt must come to grief against the resistance of the adult male operati)es8 'he (ct of 1837 "as therefore finall* completed in 183: b* forbidding the @emplo*ment of children in the morning before and in the e)ening after *oung persons and "omen8A -enceforth "ith a fe" e9ceptions the Factor* (ct of 1837 regulated the "or+ing da* of all "or+ers in the branches of industr* that come under it8 1 6 Since the passing of the first Factor* (ct half a centur* had elapsed81 : Factor* legislation for the first time "ent be*ond its original sphere in the @#rint"or+s? (ct of 18 38A 'he displeasure "ith "hich capital recei)ed this ne" @e9tra)aganceA spea+s through e)er* line of the (ct8 >t limits the "or+ing da* for children from 8 to 1:, and for "omen to 16 hours, bet"een 6 a8m8 and 17 p8m8, "ithout an* legal pause for meal4times8 >t allo"s males o)er 1: to be "or+ed at "ill da* and night81 >t is a #arliamentar* abortion81 3 -o"e)er, the principle had triumphed "ith its )ictor* in those great branches of industr* "hich form the most characteristic creation of the modern mode of production8 'heir "onderful de)elopment from 183: to 1867, hand4in4hand "ith the ph*sical and moral regeneration of the factor* "or+ers, struc+ the most purblind8 'he masters from "hom the legal limitation and regulation had been "rung step b* step after a ci)il "ar of half a centur*, themsel)es referred ostentatiousl* to the contrast "ith the branches of e9ploitation still @free8A 1 6 'he #harisees of @#olitical Econom*A no" proclaimed the discernment of the necessit* of a legall* fi9ed "or+ing da* as a characteristic ne" disco)er* of their @science8A 1 7 >t "ill be easil* understood that after the factor* magnates had resigned themsel)es and become reconciled to the ine)itable, the po"er of resistance of capital graduall* "ea+ened, "hilst at the same time the po"er of attac+ of the "or+ing4class gre" "ith the number of its allies in the classes of societ* not immediatel* interested in the Iuestion8 -ence the comparati)el* rapid ad)ance since 18678 'he d*e4"or+s and bleach4"or+s all came under the Factor* (ct of 1837 in 1867; 1 8 lace and stoc+ing manufactures in 18618 >n conseIuence of the first report of the 5ommission on the emplo*ment of children (186:! the same fate "as shared b* the manufacturers of all earthen"ares (not merel* potter*!, <ucifer4 matches, percussion caps, cartridges, carpets, fustian4cutting, and man* processes included under the name of @finishing8A >n the *ear 186: bleaching in the open air 1 2 and ba+ing "ere placed under special (cts, b* "hich, in the former, the labour of *oung persons and "omen during the night4time (from 8 in the e)ening to 6 in the morning!, and in the latter, the emplo*ment of Dourne*men ba+ers under 18, bet"een 2 in the e)ening and 3 in the morning "ere forbidden8 Be shall return to the later proposals of the same 5ommission, "hich threatened to depri)e of their @freedomA all the important branches of English >ndustr*, "ith the e9ception of agriculture, mines, and the means of transport8137

Section 9: The Stru%%le for a 6ormal 3orkin% -a 7 .eaction of the )n%lish Factor ;cts on Other Countries
'he reader "ill bear in mind that the production of surplus )alue, or the e9traction of surplus labour, is the specific end and aim, the sum and substance, of capitalist production, Iuite apart

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from an* changes in the mode of production, "hich ma* arise from the subordination of labour to capital8 -e "ill remember that as far as "e ha)e at present gone onl* the independent labourer, and therefore onl* the labourer legall* Iualified to act for himself, enters as a )endor of a commodit* into a contract "ith the capitalist8 >f, therefore, in our historical s+etch, on the one hand, modern industr*, on the other, the labour of those "ho are ph*sicall* and legall* minors, pla* important parts, the former "as to us onl* a special department, and the latter onl* a speciall* stri+ing e9ample of labour e9ploitation8 Bithout, ho"e)er, anticipating the subseIuent de)elopment of our inIuir*, from the mere conne9ion of the historic facts before us it follo"s: !irst8 'he passion of capital for an unlimited and rec+less e9tension of the "or+ing da*, is first gratified in the industries earliest re)olutionised b* "ater4po"er, steam, and machiner*, in those first creations of the modern mode of production, cotton, "ool, fla9, and sil+ spinning, and "ea)ing8 'he changes in the material mode of production, and the corresponding changes in the social relations of the producers131 ga)e rise first to an e9tra)agance be*ond all bounds, and then in opposition to this, called forth a control on the part of Societ* "hich legall* limits, regulates, and ma+es uniform the "or+ing da* and its pauses8 'his control appears, therefore, during the first half of the nineteenth centur* simpl* as e9ceptional legislation8 136 (s soon as this primiti)e dominion of the ne" mode of production "as conIuered, it "as found that, in the meantime, not onl* had man* other branches of production been made to adopt the same factor* s*stem, but that manufactures "ith more or less obsolete methods, such as potteries, glass4ma+ing, Pc8, that old4 fashioned handicrafts, li+e ba+ing, and, finall*, e)en that the so4called domestic industries, such as nail4ma+ing,13: had long since fallen as completel* under capitalist e9ploitation as the factories themsel)es8 <egislation "as, therefore, compelled to graduall* get rid of its e9ceptional character, or "here, as in England, it proceeds after the manner of the &oman 5asuists, to declare an* house in "hich "or+ "as done to be a factor*813 ;econd8 'he histor* of the regulation of the "or+ing da* in certain branches of production, and the struggle still going on in others in regard to this regulation, pro)e conclusi)el* that the isolated labourer, the labourer as @freeA )endor of his labour4po"er, "hen capitalist production has once attained a certain stage, succumbs "ithout an* po"er of resistance8 'he creation of a normal "or+ing da* is, therefore, the product of a protracted ci)il "ar, more or less dissembled, bet"een the capitalist class and the "or+ing4class8 (s the contest ta+es place in the arena of modern industr*, it first brea+s out in the home of that industr* F England8 133 'he English factor* "or+ers "ere the champions, not onl* of the English, but of the modern "or+ing4class generall*, as their theorists "ere the first to thro" do"n the gauntlet to the theor* of capital8 136 -ence, the philosopher of the Factor*, %re, denounces as an ineffable disgrace to the English "or+ing4class that the* inscribed @the sla)er* of the Factor* (ctsA on the banner "hich the* bore against capital, manfull* stri)ing for @perfect freedom of labour8A 137 France limps slo"l* behind England8 'he Februar* re)olution "as necessar* to bring into the "orld the 16 hours? la",138 "hich is much more deficient than its English original8 For all that, the French re)olutionar* method has its special ad)antages8 >t once for all commands the same limit to the "or+ing da* in all shops and factories "ithout distinction, "hilst English legislation reluctantl* *ields to the pressure of circumstances, no" on this point, no" on that, and is getting lost in a hopelessl* be"ildering tangle of contradictor* enactments8 132 =n the other hand, the French la" proclaims as a principle that "hich in England "as onl* "on in the name of children, minors, and "omen, and has been onl* recentl* for the first time claimed as a general right8 167 >n the %nited States of Corth (merica, e)er* independent mo)ement of the "or+ers "as paral*sed so long as sla)er* disfigured a part of the &epublic8 <abour cannot emancipate itself in the "hite s+in "here in the blac+ it is branded8 /ut out of the death of sla)er* a ne" life at once

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arose8 'he first fruit of the 5i)il Bar "as the eight hours? agitation, that ran "ith the se)en4 leagued boots of the locomoti)e from the (tlantic to the #acific, from Ce" England to 5alifornia8 'he General 5ongress of labour at /altimore ((ugust 16th, 1866! declared: @'he first and great necessit* of the present, to free the labour of this countr* from capitalistic sla)er*, is the passing of a la" b* "hich eight hours shall be the normal "or+ing da* in all States of the (merican %nion8 Be are resol)ed to put forth all our strength until this glorious result is attained8A 161 (t the same time, the 5ongress of the >nternational Bor+ing $en?s (ssociation at Gene)a, on the proposition of the <ondon General 5ouncil, resol)ed that @the limitation of the "or+ing da* is a preliminar* condition "ithout "hich all further attempts at impro)ement and emancipation must pro)e aborti)e888 the 5ongress proposes eight hours as the legal limit of the "or+ing da*8A 'hus the mo)ement of the "or+ing4class on both sides of the (tlantic, that had gro"n instincti)el* out of the conditions of production themsel)es, endorsed the "ords of the English Factor* >nspector, &8 L8 Saunders @Further steps to"ards a reformation of societ* can ne)er be carried out "ith an* hope of success, unless the hours of labour be limited, and the prescribed limit strictl* enforced8A166 >t must be ac+no"ledged that our labourer comes out of the process of production other than he entered8 >n the mar+et he stood as o"ner of the commodit* @labour4po"erA face to face "ith other o"ners of commodities, dealer against dealer8 'he contract b* "hich he sold to the capitalist his labour4po"er pro)ed, so to sa*, in blac+ and "hite that he disposed of himself freel*8 'he bargain concluded, it is disco)ered that he "as no @free agent,A that the time for "hich he is free to sell his labour4po"er is the time for "hich he is forced to sell it, 16: that in fact the )ampire "ill not lose its hold on him @so long as there is a muscle, a ner)e, a drop of blood to be e9ploited8A16 For @protectionA against @the serpent of their agonies,A the labourers must put their heads together, and, as a class, compel the passing of a la", an all4po"erful social barrier that shall pre)ent the )er* "or+ers from selling8 b* )oluntar* contract "ith capital, themsel)es and their families into sla)er* and death8 163 >n place of the pompous catalogue of the @inalienable rights of manA comes the modest $agna 5harta of a legall* limited "or+ing da*, "hich shall ma+e clear @"hen the time "hich the "or+er sells is ended, and "hen his o"n begins8A Kuantum mutatus ab illoQ GBhat a great change from that timeQ F ;irgilH 166

(ha)ter 11* 3ate and Mass of S%r)$%s 2a$%e

>n this chapter, as hitherto, the )alue of labour4po"er, and therefore the part of the "or+ing da* necessar* for the reproduction or maintenance of that labour4po"er, are supposed to be gi)en, constant magnitudes8 'his premised, "ith the rate, the mass is at the same time gi)en of the surplus )alue that the indi)idual labourer furnishes to the capitalist in a definite period of time8 >f, e$ $, the necessar* labour amounts to 6 hours dail*, e9pressed in a Iuantum of gold Y : shillings, then :s8 is the dail* )alue of one labour4po"er or the )alue of the capital ad)anced in the bu*ing of one labour4po"er8 >f, further, the rate of surplus )alue be Y 177`, this )ariable capital of :s8 produces a mass of surplus )alue of :s8, or the labourer supplies dail* a mass of surplus labour eIual to 6 hours8 /ut the )ariable capital of a capitalist is the e9pression in mone* of the total )alue of all the labour4po"ers that he emplo*s simultaneousl*8 >ts )alue is, therefore, eIual to the a)erage )alue of one labour4po"er, multiplied b* the number of labour4po"ers emplo*ed8 Bith a gi)en )alue of labour4po"er, therefore, the magnitude of the )ariable capital )aries directl* as the number of labourers emplo*ed simultaneousl*8 >f the dail* )alue of one labour4po"er Y :s8, then a capital of :77s8 must be ad)anced in order to e9ploit dail* 177 labour4po"ers, of n times :s8, in order to e9ploit dail* n labour4po"ers8 >n the same "a*, if a )ariable capital of :s8, being the dail* )alue of one labour4po"er, produce a dail* surplus )alue of :s8, a )ariable capital of :77s8 "ill produce a dail* surplus )alue of :77s8, and one of n times :s8 a dail* surplus )alue of n h :s8 'he mass of the surplus )alue produced is therefore eIual to the surplus )alue "hich the "or+ing da* of one labourer supplies multiplied b* the number of labourers emplo*ed8 /ut as further the mass of surplus )alue "hich a single labourer produces, the )alue of labour4po"er being gi)en, is determined b* the rate of the surplus )alue, this la" follo"s: the mass of the surplus )alue produced is eIual to the amount of the )ariable capital ad)anced, multiplied b* the rate of surplus )alue, in other "ords: it is determined b* the compound ratio bet"een the number of labour4po"ers e9ploited simultaneousl* b* the same capitalist and the degree of e9ploitation of each indi)idual labour4po"er8 <et the mass of the surplus )alue be S, the surplus )alue supplied b* the indi)idual labourer in the a)erage da* s the )ariable capital dail* ad)anced in the purchase of one indi)idual labour4po"er ), the sum total of the )ariable capital ;, the )alue of an a)erage labour4po"er #, its degree of e9ploitation (aUJa! (surplus labourJnecessar*4labour! and the number of labourers emplo*ed n; "e "ould ha)e:

SY

h; q (sJ)! # h (aUJa! h n

>t is al"a*s supposed, not onl* that the )alue of an a)erage labour4po"er is constant, but that the labourers emplo*ed b* a capitalist are reduced to a)erage labourers8 'here are e9ceptional cases in "hich the surplus )alue produced does not increase in proportion to the number of labourers e9ploited, but then the )alue of the labour4po"er does not remain constant8 >n the production of a definite mass of surplus )alue, therefore the decrease of one factor ma* be compensated b* the increase of the other8 >f the )ariable capital diminishes, and at the same time the rate of surplus )alue increases in the same ratio, the mass of surplus )alue produced remains

16:

5hapter 11

unaltered8 >f on our earlier assumption the capitalist must ad)ance :77s8, in order to e9ploit 177 labourers a da*, and if the rate of surplus )alue amounts to 37`, this )ariable capital of :77s8 *ields a surplus )alue of 137s8 or of 177 h : "or+ing hours8 >f the rate of surplus )alue doubles, or the "or+ing da*, instead of being e9tended from 6 to 2, is e9tended from 6 to 16 hours and at the same time )ariable capital is lessened b* half, and reduced to 137s8, it *ields also a surplus )alue of 137s8 or 37 h 6 "or+ing hours8 0iminution of the )ariable capital ma* therefore be compensated b* a proportionate rise in the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, or the decrease in the number of the labourers emplo*ed b* a proportionate e9tension of the "or+ing da*8 Bithin certain limits therefore the suppl* of labour e9ploitable b* capital is independent of the suppl* of labourers81 =n the contrar*, a fall in the rate of surplus )alue lea)es unaltered the mass of the surplus )alue produced, if the amount of the )ariable capital, or number of the labourers emplo*ed, increases in the same proportion8 Ce)ertheless, the compensation of a decrease in the number of labourers emplo*ed, or of the amount of )ariable capital ad)anced b* a rise in the rate of surplus )alue, or b* the lengthening of the "or+ing da*, has impassable limits8 Bhate)er the )alue of labour4po"er ma* be, "hether the "or+ing time necessar* for the maintenance of the labourer is 6 or 17 hours, the total )alue that a labourer can produce, da* in, da* out, is al"a*s less than the )alue in "hich 6 hours of labour are embodied, less than 16s8, if 16s8 is the mone* e9pression for 6 hours of realised labour8 >n our former assumption, according to "hich 6 "or+ing hours are dail* necessar* in order to reproduce the labour4po"er itself or to replace the )alue of the capital ad)anced in its purchase, a )ariable capital of 1,377s8, that emplo*s 377 labourers at a rate of surplus )alue of 177` "ith a 16 hours? "or+ing da*, produces dail* a surplus )alue of 1,377s8 or of 6 h 377 "or+ing hours8 ( capital of :77s8 that emplo*s 177 labourers a da* "ith a rate of surplus )alue of 677` or "ith a "or+ing da* of 18 hours, produces onl* a mass of surplus )alue of 677s8 or 16 h 177 "or+ing hours; and its total )alue4product, the eIui)alent of the )ariable capital ad)anced plus the surplus )alue, can, da* in, da* out, ne)er reach the sum of 1,677s8 or 6 h 177 "or+ing hours8 'he absolute limit of the a)erage "or+ing da* F this being b* nature al"a*s less than 6 hours F sets an absolute limit to the compensation of a reduction of )ariable capital b* a higher rate of surplus )alue, or of the decrease of the number of labourers e9ploited b* a higher degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 'his palpable la" is of importance for the clearing up of man* phenomena, arising from a tendenc* (to be "or+ed out later on! of capital to reduce as much as possible the number of labourers emplo*ed b* it, or its )ariable constituent transformed into labour4po"er, in contradiction to its other tendenc* to produce the greatest possible mass of surplus )alue8 =n the other hand, if the mass of labour4po"er emplo*ed, or the amount of )ariable capital, increases, but not in proportion to the fall in the rate of surplus )alue, the mass of the surplus )alue produced, falls8 ( third la" results from the determination, of the mass of the surplus )alue produced, b* the t"o factors: rate of surplus )alue and amount of )ariable capital ad)anced8 'he rate of surplus )alue, or the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, and the )alue of labour4po"er, or the amount of necessar* "or+ing time being gi)en, it is self e)ident that the greater the )ariable capital, the greater "ould be the mass of the )alue produced and of the surplus )alue8 >f the limit of the "or+ing da* is gi)en, and also the limit of its necessar* constituent, the mass of )alue and surplus )alue that an indi)idual capitalist produces, is clearl* e9clusi)el* dependent on the mass of labour that he sets in motion8 /ut this, under the conditions supposed abo)e, depends on the mass of labour4po"er, or the number of labourers "hom he e9ploits, and this number in its turn is determined b* the amount of the )ariable capital ad)anced8 Bith a gi)en rate of surplus )alue, and a gi)en )alue of labour4po"er, therefore, the masses of surplus )alue produced )ar* directl* as the amounts of the )ariable capitals ad)anced8 Co" "e +no" that the capitalist di)ides his

16

5hapter 11

capital into t"o parts8 =ne part he la*s out in means of production8 'his is the constant part of his capital8 'he other part he la*s out in li)ing labour4po"er8 'his part forms his )ariable capital8 =n the basis of the same mode of social production, the di)ision of capital into constant and )ariable differs in different branches of production, and "ithin the same branch of production, too, this relation changes "ith changes in the technical conditions and in the social combinations of the processes of production8 /ut in "hate)er proportion a gi)en capital brea+s up into a constant and a )ariable part, "hether the latter is to the former as 1:6 or 1:17 or 1:9, the la" Dust laid do"n is not affected b* this8 For, according to our pre)ious anal*sis, the )alue of the constant capital reappears in the )alue of the product, but does not enter into the ne"l* produced )alue, the ne"l* created )alue product8 'o emplo* 1,777 spinners, more ra" material, spindles, Pc8, are, of course, reIuired, than to emplo* 1778 'he )alue of these additional means of production ho"e)er ma* rise, fall, remain unaltered, be large or small; it has no influence on the process of creation of surplus )alue b* means of the labour4po"ers that put them in motion8 'he la" demonstrated abo)e no", therefore, ta+es this form: the masses of )alue and of surplus )alue produced b* different capitals F the )alue of labour4po"er being gi)en and its degree of e9ploitation being eIual F )ar* directl* as the amounts of the )ariable constituents of these capitals, i$e$, as their constituents transformed into li)ing labour4po"er8 'his la" clearl* contradicts all e9perience based on appearance8 E)er*one +no"s that a cotton spinner, "ho, rec+oning the percentage on the "hole of his applied capital, emplo*s much constant and little )ariable capital, does not, on account of this, poc+et less profit or surplus )alue than a ba+er, "ho relati)el* sets in motion much )ariable and little constant capital8 For the solution of this apparent contradiction, man* intermediate terms are as *et "anted, as from the standpoint of elementar* algebra man* intermediate terms are "anted to understand that 7J7 ma* represent an actual magnitude8 5lassical econom*, although not formulating the la", holds instincti)el* to it, because it is a necessar* conseIuence of the general la" of )alue8 >t tries to rescue the la" from collision "ith contradictor* phenomena b* a )iolent abstraction8 >t "ill be seen later6 ho" the school of &icardo has come to grief o)er this stumbling bloc+8 ;ulgar econom* "hich, indeed, @has reall* learnt nothing,A here as e)er*"here stic+s to appearances in opposition to the la" "hich regulates and e9plains them8 >n opposition to Spino1a, it belie)es that @ignorance is a sufficient reason8A 'he labour "hich is set in motion b* the total capital of a societ*, da* in, da* out, ma* be regarded as a single collecti)e "or+ing da*8 >f, e$ $, the number of labourers is a million, and the a)erage "or+ing da* of a labourer is 17 hours, the social "or+ing da* consists of ten million hours8 Bith a gi)en length of this "or+ing da*, "hether its limits are fi9ed ph*sicall* or sociall*, the mass of surplus )alue can onl* be increased b* increasing the number of labourers, i$e$, of the labouring population8 'he gro"th of population here forms the mathematical limit to the production of surplus )alue b* the total social capital8 =n the contrar*, "ith a gi)en amount of population, this limit is formed b* the possible lengthening of the "or+ingda*8 : >t "ill, ho"e)er, be seen in the follo"ing chapter that this la" onl* holds for the form of surplus )alue dealt "ith up to the present8 From the treatment of the production of surplus )alue, so far, it follo"s that not e)er* sum of mone*, or of )alue, is at pleasure transformable into capital8 'o effect this transformation, in fact, a certain minimum of mone* or of e9change4)alue must be presupposed in the hands of the indi)idual possessor of mone* or commodities8 'he minimum of )ariable capital is the cost price of a single labour4po"er, emplo*ed the "hole *ear through, da* in, da* out, for the production of surplus )alue8 >f this labourer "ere in possession of his o"n means of production, and "ere satisfied to li)e as a labourer, he need not "or+ be*ond the time necessar* for the reproduction of his means of subsistence, sa* 8 hours a da*8 -e "ould, besides, onl* reIuire the means of

163

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production sufficient for 8 "or+ing hours8 'he capitalist, on the other hand, "ho ma+es him do, besides these 8 hours, sa* hours? surplus labour, reIuires an additional sum of mone* for furnishing the additional means of production8 =n our supposition, ho"e)er, he "ould ha)e to emplo* t"o labourers in order to li)e, on the surplus )alue appropriated dail*, as "ell as, and no better than a labourer, i8e8, to be able to satisf* his necessar* "ants8 >n this case the mere maintenance of life "ould be the end of his production, not the increase of "ealth; but this latter is implied in capitalist production8 'hat he ma* li)e onl* t"ice as "ell as an ordinar* labourer, and besides turn half of the surplus )alue produced into capital, he "ould ha)e to raise, "ith the number of labourers, the minimum of the capital ad)anced 8 times8 =f course he can, li+e his labourer, ta+e to "or+ himself, participate directl* in the process of production, but he is then onl* a h*brid bet"een capitalist and labourer, a @small master8A ( certain stage of capitalist production necessitates that the capitalist be able to de)ote the "hole of the time during "hich he functions as a capitalist, i$e$, as personified capital, to the appropriation and therefore control of the labour of others, and to the selling of the products of this labour8 'he guilds of the middle ages therefore tried to pre)ent b* force the transformation of the master of a trade into a capitalist, b* limiting the number of labourers that could be emplo*ed b* one master "ithin a )er* small ma9imum8 'he possessor of mone* or commodities actuall* turns into a capitalist in such cases onl* "here the minimum sum ad)anced for production greatl* e9ceeds the ma9imum of the middle ages8 -ere, as in natural science, is sho"n the correctness of the la" disco)ered b* -egel (in his @<ogicA!, that merel* Iuantitati)e differences be*ond a certain point pass into Iualitati)e changes83 'he minimum of the sum of )alue that the indi)idual possessor of mone* or commodities must command, in order to metamorphose himself into a capitalist, changes "ith the different stages of de)elopment of capitalist production, and is at gi)en stages different in different spheres of production, according to their special and technical conditions8 5ertain spheres of production demand, e)en at the )er* outset of capitalist production, a minimum of capital that is not as *et found in the hands of single indi)iduals8 'his gi)es rise partl* to state subsidies to pri)ate persons, as in France in the time of 5lobber, and as in man* German states up to our o"n epoch, partl* to the formation of societies "ith legal monopol* for the e9ploitation of certain branches of industr* and commerce, the forerunners of our modern Doint stoc+ companies8 6 Bithin the process of production, as "e ha)e seen, capital acIuired the command o)er labour, i$e$, o)er functioning labour4po"er or the labourer himself8 #ersonified capital, the capitalist ta+es care that the labourer does his "or+ regularl* and "ith the proper degree of intensit*8 5apital further de)eloped into a coerci)e relation, "hich compels the "or+ing class to do more "or+ than the narro" round of its o"n life4"ants prescribes8 (s a producer of the acti)it* of others, as a pumper4out of surplus labour and e9ploiter of labour4po"er, it surpasses in energ*, disregard of bounds, rec+lessness and efficienc*, all earlier s*stems of production based on directl* compulsor* labour8 (t first, capital subordinates labour on the basis of the technical conditions in "hich it historicall* finds it8 >t does not, therefore, change immediatel* the mode of production8 'he production of surplus )alue F in the form hitherto considered b* us F b* means of simple e9tension of the "or+ing da*, pro)ed, therefore, to be independent of an* change in the mode of production itself8 >t "as not less acti)e in the old4fashioned ba+eries than in the modern cotton factories8 >f "e consider the process of production from the point of )ie" of the simple labour process, the labourer stands in relation to the means of production, not in their Iualit* as capital, but as the mere means and material of his o"n intelligent producti)e acti)it*8 >n tanning, e$ $, he deals "ith the s+ins as his simple obDect of labour8 >t is not the capitalist "hose s+in he tans8 /ut it is

166

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different as soon as "e deal "ith the process of production from the point of )ie" of the process of creation of surplus )alue8 'he means of production are at once changed into means for the absorption of the labour of others8 >t is no" no longer the labourer that emplo*s the means of production, but the means of production that emplo* the labourer8 >nstead of being consumed b* him as material elements of his producti)e acti)it*, the* consume him as the ferment necessar* to their o"n life4process, and the life4process of capital consists onl* in its mo)ement as )alue constantl* e9panding, constantl* multipl*ing itself8 Furnaces and "or+shops that stand idle b* night, and absorb no li)ing labour, are @a mere lossA to the capitalist8 -ence, furnaces and "or+shops constitute la"ful claims upon the night4labour of the "or+4people8 'he simple transformation of mone* into the material factors of the process of production, into means of production, transforms the latter into a title and a right to the labour and surplus labour of others8 (n e9ample "ill sho", in conclusion, ho" this sophistication, peculiar to and characteristic of capitalist production, this complete in)ersion of the relation bet"een dead and li)ing labour, bet"een )alue and the force that creates )alue, mirrors itself in the consciousness of capitalists8 0uring the re)olt of the English factor* lords bet"een 18 8 and 1837, @the head of one of the oldest and most respectable houses in the Best of Scotland, $essrs8 5arlile Sons P 5o8, of the linen and cotton thread factor* at #aisle*, a compan* "hich has no" e9isted for about a centur*, "hich "as in operation in 1736, and four generations of the same famil* ha)e conducted itA 888 this @)er* intelligent gentlemanA then "rote a letter 7 in the =las o1 Daily Mail of (pril 63th, 18 2, "ith the title, @'he rela* s*stem,A in "hich among other things the follo"ing grotesIuel* nao)e passage occurs: @<et us no" 888 see "hat e)ils "ill attend the limiting to 17 hours the "or+ing of the factor*8888 'he* amount to the most serious damage to the millo"ner?s prospects and propert*8 >f he (i8e8, his @handsA! "or+ed 16 hours before, and is limited to 17, then e)er* 16 machines or spindles in his establishment shrin+ to 17, and should the "or+s be disposed of, the* "ill be )alued onl* as 17, so that a si9th part "ould thus be deducted from the )alue of e)er* factor* in the countr*8A8 'o this Best of Scotland bourgeois brain, inheriting the accumulated capitalistic Iualities of @four generations8A the )alue of the means of production, spindles, Pc8, is so inseparabl* mi9ed up "ith their propert*, as capital, to e9pand their o"n )alue, and to s"allo" up dail* a definite Iuantit* of the unpaid labour of others, that the head of the firm of 5arlile P 5o8 actuall* imagines that if he sells his factor*, not onl* "ill the )alue of the spindles be paid to him, but, in addition, their po"er of anne9ing surplus )alue, not onl* the labour "hich is embodied in them, and is necessar* to the production of spindles of this +ind, but also the surplus labour "hich the* help to pump out dail* from the bra)e Scots of #aisle*, and for that )er* reason he thin+s that "ith the shortening of the "or+ing da* b* 6 hours, the selling4price of 16 spinning machines d"indles to that of 17Q

Part ,: Production of .elati=e Surplus Value

(ha)ter 12* "he (once)t of 3e$ati4e S%r)$%s 2a$%e
'hat portion of the "or+ing da* "hich merel* produces an eIui)alent for the )alue paid b* the capitalist for his labour4po"er, has, up to this point, been treated b* us as a constant magnitude, and such in fact it is, under gi)en conditions of production and at a gi)en stage in the economic de)elopment of societ*8 /e*ond this, his necessar* labour4time, the labourer, "e sa", could continue to "or+ for 6, :, , 6, Pc8, hours8 'he rate of surplus )alue and the length of the "or+ing da* depended on the magnitude of this prolongation8 'hough the necessar* labour4time "as constant, "e sa", on the other hand, that the total "or+ing da* "as )ariable8 Co" suppose "e ha)e a "or+ing da* "hose length, and "hose apportionment bet"een necessar* labour and surplus labour, are gi)en8 <et the "hole line a c, aFbFc represent, for e9ample, a "or+ing da* of 16 hours; the portion of a b 17 hours of necessar* labour, and the portion b c 6 hours of surplus labour8 -o" no" can the production of surplus )alue be increased, i8e8, ho" can the surplus labour be prolonged, "ithout, or independentl* of, an* prolongation of a cE (lthough the length of a c is gi)en, b c appears to be capable of prolongation, if not b* e9tension be*ond its end c, "hich is also the end of the "or+ing da* a c, *et, at all e)ents, b* pushing bac+ its starting4point b in the direction of a8 (ssume that bUFb in the line abUbc is eIual to half of b c aFFFbUFbFFc or to one hour?s labour4time8 >f no", in a c, the "or+ing da* of 16 hours, "e mo)e the point b to bU, b c becomes bU c; the surplus labour increases b* one half, from 6 hours to : hours, although the "or+ing da* remains as before at 16 hours8 'his e9tension of the surplus labour4time from b c to bU c, from 6 hours to : hours, is, ho"e)er, e)identl* impossible, "ithout a simultaneous contraction of the necessar* labour4time from a b into a bU, from 17 hours to 2 hours8 'he prolongation of the surplus labour "ould correspond to a shortening of the necessar* labour; or a portion of the labour4time pre)iousl* consumed, in realit*, for the labourer?s o"n benefit, "ould be con)erted into labour4time for the benefit of the capitalist8 'here "ould be an alteration, not in the length of the "or+ing da*, but in its di)ision into necessar* labour4time and surplus labour4 time8 =n the other hand, it is e)ident that the duration of the surplus labour is gi)en, "hen the length of the "or+ing da*, and the )alue of labour4po"er, are gi)en8 'he )alue of labour4po"er, i8e8, the labour4time reIuisite to produce labour4po"er, determines the labour4time necessar* for the reproduction of that )alue8 >f one "or+ing4hour be embodied in si9pence, and the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er be fi)e shillings, the labourer must "or+ 17 hours a da*, in order to replace the )alue paid b* capital for his labour4po"er, or to produce an eIui)alent for the )alue of his dail* necessar* means of subsistence8 Gi)en the )alue of these means of subsistence, the )alue of his labour4po"er is gi)en;1 and gi)en the )alue of his labour4po"er, the duration of his necessar* labour4time is gi)en8 'he duration of the surplus labour, ho"e)er, is arri)ed at, b* subtracting the

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necessar* labour4time from the total "or+ing da*8 'en hours subtracted from t"el)e, lea)e t"o, and it is not eas* to see, ho", under the gi)en conditions, the surplus labour can possibl* be prolonged be*ond t"o hours8 Co doubt, the capitalist can, instead of fi)e shillings, pa* the labourer four shillings and si9pence or e)en less8 For the reproduction of this )alue of four shillings and si9pence, nine hours? labour4time "ould suffice; and conseIuentl* three hours of surplus labour, instead of t"o, "ould accrue to the capitalist, and the surplus )alue "ould rise from one shilling to eighteen4pence8 'his result, ho"e)er, "ould be obtained onl* b* lo"ering the "ages of the labourer belo" the )alue of his labour4po"er8 Bith the four shillings and si9pence "hich he produces in nine hours, he commands one4tenth less of the necessaries of life than before, and conseIuentl* the proper reproduction of his labour4po"er is crippled8 'he surplus labour "ould in this case be prolonged onl* b* an o)erstepping of its normal limits; its domain "ould be e9tended onl* b* a usurpation of part of the domain of necessar* labour4time8 0espite the important part "hich this method pla*s in actual practice, "e are e9cluded from considering it in this place, b* our assumption, that all commodities, including labour4po"er, are bought and sold at their full )alue8 Granted this, it follo"s that the labour4time necessar* for the production of labour4po"er, or for the reproduction of its )alue, cannot be lessened b* a fall in the labourer?s "ages belo" the )alue of his labour4po"er, but onl* b* a fall in this )alue itself8 Gi)en the length of the "or+ing da*, the prolongation of the surplus labour must of necessit* originate in the curtailment of the necessar* labour4time; the latter cannot arise from the former8 >n the e9ample "e ha)e ta+en, it is necessar* that the )alue of labour4po"er should actuall* fall b* one4tenth, in order that the necessar* labour4time ma* be diminished b* one4tenth, i8e8, from ten hours to nine, and in order that the surplus labour ma* conseIuentl* be prolonged from t"o hours to three8 Such a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er implies, ho"e)er, that the same necessaries of life "hich "ere formerl* produced in ten hours, can no" be produced in nine hours8 /ut this is impossible "ithout an increase in the producti)eness of labour8 For e9ample, suppose a shoe4ma+er, "ith gi)en tools, ma+es in one "or+ing da* of t"el)e hours, one pair of boots8 >f he must ma+e t"o pairs in the same time, the producti)eness of his labour must be doubled; and this cannot be done, e9cept b* an alteration in his tools or in his mode of "or+ing, or in both8 -ence, the conditions of production, i8e8, his mode of production, and the labour4process itself, must be re)olutionised8 /* increase in the producti)eness of labour, "e mean, generall*, an alteration in the labour4process, of such a +ind as to shorten the labour4time sociall* necessar* for the production of a commodit*, and to endo" a gi)en Iuantit* of labour "ith the po"er of producing a greater Iuantit* of use4 )alue86 -itherto in treating of surplus )alue, arising from a simple prolongation of the "or+ing da*, "e ha)e assumed the mode of production to be gi)en and in)ariable8 /ut "hen surplus )alue has to be produced b* the con)ersion of necessar* labour into surplus labour, it b* no means suffices for capital to ta+e o)er the labour4process in the form under "hich it has been historicall* handed do"n, and then simpl* to prolong the duration of that process8 'he technical and social conditions of the process, and conseIuentl* the )er* mode of production must be re)olutionised, before the producti)eness of labour can be increased8 /* that means alone can the )alue of labour4po"er be made to sin+, and the portion of the "or+ing da* necessar* for the reproduction of that )alue, be shortened8 'he surplus )alue produced b* prolongation of the "or+ing da*, > call absolute surplus value8 =n the other hand, the surplus )alue arising from the curtailment of the necessar* labour4time, and from the corresponding alteration in the respecti)e lengths of the t"o components of the "or+ing da*, > call relative surplus value8 >n order to effect a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er, the increase in the producti)eness of labour must sei1e upon those branches of industr* "hose products determine the )alue of labour4po"er,

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and conseIuentl* either belong to the class of customar* means of subsistence, or are capable of suppl*ing the place of those means8 /ut the )alue of a commodit* is determined, not onl* b* the Iuantit* of labour "hich the labourer directl* besto"s upon that commodit*, but also b* the labour contained in the means of production8 For instance, the )alue of a pair of boots depends not onl* on the cobbler?s labour, but also on the )alue of the leather, "a9, thread, Pc8 -ence, a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er is also brought about b* an increase in the producti)eness of labour, and b* a corresponding cheapening of commodities in those industries "hich suppl* the instruments of labour and the ra" material, that form the material elements of the constant capital reIuired for producing the necessaries of life8 /ut an increase in the producti)eness of labour in those branches of industr* "hich suppl* neither the necessaries of life, nor the means of production for such necessaries, lea)es the )alue of labour4po"er undisturbed8 'he cheapened commodit*, of course, causes onl* a pro tanto fall in the )alue of labour4po"er, a fall proportional to the e9tent of that commodit*?s emplo*ment in the reproduction of labour4 po"er8 Shirts, for instance, are a necessar* means of subsistence, but are onl* one out of man*8 'he totalit* of the necessaries of life consists, ho"e)er, of )arious commodities, each the product of a distinct industr*; and the )alue of each of those commodities enters as a component part into the )alue of labour4po"er8 'his latter )alue decreases "ith the decrease of the labour4time necessar* for its reproduction; the total decrease being the sum of all the different curtailments of labour4time effected in those )arious and distinct industries8 'his general result is treated, here, as if it "ere the immediate result directl* aimed at in each indi)idual case8 Bhene)er an indi)idual capitalist cheapens shirts, for instance, b* increasing the producti)eness of labour he b* no means necessaril* aims at reducing the )alue of labour4po"er and shortening, pro tanto the necessar* labour4time8 /ut it is onl* in so far as he ultimatel* contributes to this result, that he assists in raising the general rate of surplus )alue8 : 'he general and necessar* tendencies of capital must be distinguished from their forms of manifestation8 >t is not our intention to consider, here, the "a* in "hich the la"s, immanent in capitalist production, manifest themsel)es in the mo)ements of indi)idual masses of capital, "here the* assert themsel)es as coerci)e la"s of competition, and are brought home to the mind and consciousness of the indi)idual capitalist as the directing moti)es of his operations8 /ut this much is clear; a scientific anal*sis of competition is not possible, before "e ha)e a conception of the inner nature of capital, Dust as the apparent motions of the hea)enl* bodies are not intelligible to an* but him, "ho is acIuainted "ith their real motions, motions "hich are not directl* perceptible b* the senses8 Ce)ertheless, for the better comprehension of the production of relati)e surplus )alue, "e ma* add the follo"ing remar+s, in "hich "e assume nothing more than the results "e ha)e alread* obtained8 >f one hour?s labour is embodied in si9pence, a )alue of si9 shillings "ill be produced in a "or+ing da* of 16 hours8 Suppose, that "ith the pre)ailing producti)eness of labour, 16 articles are produced in these 16 hours8 <et the )alue of the means of production used up in each article be si9pence8 %nder these circumstances, each article costs one shilling: si9pence for the )alue of the means of production, and si9pence for the )alue ne"l* added in "or+ing "ith those means8 Co" let some one capitalist contri)e to double the producti)eness of labour, and to produce in the "or+ing da* of 16 hours, 6 instead of 16 such articles8 'he )alue of the means of production remaining the same, the )alue of each article "ill fall to ninepence, made up of si9pence for the )alue of the means of production and threepence for the )alue ne"l* added b* the labour8 0espite the doubled producti)eness of labour, the da*?s labour creates, as before, a ne" )alue of si9 shillings and no more, "hich, ho"e)er, is no" spread o)er t"ice as man* articles8 =f this )alue each article no" has embodied in it 1J6 th, instead of 1J16th, threepence instead of si9pence; or, "hat amounts to the same thing, onl* half an hour?s instead of a "hole hour?s labour4time, is no"

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added to the means of production "hile the* are being transformed into each article8 'he indi)idual )alue of these articles is no" belo" their social )alue; in other "ords, the* ha)e cost less labour4time than the great bul+ of the same article produced under the a)erage social conditions8 Each article costs, on an a)erage, one shilling, and represents 6 hours of social labour; but under the altered mode of production it costs onl* ninepence, or contains onl* 1[ hours? labour8 'he real )alue of a commodit* is, ho"e)er, not its indi)idual )alue, but its social )alue; that is to sa*, the real )alue is not measured b* the labour4time that the article in each indi)idual case costs the producer, but b* the labour4time sociall* reIuired for its production8 >f therefore, the capitalist "ho applies the ne" method, sells his commodit* at its social )alue of one shilling, he sells it for threepence abo)e its indi)idual )alue, and thus realises an e9tra surplus )alue of threepence8 =n the other hand, the "or+ing da* of 16 hours is, as regards him, no" represented b* 6 articles instead of 168 -ence, in order to get rid of the product of one "or+ing da*, the demand must be double "hat it "as, i8e8, the mar+et must become t"ice as e9tensi)e8 =ther things being eIual, his commodities can command a more e9tended mar+et onl* b* a diminution of their prices8 -e "ill therefore sell them abo)e their indi)idual but under their social )alue, sa* at tenpence each8 /* this means he still sIuee1es an e9tra surplus )alue of one penn* out of each8 'his augmentation of surplus )alue is poc+eted b* him, "hether his commodities belong or not to the class of necessar* means of subsistence that participate in determining the general )alue of labour4po"er8 -ence, independentl* of this latter circumstance, there is a moti)e for each indi)idual capitalist to cheapen his commodities, b* increasing the producti)eness of labour8 Ce)ertheless, e)en in this case, the increased production of surplus )alue arises from the curtailment of the necessar* labour4time, and from the corresponding prolongation of the surplus labour8 <et the necessar* labour4time amount to 17 hours, the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er to fi)e shillings, the surplus labour4time to 6 hours, and the dail* surplus )alue to one shilling8 /ut the capitalist no" produces 6 articles, "hich he sells at tenpence a4piece, ma+ing t"ent* shillings in all8 Since the )alue of the means of production is t"el)e shillings, 1 6J3 of these articles merel* replace the constant capital ad)anced8 'he labour of the 16 hours? "or+ing da* is represented b* the remaining 2 :J3 articles8 Since the price of the labour4po"er is fi)e shillings, 6 articles represent the necessar* labour4time, and : :J3 articles the surplus labour8 'he ratio of the necessar* labour to the surplus labour, "hich under a)erage social conditions "as 3:1, is no" onl* 3::8 'he same result ma* be arri)ed at in the follo"ing "a*8 'he )alue of the product of the "or+ing da* of 16 hours is t"ent* shillings8 =f this sum, t"el)e shillings belong to the )alue of the means of production, a )alue that merel* re4appears8 'here remain eight shillings, "hich are the e9pression in mone*, of the )alue ne"l* created during the "or+ing da*8 'his sum is greater than the sum in "hich a)erage social labour of the same +ind is e9pressed: t"el)e hours of the latter labour are e9pressed b* si9 shillings onl*8 'he e9ceptionall* producti)e labour operates as intensified labour; it creates in eIual periods of time greater )alues than a)erage social labour of the same +ind8 (See 5h8 >8 Sect 68 p8 8! /ut our capitalist still continues to pa* as before onl* fi)e shillings as the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er8 -ence, instead of 17 hours, the labourer need no" "or+ onl* 7[ hours, in order to reproduce this )alue8 -is surplus labour is, therefore, increased b* 6[ hours, and the surplus )alue he produces gro"s from one, into three shillings8 -ence, the capitalist "ho applies the impro)ed method of production, appropriates to surplus labour a greater portion of the "or+ing da*, than the other capitalists in the same trade8 -e does indi)iduall*, "hat the "hole bod* of capitalists engaged in producing relati)e surplus )alue, do collecti)el*8 =n the other hand, ho"e)er, this e9tra surplus )alue )anishes, so soon as the ne" method of production has become general, and has conseIuentl* caused the difference bet"een the indi)idual )alue of the cheapened commodit* and its social )alue to )anish8 'he la" of the determination of )alue b* labour4time, a la" "hich brings under its s"a* the indi)idual capitalist

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"ho applies the ne" method of production, b* compelling him to sell his goods under their social )alue, this same la", acting as a coerci)e la" of competition, forces his competitors to adopt the ne" method83 'he general rate of surplus )alue is, therefore, ultimatel* affected b* the "hole process, onl* "hen the increase in the producti)eness of labour, has sei1ed upon those branches of production that are connected "ith, and has cheapened those commodities that form part of, the necessar* means of subsistence, and are therefore elements of the )alue of labour4po"er8 'he )alue of commodities is in in)erse ratio to the producti)eness of labour8 (nd so, too, is the )alue of labour4po"er, because it depends on the )alues of commodities8 &elati)e surplus )alue is, on the contrar*, directl* proportional to that producti)eness8 >t rises "ith rising and falls "ith falling producti)eness8 'he )alue of mone* being assumed to be constant, an a)erage social "or+ing da* of 16 hours al"a*s produces the same ne" )alue, si9 shillings, no matter ho" this sum ma* be apportioned bet"een surplus )alue and "ages8 /ut if, in conseIuence of increased producti)eness, the )alue of the necessaries of life fall, and the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er be thereb* reduced from fi)e shillings to three, the surplus )alue increases from one shilling to three8 'en hours "ere necessar* for the reproduction of the )alue of the labour4po"er; no" onl* si9 are reIuired8 Four hours ha)e been set free, and can be anne9ed to the domain of surplus labour8 -ence there is immanent in capital an inclination and constant tendenc*, to heighten the producti)eness of labour, in order to cheapen commodities, and b* such cheapening to cheapen the labourer himself86 'he )alue of a commodit* is, in itself, of no interest to the capitalist8 Bhat alone interests him, is the surplus )alue that d"ells in it, and is realisable b* sale8 &ealisation of the surplus )alue necessaril* carries "ith it the refunding of the )alue that "as ad)anced8 Co", since relati)e surplus )alue increases in direct proportion to the de)elopment of the producti)eness of labour, "hile, on the other hand, the )alue of commodities diminishes in the same proportion; since one and the same process cheapens commodities, and augments the surplus )alue contained in them; "e ha)e here the solution of the riddle: "h* does the capitalist, "hose sole concern is the production of e9change4)alue, continuall* stri)e to depress the e9change4)alue of commoditiesE ( riddle "ith "hich Kuesna*, one of the founders of #olitical Econom*, tormented his opponents, and to "hich the* could gi)e him no ans"er8 @Nou ac+no"ledge,A he sa*s, @that the more e9penses and the cost of labour can, in the manufacture of industrial products, be reduced "ithout inDur* to production, the more ad)antageous is such reduction, because it diminishes the price of the finished article8 (nd *et, *ou belie)e that the production of "ealth, "hich arises from the labour of the "or+people, consists in the augmentation of the e9change4)alue of their products8A 7 'he shortening of the "or+ing da* is, therefore, b* no means "hat is aimed at, in capitalist production, "hen labour is economised b* increasing its producti)eness8 8 >t is onl* the shortening of the labour4time, necessar* for the production of a definite Iuantit* of commodities, that is aimed at8 'he fact that the "or+man, "hen the producti)eness of his labour has been increased, produces, sa* 17 times as man* commodities as before, and thus spends one4tenth as much labour4time on each, b* no means pre)ents him from continuing to "or+ 16 hours as before, nor from producing in those 16 hours 1,677 articles instead of 1678 Ca*, more, his "or+ing da* ma* be prolonged at the same time, so as to ma+e him produce, sa* 1, 77 articles in 1 hours8 >n the treatises, therefore, of economists of the stamp of $ac5ulloch, %re, Senior, and tutti &uanti Gthe li+eH, "e ma* read upon one page, that the labourer o"es a debt of gratitude to capital for de)eloping his producti)eness, because the necessar* labour4time is thereb* shortened, and on the ne9t page, that he must pro)e his gratitude b* "or+ing in future for 13 hours instead of 178 'he obDect of all de)elopment of the producti)eness of labour, "ithin the limits of capitalist

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production, is to shorten that part of the "or+ing da*, during "hich the "or+man must labour for his o"n benefit, and b* that )er* shortening, to lengthen the other part of the da*, during "hich he is at libert* to "or+ gratis for the capitalist8 -o" far this result is also attainable, "ithout cheapening commodities, "ill appear from an e9amination of the particular modes of producing relati)e surplus )alue, to "hich e9amination "e no" proceed8

(ha)ter 1 * (o1o)eration
5apitalist production onl* then reall* begins, as "e ha)e alread* seen, "hen each indi)idual capital emplo*s simultaneousl* a comparati)el* large number of labourers; "hen conseIuentl* the labour4process is carried on on an e9tensi)e scale and *ields, relati)el*, large Iuantities of products8 ( greater number of labourers "or+ing together, at the same time, in one place (or, if *ou "ill, in the same field of labour!, in order to produce the same sort of commodit* under the mastership of one capitalist, constitutes, both historicall* and logicall*, the starting4point of capitalist production8 Bith regard to the mode of production itself, manufacture, in its strict meaning, is hardl* to be distinguished, in its earliest stages, from the handicraft trades of the guilds, other"ise than b* the greater number of "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed b* one and the same indi)idual capital8 'he "or+shop of the medie)al master handicraftsman is simpl* enlarged8 (t first, therefore, the difference is purel* Iuantitati)e8 Be ha)e sho"n that the surplus )alue produced b* a gi)en capital is eIual to the surplus )alue produced b* each "or+man multiplied b* the number of "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed8 'he number of "or+men in itself does nor affect, either the rate of surplus )alue, or the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 >f a "or+ing da* of 16 hours be embodied in si9 shillings, 1,677 such da*s "ill be embodied in 1,677 times 6 shillings8 >n one case 16 h 1,677 "or+ing4hours, and in the other 16 such hours are incorporated in the product8 >n the production of )alue a number of "or+men ran+ merel* as so man* indi)idual "or+men; and it therefore ma+es no difference in the )alue produced "hether the 1,677 men "or+ separatel*, or united under the control of one capitalist8 Ce)ertheless, "ithin certain limits, a modification ta+es place8 'he labour realised in )alue, is labour of an a)erage social Iualit*; is conseIuentl* the e9penditure of a)erage labour4po"er8 (n* a)erage magnitude, ho"e)er, is merel* the a)erage of a number of separate magnitudes all of one +ind, but differing as to Iuantit*8 >n e)er* industr*, each indi)idual labourer, be he #eter or #aul, differs from the a)erage labourer8 'hese indi)idual differences, or @errorsA as the* are called in mathematics, compensate one another, and )anish, "hene)er a certain minimum number of "or+men are emplo*ed together8 'he celebrated sophist and s*cophant, Edmund /ur+e, goes so far as to ma+e the follo"ing assertion, based on his practical obser)ations as a farmer; )i18, that @in so small a platoonA as that of fi)e farm labourers, all indi)idual differences in the labour )anish, and that conseIuentl* an* gi)en fi)e adult farm labourers ta+en together, "ill in the same time do as much "or+ as an* other fi)e8 1 /ut, ho"e)er that ma* be, it is clear, that the collecti)e "or+ing da* of a large number of "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed, di)ided b* the number of these "or+men, gi)es one da* of a)erage social labour8 For e9ample, let the "or+ing da* of each indi)idual be 16 hours8 'hen the collecti)e "or+ing da* of 16 men simultaneousl* emplo*ed, consists of 1 hours; and although the labour of each of the do1en men ma* de)iate more or less from a)erage social labour, each of them reIuiring a different time for the same operation, *et since the "or+ing da* of each is one4t"elfth of the collecti)e "or+ing da* of 1 hours, it possesses the Iualities of an a)erage social "or+ing da*8 From the point of )ie", ho"e)er, of the capitalist "ho emplo*s these 16 men, the "or+ing da* is that of the "hole do1en8 Each indi)idual man?s da* is an aliIuot part of the collecti)e "or+ing da*, no matter "hether the 16 men assist one another in their "or+, or "hether the conne9ion bet"een their operations consists merel* in the fact, that the men are all "or+ing for the same capitalist8 /ut if the 16 men are emplo*ed in si9 pairs, b* as man* different small masters, it "ill be Iuite a matter of chance, "hether each of

17

5hapter 1:

these masters produces the same )alue, and conseIuentl* "hether he realises the general rate of surplus )alue8 0e)iations "ould occur in indi)idual cases8 >f one "or+man reIuired considerabl* more time for the production of a commodit* than is sociall* necessar*, the duration of the necessar* labour4time "ould, in his case, sensibl* de)iate from the labour4time sociall* necessar* on an a)erage; and conseIuentl* his labour "ould not count as a)erage labour, nor his labour4 po"er as a)erage labour4po"er8 >t "ould either be not saleable at all, or onl* at something belo" the a)erage )alue of labour4po"er8 ( fi9ed minimum of efficienc* in all labour is therefore assumed, and "e shall see, later on, that capitalist production pro)ides the means of fi9ing this minimum8 Ce)ertheless, this minimum de)iates from the a)erage, although on the other hand the capitalist has to pa* the a)erage )alue of labour4po"er8 =f the si9 small masters, one "ould therefore sIuee1e out more than the a)erage rate of surplus )alue, another less8 'he ineIualities "ould be compensated for the societ* at large, but not for the indi)idual masters8 'hus the la"s of the production of )alue are onl* full* realised for the indi)idual producer, "hen he produces as a capitalist, and emplo*s a number of "or+men together, "hose labour, b* its collecti)e nature, is at once stamped as a)erage social labour8 6 E)en "ithout an alteration in the s*stem of "or+ing, the simultaneous emplo*ment of a large number of labourers effects a re)olution in the material conditions of the labour4process8 'he buildings in "hich the* "or+, the store4houses for the ra" material, the implements and utensils used simultaneousl* or in turns b* the "or+men; in short, a portion of the means of production, are no" consumed in common8 =n the one hand, the e9change4)alue of these means of production is not increased; for the e9change4)alue of a commodit* is not raised b* its use4)alue being consumed more thoroughl* and to greater ad)antage8 =n the other hand, the* are used in common, and therefore on a larger scale than before8 ( room "here t"ent* "ea)ers "or+ at t"ent* looms must be larger than the room of a single "ea)er "ith t"o assistants8 /ut it costs less labour to build one "or+shop for t"ent* persons than to build ten to accommodate t"o "ea)ers each; thus the )alue of the means of production that are concentrated for use in common on a large scale does not increase in direct proportion to the e9pansion and to the increased useful effect of those means8 Bhen consumed in common, the* gi)e up a smaller part of their )alue to each single product; partl* because the total )alue the* part "ith is spread o)er a greater Iuantit* of products, and partl* because their )alue, though absolutel* greater, is, ha)ing regard to their sphere of action in the process, relati)el* less than the )alue of isolated means of production8 ="ing to this, the )alue of a part of the constant capital falls, and in proportion to the magnitude of the fall, the total )alue of the commodit* also falls8 'he effect is the same as if the means of production had cost less8 'he econom* in their application is entirel* o"ing to their being consumed in common b* a large number of "or+men8 $oreo)er, this character of being necessar* conditions of social labour, a character that distinguishes them from the dispersed and relati)el* more costl* means of production of isolated, independent labourers, or small masters, is acIuired e)en "hen the numerous "or+men assembled together do not assist one another, but merel* "or+ side b* side8 ( portion of the instruments of labour acIuires this social character before the labour4process itself does so8 Econom* in the use of the means of production has to be considered under t"o aspects8 First, as cheapening commodities, and thereb* bringing about a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er8 Secondl*, as altering the ratio of the surplus )alue to the total capital ad)anced, i8e8, to the sum of the )alues of the constant and )ariable capital8 'he latter aspect "ill not be considered until "e come to the third boo+, to "hich, "ith the obDect of treating them in their proper conne9ion, "e also relegate man* other points that relate to the present Iuestion8 'he march of our anal*sis compels this splitting up of the subDect4matter, a splitting up that is Iuite in +eeping "ith the spirit of capitalist production8 For since, in this mode of production, the "or+man finds the instruments

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of labour e9isting independentl* of him as another man?s propert*, econom* in their use appears, "ith regard to him, to be a distinct operation, one that does not concern him, and "hich, therefore, has no conne9ion "ith the methods b* "hich his o"n personal producti)eness is increased8 Bhen numerous labourers "or+ together side b* side, "hether in one and the same process, or in different but connected processes, the* are said to co4operate, or to "or+ in co4operation8 : Lust as the offensi)e po"er of a sIuadron of ca)alr*, or the defensi)e po"er of a regiment of infantr* is essentiall* different from the sum of the offensi)e or defensi)e po"ers of the indi)idual ca)alr* or infantr* soldiers ta+en separatel*, so the sum total of the mechanical forces e9erted b* isolated "or+men differs from the social force that is de)eloped, "hen man* hands ta+e part simultaneousl* in one and the same undi)ided operation, such as raising a hea)* "eight, turning a "inch, or remo)ing an obstacle8 >n such cases the effect of the combined labour could either not be produced at all b* isolated indi)idual labour, or it could onl* be produced b* a great e9penditure of time, or on a )er* d"arfed scale8 Cot onl* ha)e "e here an increase in the producti)e po"er of the indi)idual, b* means of co4operation, but the creation of a ne" po"er, namel*, the collecti)e po"er of masses83 (part from the ne" po"er that arises from the fusion of man* forces into one single force, mere social contact begets in most industries an emulation and a stimulation of the animal spirits that heighten the efficienc* of each indi)idual "or+man8 -ence it is that a do1en persons "or+ing together "ill, in their collecti)e "or+ing da* of 1 hours, produce far more than t"el)e isolated men each "or+ing 16 hours, or than one man "ho "or+s t"el)e da*s in succession8 6 'he reason of this is that man is, if not as (ristotle contends, a political, 7 at all e)ents a social animal8 (lthough a number of men ma* be occupied together at the same time on the same, or the same +ind of "or+, *et the labour of each, as a part of the collecti)e labour, ma* correspond to a distinct phase of the labour4process, through all "hose phases, in conseIuence of co4operation, the subDect of their labour passes "ith greater speed8 For instance, if a do1en masons place themsel)es in a ro", so as to pass stones from the foot of a ladder to its summit, each of them does the same thing; ne)ertheless, their separate acts form connected parts of one total operation; the* are particular phases, "hich must be gone through b* each stone; and the stones are thus carried up Iuic+er b* the 6 hands of the ro" of men than the* could be if each man "ent separatel* up and do"n the ladder "ith his burden8 8 'he obDect is carried o)er the same distance in a shorter time8 (gain, a combination of labour occurs "hene)er a building, for instance, is ta+en in hand on different sides simultaneousl*; although here also the co4operating masons are doing the same, or the same +ind of "or+8 'he 16 masons, in their collecti)e "or+ing da* of 1 hours, ma+e much more progress "ith the building than one mason could ma+e "or+ing for 16 da*s, or 1 hours8 'he reason is, that a bod* of men "or+ing in concert has hands and e*es both before and behind, and is, to a certain degree, omnipresent8 'he )arious parts of the "or+ progress simultaneousl*8 >n the abo)e instances "e ha)e laid stress upon the point that the men do the same, or the same +ind of "or+, because this, the most simple form of labour in common, pla*s a great part in co4 operation, e)en in its most full* de)eloped stage8 >f the "or+ be complicated, then the mere number of the men "ho co4operate allo"s of the )arious operations being apportioned to different hands, and, conseIuentl*, of being carried on simultaneousl*8 'he time necessar* for the completion of the "hole "or+ is thereb* shortened8 2 >n man* industries, there are critical periods, determined b* the nature of the process, during "hich certain definite results must be obtained8 For instance, if a floc+ of sheep has to be shorn, or a field of "heat to be cut and har)ested, the Iuantit* and Iualit* of the product depends on the

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"or+ being begun and ended "ithin a certain time8 >n these cases, the time that ought to be ta+en b* the process is prescribed, Dust as it is in herring fishing8 ( single person cannot car)e a "or+ing da* of more than, sa* 16 hours, out of the natural da*, but 177 men co4operating e9tend the "or+ing da* to 1,677 hours8 'he shortness of the time allo"ed for the "or+ is compensated for b* the large mass of labour thro"n upon the field of production at the decisi)e moment8 'he completion of the tas+ "ithin the proper time depends on the simultaneous application of numerous combined "or+ing da*s; the amount of useful effect depends on the number of labourers; this number, ho"e)er, is al"a*s smaller than the number of isolated labourers reIuired to do the same amount of "or+ in the same period8 17 >t is o"ing to the absence of this +ind of co4 operation that, in the "estern part of the %nited States, Iuantities of corn, and in those parts of East >ndia "here English rule has destro*ed the old communities, Iuantities of cotton, are *earl* "asted811 =n the one hand, co4operation allo"s of the "or+ being carried on o)er an e9tended space; it is conseIuentl* imperati)el* called for in certain underta+ings, such as draining, constructing d*+es, irrigation "or+s, and the ma+ing of canals, roads and rail"a*s8 =n the other hand, "hile e9tending the scale of production, it renders possible a relati)e contraction of the arena8 'his contraction of arena simultaneous "ith, and arising from, e9tension of scale, "hereb* a number of useless e9penses are cut do"n, is o"ing to the conglomeration of labourers, to the aggregation of )arious processes, and to the concentration of the means of production8 16 'he combined "or+ing da* produces, relati)el* to an eIual sum of isolated "or+ing da*s, a greater Iuantit* of use4)alues, and, conseIuentl*, diminishes the labour4time necessar* for the production of a gi)en useful effect8 Bhether the combined "or+ing da*, in a gi)en case, acIuires this increased producti)e po"er, because it heightens the mechanical force of labour, or e9tends its sphere of action o)er a greater space, or contracts the field of production relati)el* to the scale of production, or at the critical moment sets large masses of labour to "or+, or e9cites emulation bet"een indi)iduals and raises their animal spirits, or impresses on the similar operations carried on b* a number of men the stamp of continuit* and man*4sidedness, or performs simultaneousl* different operations, or economises the means of production b* use in common, or lends to indi)idual labour the character of a)erage social labour "hiche)er of these be the cause of the increase, the special producti)e po"er of the combined "or+ing da* is, under all circumstances, the social producti)e po"er of labour, or the producti)e po"er of social labour8 'his po"er is due to co4operation itself8 Bhen the labourer co4operates s*stematicall* "ith others, he strips off the fetters of his indi)idualit*, and de)elops the capabilities of his species8 1: (s a general rule, labourers cannot co4operate "ithout being brought together: their assemblage in one place is a necessar* condition of their co4operation8 -ence "age4labourers cannot co4 operate, unless the* are emplo*ed simultaneousl* b* the same capital, the same capitalist, and unless therefore their labour4po"ers are bought simultaneousl* b* him8 'he total )alue of these labour4po"ers, or the amount of the "ages of these labourers for a da*, or a "ee+, as the case ma* be, must be read* in the poc+et of the capitalist, before the "or+men are assembled for the process of production8 'he pa*ment of :77 "or+men at once, though onl* for one da*, reIuires a greater outla* of capital, than does the pa*ment of a smaller number of men, "ee+ b* "ee+, during a "hole *ear8 -ence the number of the labourers that co4operate, or the scale of co4 operation, depends, in the first instance, on the amount of capital that the indi)idual capitalist can spare for the purchase of labour4po"er; in other "ords, on the e9tent to "hich a single capitalist has command o)er the means of subsistence of a number of labourers8 (nd as "ith the )ariable, so it is "ith the constant capital8 For e9ample, the outla* on ra" material is :7 times as great, for the capitalist "ho emplo*s :77 men, as it is for each of the :7

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capitalists "ho emplo* 17 men8 'he )alue and Iuantit* of the instruments of labour used in common do not, it is true, increase at the same rate as the number of "or+men, but the* do increase )er* considerabl*8 -ence, concentration of large masses of the means of production in the hands of indi)idual capitalists, is a material condition for the co4operation of "age4labourers, and the e9tent of the co4operation or the scale of production, depends on the e9tent of this concentration8 Be sa" in a former chapter, that a certain minimum amount of capital "as necessar*, in order that the number of labourers simultaneousl* emplo*ed, and, conseIuentl*, the amount of surplus )alue produced, might suffice to liberate the emplo*er himself from manual labour, to con)ert him from a small master into a capitalist, and thus formall* to establish capitalist production8 Be no" see that a certain minimum amount is a necessar* condition for the con)ersion of numerous isolated and independent processes into one combined social process8 Be also sa" that at first, the subDection of labour to capital "as onl* a formal result of the fact, that the labourer, instead of "or+ing for himself, "or+s for and conseIuentl* under the capitalist8 /* the co4operation of numerous "age4labourers, the s"a* of capital de)elops into a reIuisite for carr*ing on the labour4process itself, into a real reIuisite of production8 'hat a capitalist should command on the field of production, is no" as indispensable as that a general should command on the field of battle8 (ll combined labour on a large scale reIuires, more or less, a directing authorit*, in order to secure the harmonious "or+ing of the indi)idual acti)ities, and to perform the general functions that ha)e their origin in the action of the combined organism, as distinguished from the action of its separate organs8 ( single )iolin pla*er is his o"n conductor; an orchestra reIuires a separate one8 'he "or+ of directing, superintending, and adDusting, becomes one of the functions of capital, from the moment that the labour under the control of capital, becomes co4operati)e8 =nce a function of capital, it acIuires special characteristics8 'he directing moti)e, the end and aim of capitalist production, is to e9tract the greatest possible amount of surplus )alue,1 and conseIuentl* to e9ploit labour4po"er to the greatest possible e9tent8 (s the number of the co4operating labourers increases, so too does their resistance to the domination of capital, and "ith it, the necessit* for capital to o)ercome this resistance b* counterpressure8 'he control e9ercised b* the capitalist is not onl* a special function, due to the nature of the social labour4process, and peculiar to that process, but it is, at the same time, a function of the e9ploitation of a social labour4process, and is conseIuentl* rooted in the una)oidable antagonism bet"een the e9ploiter and the li)ing and labouring ra" material he e9ploits8 (gain, in proportion to the increasing mass of the means of production, no" no longer the propert* of the labourer, but of the capitalist, the necessit* increases for some effecti)e control o)er the proper application of those means8 13 $oreo)er, the co4operation of "age labourers is entirel* brought about b* the capital that emplo*s them8 'heir union into one single producti)e bod* and the establishment of a conne9ion bet"een their indi)idual functions, are matters foreign and e9ternal to them, are not their o"n act, but the act of the capital that brings and +eeps them together8 -ence the conne9ion e9isting bet"een their )arious labours appears to them, ideall*, in the shape of a preconcei)ed plan of the capitalist, and practicall* in the shape of the authorit* of the same capitalist, in the shape of the po"erful "ill of another, "ho subDects their acti)it* to his aims8 >f, then, the control of the capitalist is in substance t"o4fold b* reason of the t"o4fold nature of the process of production itself, "hich, on the one hand, is a social process for producing use4)alues, on the other, a process for creating surplus )alue in form that control is despotic8 (s co4operation e9tends its scale, this despotism ta+es forms peculiar to itself8 Lust as at

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first the capitalist is relie)ed from actual labour so soon as his capital has reached that minimum amount "ith "hich capitalist production, as such, begins, so no", he hands o)er the "or+ of direct and constant super)ision of the indi)idual "or+men, and groups of "or+men, to a special +ind of "age4labourer8 (n industrial arm* of "or+men, under the command of a capitalist, reIuires, li+e a real arm*, officers (managers!, and sergeants (foremen, o)erloo+ers!, "ho, "hile the "or+ is being done, command in the name of the capitalist8 'he "or+ of super)ision becomes their established and e9clusi)e function8 Bhen comparing the mode of production of isolated peasants and artisans "ith production b* sla)e4labour, the political economist counts this labour of superintendence among the faux frais of production816 /ut, "hen considering the capitalist mode of production, he, on the contrar*, treats the "or+ of control made necessar* b* the co4 operati)e character of the labour4process as identical "ith the different "or+ of control, necessitated b* the capitalist character of that process and the antagonism of interests bet"een capitalist and labourer817 >t is not because he is a leader of industr* that a man is a capitalist; on the contrar*, he is a leader of industr* because he is a capitalist8 'he leadership of industr* is an attribute of capital, Dust as in feudal times the functions of general and Dudge, "ere attributes of landed propert*818 'he labourer is the o"ner of his labour4po"er until he has done bargaining for its sale "ith the capitalist; and he can sell no more than "hat he has i8e8, his indi)idual, isolated labour4po"er8 'his state of things is in no "a* altered b* the fact that the capitalist, instead of bu*ing the labour4po"er of one man, bu*s that of 177, and enters into separate contracts "ith 177 unconnected men instead of "ith one8 -e is at libert* to set the 177 men to "or+, "ithout letting them co4operate8 -e pa*s them the )alue of 177 independent labour4po"ers, but he does not pa* for the combined labour4po"er of the hundred8 /eing independent of each other, the labourers are isolated persons, "ho enter into relations "ith the capitalist, but not "ith one another8 'his co4 operation begins onl* "ith the labour4process, but the* ha)e then ceased to belong to themsel)es8 =n entering that process, the* become incorporated "ith capital8 (s co4operators, as members of a "or+ing organism, the* are but special modes of e9istence of capital8 -ence, the producti)e po"er de)eloped b* the labourer "hen "or+ing in co4operation, is the producti)e po"er of capital8 'his po"er is de)eloped gratuitousl*, "hene)er the "or+men are placed under gi)en conditions, and it is capital that places them under such conditions8 /ecause this po"er costs capital nothing, and because, on the other hand, the labourer himself does not de)elop it before his labour belongs to capital, it appears as a po"er "ith "hich capital is endo"ed b* Cature a producti)e po"er that is immanent in capital8 'he colossal effects of simple co4operation are to be seen in the gigantic structures of the ancient (siatics, Eg*ptians, Etruscans, Pc8 @>t has happened in times past that these =riental States, after suppl*ing the e9penses of their ci)il and militar* establishments, ha)e found themsel)es in possession of a surplus "hich the* could appl* to "or+s of magnificence or utilit* and in the construction of these their command o)er the hands and arms of almost the entire non4agricultural population has produced stupendous monuments "hich still indicate their po"er8 'he teeming )alle* of the Cile 888 produced food for a s"arming non4agricultural population, and this food, belonging to the monarch and the priesthood, afforded the means of erecting the might* monuments "hich filled the land8888 >n mo)ing the colossal statues and )ast masses of "hich the transport creates "onder, human labour almost alone, "as prodigall* used8888 'he number of the labourers and the concentration of their efforts sufficed8 Be see might* coral reefs rising from the depths of the ocean into islands and firm land, *et each indi)idual depositor is pun*, "ea+, and contemptible8 'he non4

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agricultural labourers of an (siatic monarch* ha)e little but their indi)idual bodil* e9ertions to bring to the tas+, but their number is their strength, and the po"er of directing these masses ga)e rise to the palaces and temples, the p*ramids, and the armies of gigantic statues of "hich the remains astonish and perple9 us8 >t is that confinement of the re)enues "hich feed them, to one or a fe" hands, "hich ma+es such underta+ings possible8A12 'his po"er of (siatic and Eg*ptian +ings, Etruscan theocrats, Pc8, has in modern societ* been transferred to the capitalist, "hether he be an isolated, or as in Doint4stoc+ companies, a collecti)e capitalist8 5o4operation, such as "e find it at the da"n of human de)elopment, among races "ho li)e b* the chase,67 or, sa*, in the agriculture of >ndian communities, is based, on the one hand, on o"nership in common of the means of production, and on the other hand, on the fact, that in those cases, each indi)idual has no more torn himself off from the na)el4string of his tribe or communit*, than each bee has freed itself from conne9ion "ith the hi)e8 Such co4operation is distinguished from capitalistic co4operation b* both of the abo)e characteristics8 'he sporadic application of co4 operation on a large scale in ancient times, in the middle ages, and in modern colonies, reposes on relations of dominion and ser)itude, principall* on sla)er*8 'he capitalistic form, on the contrar*, pre4supposes from first to last, the free "age4labourer, "ho sells his labour4po"er to capital8 -istoricall*, ho"e)er, this form is de)eloped in opposition to peasant agriculture and to the carr*ing on of independent handicrafts "hether in guilds or not8 61 From the standpoint of these, capitalistic co4operation does not manifest itself as a particular historical form of co4operation, but co4operation itself appears to be a historical form peculiar to, and specificall* distinguishing, the capitalist process of production8 Lust as the social producti)e po"er of labour that is de)eloped b* co4operation, appears to be the producti)e po"er of capital, so co4operation itself, contrasted "ith the process of production carried on b* isolated independent labourers, or e)en b* small emplo*ers, appears to be a specific form of the capitalist process of production8 >t is the first change e9perienced b* the actual labour4process, "hen subDected to capital8 'his change ta+es place spontaneousl*8 'he simultaneous emplo*ment of a large number of "age4labourers, in one and the same process, "hich is a necessar* condition of this change, also forms the starting4point of capitalist production8 'his point coincides "ith the birth of capital itself8 >f then, on the one hand, the capitalist mode of production presents itself to us historicall*, as a necessar* condition to the transformation of the labour4process into a social process, so, on the other hand, this social form of the labour4process presents itself, as a method emplo*ed b* capital for the more profitable e9ploitation of labour, b* increasing that labour?s producti)eness8 >n the elementar* form, under "hich "e ha)e hitherto )ie"ed it, co4operation is a necessar* concomitant of all production on a large scale, but it does not, in itself, represent a fi9ed form characteristic of a particular epoch in the de)elopment of the capitalist mode of production8 (t the most it appears to do so, and that onl* appro9imatel*, in the handicraft4li+e beginnings of manufacture,66 and in that +ind of agriculture on a large scale, "hich corresponds to the epoch of manufacture, and is distinguished from peasant agriculture, mainl* b* the number of the labourers simultaneousl* emplo*ed, and b* the mass of the means of production concentrated for their use8 Simple co4operation is al"a*s the pre)ailing form, in those branches of production in "hich capital operates on a large scale, and di)ision of labour and machiner* pla* but a subordinate part8

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5o4operation e)er constitutes the fundamental form of the capitalist mode of production, ne)ertheless the elementar* form of co4operation continues to subsist as a particular form of capitalist production side b* side "ith the more de)eloped forms of that mode of production8

(ha)ter 1-* 7i4ision of /a0o%r and Man%fact%re

Section 1: Two"Fold Ori%in of $anufacture
'hat co4operation "hich is based on di)ision of labour, assumes its t*pical form in manufacture, and is the pre)alent characteristic form of the capitalist process of production throughout the manufacturing period properl* so called8 'hat period, roughl* spea+ing, e9tends from the middle of the 16th to the last third of the 18th centur*8 $anufacture ta+es its rise in t"o "a*s: (18! /* the assemblage, in one "or+shop under the control of a single capitalist, of labourers belonging to )arious independent handicrafts, but through "hose hands a gi)en article must pass on its "a* to completion8 ( carriage, for e9ample, "as formerl* the product of the labour of a great number of independent artificers, such as "heel"rights, harness4ma+ers, tailors, loc+smiths, upholsterers, turners, fringe4ma+ers, gla1iers, painters, polishers, gilders, Pc8 >n the manufacture of carriages, ho"e)er, all these different artificers are assembled in one building "here the* "or+ into one another?s hands8 >t is true that a carriage cannot be gilt before it has been made8 /ut if a number of carriages are being made simultaneousl*, some ma* be in the hands of the gilders "hile others are going through an earlier process8 So far, "e are still in the domain of simple co4 operation, "hich finds its materials read* to hand in the shape of men and things8 /ut )er* soon an important change ta+es place8 'he tailor, the loc+smith, and the other artificers, being no" e9clusi)el* occupied in carriage4ma+ing, each graduall* loses, through "ant of practice, the abilit* to carr* on, to its full e9tent, his old handicraft8 /ut, on the other hand, his acti)it* no" confined in one groo)e, assumes the form best adapted to the narro"ed sphere of action8 (t first, carriage manufacture is a combination of )arious independent handicrafts8 /* degrees, it becomes the splitting up of carriage4ma+ing into its )arious detail processes, each of "hich cr*stallises into the e9clusi)e function of a particular "or+man, the manufacture, as a "hole, being carried on b* the men in conDunction8 >n the same "a*, cloth manufacture, as also a "hole series of other manufactures, arose b* combining different handicrafts together under the control of a single capitalist81 (68! $anufacture also arises in a "a* e9actl* the re)erse of this namel*, b* one capitalist emplo*ing simultaneousl* in one "or+shop a number of artificers, "ho all do the same, or the same +ind of "or+, such as ma+ing paper, t*pe, or needles8 'his is co4operation in its most elementar* form8 Each of these artificers ("ith the help, perhaps, of one or t"o apprentices!, ma+es the entire commodit*, and he conseIuentl* performs in succession all the operations necessar* for its production8 -e still "or+s in his old handicraft4li+e "a*8 /ut )er* soon e9ternal circumstances cause a different use to be made of the concentration of the "or+men on one spot, and of the simultaneousness of their "or+8 (n increased Iuantit* of the article has perhaps to be deli)ered "ithin a gi)en time8 'he "or+ is therefore re4distributed8 >nstead of each man being allo"ed to perform all the )arious operations in succession, these operations are changed into disconnected, isolated ones, carried on side b* side; each is assigned to a different artificer, and the "hole of them together are performed simultaneousl* b* the co4operating "or+men8 'his accidental repartition gets repeated, de)elops ad)antages of its o"n, and graduall* ossifies into a s*stematic di)ision of labour8 'he commodit*, from being the indi)idual product of an

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independent artificer, becomes the social product of a union of artificers, each of "hom performs one, and onl* one, of the constituent partial operations8 'he same operations "hich, in the case of a paperma+er belonging to a German Guild, merged one into the other as the successi)e acts of one artificer, became in the 0utch paper manufacture so man* partial operations carried on side b* side b* numerous co4operating labourers8 'he needlema+er of the Curemberg Guild "as the cornerstone on "hich the English needle manufacture "as raised8 /ut "hile in Curemberg that single artificer performed a series of perhaps 67 operations one after another, in England it "as not long before there "ere 67 needlema+ers side b* side, each performing one alone of those 67 operations, and in conseIuence of further e9perience, each of those 67 operations "as again split up, isolated, and made the e9clusi)e function of a separate "or+man8 'he mode in "hich manufacture arises, its gro"th out of handicrafts, is therefore t"o4fold8 =n the one hand, it arises from the union of )arious independent handicrafts, "hich become stripped of their independence and specialised to such an e9tent as to be reduced to mere supplementar* partial processes in the production of one particular commodit*8 =n the other hand, it arises from the co4operation of artificers of one handicraft; it splits up that particular handicraft into its )arious detail operations, isolating, and ma+ing these operations independent of one another up to the point "here each becomes the e9clusi)e function of a particular labourer8 =n the one hand, therefore, manufacture either introduces di)ersion of labour into a process of production, or further de)elops that di)ision; on the other hand, it unites together handicrafts that "ere formerl* separate8 /ut "hate)er ma* ha)e been its particular starting4point, its final form is in)ariabl* the same a producti)e mechanism "hose parts are human beings8 For a proper understanding of the di)ision of labour in manufacture, it is essential that the follo"ing points be firml* grasped8 First, the decomposition of a process of production into its )arious successi)e steps coincides, here, strictl* "ith the resolution of a handicraft into its successi)e manual operations8 Bhether comple9 or simple, each operation has to be done b* hand, retains the character of a handicraft, and is therefore dependent on the strength, s+ill, Iuic+ness, and sureness, of the indi)idual "or+man in handling his tools8 'he handicraft continues to be the basis8 'his narro" technical basis e9cludes a reall* scientific anal*sis of an* definite process of industrial production, since it is still a condition that each detail process gone through b* the product must be capable of being done b* hand and of forming, in its "a*, a separate handicraft8 >t is Dust because handicraft s+ill continues, in this "a*, to be the foundation of the process of production, that each "or+man becomes e9clusi)el* assigned to a partial function, and that for the rest of his life, his labour4po"er is turned into the organ of this detail function8 Secondl*, this di)ision of labour is a particular sort of co4operation, and man* of its disad)antages spring from the general character of co4operation, and not from this particular form of it8

Section ': The -etail (abourer and his Implements

>f "e no" go more into detail, it is, in the first place, clear that a labourer "ho all his life performs one and the same simple operation, con)erts his "hole bod* into the automatic, specialised implement of that operation8 5onseIuentl*, he ta+es less time in doing it, than the artificer "ho performs a "hole series of operations in succession8 /ut the collecti)e labourer, "ho constitutes the li)ing mechanism of manufacture, is made up solel* of such specialised detail labourers8 -ence, in comparison "ith the independent handicraft, more is produced in a gi)en time, or the producti)e po"er of labour is increased8 6 $oreo)er, "hen once this fractional "or+ is

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established as the e9clusi)e function of one person, the methods it emplo*s become perfected8 'he "or+man?s continued repetition of the same simple act, and the concentration of his attention on it, teach him b* e9perience ho" to attain the desired effect "ith the minimum of e9ertion8 /ut since there are al"a*s se)eral generations of labourers li)ing at one time, and "or+ing together at the manufacture of a gi)en article, the technical s+ill, the tric+s of the trade thus acIuired, become established, and are accumulated and handed do"n8 : $anufacture, in fact, produces the s+ill of the detail labourer, b* reproducing, and s*stematicall* dri)ing to an e9treme "ithin the "or+shop, the naturall* de)eloped differentiation of trades "hich it found read* to hand in societ* at large8 =n the other hand, the con)ersion of fractional "or+ into the life4calling of one man, corresponds to the tendenc* sho"n b* earlier societies, to ma+e trades hereditar*; either to petrif* them into castes, or "hene)er definite historical conditions beget in the indi)idual a tendenc* to )ar* in a manner incompatible "ith the nature of castes, to ossif* them into guilds8 5astes and guilds arise from the action of the same natural la", that regulates the differentiation of plants and animals into species and )arieties, e9cept that, "hen a certain degree of de)elopment has been reached, the heredit* of castes and the e9clusi)eness of guilds are ordained as a la" of societ*8 @'he muslins of 0a++a in fineness, the calicoes and other piece goods of 5oromandel in brilliant and durable colours, ha)e ne)er been surpassed8 Net the* are produced "ithout capital, machiner*, di)ision of labour, or an* of those means "hich gi)e such facilities to the manufacturing interest of Europe8 'he "ea)er is merel* a detached indi)idual, "or+ing a "eb "hen ordered of a customer, and "ith a loom of the rudest construction, consisting sometimes of a fe" branches or bars of "ood, put roughl* together8 'here is e)en no e9pedient for rolling up the "arp; the loom must therefore be +ept stretched to its full length, and becomes so incon)enientl* large, that it cannot be contained "ithin the hut of the manufacturer, "ho is therefore compelled to pl* his trade in the open air, "here it is interrupted b* e)er* )icissitude of the "eather8A 3 >t is onl* the special s+ill accumulated from generation to generation, and transmitted from father to son, that gi)es to the -indu, as it does to the spider, this proficienc*8 (nd *et the "or+ of such a -indu "ea)er is )er* complicated, compared "ith that of a manufacturing labourer8 (n artificer, "ho performs one after another the )arious fractional operations in the production of a finished article, must at one time change his place, at another his tools8 'he transition from one operation to another interrupts the flo" of his labour, and creates, so to sa*, gaps in his "or+ing da*8 'hese gaps close up so soon as he is tied to one and the same operation all da* long; the* )anish in proportion as the changes in his "or+ diminish8 'he resulting increased producti)e po"er is o"ing either to an increased e9penditure of labour4po"er in a gi)en time i8e8, to increased intensit* of labour or to a decrease in the amount of labour4po"er unproducti)el* consumed8 'he e9tra e9penditure of po"er, demanded b* e)er* transition from rest to motion, is made up for b* prolonging the duration of the normal )elocit* "hen once acIuired8 =n the other hand, constant labour of one uniform +ind disturbs the intensit* and flo" of a man?s animal spirits, "hich find recreation and delight in mere change of acti)it*8 'he producti)eness of labour depends not onl* on the proficienc* of the "or+man, but on the perfection of his tools8 'ools of the same +ind, such as +ni)es, drills, gimlets8 hammers, Pc8, ma* be emplo*ed in different processes; and the same tool ma* ser)e )arious purposes in a single process8 /ut so soon as the different operations of a labour4process are disconnected the one from the other, and each fractional operation acIuires in the hands of the detail labourer a suitable and peculiar form, alterations become necessar* in the implements that pre)iousl* ser)ed more than

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one purpose8 'he direction ta+en b* this change is determined b* the difficulties e9perienced in conseIuence of the unchanged form of the implement8 $anufacture is characterised b* the differentiation of the instruments of labour a differentiation "hereb* implements of a gi)en sort acIuire fi9ed shapes, adapted to each particular application, and b* the specialisation of those instruments, gi)ing to each special implement its full pla* onl* in the hands of a specific detail labourer8 >n /irmingham alone 377 )arieties of hammers are produced, and not onl* is each adapted to one particular process, but se)eral )arieties often ser)e e9clusi)el* for the different operations in one and the same process8 'he manufacturing period simplifies, impro)es, and multiplies the implements of labour, b* adapting them to the e9clusi)el* special functions of each detail labourer86 >t thus creates at the same time one of the material conditions for the e9istence of machiner*, "hich consists of a combination of simple instruments8 'he detail labourer and his implements are the simplest elements of manufacture8 <et us no" turn to its aspect as a "hole8

Section *: The Two Fundamental Forms of $anufacture: 1etero%eneous $anufacture5 Serial $anufacture
'he organisation of manufacture has t"o fundamental forms "hich, in spite of occasional blending, are essentiall* different in +ind, and, moreo)er, pla* )er* distinct parts in the subseIuent transformation of manufacture into modern industr* carried on b* machiner*8 'his double character arises from the nature of the article produced8 'his article either results from the mere mechanical fitting together of partial products made independentl*, or o"es its completed shape to a series of connected processes and manipulations8 ( locomoti)e, for instance, consists of more than 3,777 independent parts8 >t cannot, ho"e)er, ser)e as an e9ample of the first +ind of genuine manufacture, for it is a structure produced b* modern mechanical industr*8 /ut a "atch can; and Billiam #ett* used it to illustrate the di)ision of labour in manufacture8 Formerl* the indi)idual "or+ of a Curemberg artificer, the "atch has been transformed into the social product of an immense number of detail labourers, such as mainspring ma+ers, dial ma+ers, spiral spring ma+ers, De"elled hole ma+ers, rub* le)er ma+ers, hand ma+ers, case ma+ers, scre" ma+ers, gilders, "ith numerous subdi)isions, such as "heel ma+ers (brass and steel separate!, pin ma+ers, mo)ement ma+ers, ache)eur de pignon (fi9es the "heels on the a9les, polishes the facets, Pc8!, pi)ot ma+ers, planteur de finissage (puts the "heels and springs in the "or+s!, finisseur de barillet (cuts teeth in the "heels, ma+es the holes of the right si1e, Pc8!, escapement ma+ers, c*linder ma+ers for c*linder escapements, escapement "heel ma+ers, balance "heel ma+ers, raIuette ma+ers (apparatus for regulating the "atch!, the planteur d?Rchappement (escapement ma+er proper!; then the repasseur de barillet (finishes the bo9 for the spring, Pc8!, steel polishers, "heel polishers, scre" polishers, figure painters, dial enamellers (melt the enamel on the copper!, fabricant de pendants (ma+es the ring b* "hich the case is hung!, finisseur de charninre (puts the brass hinge in the co)er, Pc8!, faiseur de secret (puts in the springs that open the case!, gra)eur, ciseleur, polisseur de borte, Pc8, Pc8, and last of all the repasseur, "ho fits together the "hole "atch and hands it o)er in a going state8 =nl* a fe" parts of the "atch pass through se)eral hands; and all these membra disDecta come together for the first time in the hand that binds them into one mechanical "hole8 'his e9ternal relation bet"een the finished product, and its )arious and di)erse elements ma+es it, as "ell in this case as in the case of all similar finished articles, a matter of chance "hether the detail labourers are brought together in one "or+shop or not8 'he detail operations ma* further be carried on li+e so man*

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independent handicrafts, as the* are in the 5antons of ;aud and CeufchMtel; "hile in Gene)a there e9ist large "atch manufactories "here the detail labourers directl* co4operate under the control of a single capitalist8 (nd e)en in the latter case the dial, the springs, and the case, are seldom made in the factor* itself8 'o carr* on the trade as a manufacture, "ith concentration of "or+men, is, in the "atch trade, profitable onl* under e9ceptional conditions, because competition is greater bet"een the labourers "ho desire to "or+ at home, and because the splitting up of the "or+ into a number of heterogeneous processes, permits but little use of the instruments of labour in common, and the capitalist, b* scattering the "or+, sa)es the outla* on "or+shops, Pc87 Ce)ertheless the position of this detail labourer "ho, though he "or+s at home, does so for a capitalist (manufacturer, Rtablisseur!, is )er* different from that of the independent artificer, "ho "or+s for his o"n customers88 'he second +ind of manufacture, its perfected form, produces articles that go through connected phases of de)elopment, through a series of processes step b* step, li+e the "ire in the manufacture of needles, "hich passes through the hands of 76 and sometimes e)en 26 different detail "or+men8 >n so far as such a manufacture, "hen first started, combines scattered handicrafts, it lessens the space b* "hich the )arious phases of production are separated from each other8 'he time ta+en in passing from one stage to another is shortened, so is the labour that effectuates this passage8 2 >n comparison "ith a handicraft, producti)e po"er is gained, and this gain is o"ing to the general co4operati)e character of manufacture8 =n the other hand, di)ision of labour, "hich is the distinguishing principle of manufacture, reIuires the isolation of the )arious stages of production and their independence of each other8 'he establishment and maintenance of a conne9ion bet"een the isolated functions necessitates the incessant transport of the article from one hand to another, and from one process to another8 From the standpoint of modern mechanical industr*, this necessit* stands forth as a characteristic and costl* disad)antage, and one that is immanent in the principle of manufacture817 >f "e confine our attention to some particular lot of ra" materials, of rags, for instance, in paper manufacture, or of "ire in needle manufacture, "e percei)e that it passes in succession through a series of stages in the hands of the )arious detail "or+men until completion8 =n the other hand, if "e loo+ at the "or+shop as a "hole, "e see the ra" material in all the stages of its production at the same time8 'he collecti)e labourer, "ith one set of his man* hands armed "ith one +ind of tools, dra"s the "ire, "ith another set, armed "ith different tools, he, at the same time, straightens it, "ith another, he cuts it, "ith another, points it, and so on8 'he different detail processes, "hich "ere successi)e in time, ha)e become simultaneous, go on side b* side in space8 -ence, production of a greater Iuantum of finished commodities in a gi)en time8 11 'his simultaneit*, it is true, is due to the general co4operati)e form of the process as a "hole; but $anufacture not onl* finds the conditions for co4operation read* to hand, it also, to some e9tent, creates them b* the sub4di)ision of handicraft labour8 =n the other hand, it accomplishes this social organisation of the labour4process onl* b* ri)eting each labourer to a single fractional detail8 Since the fractional product of each detail labourer is, at the same time, onl* a particular stage in the de)elopment of one and the same finished article, each labourer, or each group of labourers, prepares the ra" material for another labourer or group8 'he result of the labour of the one is the starting4point for the labour of the other8 'he one "or+man therefore gi)es occupation directl* to the other8 'he labour4time necessar* in each partial process, for attaining the desired effect, is learnt b* e9perience; and the mechanism of $anufacture, as a "hole, is based on the assumption that a gi)en result "ill be obtained in a gi)en time8 >t is onl* on this assumption that the )arious

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supplementar* labour4processes can proceed uninterruptedl*, simultaneousl*, and side b* side8 >t is clear that this direct dependence of the operations, and therefore of the labourers, on each other, compels each one of them to spend on his "or+ no more than the necessar* time, and thus a continuit*, uniformit*, regularit*, order,16 and e)en intensit* of labour, of Iuite a different +ind, is begotten than is to be found in an independent handicraft or e)en in simple co4operation8 'he rule, that the labour4time e9pended on a commodit* should not e9ceed that "hich is sociall* necessar* for its production, appears, in the production of commodities generall*, to be established b* the mere effect of competition; since, to e9press oursel)es superficiall*, each single producer is obliged to sell his commodit* at its mar+et4price8 >n $anufacture, on the contrar*, the turning out of a gi)en Iuantum of product in a gi)en time is a technical la" of the process of production itself81: 0ifferent operations ta+e, ho"e)er, uneIual periods, and *ield therefore, in eIual times uneIual Iuantities of fractional products8 >f, therefore, the same labourer has, da* after da*, to perform the same operation, there must be a different number of labourers for each operation; for instance, in t*pe manufacture, there are four founders and t"o brea+ers to one rubber: the founder casts 6,777 t*pe an hour, the brea+er brea+s up ,777, and the rubber polishes 8,7778 -ere "e ha)e again the principle of co4operation in its simplest form, the simultaneous emplo*ment of man* doing the same thing; onl* no", this principle is the e9pression of an organic relation8 'he di)ision of labour, as carried out in $anufacture, not onl* simplifies and multiplies the Iualitati)el* different parts of the social collecti)e labourer, but also creates a fi9ed mathematical relation or ratio "hich regulates the Iuantitati)e e9tent of those parts i8e8, the relati)e number of labourers, or the relati)e si1e of the group of labourers, for each detail operation8 >t de)elops, along "ith the Iualitati)e sub4di)ision of the social labour4process, a Iuantitati)e rule and proportionalit* for that process8 Bhen once the most fitting proportion has been e9perimentall* established for the numbers of the detail labourers in the )arious groups "hen producing on a gi)en scale, that scale can be e9tended onl* b* emplo*ing a multiple of each particular group8 1 'here is this to boot, that the same indi)idual can do certain +inds of "or+ Dust as "ell on a large as on a small scale; for instance, the labour of superintendence, the carriage of the fractional product from one stage to the ne9t, Pc8 'he isolation of such functions, their allotment to a particular labourer, does not become ad)antageous till after an increase in the number of labourers emplo*ed; but this increase must affect e)er* group proportionall*8 'he isolated group of labourers to "hom an* particular detail function is assigned, is made up of homogeneous elements, and is one of the constituent parts of the total mechanism8 >n man* manufactures, ho"e)er, the group itself is an organised bod* of labour, the total mechanism being a repetition or multiplication of these elementar* organisms8 'a+e, for instance, the manufacture of glass bottles8 >t ma* be resol)ed into three essentiall* different stages8 First, the preliminar* stage, consisting of the preparation of the components of the glass, mi9ing the sand and lime, Pc8, and melting them into a fluid mass of glass8 13 ;arious detail labourers are emplo*ed in this first stage, as also in the final one of remo)ing the bottles from the dr*ing furnace, sorting and pac+ing them, Pc8 >n the middle, bet"een these t"o stages, comes the glass melting proper, the manipulation of the fluid mass8 (t each mouth of the furnace, there "or+s a group, called @the hole,A consisting of one bottlema+er or finisher, one blo"er, one gatherer, one putter4up or "hetter4off, and one ta+er4in8 'hese fi)e detail "or+ers are so man* special organs of a single "or+ing organism that acts onl* as a "hole, and therefore can operate onl* b* the direct co4operation of the "hole fi)e8 'he "hole bod* is paral*sed if but one of its members be "anting8 /ut a glass furnace has se)eral openings (in England from to 6!, each of "hich contains an earthen"are melting4pot full of molten glass, and emplo*s a similar fi)e4membered

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group of "or+ers8 'he organisation of each group is based on di)ision of labour, but the bond bet"een the different groups is simple co4operation, "hich, b* using in common one of the means of production, the furnace, causes it to be more economicall* consumed8 Such a furnace, "ith its 46 groups, constitutes a glass house; and a glass manufactor* comprises a number of such glass houses, together "ith the apparatus and "or+men reIuisite for the preparator* and final stages8 Finall*, Dust as $anufacture arises in part from the combination of )arious handicrafts, so, too, it de)elops into a combination of )arious manufactures8 'he larger English glass manufacturers, for instance, ma+e their o"n earthen"are melting4pots, because, on the Iualit* of these depends, to a great e9tent, the success or failure of the process8 'he manufacture of one of the means of production is here united "ith that of the product8 =n the other hand, the manufacture of the product ma* be united "ith other manufactures, of "hich that product is the ra" material, or "ith the products of "hich it is itself subseIuentl* mi9ed8 'hus, "e find the manufacture of flint glass combined "ith that of glass cutting and brass founding; the latter for the metal settings of )arious articles of glass8 'he )arious manufactures so combined form more or less separate departments of a larger manufacture, but are at the same time independent processes, each "ith its o"n di)ision of labour8 >n spite of the man* ad)antages offered b* this combination of manufactures, it ne)er gro"s into a complete technical s*stem on its o"n foundation8 'hat happens onl* on its transformation into an industr* carried on b* machiner*8 Earl* in the manufacturing period, the principle of lessening the necessar* labour4time in the production of commodities16, "as accepted and formulated: and the use of machines, especiall* for certain simple first processes that ha)e to be conducted on a )er* large scale, and "ith the application of great force, sprang up here and there8 'hus, at an earl* period in paper manufacture, the tearing up of the rags "as done b* paper4mills; and in metal "or+s, the pounding of the ores "as effected b* stamping mills8 17 'he &oman Empire had handed do"n the elementar* form of all machiner* in the "ater4"heel8 18 'he handicraft period beIueathed to us the great in)entions of the compass, of gunpo"der, of t*pe4printing, and of the automatic cloc+8 /ut, on the "hole, machiner* pla*ed that subordinate part "hich (dam Smith assigns to it in comparison "ith di)ision of labour8 12 'he sporadic use of machiner* in the 17th centur* "as of the greatest importance, because it supplied the great mathematicians of that time "ith a practical basis and stimulant to the creation of the science of mechanics8 'he collecti)e labourer, formed b* the combination of a number of detail labourers, is the machiner* speciall* characteristic of the manufacturing period8 'he )arious operations that are performed in turns b* the producer of a commodit*, and coalesce one "ith another during the progress of production, la* claim to him in )arious "a*s8 >n one operation he must e9ert more strength, in another more s+ill, in another more attention; and the same indi)idual does not possess all these Iualities in an eIual degree8 (fter $anufacture has once separated, made independent, and isolated the )arious operations, the labourers are di)ided, classified, and grouped according to their predominating Iualities8 >f their natural endo"ments are, on the one hand, the foundation on "hich the di)ision of labour is built up, on the other hand, $anufacture, once introduced, de)elops in them ne" po"ers that are b* nature fitted onl* for limited and special functions8 'he collecti)e labourer no" possesses, in an eIual degree of e9cellence, all the Iualities reIuisite for production, and e9pends them in the most economical manner, b* e9clusi)el* emplo*ing all his organs, consisting of particular labourers, or groups of labourers, in performing their special functions867 'he one4sidedness and the deficiencies of the detail labourer become perfections "hen he is a part of the collecti)e labourer8 61 'he habit of doing onl* one

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thing con)erts him into a ne)er failing instrument, "hile his conne9ion "ith the "hole mechanism compels him to "or+ "ith the regularit* of the parts of a machine8 66 Since the collecti)e labourer has functions, both simple and comple9, both high and lo", his members, the indi)idual labour4po"ers, reIuire different degrees of training, and must therefore ha)e different )alues8 $anufacture, therefore, de)elops a hierarch* of labour4po"ers, to "hich there corresponds a scale of "ages8 >f, on the one hand, the indi)idual labourers are appropriated and anne9ed for life b* a limited function; on the other hand, the )arious operations of the hierarch* are parcelled out among the labourers according to both their natural and their acIuired capabilities86: E)er* process of production, ho"e)er, reIuires certain simple manipulations, "hich e)er* man is capable of doing8 'he* too are no" se)ered from their conne9ion "ith the more pregnant moments of acti)it*, and ossified into e9clusi)e functions of speciall* appointed labourers8 -ence, $anufacture begets, in e)er* handicraft that it sei1es upon, a class of so4called uns+illed labourers, a class "hich handicraft industr* strictl* e9cluded8 >f it de)elops a one4sided specialit* into a perfection, at the e9pense of the "hole of a man?s "or+ing capacit*, it also begins to ma+e a specialit* of the absence of all de)elopment8 (longside of the hierarchic gradation there steps the simple separation of the labourers into s+illed and uns+illed8 For the latter, the cost of apprenticeship )anishes; for the former, it diminishes, compared "ith that of artificers, in conseIuence of the functions being simplified8 >n both cases the )alue of labour4 po"er falls86 (n e9ception to this la" holds good "hene)er the decomposition of the labour4 process begets ne" and comprehensi)e functions, that either had no place at all, or onl* a )er* modest one, in handicrafts8 'he fall in the )alue of labour4po"er, caused b* the disappearance or diminution of the e9penses of apprenticeship, implies a direct increase of surplus )alue for the benefit of capital; for e)er*thing that shortens the necessar* labour4time reIuired for the reproduction of labour4po"er, e9tends the domain of surplus labour8

Section ,: -i=ision of (abour in $anufacture5 and -i=ision of (abour in Societ

Be first considered the origin of $anufacture, then its simple elements, then the detail labourer and his implements, and finall*, the totalit* of the mechanism8 Be shall no" lightl* touch upon the relation bet"een the di)ision of labour in manufacture, and the social di)ision of labour, "hich forms the foundation of all production of commodities8 >f "e +eep labour alone in )ie", "e ma* designate the separation of social production into its main di)isions or enera F )i18, agriculture, industries, Pc8, as di)ision of labour in general, and the splitting up of these families into species and sub4species, as di)ision of labour in particular, and the di)ision of labour "ithin the "or+shop as di)ision of labour in singular or in detail8 63 0i)ision of labour in a societ*, and the corresponding t*ing do"n of indi)iduals to a particular calling, de)elops itself, Dust as does the di)ision of labour in manufacture, from opposite starting4 points8 Bithin a famil*,66 and after further de)elopment "ithin a tribe, there springs up naturall* a di)ision of labour, caused b* differences of se9 and age, a di)ision that is conseIuentl* based on a purel* ph*siological foundation, "hich di)ision enlarges its materials b* the e9pansion of the communit*, b* the increase of population, and more especiall*, b* the conflicts bet"een different tribes, and the subDugation of one tribe b* another8 =n the other hand, as > ha)e before remar+ed, the e9change of products springs up at the points "here different families, tribes, communities, come in contact; for, in the beginning of ci)ilisation, it is not pri)ate indi)iduals but families, tribes, Pc8, that meet on an independent footing8 0ifferent communities find different means of production, and different means of subsistence in their natural en)ironment8 -ence, their modes of production, and of li)ing, and their products are different8 >t is this spontaneousl* de)eloped

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difference "hich, "hen different communities come in contact, calls forth the mutual e9change of products, and the conseIuent gradual con)ersion of those products into commodities8 E9change does not create the differences bet"een the spheres of production, but brings "hat are alread* different into relation, and thus con)erts them into more or less inter4dependent branches of the collecti)e production of an enlarged societ*8 >n the latter case, the social di)ision of labour arises from the e9change bet"een spheres of production, that are originall* distinct and independent of one another8 >n the former, "here the ph*siological di)ision of labour is the starting4point, the particular organs of a compact "hole gro" loose, and brea+ off, principall* o"ing to the e9change of commodities "ith foreign communities, and then isolate themsel)es so far, that the sole bond, still connecting the )arious +inds of "or+, is the e9change of the products as commodities8 >n the one case, it is the ma+ing dependent "hat "as before independent; in the other case, the ma+ing independent "hat "as before dependent8 'he foundation of e)er* di)ision of labour that is "ell de)eloped, and brought about b* the e9change of commodities, is the separation bet"een to"n and countr*8 67 >t ma* be said, that the "hole economic histor* of societ* is summed up in the mo)ement of this antithesis8 Be pass it o)er, ho"e)er, for the present8 Lust as a certain number of simultaneousl* emplo*ed labourers are the material pre4reIuisites for di)ision of labour in manufacture, so are the number and densit* of the population, "hich here correspond to the agglomeration in one "or+shop, a necessar* condition for the di)ision of labour in societ*868 Ce)ertheless, this densit* is more or less relati)e8 ( relati)el* thinl* populated countr*, "ith "ell4de)eloped means of communication, has a denser population than a more numerousl* populated countr*, "ith badl*4de)eloped means of communication; and in this sense the Corthern States of the (merican %nion, for instance, are more thic+l* populated than >ndia8 62 Since the production and the circulation of commodities are the general pre4reIuisites of the capitalist mode of production, di)ision of labour in manufacture demands, that di)ision of labour in societ* at large should pre)iousl* ha)e attained a certain degree of de)elopment8 >n)ersel*, the former di)ision reacts upon and de)elops and multiplies the latter8 Simultaneousl*, "ith the differentiation of the instruments of labour, the industries that produce these instruments, become more and more differentiated8:7 >f the manufacturing s*stem sei1e upon an industr*, "hich, pre)iousl*, "as carried on in conne9ion "ith others, either as a chief or as a subordinate industr*, and b* one producer, these industries immediatel* separate their conne9ion, and become independent8 >f it sei1e upon a particular stage in the production of a commodit*, the other stages of its production become con)erted into so man* independent industries8 >t has alread* been stated, that "here the finished article consists merel* of a number of parts fitted together, the detail operations ma* re4establish themsel)es as genuine and separate handicrafts8 >n order to carr* out more perfectl* the di)ision of labour in manufacture, a single branch of production is, according to the )arieties of its ra" material, or the )arious forms that one and the same ra" material ma* assume, split up into numerous, and to some e9tent, entirel* ne" manufactures8 (ccordingl*, in France alone, in the first half of the 18th centur*, o)er 177 different +inds of sil+ stuffs "ere "o)en, and, in ()ignon, it "as la", that @e)er* apprentice should de)ote himself to onl* one sort of fabrication, and should not learn the preparation of se)eral +inds of stuff at once8A 'he territorial di)ision of labour, "hich confines special branches of production to special districts of a countr*, acIuires fresh stimulus from the manufacturing s*stem, "hich e9ploits e)er* special ad)antage8:1 'he 5olonial s*stem and the opening out of the mar+ets of the "orld, both of "hich are included in the general conditions of e9istence of the manufacturing period, furnish rich material for de)eloping the di)ision of labour in societ*8 >t is not the place, here, to go on to sho" ho" di)ision of labour sei1es upon, not onl* the economic, but e)er* other sphere of societ*, and e)er*"here la*s the foundation of that all engrossing s*stem of specialising and

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sorting men, that de)elopment in a man of one single facult* at the e9pense of all other faculties, "hich caused (8 Ferguson, the master of (dam Smith, to e9claim: @Be ma+e a nation of -elots, and ha)e no free citi1ens8A:6 /ut, in spite of the numerous analogies and lin+s connecting them, di)ision of labour in the interior of a societ*, and that in the interior of a "or+shop, differ not onl* in degree, but also in +ind8 'he analog* appears most indisputable "here there is an in)isible bond uniting the )arious branches of trade8 For instance the cattle4breeder produces hides, the tanner ma+es the hides into leather, and the shoema+er, the leather into boots8 -ere the thing produced b* each of them is but a step to"ards the final form, "hich is the product of all their labours combined8 'here are, besides, all the )arious industries that suppl* the cattle4breeder, the tanner, and the shoema+er "ith the means of production8 Co" it is Iuite possible to imagine, "ith (dam Smith, that the difference bet"een the abo)e social di)ision of labour, and the di)ision in manufacture, is merel* subDecti)e, e9ists merel* for the obser)er, "ho, in a manufacture, can see "ith one glance, all the numerous operations being performed on one spot, "hile in the instance gi)en abo)e, the spreading out of the "or+ o)er great areas, and the great number of people emplo*ed in each branch of labour, obscure the conne9ion8:: /ut "hat is it that forms the bond bet"een the independent labours of the cattle4breeder, the tanner, and the shoema+erE >t is the fact that their respecti)e products are commodities8 Bhat, on the other hand, characterises di)ision of labour in manufacturesE 'he fact that the detail labourer produces no commodities8 : >t is onl* the common product of all the detail labourers that becomes a commodit*8 :3 0i)ision of labour in societ* is brought about b* the purchase and sale of the products of different branches of industr*, "hile the conne9ion bet"een the detail operations in a "or+shop, is due to the sale of the labour4po"er of se)eral "or+men to one capitalist, "ho applies it as combined labour4po"er8 'he di)ision of labour in the "or+shop implies concentration of the means of production in the hands of one capitalist; the di)ision of labour in societ* implies their dispersion among man* independent producers of commodities8 Bhile "ithin the "or+shop, the iron la" of proportionalit* subDects definite numbers of "or+men to definite functions, in the societ* outside the "or+shop, chance and caprice ha)e full pla* in distributing the producers and their means of production among the )arious branches of industr*8 'he different spheres of production, it is true, constantl* tend to an eIuilibrium: for, on the one hand, "hile each producer of a commodit* is bound to produce a use4 )alue, to satisf* a particular social "ant, and "hile the e9tent of these "ants differs Iuantitati)el*, still there e9ists an inner relation "hich settles their proportions into a regular s*stem, and that s*stem one of spontaneous gro"th; and, on the other hand, the la" of the )alue of commodities ultimatel* determines ho" much of its disposable "or+ing4time societ* can e9pend on each particular class of commodities8 /ut this constant tendenc* to eIuilibrium, of the )arious spheres of production, is e9ercised, onl* in the shape of a reaction against the constant upsetting of this eIuilibrium8 'he a priori s*stem on "hich the di)ision of labour, "ithin the "or+shop, is regularl* carried out, becomes in the di)ision of labour "ithin the societ*, an a posteriori, nature4imposed necessit*, controlling the la"less caprice of the producers, and perceptible in the barometrical fluctuations of the mar+et4prices8 0i)ision of labour "ithin the "or+shop implies the undisputed authorit* of the capitalist o)er men, that are but parts of a mechanism that belongs to him8 'he di)ision of labour "ithin the societ* brings into contact independent commodit*4producers, "ho ac+no"ledge no other authorit* but that of competition, of the coercion e9erted b* the pressure of their mutual interests; Dust as in the animal +ingdom, the bellum omnium contra omnes G"ar of all against all F -obbesH more or less preser)es the conditions of e9istence of e)er* species8 'he same bourgeois mind "hich praises di)ision of labour in the "or+shop, life4long anne9ation of the labourer to a partial operation, and his complete subDection to capital, as being an organisation of labour that increases its producti)eness

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that same bourgeois mind denounces "ith eIual )igour e)er* conscious attempt to sociall* control and regulate the process of production, as an inroad upon such sacred things as the rights of propert*, freedom and unrestricted pla* for the bent of the indi)idual capitalist8 >t is )er* characteristic that the enthusiastic apologists of the factor* s*stem ha)e nothing more damning to urge against a general organisation of the labour of societ*, than that it "ould turn all societ* into one immense factor*8 >f, in a societ* "ith capitalist production, anarch* in the social di)ision of labour and despotism in that of the "or+shop are mutual conditions the one of the other, "e find, on the contrar*, in those earlier forms of societ* in "hich the separation of trades has been spontaneousl* de)eloped, then cr*stallised, and finall* made permanent b* la", on the one hand, a specimen of the organisation of the labour of societ*, in accordance "ith an appro)ed and authoritati)e plan, and on the other, the entire e9clusion of di)ision of labour in the "or+shop, or at all e)ents a mere d"arfli+e or sporadic and accidental de)elopment of the same8 :6 'hose small and e9tremel* ancient >ndian communities, some of "hich ha)e continued do"n to this da*, are based on possession in common of the land, on the blending of agriculture and handicrafts, and on an unalterable di)ision of labour, "hich ser)es, "hene)er a ne" communit* is started, as a plan and scheme read* cut and dried8 =ccup*ing areas of from 177 up to se)eral thousand acres, each forms a compact "hole producing all it reIuires8 'he chief part of the products is destined for direct use b* the communit* itself, and does not ta+e the form of a commodit*8 -ence, production here is independent of that di)ision of labour brought about, in >ndian societ* as a "hole, b* means of the e9change of commodities8 >t is the surplus alone that becomes a commodit*, and a portion of e)en that, not until it has reached the hands of the State, into "hose hands from time immemorial a certain Iuantit* of these products has found its "a* in the shape of rent in +ind8 'he constitution of these communities )aries in different parts of >ndia8 >n those of the simplest form, the land is tilled in common, and the produce di)ided among the members8 (t the same time, spinning and "ea)ing are carried on in each famil* as subsidiar* industries8 Side b* side "ith the masses thus occupied "ith one and the same "or+, "e find the @chief inhabitant,A "ho is Dudge, police, and ta94gatherer in one; the boo+4+eeper, "ho +eeps the accounts of the tillage and registers e)er*thing relating thereto; another official, "ho prosecutes criminals, protects strangers tra)elling through and escorts them to the ne9t )illage; the boundar* man, "ho guards the boundaries against neighbouring communities; the "ater4o)erseer, "ho distributes the "ater from the common tan+s for irrigation; the /rahmin, "ho conducts the religious ser)ices; the schoolmaster, "ho on the sand teaches the children reading and "riting; the calendar4/rahmin, or astrologer, "ho ma+es +no"n the luc+* or unluc+* da*s for seed4time and har)est, and for e)er* other +ind of agricultural "or+; a smith and a carpenter, "ho ma+e and repair all the agricultural implements; the potter, "ho ma+es all the potter* of the )illage; the barber, the "asherman, "ho "ashes clothes, the sil)ersmith, here and there the poet, "ho in some communities replaces the sil)ersmith, in others the schoolmaster8 'his do1en of indi)iduals is maintained at the e9pense of the "hole communit*8 >f the population increases, a ne" communit* is founded, on the pattern of the old one, on unoccupied land8 'he "hole mechanism discloses a s*stematic di)ision of labour; but a di)ision li+e that in manufactures is impossible, since the smith and the carpenter, Pc8, find an unchanging mar+et, and at the most there occur, according to the si1es of the )illages, t"o or three of each, instead of one8 :7 'he la" that regulates the di)ision of labour in the communit* acts "ith the irresistible authorit* of a la" of Cature, at the same time that each indi)idual artificer, the smith, the carpenter, and so on, conducts in his "or+shop all the operations of his handicraft in the traditional "a*, but independentl*, and "ithout recognising an* authorit* o)er him8 'he simplicit* of the organisation for production in these self4sufficing communities that constantl* reproduce themsel)es in the same form, and

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"hen accidentall* destro*ed, spring up again on the spot and "ith the same name :8 this simplicit* supplies the +e* to the secret of the unchangeableness of (siatic societies, an unchangeableness in such stri+ing contrast "ith the constant dissolution and refounding of (siatic States, and the ne)er4ceasing changes of d*nast*8 'he structure of the economic elements of societ* remains untouched b* the storm4clouds of the political s+*8 'he rules of the guilds, as > ha)e said before, b* limiting most strictl* the number of apprentices and Dourne*men that a single master could emplo*, pre)ented him from becoming a capitalist8 $oreo)er, he could not emplo* his Dourne*men in man* other handicrafts than the one in "hich he "as a master8 'he guilds 1ealousl* repelled e)er* encroachment b* the capital of merchants, the onl* form of free capital "ith "hich the* came in contact8 ( merchant could bu* e)er* +ind of commodit*, but labour as a commodit* he could not bu*8 -e e9isted onl* on sufferance, as a dealer in the products of the handicrafts8 >f circumstances called for a further di)ision of labour, the e9isting guilds split themsel)es up into )arieties, or founded ne" guilds b* the side of the old ones; all this, ho"e)er, "ithout concentrating )arious handicrafts in a single "or+shop8 -ence, the guild organisation, ho"e)er much it ma* ha)e contributed b* separating, isolating, and perfecting the handicrafts, to create the material conditions for the e9istence of manufacture, e9cluded di)ision of labour in the "or+shop8 =n the "hole, the labourer and his means of production remained closel* united, li+e the snail "ith its shell, and thus there "as "anting the principal basis of manufacture, the separation of the labourer from his means of production, and the con)ersion of these means into capital8 Bhile di)ision of labour in societ* at large, "hether such di)ision be brought about or not b* e9change of commodities, is common to economic formations of societ* the most di)erse, di)ision of labour in the "or+shop, as practised b* manufacture, is a special creation of the capitalist mode of production alone8

Section 8: The Capitalistic Character of $anufacture

(n increased number of labourers under the control of one capitalist is the natural starting4point, as "ell of co4operation generall*, as of manufacture in particular8 /ut the di)ision of labour in manufacture ma+es this increase in the number of "or+men a technical necessit*8 'he minimum number that an* gi)en capitalist is bound to emplo* is here prescribed b* the pre)iousl* established di)ision of labour8 =n the other hand, the ad)antages of further di)ision are obtainable onl* b* adding to the number of "or+men, and this can be done onl* b* adding multiples of the )arious detail groups8 /ut an increase in the )ariable component of the capital emplo*ed necessitates an increase in its constant component, too, in the "or+shops, implements, Pc8, and, in particular, in the ra" material, the call for "hich gro"s Iuic+er than the number of "or+men8 'he Iuantit* of it consumed in a gi)en time, b* a gi)en amount of labour, increases in the same ratio as does the producti)e po"er of that labour in conseIuence of its di)ision8 -ence, it is a la", based on the )er* nature of manufacture, that the minimum amount of capital, "hich is bound to be in the hands of each capitalist, must +eep increasing; in other "ords, that the transformation into capital of the social means of production and subsistence must +eep e9tending8:2 >n manufacture, as "ell as in simple co4operation, the collecti)e "or+ing organism is a form of e9istence of capital8 'he mechanism that is made up of numerous indi)idual detail labourers belongs to the capitalist8 -ence, the producti)e po"er resulting from a combination of labours appears to be the producti)e po"er of capital8 $anufacture proper not onl* subDects the pre)iousl* independent "or+man to the discipline and command of capital, but, in addition,

12:

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creates a hierarchic gradation of the "or+men themsel)es8 Bhile simple co4operation lea)es the mode of "or+ing b* the indi)idual for the most part unchanged, manufacture thoroughl* re)olutionises it, and sei1es labour4po"er b* its )er* roots8 >t con)erts the labourer into a crippled monstrosit*, b* forcing his detail de9terit* at the e9pense of a "orld of producti)e capabilities and instincts; Dust as in the States of <a #lata the* butcher a "hole beast for the sa+e of his hide or his tallo"8 Cot onl* is the detail "or+ distributed to the different indi)iduals, but the indi)idual himself is made the automatic motor of a fractional operation, 7 and the absurd fable of $enenius (grippa, "hich ma+es man a mere fragment of his o"n bod*, becomes realised8 1 >f, at first, the "or+man sells his labour4po"er to capital, because the material means of producing a commodit* fail him, no" his )er* labour4po"er refuses its ser)ices unless it has been sold to capital8 >ts functions can be e9ercised onl* in an en)ironment that e9ists in the "or+shop of the capitalist after the sale8 /* nature unfitted to ma+e an*thing independentl*, the manufacturing labourer de)elops producti)e acti)it* as a mere appendage of the capitalist?s "or+shop8 6 (s the chosen people bore in their features the sign manual of Leho)ah, so di)ision of labour brands the manufacturing "or+man as the propert* of capital8 'he +no"ledge, the Dudgement, and the "ill, "hich, though in e)er so small a degree, are practised b* the independent peasant or handicraftsman, in the same "a* as the sa)age ma+es the "hole art of "ar consist in the e9ercise of his personal cunning these faculties are no" reIuired onl* for the "or+shop as a "hole8 >ntelligence in production e9pands in one direction, because it )anishes in man* others8 Bhat is lost b* the detail labourers, is concentrated in the capital that emplo*s them8 : >t is a result of the di)ision of labour in manufactures, that the labourer is brought face to face "ith the intellectual potencies of the material process of production, as the propert* of another, and as a ruling po"er8 'his separation begins in simple co4operation, "here the capitalist represents to the single "or+man, the oneness and the "ill of the associated labour8 >t is de)eloped in manufacture "hich cuts do"n the labourer into a detail labourer8 >t is completed in modern industr*, "hich ma+es science a producti)e force distinct from labour and presses it into the ser)ice of capital8 >n manufacture, in order to ma+e the collecti)e labourer, and through him capital, rich in social producti)e po"er, each labourer must be made poor in indi)idual producti)e po"ers8 @>gnorance is the mother of industr* as "ell as of superstition8 &eflection and fanc* are subDect to err; but a habit of mo)ing the hand or the foot is independent of either8 $anufactures, accordingl*, prosper most "here the mind is least consulted, and "here the "or+shop ma* 888 be considered as an engine, the parts of "hich are men8A 3 (s a matter of fact, some fe" manufacturers in the middle of the 18th centur* preferred, for certain operations that "ere trade secrets, to emplo* half4idiotic persons8 6 @'he understandings of the greater part of men,A sa*s (dam Smith, @are necessaril* formed b* their ordinar* emplo*ments8 'he man "hose "hole life is spent in performing a fe" simple operations 888 has no occasion to e9ert his understanding888 -e generall* becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become8A (fter describing the stupidit* of the detail labourer he goes on: @'he uniformit* of his stationar* life naturall* corrupts the courage of his mind888 >t corrupts e)en the acti)it* of his bod* and renders him incapable of e9erting his strength "ith )igour and perse)erance in an* other emplo*ments than that to "hich he has been bred8 -is de9terit* at his o"n particular trade seems in this manner to be acIuired at the e9pense of his intellectual, social, and martial

12

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)irtues8 /ut in e)er* impro)ed and ci)ilised societ*, this is the state into "hich the labouring poor, that is, the great bod* of the people, must necessaril* fall8A 7 For pre)enting the complete deterioration of the great mass of the people b* di)ision of labour, (8 Smith recommends education of the people b* the State, but prudentl*, and in homeopathic doses8 G8 Garnier, his French translator and commentator, "ho, under the first French Empire, Iuite naturall* de)eloped into a senator, Iuite as naturall* opposes him on this point8 Education of the masses, he urges, )iolates the first la" of the di)ision of labour, and "ith it @our "hole social s*stem "ould be proscribed8A V<i+e all other di)isions of labour,A he sa*s, @that bet"een hand labour and head labour 8 is more pronounced and decided in proportion as societ* (he rightl* uses this "ord, for capital, landed propert* and their State! becomes richer8 'his di)ision of labour, li+e e)er* other, is an effect of past, and a cause of future progress888 ought the go)ernment then to "or+ in opposition to this di)ision of labour, and to hinder its natural courseE =ught it to e9pend a part of the public mone* in the attempt to confound and blend together t"o classes of labour, "hich are stri)ing after di)ision and separationEA 2 Some crippling of bod* and mind is inseparable e)en from di)ision of labour in societ* as a "hole8 Since, ho"e)er, manufacture carries this social separation of branches of labour much further, and also, b* its peculiar di)ision, attac+s the indi)idual at the )er* roots of his life 37, it is the first to afford the materials for, and to gi)e a start to, industrial patholog*8 @'o subdi)ide a man is to e9ecute him, if he deser)es the sentence, to assassinate him if he does not888 'he subdi)ision of labour is the assassination of a people8A 31 5o4operation based on di)ision of labour, in other "ords, manufacture, commences as a spontaneous formation8 So soon as it attains some consistence and e9tension, it becomes the recognised methodical and s*stematic form of capitalist production8 -istor* sho"s ho" the di)ision of labour peculiar to manufacture, strictl* so called, acIuires the best adapted form at first b* e9perience, as it "ere behind the bac+s of the actors, and then, li+e the guild handicrafts, stri)es to hold fast that form "hen once found, and here and there succeeds in +eeping it for centuries8 (n* alteration in this form, e9cept in tri)ial matters, is solel* o"ing to a re)olution in the instruments of labour8 $odern manufacture "here)er it arises > do not here allude to modern industr* based on machiner* either finds the disDecta membra poetae read* to hand, and onl* "aiting to be collected together, as is the case in the manufacture of clothes in large to"ns, or it can easil* appl* the principle of di)ision, simpl* b* e9clusi)el* assigning the )arious operations of a handicraft (such as boo+4binding! to particular men8 >n such cases, a "ee+?s e9perience is enough to determine the proportion bet"een the numbers of the hands necessar* for the )arious functions836 /* decomposition of handicrafts, b* specialisation of the instruments of labour, b* the formation of detail labourers, and b* grouping and combining the latter into a single mechanism, di)ision of labour in manufacture creates a Iualitati)e gradation, and a Iuantitati)e proportion in the social process of production; it conseIuentl* creates a definite organisation of the labour of societ*, and thereb* de)elops at the same time ne" producti)e forces in the societ*8 >n its specific capitalist form and under the gi)en conditions, it could ta+e no other form than a capitalistic one manufacture is but a particular method of begetting relati)e surplus )alue, or of augmenting at the e9pense of the labourer the self4e9pansion of capital usuall* called social "ealth, @Bealth of Cations,A Pc8 >t increases the social producti)e po"er of labour, not onl* for the benefit of the capitalist instead of for that of the labourer, but it does this b* crippling the indi)idual labourers8 >t creates ne" conditions for the lordship of capital o)er labour8 >f, therefore, on the one hand, it

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presents itself historicall* as a progress and as a necessar* phase in the economic de)elopment of societ*, on the other hand, it is a refined and ci)ilised method of e9ploitation8 #olitical Econom*, "hich as an independent science, first sprang into being during the period of manufacture, )ie"s the social di)ision of labour onl* from the standpoint of manufacture, 3: and sees in it onl* the means of producing more commodities "ith a gi)en Iuantit* of labour, and, conseIuentl*, of cheapening commodities and hurr*ing on the accumulation of capital8 >n most stri+ing contrast "ith this accentuation of Iuantit* and e9change4)alue, is the attitude of the "riters of classical antiIuit*, "ho hold e9clusi)el* b* Iualit* and use4)alue8 3 >n conseIuence of the separation of the social branches of production, commodities are better made, the )arious bents and talents of men select a suitable field, 33 and "ithout some restraint no important results can be obtained an*"here836 -ence both product and producer are impro)ed b* di)ision of labour8 >f the gro"th of the Iuantit* produced is occasionall* mentioned, this is onl* done "ith reference to the greater abundance of use4)alues8 'here is not a "ord alluding to e9change4)alue or to the cheapening of commodities8 'his aspect, from the standpoint of use4)alue alone, is ta+en as "ell b* #lato,37 "ho treats di)ision of labour as the foundation on "hich the di)ision of societ* into classes is based, as b* Oenophon 38, "ho "ith characteristic bourgeois instinct, approaches more nearl* to di)ision of labour "ithin the "or+shop8 #lato?s &epublic, in so far as di)ision of labour is treated in it, as the formati)e principle of the State, is merel* the (thenian idealisation of the Eg*ptian s*stem of castes, Eg*pt ha)ing ser)ed as the model of an industrial countr* to man* of his contemporaries also, amongst others to >socrates, 32 and it continued to ha)e this importance to the Gree+s of the &oman Empire8 67 0uring the manufacturing period proper, i8e8, the period during "hich manufacture is the predominant form ta+en b* capitalist production, man* obstacles are opposed to the full de)elopment of the peculiar tendencies of manufacture8 (lthough manufacture creates, as "e ha)e alread* seen, a simple separation of the labourers into s+illed and uns+illed, simultaneousl* "ith their hierarchic arrangement in classes, *et the number of the uns+illed labourers, o"ing to the preponderating influence of the s+illed, remains )er* limited8 (lthough it adapts the detail operations to the )arious degrees of maturit*, strength, and de)elopment of the li)ing instruments of labour, thus conducing to e9ploitation of "omen and children, *et this tendenc* as a "hole is "rec+ed on the habits and the resistance of the male labourers8 (lthough the splitting up of handicrafts lo"ers the cost of forming the "or+man, and thereb* lo"ers his )alue, *et for the more difficult detail "or+, a longer apprenticeship is necessar*, and, e)en "here it "ould be superfluous, is Dealousl* insisted upon b* the "or+men8 >n England, for instance, "e find the la"s of apprenticeship, "ith their se)en *ears? probation, in full force do"n to the end of the manufacturing period; and the* are not thro"n on one side till the ad)ent of $odern >ndustr*8 Since handicraft s+ill is the foundation of manufacture, and since the mechanism of manufacture as a "hole possesses no frame"or+, apart from the labourers themsel)es, capital is constantl* compelled to "restle "ith the insubordination of the "or+men8 @/* the infirmit* of human nature,A sa*s friend %re, @it happens that the more s+ilful the "or+man, the more self4"illed and intractable he is apt to become, and of course the less fit a component of a mechanical s*stem in "hich 888 he ma* do great damage to the "holeA61 -ence throughout the "hole manufacturing period there runs the complaint of "ant of discipline among the "or+men668 (nd had "e not the testimon* of contemporar* "riters, the simple facts, that during the period bet"een the 16th centur* and the epoch of $odern >ndustr*, capital failed to become the master of the "hole disposable "or+ing4time of the manufacturing labourers, that manufactures are short4li)ed, and change their localit* from one countr* to another "ith the

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emigrating or immigrating "or+men, these facts "ould spea+ )olumes8 @=rder must in one "a* or another be established,A e9claims in 1777 the oft4cited author of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce8A @=rder,A re4echoes 0r8 (ndre" %re 66 *ears later, @=rderA "as "anting in manufacture based on @the scholastic dogma of di)ision of labour,A and @(r+"right created order8A (t the same time manufacture "as unable, either to sei1e upon the production of societ* to its full e9tent, or to re)olutionise that production to its )er* core8 >t to"ered up as an economic "or+ of art, on the broad foundation of the to"n handicrafts, and of the rural domestic industries8 (t a gi)en stage in its de)elopment, the narro" technical basis on "hich manufacture rested, came into conflict "ith reIuirements of production that "ere created b* manufacture itself8 =ne of its most finished creations "as the "or+shop for the production of the instruments of labour themsel)es, including especiall* the complicated mechanical apparatus then alread* emplo*ed8 ( machine4factor*, sa*s %re, @displa*ed the di)ision of labour in manifold gradations the file, the drill, the lathe, ha)ing each its different "or+man in the order of s+ill8A (#8 618! 'his "or+shop, the product of the di)ision of labour in manufacture, produced in its turn machines8 >t is the* that s"eep a"a* the handicraftsman?s "or+ as the regulating principle of social production8 'hus, on the one hand, the technical reason for the life4long anne9ation of the "or+man to a detail function is remo)ed8 =n the other hand, the fetters that this same principle laid on the dominion of capital, fall a"a*8

(ha)ter 1!* Machiner+ and Modern 8nd%str+

Section 1 : The -e=elopment of $achiner
Lohn Stuart $ill sa*s in his @#rinciples of #olitical Econom*V: @>t is Iuestionable if all the mechanical in)entions *et made ha)e lightened the da*?s toil of an* human being8A 1 'hat is, ho"e)er, b* no means the aim of the capitalistic application of machiner*8 <i+e e)er* other increase in the producti)eness of labour, machiner* is intended to cheapen commodities, and, b* shortening that portion of the "or+ing da*, in "hich the labourer "or+s for himself, to lengthen the other portion that he gi)es, "ithout an eIui)alent, to the capitalist8 >n short, it is a means for producing surplus )alue8 >n manufacture, the re)olution in the mode of production begins "ith the labour4po"er, in modern industr* it begins "ith the instruments of labour8 =ur first inIuir* then is, ho" the instruments of labour are con)erted from tools into machines, or "hat is the difference bet"een a machine and the implements of a handicraftE Be are onl* concerned here "ith stri+ing and general characteristics; for epochs in the histor* of societ* are no more separated from each other b* hard and fast lines of demarcation, than are geological epochs8 $athematicians and mechanicians, and in this the* are follo"ed b* a fe" English economists, call a tool a simple machine, and a machine a comple9 tool8 'he* see no essential difference bet"een them, and e)en gi)e the name of machine to the simple mechanical po"ers, the le)er, the inclined plane, the scre", the "edge, Pc8 6 (s a matter of fact, e)er* machine is a combination of those simple po"ers, no matter ho" the* ma* be disguised8 From the economic standpoint this e9planation is "orth nothing, because the historical element is "anting8 (nother e9planation of the difference bet"een tool and machine is that in the case of a tool, man is the moti)e po"er, "hile the moti)e po"er of a machine is something different from man, as, for instance, an animal, "ater, "ind, and so on8 : (ccording to this, a plough dra"n b* o9en, "hich is a contri)ance common to the most different epochs, "ould be a machine, "hile 5laussen?s circular loom, "hich, "or+ed b* a single labourer, "ea)es 26,777 pic+s per minute, "ould be a mere tool8 Ca*, this )er* loom, though a tool "hen "or+ed b* hand, "ould, if "or+ed b* steam, be a machine8 (nd since the application of animal po"er is one of man?s earliest in)entions, production b* machiner* "ould ha)e preceded production b* handicrafts8 Bhen in 17:3, Lohn B*att brought out his spinning machine, and began the industrial re)olution of the 18th centur*, not a "ord did he sa* about an ass dri)ing it instead of a man, and *et this part fell to the ass8 -e described it as a machine @to spin "ithout fingers8A (ll full* de)eloped machiner* consists of three essentiall* different parts, the motor mechanism, the transmitting mechanism, and finall* the tool or "or+ing machine8 'he motor mechanism is that "hich puts the "hole in motion8 >t either generates its o"n moti)e po"er, li+e the steam4 engine, the caloric engine, the electromagnetic machine, Pc8, or it recei)es its impulse from some alread* e9isting natural force, li+e the "ater4"heel from a head of "ater, the "ind4mill from "ind, Pc8 'he transmitting mechanism, composed of fl*4"heels, shafting, toothed "heels, pullies, straps, ropes, bands, pinions, and gearing of the most )aried +inds, regulates the motion, changes its form8 "here necessar*, as for instance, from linear to circular, and di)ides and distributes it among the "or+ing machines8 'hese t"o first parts of the "hole mechanism are there, solel* for putting the "or+ing machines in motion, b* means of "hich motion the subDect

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of labour is sei1ed upon and modified as desired8 'he tool or "or+ing machine is that part of the machiner* "ith "hich the industrial re)olution of the 18th centur* started8 (nd to this da* it constantl* ser)es as such a starting4point, "hene)er a handicraft, or a manufacture, is turned into an industr* carried on b* machiner*8 =n a closer e9amination of the "or+ing machine proper, "e find in it, as a general rule, though often, no doubt, under )er* altered forms, the apparatus and tools used b* the handicraftsman or manufacturing "or+man; "ith this difference, that instead of being human implements, the* are the implements of a mechanism, or mechanical implements8 Either the entire machine is onl* a more or less altered mechanical edition of the old handicraft tool, as, for instance, the po"er4 loom,3 or the "or+ing parts fitted in the frame of the machine are old acIuaintances, as spindles are in a mule, needles in a stoc+ing4loom, sa"s in a sa"ing4machine, and +ni)es in a chopping machine8 'he distinction bet"een these tools and the bod* proper of the machine, e9ists from their )er* birth; for the* continue for the most part to be produced b* handicraft, or b* manufacture, and are after"ards fitted into the bod* of the machine, "hich is the product of machiner*86 'he machine proper is therefore a mechanism that, after being set in motion, performs "ith its tools the same operations that "ere formerl* done b* the "or+man "ith similar tools8 Bhether the moti)e po"er is deri)ed from man, or from some other machine, ma+es no difference in this respect8 From the moment that the tool proper is ta+en from man, and fitted into a mechanism, a machine ta+es the place of a mere implement8 'he difference stri+es one at once, e)en in those cases "here man himself continues to be the prime mo)er8 'he number of implements that he himself can use simultaneousl*, is limited b* the number of his o"n natural instruments of production, b* the number of his bodil* organs8 >n German*, the* tried at first to ma+e one spinner "or+ t"o spinning4"heels, that is, to "or+ simultaneousl* "ith both hands and both feet8 'his "as too difficult8 <ater, a treddle spinning4"heel "ith t"o spindles "as in)ented, but adepts in spinning, "ho could spin t"o threads at once, "ere almost as scarce as t"o4headed men8 'he Lenn*, on the other hand, e)en at its )er* birth, spun "ith 16418 spindles, and the stoc+ing4loom +nits "ith man* thousand needles at once8 'he number of tools that a machine can bring into pla* simultaneousl*, is from the )er* first emancipated from the organic limits that hedge in the tools of a handicraftsman8 >n man* manual implements the distinction bet"een man as mere moti)e po"er, and man as the "or+man or operator properl* so called, is brought into stri+ing contrast8 For instance, the foot is merel* the prime mo)er of the spinning4"heel, "hile the hand, "or+ing "ith the spindle, and dra"ing and t"isting, performs the real operation of spinning8 >t is this last part of the handicraftsman?s implement that is first sei1ed upon b* the industrial re)olution, lea)ing to the "or+man, in addition to his ne" labour of "atching the machine "ith his e*es and correcting its mista+es "ith his hands, the merel* mechanical part of being the mo)ing po"er8 =n the other hand, implements, in regard to "hich man has al"a*s acted as a simple moti)e po"er, as, for instance, b* turning the cran+ of a mill, 7 b* pumping, b* mo)ing up and do"n the arm of a bello"s, b* pounding "ith a mortar, Pc8, such implements soon call for the application of animals, "ater8 and "ind as moti)e po"ers8 -ere and there, long before the period of manufacture, and also, to some e9tent, during that period, these implements pass o)er into machines, but "ithout creating an* re)olution in the mode of production8 >t becomes e)ident, in the period of modern industr*, that these implements, e)en under their form of manual tools, are alread* machines8 For instance, the pumps "ith "hich the 0utch, in 18:647, emptied the <a+e of -arlem, "ere constructed on the principle of ordinar* pumps; the onl* difference being, that their pistons "ere dri)en b* c*clopean steam4engines, instead of b* men8 'he common and )er* imperfect bello"s of the blac+smith is, in England, occasionall* con)erted into a blo"ing4engine, b* connecting its arm "ith a steam4engine8 'he steam4engine itself, such as it "as at its

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in)ention, during the manufacturing period at the close of the 17th centur*, and such as it continued to be do"n to 1787,2 did not gi)e rise to an* industrial re)olution8 >t "as, on the contrar*, the in)ention of machines that made a re)olution in the form of steam4engines necessar*8 (s soon as man, instead of "or+ing "ith an implement on the subDect of his labour, becomes merel* the moti)e po"er of an implement4machine, it is a mere accident that moti)e po"er ta+es the disguise of human muscle; and it ma* eIuall* "ell ta+e the form of "ind, "ater or steam8 =f course, this does not pre)ent such a change of form from producing great technical alterations in the mechanism that "as originall* constructed to be dri)en b* man alone8 Co"4a4 da*s, all machines that ha)e their "a* to ma+e, such as se"ing4machines, bread4ma+ing machines, Pc8, are, unless from their )er* nature their use on a small scale is e9cluded, constructed to be dri)en both b* human and b* purel* mechanical moti)e po"er8 'he machine, "hich is the starting4point of the industrial re)olution, supersedes the "or+man, "ho handles a single tool, b* a mechanism operating "ith a number of similar tools, and set in motion b* a single moti)e po"er, "hate)er the form of that po"er ma* be8 17 -ere "e ha)e the machine, but onl* as an elementar* factor of production b* machiner*8 >ncrease in the si1e of the machine, and in the number of its "or+ing tools, calls for a more massi)e mechanism to dri)e it; and this mechanism reIuires, in order to o)ercome its resistance, a mightier mo)ing po"er than that of man, apart from the fact that man is a )er* imperfect instrument for producing uniform continued motion8 /ut assuming that he is acting simpl* as a motor, that a machine has ta+en the place of his tool, it is e)ident that he can be replaced b* natural forces8 =f all the great motors handed do"n from the manufacturing period, horse4po"er is the "orst, partl* because a horse has a head of his o"n, partl* because he is costl*, and the e9tent to "hich he is applicable in factories is )er* restricted8 11 Ce)ertheless the horse "as e9tensi)el* used during the infanc* of modern industr*8 'his is pro)ed, as "ell b* the complaints of contemporar* agriculturists, as b* the term @horse4po"er,A "hich has sur)i)ed to this da* as an e9pression for mechanical force8 Bind "as too inconstant and uncontrollable, and besides, in England, the birthplace of modern industr*, the use of "ater po"er preponderated e)en during the manufacturing period8 >n the 17th centur* attempts had alread* been made to turn t"o pairs of millstones "ith a single "ater4"heel8 /ut the increased si1e of the gearing "as too much for the "ater po"er, "hich had no" become insufficient, and this "as one of the circumstances that led to a more accurate in)estigation of the la"s of friction8 >n the same "a* the irregularit* caused b* the moti)e po"er in mills that "ere put in motion b* pushing and pulling a le)er, led to the theor*, and the application, of the fl*4 "heel, "hich after"ards pla*s so important a part in modern industr*8 16 >n this "a*, during the manufacturing period, "ere de)eloped the first scientific and technical elements of $odern $echanical >ndustr*8 (r+"right?s throstle spinning mill "as from the )er* first turned b* "ater8 /ut for all that, the use of "ater, as the predominant moti)e po"er, "as beset "ith difficulties8 >t could not be increased at "ill, it failed at certain seasons of the *ear, and, abo)e all, it "as essentiall* local81: Cot till the in)ention of Batt?s second and so4called double4acting steam4 engine, "as a prime mo)er found, that begot its o"n force b* the consumption of coal and "ater, "hose po"er "as entirel* under man?s control, that "as mobile and a means of locomotion, that "as urban and not, li+e the "ater"heel, rural, that permitted production to be concentrated in to"ns instead of, li+e the "ater4"heels, being scattered up and do"n the countr*, 1 that "as of uni)ersal technical application, and, relati)el* spea+ing, little affected in its choice of residence b* local circumstances8 'he greatness of Batt?s genius sho"ed itself in the specification of the patent that he too+ out in (pril, 178 8 >n that specification his steam4engine is described, not as an in)ention for a specific purpose, but as an agent uni)ersall* applicable in $echanical >ndustr*8 >n it he points out applications, man* of "hich, as for instance, the steam4hammer, "ere not

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introduced till half a centur* later8 Ce)ertheless he doubted the use of steam4engines in na)igation8 -is successors, /oulton and Batt, sent to the e9hibition of 1831 steam4engines of colossal si1e for ocean steamers8 (s soon as tools had been con)erted from being manual implements of man into implements of a mechanical apparatus, of a machine, the moti)e mechanism also acIuired an independent form, entirel* emancipated from the restraints of human strength8 'hereupon the indi)idual machine, that "e ha)e hitherto been considering, sin+s into a mere factor in production b* machiner*8 =ne moti)e mechanism "as no" able to dri)e man* machines at once8 'he moti)e mechanism gro"s "ith the number of the machines that are turned simultaneousl*, and the transmitting mechanism becomes a "ide4spreading apparatus8 Be no" proceed to distinguish the co4operation of a number of machines of one +ind from a comple9 s*stem of machiner*8 >n the one case, the product is entirel* made b* a single machine, "hich performs all the )arious operations pre)iousl* done b* one handicraftsman "ith his tool; as, for instance, b* a "ea)er "ith his loom; or b* se)eral handicraftsman successi)el*, either separatel* or as members of a s*stem of $anufacture813 For e9ample, in the manufacture of en)elopes, one man folded the paper "ith the folder, another laid on the gum, a third turned the flap o)er, on "hich the de)ice is impressed, a fourth embossed the de)ice, and so on; and for each of these operations the en)elope had to change hands8 =ne single en)elope machine no" performs all these operations at once, and ma+es more than :,777 en)elopes in an hour8 >n the <ondon e9hibition of 1866, there "as an (merican machine for ma+ing paper cornets8 >t cut the paper, pasted, folded, and finished :77 in a minute8 -ere, the "hole process, "hich, "hen carried on as $anufacture, "as split up into, and carried out b*, a series of operations, is completed b* a single machine, "or+ing a combination of )arious tools8 Co", "hether such a machine be merel* a reproduction of a complicated manual implement, or a combination of )arious simple implements specialised b* $anufacture, in either case, in the factor*, i$e8, in the "or+shop in "hich machiner* alone is used, "e meet again "ith simple co4operation; and, lea)ing the "or+man out of consideration for the moment, this co4 operation presents itself to us, in the first instance, as the conglomeration in one place of similar and simultaneousl* acting machines8 'hus, a "ea)ing factor* is constituted of a number of po"er4looms, "or+ing side b* side, and a se"ing factor* of a number of se"ing4machines all in the same building8 /ut there is here a technical oneness in the "hole s*stem, o"ing to all the machines recei)ing their impulse simultaneousl*, and in an eIual degree, from the pulsations of the common prime mo)er, b* the intermediar* of the transmitting mechanism; and this mechanism, to a certain e9tent, is also common to them all, since onl* particular ramifications of it branch off to each machine8 Lust as a number of tools, then, form the organs of a machine, so a number of machines of one +ind constitute the organs of the moti)e mechanism8 ( real machiner* s*stem, ho"e)er, does not ta+e the place of these independent machines, until the subDect of labour goes through a connected series of detail processes, that are carried out b* a chain of machines of )arious +inds, the one supplementing the other8 -ere "e ha)e again the co4 operation b* di)ision of labour that characterises $anufacture; onl* no", it is a combination of detail machines8 'he special tools of the )arious detail "or+men, such as those of the beaters, cambers, spinners, Pc8, in the "oollen manufacture, are no" transformed into the tools of specialised machines, each machine constituting a special organ, "ith a special function, in the s*stem8 >n those branches of industr* in "hich the machiner* s*stem is first introduced, $anufacture itself furnishes, in a general "a*, the natural basis for the di)ision, and conseIuent organisation, of the process of production8 16 Ce)ertheless an essential difference at once manifests itself8 >n $anufacture it is the "or+men "ho, "ith their manual implements, must,

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either singl* or in groups, carr* on each particular detail process8 >f, on the one hand, the "or+man becomes adapted to the process, on the other, the process "as pre)iousl* made suitable to the "or+man8 'his subDecti)e principle of the di)ision of labour no longer e9ists in production b* machiner*8 -ere, the process as a "hole is e9amined obDecti)el*, in itself, that is to sa*, "ithout regard to the Iuestion of its e9ecution b* human hands, it is anal*sed into its constituent phases; and the problem, ho" to e9ecute each detail process, and bind them all into a "hole, is sol)ed b* the aid of machines, chemistr*, Pc8 17 /ut, of course, in this case also, theor* must be perfected b* accumulated e9perience on a large scale8 Each detail machine supplies ra" material to the machine ne9t in order; and since the* are all "or+ing at the same time, the product is al"a*s going through the )arious stages of its fabrication, and is also constantl* in a state of transition, from one phase to another8 Lust as in $anufacture, the direct co4operation of the detail labourers establishes a numerical proportion bet"een the special groups, so in an organised s*stem of machiner*, "here one detail machine is constantl* +ept emplo*ed b* another, a fi9ed relation is established bet"een their numbers, their si1e, and their speed8 'he collecti)e machine, no" an organised s*stem of )arious +inds of single machines, and of groups of single machines, becomes more and more perfect, the more the process as a "hole becomes a continuous one, i8e8, the less the ra" material is interrupted in its passage from its first phase to its last; in other "ords, the more its passage from one phase to another is effected, not b* the hand of man, but b* the machiner* itself8 >n $anufacture the isolation of each detail process is a condition imposed b* the nature of di)ision of labour, but in the full* de)eloped factor* the continuit* of those processes is, on the contrar*, imperati)e8 ( s*stem of machiner*, "hether it reposes on the mere co4operation of similar machines, as in "ea)ing, or on a combination of different machines, as in spinning, constitutes in itself a huge automaton, "hene)er it is dri)en b* a self4acting prime mo)er8 /ut although the factor* as a "hole be dri)en b* its steam4engine, *et either some of the indi)idual machines ma* reIuire the aid of the "or+man for some of their mo)ements (such aid "as necessar* for the running in of the mule carriage, before the in)ention of the self4acting mule, and is still necessar* in fine4 spinning mills!; or, to enable a machine to do its "or+, certain parts of it ma* reIuire to be handled b* the "or+man li+e a manual tool; this "as the case in machine4ma+ers? "or+shops, before the con)ersion of the slide rest into a self4actor8 (s soon as a machine e9ecutes, "ithout man?s help, all the mo)ements reIuisite to elaborate the ra" material, needing onl* attendance from him, "e ha)e an automatic s*stem of machiner*, and one that is susceptible of constant impro)ement in its details8 Such impro)ements as the apparatus that stops a dra"ing frame, "hene)er a sli)er brea+s, and the self4acting stop, that stops the po"er4loom so soon as the shuttle bobbin is emptied of "eft, are Iuite modern in)entions8 (s an e9ample, both of continuit* of production, and of the carr*ing out of the automatic principle, "e ma* ta+e a modern paper mill8 >n the paper industr* generall*, "e ma* ad)antageousl* stud* in detail not onl* the distinctions bet"een modes of production based on different means of production, but also the conne9ion of the social conditions of production "ith those modes: for the old German paper4 ma+ing furnishes us "ith a sample of handicraft production; that of -olland in the 17th and of France in the 18th centur* "ith a sample of manufacturing in the strict sense; and that of modern England "ith a sample of automatic fabrication of this article8 /esides these, there still e9ist, in >ndia and 5hina, t"o distinct antiIue (siatic forms of the same industr*8 (n organised s*stem of machines, to "hich motion is communicated b* the transmitting mechanism from a central automaton, is the most de)eloped form of production b* machiner*8 -ere "e ha)e, in the place of the isolated machine, a mechanical monster "hose bod* fills "hole factories, and "hose demon po"er, at first )eiled under the slo" and measured motions of his giant limbs, at length brea+s out into the fast and furious "hirl of his countless "or+ing organs8

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'here "ere mules and steam4engines before there "ere an* labourers, "hose e9clusi)e occupation it "as to ma+e mules and steam4engines; Dust as men "ore clothes before there "ere such people as tailors8 'he in)entions of ;aucanson, (r+"right, Batt, and others, "ere, ho"e)er, practicable, onl* because those in)entors found, read* to hand, a considerable number of s+illed mechanical "or+men, placed at their disposal b* the manufacturing period8 Some of these "or+men "ere independent handicraftsman of )arious trades, others "ere grouped together in manufactures, in "hich, as before4mentioned, di)ision of labour "as strictl* carried out8 (s in)entions increased in number, and the demand for the ne"l* disco)ered machines gre" larger, the machine4ma+ing industr* split up, more and more, into numerous independent branches, and di)ision of labour in these manufactures "as more and more de)eloped8 -ere, then, "e see in $anufacture the immediate technical foundation of modern industr*8 $anufacture produced the machiner*, b* means of "hich modern industr* abolished the handicraft and manufacturing s*stems in those spheres of production that it first sei1ed upon8 'he factor* s*stem "as therefore raised, in the natural course of things, on an inadeIuate foundation8 Bhen the s*stem attained to a certain degree of de)elopment, it had to root up this read*4made foundation, "hich in the meantime had been elaborated on the old lines, and to build up for itself a basis that should correspond to its methods of production8 Lust as the indi)idual machine retains a d"arfish character, so long as it is "or+ed b* the po"er of man alone, and Dust as no s*stem of machiner* could be properl* de)eloped before the steam4engine too+ the place of the earlier moti)e po"ers, animals, "ind, and e)en "ater; so, too, modern industr* "as crippled in its complete de)elopment, so long as its characteristic instrument of production, the machine, o"ed its e9istence to personal strength and personal s+ill, and depended on the muscular de)elopment, the +eenness of sight, and the cunning of hand, "ith "hich the detail "or+men in manufactures, arid the manual labourers in handicrafts, "ielded their d"arfish implements8 'hus, apart from the dearness of the machines made in this "a*, a circumstance that is e)er present to the mind of the capitalist, the e9pansion of industries carried on b* means of machiner*, and the in)asion b* machiner* of fresh branches of production, "ere dependent on the gro"th of a class of "or+men, "ho, o"ing to the almost artistic nature of their emplo*ment, could increase their numbers onl* graduall*, and not b* leaps and bounds8 /ut besides this, at a certain stage of its de)elopment, modern industr* became technologicall* incompatible "ith the basis furnished for it b* handicraft and $anufacture8 'he increasing si1e of the prime mo)ers, of the transmitting mechanism, and of the machines proper, the greater complication, multiformit* and regularit* of the details of these machines, as the* more and more departed from the model of those originall* made b* manual labour, and acIuired a form, untrammelled e9cept b* the conditions under "hich the* "or+ed,18 the perfecting of the automatic s*stem, and the use, e)er* da* more una)oidable, of a more refractor* material, such as iron instead of "ood4the solution of all these problems, "hich sprang up b* the force of circumstances, e)er*"here met "ith a stumbling4bloc+ in the personal restrictions, "hich e)en the collecti)e labourer of $anufacture could not brea+ through, e9cept to a limited e9tent8 Such machines as the modern h*draulic press, the modern po"er4loom, and the modern carding engine, could ne)er ha)e been furnished b* $anufacture8 ( radical change in the mode of production in one sphere of industr* in)ol)es a similar change in other spheres8 'his happens at first in such branches of industr* as are connected together b* being separate phases of a process, and *et are isolated b* the social di)ision of labour, in such a "a*, that each of them produces an independent commodit*8 'hus spinning b* machiner* made "ea)ing b* machiner* a necessit*, and both together made the mechanical and chemical re)olution that too+ place in bleaching, printing, and d*eing, imperati)e8 So too, on the other hand, the re)olution in cotton4spinning called forth the in)ention of the gin, for separating the seeds from the cotton fibre; it "as onl* b* means of this in)ention, that the production of cotton

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became possible on the enormous scale at present reIuired8 12 /ut more especiall*, the re)olution in the modes of production of industr* and agriculture made necessar* a re)olution in the general conditions of the social process of production, i8e8, in the means of communication and of transport8 >n a societ* "hose pi)ot, to use an e9pression of Fourier, "as agriculture on a small scale, "ith its subsidiar* domestic industries, and the urban handicrafts, the means of communication and transport "ere so utterl* inadeIuate to the producti)e reIuirements of the manufacturing period, "ith its e9tended di)ision of social labour, its concentration of the instruments of labour, and of the "or+men, and its colonial mar+ets, that the* became in fact re)olutionised8 >n the same "a* the means of communication and transport handed do"n from the manufacturing period soon became unbearable trammels on modern industr*, "ith its fe)erish haste of production, its enormous e9tent, its constant flinging of capital and labour from one sphere of production into another, and its ne"l*4created conne9ions "ith the mar+ets of the "hole "orld8 -ence, apart from the radical changes introduced in the construction of sailing )essels, the means of communication and transport became graduall* adapted to the modes of production of mechanical industr*, b* the creation of a s*stem of ri)er steamers, rail"a*s, ocean steamers, and telegraphs8 /ut the huge masses of iron that had no" to be forged, to be "elded, to be cut, to be bored, and to be shaped, demanded, on their part, c*clopean machines, for the construction of "hich the methods of the manufacturing period "ere utterl* inadeIuate8 modern industr* had therefore itself to ta+e in hand the machine, its characteristic instrument of production, and to construct machines b* machines8 >t "as not till it did this, that it built up for itself a fitting technical foundation, and stood on its o"n feet8 $achiner*, simultaneousl* "ith the increasing use of it, in the first decades of this centur*, appropriated, b* degrees, the fabrication of machines proper8 /ut it "as onl* during the decade preceding 1866, that the construction of rail"a*s and ocean steamers on a stupendous scale called into e9istence the c*clopean machines no" emplo*ed in the construction of prime mo)ers8 'he most essential condition to the production of machines b* machines "as a prime mo)er capable of e9erting an* amount of force, and *et under perfect control8 Such a condition "as alread* supplied b* the steam4engine8 /ut at the same time it "as necessar* to produce the geometricall* accurate straight lines, planes, circles, c*linders, cones, and spheres, reIuired in the detail parts of the machines8 'his problem -enr* $audsle* sol)ed in the first decade of this centur* b* the in)ention of the slide rest, a tool that "as soon made automatic, and in a modified form "as applied to other constructi)e machines besides the lathe, for "hich it "as originall* intended8 'his mechanical appliance replaces, not some particular tool, but the hand itself, "hich produces a gi)en form b* holding and guiding the cutting tool along the iron or other material operated upon8 'hus it became possible to produce the forms of the indi)idual parts of machiner* @"ith a degree of ease, accurac*, and speed, that no accumulated e9perience of the hand of the most s+illed "or+man could gi)e8A67 >f "e no" fi9 our attention on that portion of the machiner* emplo*ed in the construction of machines, "hich constitutes the operating tool, "e find the manual implements re4appearing, but on a c*clopean scale8 'he operating part of the boring machine is an immense drill dri)en b* a steam4engine; "ithout this machine, on the other hand, the c*linders of large steam4engines and of h*draulic presses could not be made8 'he mechanical lathe is onl* a c*clopean reproduction of the ordinar* foot4lathe; the planing machine, an iron carpenter, that "or+s on iron "ith the same tools that the human carpenter emplo*s on "ood; the instrument that, on the <ondon "har)es, cuts the )eneers, is a gigantic ra1or; the tool of the shearing machine, "hich shears iron as easil* as a tailor?s scissors cut cloth, is a monster pair of scissors; and the steam4hammer "or+s "ith an ordinar* hammer head, but of such a "eight that not 'hor himself could "ield it8 61 'hese steam4

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hammers are an in)ention of Casm*th, and there is one that "eighs o)er 6 tons and stri+es "ith a )ertical fall of 7 feet, on an an)il "eighing :6 tons8 >t is mere child?s4pla* for it to crush a bloc+ of granite into po"der, *et it is no less capable of dri)ing, "ith a succession of light taps, a nail into a piece of soft "ood866 'he implements of labour, in the form of machiner*, necessitate the substitution of natural forces for human force, and the conscious application of science, instead of rule of thumb8 >n $anufacture, the organisation of the social labour4process is purel* subDecti)e; it is a combination of detail labourers; in its machiner* s*stem, modern industr* has a producti)e organism that is purel* obDecti)e, in "hich the labourer becomes a mere appendage to an alread* e9isting material condition of production8 >n simple co4operation, and e)en in that founded on di)ision of labour, the suppression of the isolated, b* the collecti)e, "or+man still appears to be more or less accidental8 $achiner*, "ith a fe" e9ceptions to be mentioned later, operates onl* b* means of associated labour, or labour in common8 -ence the co4operati)e character of the labour4 process is, in the latter case, a technical necessit* dictated b* the instrument of labour itself8

Section ': The Value Transferred b $achiner to the Product

Be sa" that the producti)e forces resulting from co4operation and di)ision of labour cost capital nothing8 'he* are natural forces of social labour8 So also ph*sical forces, li+e steam, "ater, Pc8, "hen appropriated to producti)e processes, cost nothing8 /ut Dust as a man reIuires lungs to breathe "ith, so he reIuires something that is "or+ of man?s hand, in order to consume ph*sical forces producti)el*8 ( "ater4"heel is necessar* to e9ploit the force of "ater, and a steam4engine to e9ploit the elasticit* of steam8 =nce disco)ered, the la" of the de)iation of the magnetic needle in the field of an electric current, or the la" of the magnetisation of iron, around "hich an electric current circulates, cost ne)er a penn*8 6: /ut the e9ploitation of these la"s for the purposes of telegraph*, Pc8, necessitates a costl* and e9tensi)e apparatus8 'he tool, as "e ha)e seen, is not e9terminated b* the machine8 From being a d"arf implement of the human organism, it e9pands and multiplies into the implement of a mechanism created b* man8 5apital no" sets the labourer to "or+, not "ith a manual tool, but "ith a machine "hich itself handles the tools8 (lthough, therefore, it is clear at the first glance that, b* incorporating both stupendous ph*sical forces, and the natural sciences, "ith the process of production, modern industr* raises the producti)eness of labour to an e9traordinar* degree, it is b* no means eIuall* clear, that this increased producti)e force is not, on the other hand, purchased b* an increased e9penditure of labour8 $achiner*, li+e e)er* other component of constant capital, creates no ne" )alue, but *ields up its o"n )alue to the product that it ser)es to beget8 >n so far as the machine has )alue, and, in conseIuence, parts "ith )alue to the product, it forms an element in the )alue of that product8 >nstead of being cheapened, the product is made dearer in proportion to the )alue of the machine8 (nd it is clear as noon4da*, that machines and s*stems of machiner*, the characteristic instruments of labour of $odern >ndustr*, are incomparabl* more loaded "ith )alue than the implements used in handicrafts and manufactures8 >n the first place, it must be obser)ed that the machiner*, "hile al"a*s entering as a "hole into the labour4process, enters into the )alue4begetting process onl* b* bits8 >t ne)er adds more )alue than it loses, on an a)erage, b* "ear and tear8 -ence there is a great difference bet"een the )alue of a machine, and the )alue transferred in a gi)en time b* that machine to the product8 'he longer the life of the machine in the labour4process, the greater is that difference8 >t is true, no doubt, as "e ha)e alread* seen, that e)er* instrument of labour enters as a "hole into the labour4process, and onl* piece4meal, proportionall* to its a)erage dail* loss b* "ear and tear, into the )alue4

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begetting process8 /ut this difference bet"een the instrument as a "hole and its dail* "ear and tear, is much greater in a machine than in a tool, because the machine, being made from more durable material, has a longer life; because its emplo*ment, being regulated b* strictl* scientific la"s, allo"s of greater econom* in the "ear and tear of its parts, and in the materials it consumes; and lastl*, because its field of production is incomparabl* larger than that of a tool8 (fter ma+ing allo"ance, both in the case of the machine and of the tool, for their a)erage dail* cost, that is for the )alue the* transmit to the product b* their a)erage dail* "ear and tear, and for their consumption of au9iliar* substance, such as oil, coal, and so on, the* each do their "or+ gratuitousl*, Dust li+e the forces furnished b* Cature "ithout the help of man8 'he greater the producti)e po"er of the machiner* compared "ith that of the tool, the greater is the e9tent of its gratuitous ser)ice compared "ith that of the tool8 >n modern industr* man succeeded for the first time in ma+ing the product of his past labour "or+ on a large scale gratuitousl*, li+e the forces of Cature86 >n treating of 5o4operation and $anufacture, it "as sho"n that certain general factors of production, such as buildings, are, in comparison "ith the scattered means of production of the isolated "or+man, economised b* being consumed in common, and that the* therefore ma+e the product cheaper8 >n a s*stem of machiner*, not onl* is the frame"or+ of the machine consumed in common b* its numerous operating implements, but the prime mo)er, together "ith a part of the transmitting mechanism, is consumed in common b* the numerous operati)e machines8 Gi)en the difference bet"een the )alue of the machiner*, and the )alue transferred b* it in a da* to the product, the e9tent to "hich this latter )alue ma+es the product dearer, depends in the first instance, upon the si1e of the product; so to sa*, upon its area8 $r8 /a*nes, of /lac+burn, in a lecture published in 1838, estimates that @each real mechanical horse4po"er63 "ill dri)e 37 self4acting mule spindles, "ith preparation, or 677 throstle spindles, or 13 looms for 7 inch cloth "ith the appliances for "arping, si1ing, Pc8A >n the first case, it is the da*?s produce of 37 mule spindles, in the second, of 677 throstle spindles, in the third, of 13 po"er4looms, o)er "hich the dail* cost of one horse4po"er, and the "ear and tear of the machiner* set in motion b* that po"er, are spread; so that onl* a )er* minute )alue is transferred b* such "ear and tear to a pound of *arn or a *ard of cloth8 'he same is the case "ith the steam4hammer mentioned abo)e8 Since its dail* "ear and tear, its coal4 consumption, Pc8, are spread o)er the stupendous masses of iron hammered b* it in a da*, onl* a small )alue is added to a hundred "eight of iron; but that )alue "ould be )er* great, if the c*clopean instrument "ere emplo*ed in dri)ing in nails8 Gi)en a machine?s capacit* for "or+, that is, the number of its operating tools, or, "here it is a Iuestion of force, their mass, the amount of its product "ill depend on the )elocit* of its "or+ing parts, on the speed, for instance, of the spindles, or on the number of blo"s gi)en b* the hammer in a minute8 $an* of these colossal hammers stri+e se)ent* times in a minute, and &*der?s patent machine for forging spindles "ith small hammers gi)es as man* as 777 stro+es per minute8 Gi)en the rate at "hich machiner* transfers its )alue to the product, the amount of )alue so transferred depends on the total )alue of the machiner*8 66 'he less labour it contains, the less )alue it imparts to the product8 'he less )alue it gi)es up, so much the more producti)e it is, and so much the more its ser)ices appro9imate to those of natural forces8 /ut the production of machiner* b* machiner* lessens its )alue relati)el* to its e9tension and efficac*8 (n anal*sis and comparison of the prices of commodities produced b* handicrafts or manufactures, and of the prices of the same commodities produced b* machiner*, sho"s generall*, that, in the product of machiner*, the )alue due to the instruments of labour increases

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relati)el*, but decreases absolutel*8 >n other "ords, its absolute amount decreases, but its amount, relati)el* to the total )alue of the product, of a pound of *arn, for instance, increases8 67 >t is e)ident that "hene)er it costs as much labour to produce a machine as is sa)ed b* the emplo*ment of that machine, there is nothing but a transposition of labour; conseIuentl* the total labour reIuired to produce a commodit* is not lessened or the producti)eness of labour is not increased8 >t is clear, ho"e)er, that the difference bet"een the labour a machine costs, and the labour it sa)es, in other "ords, that the degree of its producti)eness does not depend on the difference bet"een its o"n )alue and the )alue of the implement it replaces8 (s long as the labour spent on a machine, and conseIuentl* the portion of its )alue added to the product, remains smaller than the )alue added b* the "or+man to the product "ith his tool, there is al"a*s a difference of labour sa)ed in fa)our of the machine8 'he producti)eness of a machine is therefore measured b* the human labour4po"er it replaces8 (ccording to $r8 /a*nes, 6 operati)es are reIuired for the 37 mule spindles, inclusi)e of preparation machiner*, 68 that are dri)en b* one4 horse po"er; each self4acting mule spindle, "or+ing ten hours, produces 1: ounces of *arn (a)erage number of thic+ness!; conseIuentl* 6[ operati)es spin "ee+l* :63 3J8 lbs8 of *arn8 -ence, lea)ing "aste on one side, :66 lbs8 of cotton absorb, during their con)ersion into *arn, onl* 137 hours? labour, or fifteen da*s? labour of ten hours each8 /ut "ith a spinning4"heel, supposing the hand4spinner to produce thirteen ounces of *arn in si9t* hours, the same "eight of cotton "ould absorb 6,777 da*s? labour of ten hours each, or 67,777 hours? labour8 62 Bhere bloc+printing, the old method of printing calico b* hand, has been superseded b* machine printing, a single machine prints, "ith the aid of one man or bo*, as much calico of four colours in one hour, as it formerl* too+ 677 men to do8 :7 /efore Eli Bhitne* in)ented the cotton gin in 172:, the separation of the seed from a pound of cotton cost an a)erage da*?s labour8 /* means of his in)ention one negress "as enabled to clean 177 lbs8 dail*; and since then, the efficac* of the gin has been considerabl* increased8 ( pound of cotton "ool, pre)iousl* costing 37 cents to produce, included after that in)ention more unpaid labour, and "as conseIuentl* sold "ith greater profit, at 17 cents8 >n >ndia the* emplo* for separating the "ool from the seed, an instrument, half machine, half tool, called a chur+a; "ith this one man and a "oman can clean 68 lbs8 dail*8 Bith the chur+a in)ented some *ears ago b* 0r8 Forbes, one man and a bo* produce 637 lbs8 dail*8 >f o9en, steam, or "ater, be used for dri)ing it, onl* a fe" bo*s and girls as feeders are reIuired8 Si9teen of these machines dri)en b* o9en do as much "or+ in a da* as formerl* 737 people did on an a)erage8:1 (s alread* stated, a steam4plough does as much "or+ in one hour at a cost of three4pence, as 66 men at a cost of 13 shillings8 > return to this e9ample in order to clear up an erroneous notion8 'he 13 shillings are b* no means the e9pression in mone* of all the labour e9pended in one hour b* the 66 men8 >f the ratio of surplus labour to necessar* labour "ere 177`, these 66 men "ould produce in one hour a )alue of :7 shillings, although their "ages, 13 shillings, represent onl* their labour for half an hour8 Suppose, then, a machine cost as much as the "ages for a *ear of the 137 men it displaces, sa* ]:,777; this ]:,777 is b* no means the e9pression in mone* of the labour added to the obDect produced b* these 137 men before the introduction of the machine, but onl* of that portion of their *ear?s labour "hich "as e9pended for themsel)es and represented b* their "ages8 =n the other hand, the ]:,777, the mone*4)alue of the machine, e9presses all the labour e9pended on its production, no matter in "hat proportion this labour constitutes "ages for the "or+man, and surplus )alue for the capitalist8 'herefore, though a machine cost as much as the labour4po"er displaced b* it costs, *et the labour materialised in it is e)en then much less than the li)ing labour it replaces8 :6 'he use of machiner* for the e9clusi)e purpose of cheapening the product, is limited in this "a*, that less labour must be e9pended in producing the machiner* than is displaced b* the

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emplo*ment of that machiner*, For the capitalist, ho"e)er, this use is still more limited8 >nstead of pa*ing for the labour, he onl* pa*s the )alue of the labour4po"er emplo*ed; therefore, the limit to his using a machine is fi9ed b* the difference bet"een the )alue of the machine and the )alue of the labour4po"er replaced b* it8 Since the di)ision of the da*?s "or+ into necessar* and surplus labour differs in different countries, and e)en in the same countr* at different periods, or in different branches of industr*; and further, since the actual "age of the labourer at one time sin+s belo" the )alue of his labour4po"er, at another rises abo)e it, it is possible for the difference bet"een the price of the machiner* and the price of the labour4po"er replaced b* that machiner* to )ar* )er* much, although the difference bet"een the Iuantit* of labour reIuisite to produce the machine and the total Iuantit* replaced b* it, remain constant8 :: /ut it is the former difference alone that determines the cost, to the capitalist, of producing a commodit*, and, through the pressure of competition, influences his action8 -ence the in)ention no"4a4da*s of machines in England that are emplo*ed onl* in Corth (merica; Dust as in the si9teenth and se)enteenth centuries, machines "ere in)ented in German* to be used onl* in -olland, and Dust as man* a French in)ention of the eighteenth centur* "as e9ploited in England alone8 >n the older countries, machiner*, "hen emplo*ed in some branches of industr*, creates such a redundanc* of labour in other branches that in these latter the fall of "ages belo" the )alue of labour4po"er impedes the use of machiner*, and, from the standpoint of the capitalist, "hose profit comes, not from a diminution of the labour emplo*ed, but of the labour paid for, renders that use superfluous and often impossible8 >n some branches of the "oollen manufacture in England the emplo*ment of children has during recent *ears been considerabl* diminished, and in some cases has been entirel* abolished8 Bh*E /ecause the Factor* (cts made t"o sets of children necessar*, one "or+ing si9 hours, the other four, or each "or+ing fi)e hours8 /ut the parents refused to sell the @half4timersA cheaper than the @full4timers8A -ence the substitution of machiner* for the @half4 timers8A: /efore the labour of "omen and of children under 17 *ears of age "as forbidden in mines, capitalists considered the emplo*ment of na+ed "omen and girls, often in compan* "ith men, so far sanctioned b* their moral code, and especiall* b* their ledgers, that it "as onl* after the passing of the (ct that the* had recourse to machiner*8 'he Nan+ees ha)e in)ented a stone4 brea+ing machine8 'he English do not ma+e use of it, because the @"retchA :3"ho does this "or+ gets paid for such a small portion of his labour, that machiner* "ould increase the cost of production to the capitalist8:6 >n England "omen are still occasionall* used instead of horses for hauling canal boats:7, because the labour reIuired to produce horses and machines is an accuratel* +no"n Iuantit*, "hile that reIuired to maintain the "omen of the surplus4population is belo" all calculation8 -ence no"here do "e find a more shameful sIuandering of human labour4po"er for the most despicable purposes than in England, the land of machiner*8

Section *: The Pro+imate )ffects of $achiner on the 3orkman

'he starting4point of modern industr* is, as "e ha)e sho"n, the re)olution in the instruments of labour, and this re)olution attains its most highl* de)eloped form in the organised s*stem of machiner* in a factor*8 /efore "e inIuire ho" human material is incorporated "ith this obDecti)e organism, let us consider some general effects of this re)olution on the labourer himself8

A. Appropriation of )upplementary *a$our 'o+er $y Capital. The Employment of ,omen and Children
>n so far as machiner* dispenses "ith muscular po"er, it becomes a means of emplo*ing labourers of slight muscular strength, and those "hose bodil* de)elopment is incomplete, but

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"hose limbs are all the more supple8 'he labour of "omen and children "as, therefore, the first thing sought for b* capitalists "ho used machiner*8 'hat might* substitute for labour and labourers "as forth"ith changed into a means for increasing the number of "age4labourers b* enrolling, under the direct s"a* of capital, e)er* member of the "or+man?s famil*, "ithout distinction of age or se98 5ompulsor* "or+ for the capitalist usurped the place, not onl* of the children?s pla*, but also of free labour at home "ithin moderate limits for the support of the famil*8:8 'he )alue of labour4po"er "as determined, not onl* b* the labour4time necessar* to maintain the indi)idual adult labourer, but also b* that necessar* to maintain his famil*8 $achiner*, b* thro"ing e)er* member of that famil* on to the labour4mar+et, spreads the )alue of the man?s labour4po"er o)er his "hole famil*8 >t thus depreciates his labour4po"er8 'o purchase the labour4 po"er of a famil* of four "or+ers ma*, perhaps, cost more than it formerl* did to purchase the labour4po"er of the head of the famil*, but, in return, four da*s? labour ta+es the place of one, and their price falls in proportion to the e9cess of the surplus labour of four o)er the surplus labour of one8 >n order that the famil* ma* li)e, four people must no", not onl* labour, but e9pend surplus labour for the capitalist8 'hus "e see, that machiner*, "hile augmenting the human material that forms the principal obDect of capital?s e9ploiting po"er, :2 at the same time raises the degree of e9ploitation8 $achiner* also re)olutionises out and out the contract bet"een the labourer and the capitalist, "hich formall* fi9es their mutual relations8 'a+ing the e9change of commodities as our basis, our first assumption "as that capitalist and labourer met as free persons, as independent o"ners of commodities; the one possessing mone* and means of production, the other labour4po"er8 /ut no" the capitalist bu*s children and *oung persons under age8 #re)iousl*, the "or+man sold his o"n labour4po"er, "hich he disposed of nominall* as a free agent8 Co" he sells "ife and child8 -e has become a sla)e4dealer8 7 'he demand for children?s labour often resembles in form the inIuiries for negro sla)es, such as "ere formerl* to be read among the ad)ertisements in (merican Dournals8 @$* attention,A sa*s an English factor* inspector, @"as dra"n to an ad)ertisement in the local paper of one of the most important manufacturing to"ns of m* district, of "hich the follo"ing is a cop*: Banted, 16 to 67 *oung persons, not *ounger than "hat can pass for 1: *ears8 Bages, shillings a "ee+8 (ppl* Pc8A 1 'he phrase @"hat can pass for 1: *ears,A has reference to the fact, that b* the Factor* (ct, children under 1: *ears ma* "or+ onl* 6 hours8 ( surgeon officiall* appointed must certif* their age8 'he manufacturer, therefore, as+s for children "ho loo+ as if the* "e?re alread* 1: *ears old8 'he decrease, often b* leaps and bounds in the number of children under 1: *ears emplo*ed in factories, a decrease that is sho"n in an astonishing manner b* the English statistics of the last 67 *ears, "as for the most part, according to the e)idence of the factor* inspectors themsel)es, the "or+ of the certif*ing surgeons, "ho o)erstated the age of the children, agreeabl* to the capitalist?s greed for e9ploitation, and the sordid traffic+ing needs of the parents8 >n the notorious district of /ethnal Green, a public mar+et is held e)er* $onda* and 'uesda* morning, "here children of both se9es from 2 *ears of age up"ards, hire themsel)es out to the sil+ manufacturers8 V'he usual terms are 1s8 8d8 a "ee+ (this belongs to the parents! and W6d8 for m*self and tea8? 'he contract is binding onl* for the "ee+8 'he scene and language "hile this mar+et is going on are Iuite disgraceful8A 6 >t has also occurred in England, that "omen ha)e ta+en @children from the "or+house and let an* one ha)e them out for 6s8 6d8 a "ee+8A : >n spite of legislation, the number of bo*s sold in Great /ritain b* their parents to act as li)e chimne*4s"eeping machines (although there e9ist plent* of machines to replace them! e9ceeds 6,7778 'he re)olution effected b*

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machiner* in the Duridical relations bet"een the bu*er and the seller of labour4po"er, causing the transaction as a "hole to lose the appearance of a contract bet"een free persons, afforded the English #arliament an e9cuse, founded on Duridical principles, for the interference of the state "ith factories8 Bhene)er the la" limits the labour of children to 6 hours in industries not before interfered "ith, the complaints of the manufacturers are al"a*s rene"ed8 'he* allege that numbers of the parents "ithdra" their children from the industr* brought under the (ct, in order to sell them "here @freedom of labourA still rules, i8e8, "here children under 1: *ears are compelled to "or+ li+e gro"n4up people, and therefore can be got rid of at a higher price8 /ut since capital is b* nature a le)eller, since it e9acts in e)er* sphere of production eIualit* in the conditions of the e9ploitation of labour, the limitation b* la" of children?s labour, in one branch of industr*, becomes the cause of its limitation in others8 Be ha)e alread* alluded to the ph*sical deterioration as "ell of the children and *oung4persons as of the "omen, "hom machiner*, first directl* in the factories that shoot up on its basis, and then indirectl* in all the remaining branches of industr*, subDects to the e9ploitation of capital8 >n this place, therefore, "e d"ell onl* on one point, the enormous mortalit*, during the first fe" *ears of their life, of the children of the operati)es8 >n si9teen of the registration districts into "hich England is di)ided, there are, for e)er* 177,777 children ali)e under the age of one *ear, onl* 2,777 deaths in a *ear on an a)erage (in one district onl* 7,7 7!; in 6 districts the deaths are o)er 17,777, but under 11,777; in :2 districts, o)er 11,777, but under 16,777; in 8 districts o)er 16,777, but under 1:,777; in 66 districts o)er 67,777; in 63 districts o)er 61,777; in 17 o)er 66,777; in 11 o)er 6:,777; in -oo, Bol)erhampton, (shton4under4<*ne, and #reston, o)er 6 ,777; in Cottingham, Stoc+port, and /radford, o)er 63,777; in Bisbeach, 16,777; and in $anchester, 66,1638 3 (s "as sho"n b* an official medical inIuir* in the *ear 1861, the high death4rates are, apart from local causes, principall* due to the emplo*ment of the mothers a"a* from their homes, and to the neglect and maltreatment, conseIuent on her absence, such as, amongst others, insufficient nourishment, unsuitable food, and dosing "ith opiates; besides this, there arises an unnatural estrangement bet"een mother and child, and as a conseIuence intentional star)ing and poisoning of the children8 6 >n those agricultural districts, @"here a minimum in the emplo*ment of "omen e9ists, the death4rate is on the other hand )er* lo"8A 7 'he >nIuir* 5ommission of 1861 led, ho"e)er, to the une9pected result, that in some purel* agricultural districts bordering on the Corth Sea, the death4rate of children under one *ear old almost eIualled that of the "orst factor* districts8 0r8 Lulian -unter "as therefore commissioned to in)estigate this phenomenon on the spot8 -is report is incorporated "ith the @Si9th &eport on #ublic -ealth8A 8 %p to that time it "as supposed, that the children "ere decimated b* malaria, and other diseases peculiar to lo"4l*ing and marsh* districts8 /ut the inIuir* sho"ed the )er* opposite, namel*, that the same cause "hich dro)e a"a* malaria, the con)ersion of the land, from a morass in "inter and a scant* pasture in summer, into fruitful corn land, created the e9ceptional death4rate of the infants8 2 'he 77 medical men, "hom 0r8 -unter e9amined in that district, "ere @"onderfull* in accordA on this point8 >n fact, the re)olution in the mode of culti)ation had led to the introduction of the industrial s*stem8 $arried "omen, "ho "or+ in gangs along "ith bo*s and girls, are, for a stipulated sum of mone*, placed at the disposal of the farmer, b* a man called the @underta+er,A "ho contracts for the "hole gang8 @'hese gangs "ill sometimes tra)el man* miles from their o"n )illage; the* are to be met morning and e)ening on the roads, dressed in short petticoats, "ith suitable coats and boots, and sometimes trousers, loo+ing "onderfull* strong and health*, but tainted "ith a customar* immoralit* and heedless of the fatal results "hich their lo)e of this bus* and independent life is bringing on their unfortunate offspring "ho are pining at home8A 37

617

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E)er* phenomenon of the factor* districts is here reproduced, including, but to a greater e9tent, ill4disguised infanticide, and dosing children "ith opiates8 31 @$* +no"ledge of such e)ils,A sa*s 0r8 Simon, the medical officer of the #ri)* 5ouncil and editor in chief of the &eports on #ublic -ealth, @ma* e9cuse the profound misgi)ing "ith "hich > regard an* large industrial emplo*ment of adult "omen8A36 @-app* indeed,A e9claims $r8 /a+er, the factor* inspector, in his official report, @happ* indeed "ill it be for the manufacturing districts of England, "hen e)er* married "oman ha)ing a famil* is prohibited from "or+ing in an* te9tile "or+s at all8A3: 'he moral degradation caused b* the capitalistic e9ploitation of "omen and children has been so e9hausti)el* depicted b* F8 Engels in his @<age der (rbeitenden .lasse Englands,A and other "riters, that > need onl* mention the subDect in this place8 /ut the intellectual desolation artificiall* produced b* con)erting immature human beings into mere machines for the fabrication of surplus )alue, a state of mind clearl* distinguishable from that natural ignorance "hich +eeps the mind fallo" "ithout destro*ing its capacit* for de)elopment, its natural fertilit*, this desolation finall* compelled e)en the English #arliament to ma+e elementar* education a compulsor* condition to the @producti)eA emplo*ment of children under 1 *ears, in e)er* industr* subDect to the Factor* (cts8 'he spirit of capitalist production stands out clearl* in the ludicrous "ording of the so4called education clauses in the Factor* (cts, in the absence of an administrati)e machiner*, an absence that again ma+es the compulsion illusor*, in the opposition of the manufacturers themsel)es to these education clauses, and in the tric+s and dodges the* put in practice for e)ading them8 @For this the legislature is alone to blame, b* ha)ing passed a delusi)e la", "hich, "hile it "ould seem to pro)ide that the children emplo*ed in factories shall be educated+ contains no enactment b* "hich that professed end can be secured8 >t pro)ides nothing more than that the children shall on certain da*s of the "ee+, and for a certain number of hours (three! in each da*, be inclosed "ithin the four "alls of a place called a school, and that the emplo*er of the child shall recei)e "ee+l* a certificate to that effect signed b* a person designated b* the subscriber as a schoolmaster or schoolmistress8A3 #re)ious to the passing of the amended Factor* (ct, 18 , it happened, not unfreIuentl*, that the certificates of attendance at school "ere signed b* the schoolmaster or schoolmistress "ith a cross, as the* themsel)es "ere unable to "rite8 @=n one occasion, on )isiting a place called a school, from "hich certificates of school attendance, had issued, > "as so struc+ "ith the ignorance of the master, that > said to him: W#ra*, sir, can *ou readE? -is repl* "as: W(*e, summatQ? and as a Dustification of his right to grant certificates, he added: W(t an* rate, > am before m* scholars8?A 'he inspectors, "hen the /ill of 18 "as in preparation, did not fail to represent the disgraceful state of the places called schools, certificates from "hich the* "ere obliged to admit as a compliance "ith the la"s, but the* "ere successful onl* in obtaining thus much, that since the passing of the (ct of 18 3, the figures in the school certificate must be filled up in the hand"riting of the schoolmaster, "ho must also sign his 5hristian and surname in full8A 33 Sir Lohn .incaid, factor* inspector for Scotland, relates e9periences of the same +ind8

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@'he first school "e )isited "as +ept b* a $rs8 (nn .illin8 %pon as+ing her to spell her name, she straight"a* made a mista+e, b* beginning "ith the letter 5, but correcting herself immediatel*, she said her name began "ith a .8 =n loo+ing at her signature, ho"e)er, in the school certificate boo+s, > noticed that she spelt it in )arious "a*s, "hile her hand"riting left no doubt as to her unfitness to teach8 She herself also ac+no"ledged that she could not +eep the register 888 >n a second school > found the schoolroom 13 feet long, and 17 feet "ide, and counted in this space 73 children, "ho "ere gobbling something unintelligibleA 36 /ut it is not onl* in the miserable places abo)e referred to that the children obtain certificates of school attendance "ithout ha)ing recei)ed instruction of an* )alue, for in man* schools "here there is a competent teacher, his efforts are of little a)ail from the distracting cro"d of children of all ages, from infants of : *ears old and up"ards; his li)elihood, miserable at the best, depending on the pence recei)ed from the greatest number of children "hom it is possible to cram into the space8 'o this is to be added scant* school furniture, deficienc* of boo+s, and other materials for teaching, and the depressing effect upon the poor children themsel)es of a close, noisome atmosphere8 > ha)e been in man* such schools, "here > ha)e seen ro"s of children doing absolutel* nothing; and this is certified as school attendance, and, in statistical returns, such children are set do"n as being educated8A 37 >n Scotland the manufacturers tr* all the* can to do "ithout the children that are obliged to attend school8 @>t reIuires no further argument to pro)e that the educational clauses of the Factor* (ct, being held in such disfa)our among mill4o"ners, tend in a great measure to e9clude that class of children ali+e from the emplo*ment and the benefit of education contemplated b* this (ct8A38 -orribl* grotesIue does this appear in print "or+s, "hich are regulated b* a special (ct8 /* that (ct, @e)er* child, before being emplo*ed in a print "or+ must ha)e attended school for at least :7 da*s, and not less than 137 hours, during the si9 months immediatel* preceding such first da* of emplo*ment, and during the continuance of its emplo*ment in the print "or+s, it must attend for a li+e period of :7 da*s, and 137 hours during e)er* successi)e period of si9 months8888 'he attendance at school must be bet"een 8 a8m8 and 6 p8m8 Co attendance of less than 6[ hours, nor more than 3 hours on an* one da*, shall be rec+oned as part of the 137 hours8 %nder ordinar* circumstances the children attend school morning and afternoon for :7 da*s, for at least 3 hours each da*, and upon the e9piration of the :7 da*s, the statutor* total of 137 hours ha)ing been attained, ha)ing, in their language, made up their boo+, the* return to the print "or+, "here the* continue until the si9 months ha)e e9pired, "hen another instalment of school attendance becomes due, and the* again see+ the school until the boo+ is again made up8888 $an* bo*s ha)ing attended school for the reIuired number of hours, "hen the* return to school after the e9piration of their si9 months? "or+ in the print "or+, are in the same condition as "hen the* first attended school as print4"or+ bo*s, that the* ha)e lost all the* gained b* their pre)ious school attendance8888 >n other print "or+s the children?s attendance at school is made to depend altogether upon the e9igencies of the "or+ in the establishment8 'he reIuisite number of hours is made up each si9 months, b* instalments consisting of from : to 3 hours at a time,

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spreading o)er, perhaps, the "hole si9 months8888 For instance, the attendance on one da* might be from 8 to 11 a8m8, on another da* from 1 p8m8 to p8m8, and the child might not appear at school again for se)eral da*s, "hen it "ould attend from : p8m8 to 6 p8m8; then it might attend for : or da*s consecuti)el*, or for a "ee+, then it "ould not appear in school for : "ee+s or a month, after that upon some odd da*s at some odd hours "hen the operati)e "ho emplo*ed it chose to spare it; and thus the child "as, as it "ere, buffeted from school to "or+, from "or+ to school, until the tale of 137 hours "as told8A32 /* the e9cessi)e addition of "omen and children to the ran+s of the "or+ers, machiner* at last brea+s do"n the resistance "hich the male operati)es in the manufacturing period continued to oppose to the despotism of capital867

B. 'rolon&ation of the ,or-in& day

>f machiner* be the most po"erful means for increasing the producti)eness of labour F i8e8, for shortening the "or+ing4time reIuired in the production of a commodit*, it becomes in the hands of capital the most po"erful means, in those industries first in)aded b* it, for lengthening the "or+ing da* be*ond all bounds set b* human nature8 >t creates, on the one hand, ne" conditions b* "hich capital is enabled to gi)e free scope to this its constant tendenc*, and on the other hand, ne" moti)es "ith "hich to "het capital?s appetite for the labour of others8 >n the first place, in the form of machiner*, the implements of labour become automatic, things mo)ing and "or+ing independent of the "or+man8 'he* are thenceforth an industrial perpetuum mobile, that "ould go on producing fore)er, did it not meet "ith certain natural obstructions in the "ea+ bodies and the strong "ills of its human attendants8 'he automaton, as capital, and because it is capital, is endo"ed, in the person of the capitalist, "ith intelligence and "ill; it is therefore animated b* the longing to reduce to a minimum the resistance offered b* that repellent *et elastic natural barrier, man861 'his resistance is moreo)er lessened b* the apparent lightness of machine "or+, and b* the more pliant and docile character of the "omen and children emplo*ed on it866 'he producti)eness of machiner* is, as "e sa", in)ersel* proportional to the )alue transferred b* it to the product8 'he longer the life of the machine, the greater is the mass of the products o)er "hich the )alue transmitted b* the machine is spread, and the less is the portion of that )alue added to each single commodit*8 'he acti)e lifetime of a machine is, ho"e)er, clearl* dependent on the length of the "or+ing da*, or on the duration of the dail* labour4process multiplied b* the number of da*s for "hich the process is carried on8 'he "ear and tear of a machine is not e9actl* proportional to its "or+ing4time8 (nd e)en if it "ere so, a machine "or+ing 16 hours dail* for 7[ *ears, co)ers as long a "or+ing period as, and transmits to the total product no more )alue than, the same machine "ould if it "or+ed onl* 8 hours dail* for 13 *ears8 /ut in the first case the )alue of the machine "ould be reproduced t"ice as Iuic+l* as in the latter, and the capitalist "ould, b* this use of the machine, absorb in 7[ *ears as much surplus )alue as in the second case he "ould in 138 'he material "ear and tear of a machine is of t"o +inds8 'he one arises from use, as coins "ear a"a* b* circulating, the other from non4use, as a s"ord rusts "hen left in its scabbard8 'he latter +ind is due to the elements8 'he former is more or less directl* proportional, the latter to a certain e9tent in)ersel* proportional, to the use of the machine8 6: /ut in addition to the material "ear and tear, a machine also undergoes, "hat "e ma* call a moral depreciation8 >t loses e9change4)alue, either b* machines of the same sort being produced cheaper than it, or b* better machines entering into competition "ith it8 6 >n both cases, be the

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machine e)er so *oung and full of life, its )alue is no longer determined b* the labour actuall* materialised in it, but b* the labour4time reIuisite to reproduce either it or the better machine8 >t has, therefore, lost )alue more or less8 'he shorter the period ta+en to reproduce its total )alue, the less is the danger of moral depreciation; and the longer the "or+ing da*, the shorter is that period8 Bhen machiner* is first introduced into an industr*, ne" methods of reproducing it more cheapl* follo" blo" upon blo"63, and so do impro)ements, that not onl* affect indi)idual parts and details of the machine, but its entire build8 >t is, therefore, in the earl* da*s of the life of machiner* that this special incenti)e to the prolongation of the "or+ing da* ma+es itself felt most acutel*866 Gi)en the length of the "or+ing da*, all other circumstances remaining the same, the e9ploitation of double the number of "or+men demands, not onl* a doubling of that part of constant capital "hich is in)ested in machiner* and buildings, but also of that part "hich is laid out in ra" material and au9iliar* substances8 'he lengthening of the "or+ing da*, on the other hand, allo"s of production on an e9tended scale "ithout an* alteration in the amount of capital laid out on machiner* and buildings867 Cot onl* is there, therefore, an increase of surplus )alue, but the outla* necessar* to obtain it diminishes8 >t is true that this ta+es place, more or less, "ith e)er* lengthening of the "or+ing da*; but in the case under consideration, the change is more mar+ed, because the capital con)erted into the instruments of labour preponderates to a greater degree8 68 'he de)elopment of the factor* s*stem fi9es a constantl* increasing portion of the capital in a form, in "hich, on the one hand, its )alue is capable of continual self4e9pansion, and in "hich, on the other hand, it loses both use4)alue and e9change4)alue "hene)er it loses contact "ith li)ing labour8 @Bhen a labourer,A said $r8 (sh"orth, a cotton magnate, to #rofessor Cassau B8 Senior, @la*s do"n his spade, he renders useless, for that period, a capital "orth eighteen4pence8 Bhen one of our people lea)es the mill, he renders useless a capital that has cost ]177,7778A 62 =nl* fanc*Q ma+ing @uselessA for a single moment, a capital that has cost ]177,777Q >t is, in truth, monstrous, that a single one of our people should e)er lea)e the factor*Q 'he increased use of machiner*, as Senior after the instruction he recei)ed from (sh"orth clearl* percei)es, ma+es a constantl* increasing lengthening of the "or+ing da* @desirable8A 77 $achiner* produces relati)e surplus )alue; not onl* b* directl* depreciating the )alue of labour4 po"er, and b* indirectl* cheapening the same through cheapening the commodities that enter into its reproduction, but also, "hen it is first introduced sporadicall* into an industr*, b* con)erting the labour emplo*ed b* the o"ner of that machiner*, into labour of a higher degree and greater efficac*, b* raising the social )alue of the article produced abo)e its indi)idual )alue, and thus enabling the capitalist to replace the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er b* a smaller portion of the )alue of a da*?s product8 0uring this transition period, "hen the use of machiner* is a sort of monopol*, the profits are therefore e9ceptional, and the capitalist endea)ours to e9ploit thoroughl* @the sunn* time of this his first lo)e,A b* prolonging the "or+ing da* as much as possible8 'he magnitude of the profit "hets his appetite for more profit8 (s the use of machiner* becomes more general in a particular industr*, the social )alue of the product sin+s do"n to its indi)idual )alue, and the la" that surplus )alue does not arise from the labour4po"er that has been replaced b* the machiner*, but from the labour4po"er actuall* emplo*ed in "or+ing "ith the machiner*, asserts itself8 Surplus )alue arises from )ariable capital alone, and "e sa" that the amount of surplus )alue depends on t"o factors, )i18, the rate of surplus )alue and the number of the "or+men simultaneousl* emplo*ed8 Gi)en the length of the "or+ing da*, the rate of surplus )alue is determined b* the relati)e duration of the necessar* labour and of the surplus labour in a da*8 'he number of the labourers simultaneousl* emplo*ed depends, on its side, on the ratio of the )ariable to the constant capital8 Co", ho"e)er much the use of machiner* ma* increase the surplus labour at the e9pense of the necessar* labour b*

61

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heightening the producti)eness of labour, it is clear that it attains this result, onl* b* diminishing the number of "or+men emplo*ed b* a gi)en amount of capital8 >t con)erts "hat "as formerl* )ariable capital, in)ested in labour4po"er, into machiner* "hich, being constant capital, does not produce surplus )alue8 >t is impossible, for instance, to sIuee1e as much surplus )alue out of 6 as out of 6 labourers8 >f each of these 6 men gi)es onl* one hour of surplus labour in 16, the 6 men gi)e together 6 hours of surplus labour, "hile 6 hours is the total labour of the t"o men8 -ence, the application of machiner* to the production of surplus )alue implies a contradiction "hich is immanent in it, since of the t"o factors of the surplus )alue created b* a gi)en amount of capital, one, the rate of surplus )alue, cannot be increased, e9cept b* diminishing the other, the number of "or+men8 'his contradiction comes to light, as soon as b* the general emplo*ment of machiner* in a gi)en industr*, the )alue of the machine4produced commodit* regulates the )alue of all commodities of the same sort; and it is this contradiction, that in its turn, dri)es the capitalist, "ithout his being conscious of the fact, 71 to e9cessi)e lengthening of the "or+ing da*, in order that he ma* compensate the decrease in the relati)e number of labourers e9ploited, b* an increase not onl* of the relati)e, but of the absolute surplus labour8 >f, then, the capitalistic emplo*ment of machiner*, on the one hand, supplies ne" and po"erful moti)es to an e9cessi)e lengthening of the "or+ing da*, and radicall* changes, as "ell the methods of labour, as also the character of the social "or+ing organism, in such a manner as to brea+ do"n all opposition to this tendenc*, on the other hand it produces, partl* b* opening out to the capitalist ne" strata of the "or+ing4class, pre)iousl* inaccessible to him, partl* b* setting free the labourers it supplants, a surplus "or+ing population, 76 "hich is compelled to submit to the dictation of capital8 -ence that remar+able phenomenon in the histor* of modern industr*, that machiner* s"eeps a"a* e)er* moral and natural restriction on the length of the "or+ing da*8 -ence, too, the economic parado9, that the most po"erful instrument for shortening labour4time, becomes the most unfailing means for placing e)er* moment of the labourer?s time and that of his famil*, at the disposal of the capitalist for the purpose of e9panding the )alue of his capital8 @>f,A dreamed (ristotle, the greatest thin+er of antiIuit*, @if e)er* tool, "hen summoned, or e)en of its o"n accord, could do the "or+ that befits it, Dust as the creations of 0aedalus mo)ed of themsel)es, or the tripods of -ephaestos "ent of their o"n accord to their sacred "or+, if the "ea)ers? shuttles "ere to "ea)e of themsel)es, then there "ould be no need either of apprentices for the master "or+ers, or of sla)es for the lords8A 7:(nd (ntipatros, a Gree+ poet of the time of 5icero, hailed the in)ention of the "ater4"heel for grinding corn, an in)ention that is the elementar* form of all machiner*, as the gi)er of freedom to female sla)es, and the bringer bac+ of the golden age87 =hQ those heathensQ 'he* understood, as the learned /astiat, and before him the still "iser $ac5ulloch ha)e disco)ered, nothing of #olitical Econom* and 5hristianit*8 'he* did not, for e9ample, comprehend that machiner* is the surest means of lengthening the "or+ing da*8 'he* perhaps e9cused the sla)er* of one on the ground that it "as a means to the full de)elopment of another8 /ut to preach sla)er* of the masses, in order that a fe" crude and half4 educated par)enus, might become @eminent spinners,A @e9tensi)e sausage4ma+ers,A and @influential shoe4blac+ dealers,A to do this, the* lac+ed the bump of 5hristianit*8

C. .nten#ification of *a$our
'he immoderate lengthening of the "or+ing da*, produced b* machiner* in the hands of capital, leads to a reaction on the part of societ*, the )er* sources of "hose life are menaced; and, thence, to a normal "or+ing da* "hose length is fi9ed b* la"8 'henceforth a phenomenon8 that "e ha)e alread* met "ith, namel*, the intensification of labour, de)elops into great importance8 =ur anal*sis of absolute surplus )alue had reference primaril* to the e9tension or duration of the

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labour, its intensit* being assumed as gi)en8 Be no" proceed to consider the substitution of a more intensified labour for labour of more e9tensi)e duration, and the degree of the former8 >t is self4e)ident, that in proportion as the use of machiner* spreads, and the e9perience of a special class of "or+men habituated to machiner* accumulates, the rapidit* and intensit* of labour increase as a natural conseIuence8 'hus in England, during half a centur*, lengthening of the "or+ing da* "ent hand in hand "ith increasing intensit* of factor* labour8 Ce)ertheless the reader "ill clearl* see, that "here "e ha)e labour, not carried on b* fits and starts, but repeated da* after da* "ith un)ar*ing uniformit*, a point must ine)itabl* be reached, "here e9tension of the "or+ing da* and intensit* of the labour mutuall* e9clude one another, in such a "a* that lengthening of the "or+ing da* becomes compatible onl* "ith a lo"er degree of intensit*, and a higher degree of intensit*, onl* "ith a shortening of the "or+ing da*8 So soon as the graduall* surging re)olt of the "or+ing4class compelled #arliament to shorten compulsoril* the hours of labour, and to begin b* imposing a normal "or+ing da* on factories proper, so soon conseIuentl* as an increased production of surplus )alue b* the prolongation of the "or+ing da* "as once for all put a stop to, from that moment capital thre" itself "ith all its might into the production of relati)e surplus )alue, b* hastening on the further impro)ement of machiner*8 (t the same time a change too+ place in the nature of relati)e surplus )alue8 Generall* spea+ing, the mode of producing relati)e surplus )alue consists in raising the producti)e po"er of the "or+man, so as to enable him to produce more in a gi)en time "ith the same e9penditure of labour8 <abour4time continues to transmit as before the same )alue to the total product, but this unchanged amount of e9change4)alue is spread o)er more use4)alue; hence the )alue of each single commodit* sin+s8 =ther"ise, ho"e)er, so soon as the compulsor* shortening of the hours of labour ta+es place8 'he immense impetus it gi)es the de)elopment of producti)e po"er, and to econom* in the means of production, imposes on the "or+man increased e9penditure of labour in a gi)en time, heightened tension of labour4po"er, and closer filling up of the pores of the "or+ing da*, or condensation of labour to a degree that is attainable onl* "ithin the limits of the shortened "or+ing da*8 'his condensation of a greater mass of labour into a gi)en period thencefor"ard counts for "hat it reall* is, a greater Iuantit* of labour8 >n addition to a measure of its e9tension, i8e8, duration, labour no" acIuires a measure of its intensit* or of the degree of its condensation or densit*8 73 'he denser hour of the ten hours? "or+ing da* contains more labour, i8e8, e9pended labour4po"er8 than the more porous hour of the t"el)e hours? "or+ing da*8 'he product therefore of one of the former hours has as much or more )alue than has the product of 1 1J3 of the latter hours8 (part from the increased *ield of relati)e surplus )alue through the heightened producti)eness of labour, the same mass of )alue is no" produced for the capitalist sa* b* : 1J: hours of surplus labour, and 6 6J: hours of necessar* labour, as "as pre)iousl* produced b* four hours of surplus labour and eight hours of necessar* labour8 Be no" come to the Iuestion: -o" is the labour intensifiedE 'he first effect of shortening the "or+ing da* results from the self4e)ident la", that the efficienc* of labour4po"er is in an in)erse ratio to the duration of its e9penditure8 -ence, "ithin certain limits "hat is lost b* shortening the duration is gained b* the increasing tension of labour4po"er8 'hat the "or+man moreo)er reall* does e9pend more labour4po"er, is ensured b* the mode in "hich the capitalist pa*s him8 76 >n those industries, such as potteries, "here machiner* pla*s little or no part, the introduction of the Factor* (cts has stri+ingl* sho"n that the mere shortening of the "or+ing da* increases to a "onderful degree the regularit*, uniformit*, order, continuit*, and energ* of the labour877 >t seemed, ho"e)er, doubtful "hether this effect "as produced in the factor* proper, "here the dependence of the "or+man on the continuous and uniform motion of the machiner* had alread* created the strictest discipline8 -ence, "hen in 18 the reduction of

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the "or+ing da* to less than t"el)e hours "as being debated, the masters almost unanimousl* declared @that their o)erloo+ers in the different rooms too+ good care that the hands lost no time,A that @the e9tent of )igilance and attention on the part of the "or+men "as hardl* capable of being increased,A and, therefore, that the speed of the machiner* and other conditions remaining unaltered, @to e9pect in a "ell4managed factor* an* important result from increased attention of the "or+men "as an absurdit*8A 78 'his assertion "as contradicted b* e9periments8 $r8 &obert Gardner reduced the hours of labour in his t"o large factories at #reston, on and after the 67th (pril, 18 , from t"el)e to ele)en hours a da*8 'he result of about a *ear?s "or+ing "as that @the same amount of product for the same cost "as recei)ed, and the "or+people as a "hole earned in ele)en hours as much "ages as the* did before in t"el)e8A72 > pass o)er the e9periments made in the spinning and carding rooms, because the* "ere accompanied b* an increase of 6` in the speed of the machines8 /ut in the "ea)ing department, "here, moreo)er, man* sorts of figured fanc* articles "ere "o)en, there "as not the slightest alteration in the conditions of the "or+8 'he result "as: @From 6th Lanuar* to 67th (pril, 18 , "ith a t"el)e hours? da*, a)erage "ee+l* "ages of each hand 17s8 1[d8, from 67th (pril to 62th Lune, 18 , "ith da* of ele)en hours, a)erage "ee+l* "ages 17s8 :[d8A 87 -ere "e ha)e more produced in ele)en hours than pre)iousl* in t"el)e, and entirel* in conseIuence of more stead* application and econom* of time b* the "or+people8 Bhile the* got the same "ages and gained one hour of spare time, the capitalist got the same amount produced and sa)ed the cost of coal, gas, and other such items, for one hour8 Similar e9periments, and "ith the li+e success, "ere carried out in the mills of $essrs8 -orroc+s and Lacson8 81 'he shortening of the hours of labour creates, to begin "ith, the subDecti)e conditions for the condensation of labour, b* enabling the "or+man to e9ert more strength in a gi)en time8 So soon as that shortening becomes compulsor*, machiner* becomes in the hands of capital the obDecti)e means, s*stematicall* emplo*ed for sIuee1ing out more labour in a gi)en time8 'his is effected in t"o "a*s: b* increasing the speed of the machiner*, and b* gi)ing the "or+man more machiner* to tent8 >mpro)ed construction of the machiner* is necessar*, partl* because "ithout it greater pressure cannot be put on the "or+man, and partl* because the shortened hours of labour force the capitalist to e9ercise the strictest "atch o)er the cost of production8 'he impro)ements in the steam4engine ha)e increased the piston speed, and at the same time ha)e made it possible, b* means of a greater econom* of po"er, to dri)e "ith the same or e)en a smaller consumption of coal more machiner* "ith the same engine8 'he impro)ements in the transmitting mechanism ha)e lessened friction, and, "hat so stri+ingl* distinguishes modern from the older machiner*, ha)e reduced the diameter and "eight of the shafting to a constantl* decreasing minimum8 Finall*, the impro)ements in the operati)e machines ha)e, "hile reducing their si1e, increased their speed and efficienc*, as in the modern po"er4loom; or, "hile increasing the si1e of their frame"or+, ha)e also increased the e9tent and number of their "or+ing parts, as in spinning4 mules, or ha)e added to the speed of these "or+ing parts b* imperceptible alterations of detail, such as those "hich ten *ears ago increased the speed of the spindles in self4acting mules b* one4 fifth8 'he reduction of the "or+ing da* to 16 hours dates in England from 18:68 >n 18:6 a manufacturer stated: @'he labour no" undergone in the factories is much greater than it used to be 888 compared "ith thirt* or fort* *ears ago 888 o"ing to the greater attention and acti)it* reIuired b* the greatl* increased speed "hich is gi)en to the machiner*8A86

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>n the *ear 18 , <ord (shle*, no" <ord Shaftesbur*, made in the -ouse of 5ommons the follo"ing statements, supported b* documentar* e)idence: @'he labour performed b* those engaged in the processes of manufacture, is three times as great as in the beginning of such operations8 $achiner* has e9ecuted, no doubt, the "or+ that "ould demand the sine"s of millions of men; but it has also prodigiousl* multiplied the labour of those8 "ho are go)erned b* its fearful mo)ements8888 >n 1813, the labour of follo"ing a pair of mules spinning cotton of Co8 7 F rec+oning 16 hours to the "or+ing da* F in)ol)ed a necessit* of "al+ing 8 miles8 >n 18:6, the distance tra)elled in follo"ing a pair of mules, spinning cotton *arn of the same number, "as 67 miles, and freIuentl* more8 >n 18:3A (Iuer* F 1813 or 1863E! @the spinner put up dail*, on each of these mules, 867 stretches, ma+ing a total of 1,6 7 stretches in the course of the da*8 >n 18:6, the spinner put up on each mule 6,677 stretches, ma+ing a total of , 778 >n 18 , 6, 77 stretches, ma+ing a total of ,877; and in some cases the amount of labour reIuired is e)en still greater8888 > ha)e another document sent to me in 18 6, stating that the labour is progressi)el* increasing4increasing not onl* because the distance to be tra)elled is greater, but because the Iuantit* of goods produced is multiplied, "hile the hands are fe"er in proportion than before; and, moreo)er, because an inferior species of cotton is no" often spun, "hich it is more difficult to "or+8888 >n the carding4room there has also been a great increase of labour8 =ne person there does the "or+ formerl* di)ided bet"een t"o8 >n the "ea)ing4room, "here a )ast number of persons are emplo*ed, and principall* females 888 the labour has increased "ithin the last fe" *ears full* 17 per cent8, o"ing to the increased speed of the machiner* in spinning8 >n 18:8, the number of han+s spun per "ee+ "as 18,777, in 18 : it amounted to 61,7778 >n 1812, the number of pic+s in po"er4loom4"ea)ing per minute "as 67 F in 18 6 it "as 1 7, sho"ing a )ast increase of labour8A8: >n the face of this remar+able intensit* of labour "hich had alread* been reached in 18 under the '"el)e -ours? (ct, there appeared to be a Dustification for the assertion made at that time b* the English manufacturers, that an* further progress in that direction "as impossible, and therefore that e)er* further reduction of the hours of labour meant a lessened production8 'he apparent correctness of their reasons "ill be best sho"n b* the follo"ing contemporar* statement b* <eonard -orner, the factor* inspector, their e)er "atchful censor8 @Co", as the Iuantit* produced must, in the main, be regulated b* the speed of the machiner*, it must be the interest of the mill4o"ner to dri)e it at the utmost rate of speed consistent "ith these follo"ing conditions, )i18, the preser)ation of the machiner* from too rapid deterioration; the preser)ation of the Iualit* of the article manufactured; and the capabilit* of the "or+man to follo" the motion "ithout a greater e9ertion than he can sustain for a constanc*8 =ne of the most important problems, therefore, "hich the o"ner of a factor* has to sol)e is to find out the ma9imum speed at "hich he can run, "ith a due regard to the abo)e conditions8 >t freIuentl* happens that he finds he has gone too fast, that brea+ages and bad "or+ more than counterbalance the increased speed, and that he is obliged to slac+en his pace8 > therefore concluded, that as an acti)e and intelligent mill4o"ner "ould find out the safe ma9imum, it "ould not be possible to produce as much in ele)en hours as in t"el)e8 > further assumed that the operati)e paid b* piece"or+, "ould e9ert himself to the utmost consistent "ith the po"er of continuing at the same rate8A8

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-orner, therefore, came to the conclusion that a reduction of the "or+ing hours belo" t"el)e "ould necessaril* diminish production8 83 -e himself, ten *ears later, cites his opinion of 18 3 in proof of ho" much he under4estimated in that *ear the elasticit* of machiner*, and of man?s labour4po"er, both of "hich are simultaneousl* stretched to an e9treme b* the compulsor* shortening of the "or+ing da*8 Be no" come to the period that follo"s the introduction of the 'en -ours? (ct in 18 7 into the English cotton, "oollen, sil+, and fla9 mills8 @'he speed of the spindles has increased upon throstles 377, and upon mules 1,777 re)olutions a minute, i8e8, the speed of the throstle spindle, "hich in 18:2 "as ,377 times a minute, is no" (1866! 3,777; and of the mule spindle, that "as 3,777, is no" 6,777 times a minute, amounting in the former case to one4tenth, and in the second case to one4fifth additional increase8A 86 Lames Casm*th, the eminent ci)il engineer of #atricroft, near $anchester, e9plained in a letter to <eonard -orner, "ritten in 1836, the nature of the impro)ements in the steam4engine that had been made bet"een the *ears 18 8 and 18368 (fter remar+ing that the horse4po"er of steam4 engines, being al"a*s estimated in the official returns according to the po"er of similar engines in 186887, is onl* nominal, and can ser)e onl* as an inde9 of their real po"er, he goes on to sa*: @> am confident that from the same "eight of steam4engine machiner*, "e are no" obtaining at least 37 per cent8 more dut* or "or+ performed on the a)erage, and that in man* cases the identical steam4engines "hich in the da*s of the restricted speed of 667 feet per minute, *ielded 37 horsepo"er, are no" *ielding up"ards of 177888A V'he modern steam4engine of 177 horse4po"er is capable of being dri)en at a much greater force than formerl*, arising from impro)ements in its construction, the capacit* and construction of the boilers, Pc8888A @(lthough the same number of hands are emplo*ed in proportion to the horse4po"er as at former periods, there are fe"er hands emplo*ed in proportion to the machiner*8A 88 @>n the *ear 1837, the factories of the %nited .ingdom emplo*ed 1: ,617 nominal horse4 po"er to gi)e motion to 63,6:8,716 spindles and :71, 3 looms8 'he number of spindles and looms in 1836 "as respecti)el* ::,37:,387 of the former, and :62,673 of the latter, "hich, rec+oning the force of the nominal horse4po"er reIuired to be the same as in 1837, "ould reIuire a force eIual to 173,777 horses, but the actual po"er gi)en in the return for 1836 is 161, :3, less b* abo)e 17,777 horses than, calculating upon the basis of the return of 1837, the factories ought to ha)e reIuired in 18368A 82 @'he facts thus brought out b* the &eturn (of 1836! appear to be that the factor* s*stem is increasing rapidl*; that although the same number of hands are emplo*ed in proportion to the horse4po"er as at former periods, there are fe"er hands emplo*ed in proportion to the machiner*; that the steam4engine is enabled to dri)e an increased "eight of machiner* b* econom* of force and other methods, and that an increased Iuantit* of "or+ can be turned off b* impro)ements in machiner*, and in methods of manufacture, b* increase of speed of the machiner*, and b* a )ariet* of other causes8A 27 @'he great impro)ements made in machines of e)er* +ind ha)e raised their producti)e po"er )er* much8 Bithout an* doubt, the shortening of the hours of labour888 ga)e the impulse to these impro)ements8 'he latter, combined "ith the more intense strain on the "or+man, ha)e had the effect, that at least as much is produced in the shortened (b* t"o hours or one4si9th! "or+ing da* as "as pre)iousl* produced during the longer one8A21

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=ne fact is sufficient to sho" ho" greatl* the "ealth of the manufacturers increased along "ith the more intense e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 From 18:8 to 1837, the a)erage proportional increase in English cotton and other factories "as :6`, "hile from 1837 to 1836 it amounted to 86`8 /ut ho"e)er great the progress of English industr* had been during the 8 *ears from 18 8 to 1836 under the influence of a "or+ing da* of 17 hours, it "ag far surpassed during the ne9t period of 6 *ears from 1836 to 18668 >n sil+ factories, for instance, there "ere in 1836, spindles 1,72:,722; in 1866, 1,:88,3 ; in 1836, looms 2,667; in 1866, 17,7728 /ut the number of operati)es "as, in 1836, 36,1:1; in 1866, 36, 628 'he increase in the spindles "as therefore 6682` and in the looms 1386`, "hile the number of the operati)es decreased 7`8 >n the *ear 1837 there "ere emplo*ed in "orsted mills 873,8:7 spindles; in 1836, 1,:6 ,3 2 (increase 3186`!, and in 1866, 1,682,176 (decrease 687`!8 /ut if "e deduct the doubling spindles that figure in the numbers for 1836, but not in those for 1866, it "ill be found that after 1836 the number of spindles remained nearl* stationar*8 =n the other hand, after 1837, the speed of the spindles and looms "as in man* cases doubled8 'he number of po"er4looms in "orsted mills "as, in 1837, :6,617; in 1836, :8,236; in 1866, :,7 88 'he number of the operati)es "as, in 1837, 72,7:7; in 1836, 87,72 ; in 1866, 86,76:; included in these, ho"e)er, the children under 1 *ears of age "ere, in 1837, 2,236; in 1836, 11,668; in 1866, 1:,1788 >n spite, therefore, of the greatl* increased number of looms in 1866, compared "ith 1836, the total number of the "or+people emplo*ed decreased, and that of the children e9ploited increased8 26 =n the 67th (pril, 186:, $r8 Ferrand said in the -ouse of 5ommons: @> ha)e been informed b* delegates from 16 districts of <ancashire and 5heshire, in "hose behalf > spea+, that the "or+ in the factories is, in conseIuence of the impro)ements in machiner*, constantl* on the increase8 >nstead of as formerl* one person "ith t"o helps tenting t"o looms, one person no" tents three looms "ithout helps, and it is no uncommon thing for one person to tent four8 '"el)e hours? "or+, as is e)ident from the facts adduced, is no" compressed into less than 17 hours8 >t is therefore self4e)ident, to "hat an enormous e9tent the toil of the factor* operati)e has increased during the last 17 *ears8A 2: (lthough, therefore, the Factor* >nspectors unceasingl* and "ith Dustice, commend the results of the (cts of 18 and 1837, *et the* admit that the shortening of the hours of labour has alread* called forth such an intensification of the labour as is inDurious to the health of the "or+man and to his capacit* for "or+8 @>n most of the cotton, "orsted, and sil+ mills, an e9hausting state of e9citement necessar* to enable the "or+ers satisfactoril* to mind the machiner*, the motion of "hich has been greatl* accelerated "ithin the last fe" *ears, seems to me not unli+el* to be one of the causes of that e9cess of mortalit* from lung disease, "hich 0r8 Greenho" has pointed out in his recent report on this subDect8A 2 'here cannot be the slightest doubt that the tendenc* that urges capital, so soon as a prolongation of the hours of labour is once for all forbidden, to compensate itself, b* a s*stematic heightening of the intensit* of labour, and to con)ert e)er* impro)ement in machiner* into a more perfect means of e9hausting the "or+man, must soon lead to a state of things in "hich a reduction of the hours of labour "ill again be ine)itable8 23 =n the other hand, the rapid ad)ance of English industr* bet"een 18 8 and the present time, under the influence of a da* of 17 hours, surpasses the ad)ance made bet"een 18:: and 18 7, "hen the da* "as 16 hours long, b* far more than the latter surpasses the ad)ance made during the half centur* after the first introduction of the factor* s*stem, "hen the "or+ing da* "as "ithout limits826

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Section ,: The Factor

(t the commencement of this chapter "e considered that "hich "e ma* call the bod* of the factor*, i8e8, machiner* organised into a s*stem8 Be there sa" ho" machiner*, b* anne9ing the labour of "omen and children, augments the number of human beings "ho form the material for capitalistic e9ploitation, ho" it confiscates the "hole of the "or+man?s disposable time, b* immoderate e9tension of the hours of labour, and ho" finall* its progress, "hich allo"s of enormous increase of production in shorter and shorter periods, ser)es as a means of s*stematicall* getting more "or+ done in a shorter time, or of e9ploiting labour4po"er more intensel*8 Be no" turn to the factor* as a "hole, and that in its most perfect form8 0r8 %re, the #indar of the automatic factor*, describes it, on the one hand, as @5ombined co4operation of man* orders of "or+people, adult and *oung, in tending "ith assiduous s+ill, a s*stem of producti)e machines, continuousl* impelled b* a central po"erA (the prime mo)er!; on the other hand, as @a )ast automaton, composed of )arious mechanical and intellectual organs, acting in uninterrupted concert for the production of a common obDect, all of them being subordinate to a self4regulated mo)ing force8A 'hese t"o descriptions are far from being identical8 >n one, the collecti)e labourer, or social bod* of labour, appears as the dominant subDect, and the mechanical automaton as the obDect; in the other, the automaton itself is the subDect, and the "or+men are merel* conscious organs, co4 ordinate "ith the unconscious organs of the automaton, and together "ith them, subordinated to the central mo)ing4po"er8 'he first description is applicable to e)er* possible emplo*ment of machiner* on a large scale, the second is characteristic of its use b* capital, and therefore of the modern factor* s*stem8 %re prefers therefore, to describe the central machine, from "hich the motion comes, not onl* as an automaton, but as an autocrat8 @>n these spacious halls the benignant po"er of steam summons around him his m*riads of "illing menials8A 27 (long "ith the tool, the s+ill of the "or+man in handling it passes o)er to the machine8 'he capabilities of the tool are emancipated from the restraints that are inseparable from human labour4po"er8 'hereb* the technical foundation on "hich is based the di)ision of labour in $anufacture, is s"ept a"a*8 -ence, in the place of the hierarch* of specialised "or+men that characterises manufacture, there steps, in the automatic factor*, a tendenc* to eIualise and reduce to one and the same le)el e)er* +ind of "or+ that has to be done b* the minders of the machines;28 in the place of the artificiall* produced differentiations of the detail "or+men, step the natural differences of age and se98 So far as di)ision of labour re4appears in the factor*, it is primaril* a distribution of the "or+men among the specialised machines; and of masses of "or+men, not ho"e)er organised into groups, among the )arious departments of the factor*, in each of "hich the* "or+ at a number of similar machines placed together; their co4operation, therefore, is onl* simple8 'he organised group, peculiar to manufacture, is replaced b* the conne9ion bet"een the head "or+man and his fe" assistants8 'he essential di)ision is, into "or+men "ho are actuall* emplo*ed on the machines (among "hom are included a fe" "ho loo+ after the engine!, and into mere attendants (almost e9clusi)el* children! of these "or+men8 (mong the attendants are rec+oned more or less all @FeedersA "ho suppl* the machines "ith the material to be "or+ed8 >n addition to these t"o principal classes, there is a numericall* unimportant class of persons, "hose occupation it is to loo+ after the "hole of the machiner* and repair it from time to time; such as engineers, mechanics, Doiners, Pc8 'his is a superior class of "or+men, some of them scientificall* educated, others brought up to a trade; it is distinct from the factor* operati)e class, and merel* aggregated to it822 'his di)ision of labour is purel* technical8

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'o "or+ at a machine, the "or+man should be taught from childhood, in order that he ma* learn to adapt his o"n mo)ements to the uniform and unceasing motion of an automaton8 Bhen the machiner*, as a "hole, forms a s*stem of manifold machines, "or+ing simultaneousl* and in concert, the co4operation based upon it, reIuires the distribution of )arious groups of "or+men among the different +inds of machines8 /ut the emplo*ment of machiner* does a"a* "ith the necessit* of cr*stallising this distribution after the manner of $anufacture, b* the constant anne9ation of a particular man to a particular function8 177 Since the motion of the "hole s*stem does not proceed from the "or+man, but from the machiner*, a change of persons can ta+e place at an* time "ithout an interruption of the "or+8 'he most stri+ing proof of this is afforded b* the relays system, put into operation b* the manufacturers during their re)olt from 18 8418378 <astl*, the Iuic+ness "ith "hich machine "or+ is learnt b* *oung people, does a"a* "ith the necessit* of bringing up for e9clusi)e emplo*ment b* machiner*, a special class of operati)es8 171 Bith regard to the "or+ of the mere attendants, it can, to some e9tent, be replaced in the mill b* machines,176 and o"ing to its e9treme simplicit*, it allo"s of a rapid and constant change of the indi)iduals burdened "ith this drudger*8 (lthough then, technicall* spea+ing, the old s*stem of di)ision of labour is thro"n o)erboard b* machiner*, it hangs on in the factor*, as a traditional habit handed do"n from $anufacture, and is after"ards s*stematicall* re4moulded and established in a more hideous form b* capital, as a means of e9ploiting labour4po"er8 'he life4long specialit* of handling one and the same tool, no" becomes the life4long specialit* of ser)ing one and the same machine8 $achiner* is put to a "rong use, "ith the obDect of transforming the "or+man, from his )er* childhood, into a part of a detail4machine817: >n this "a*, not onl* are the e9penses of his reproduction considerabl* lessened, but at the same time his helpless dependence upon the factor* as a "hole, and therefore upon the capitalist, is rendered complete8 -ere as e)er*"here else, "e must distinguish bet"een the increased producti)eness due to the de)elopment of the social process of production, and that due to the capitalist e9ploitation of that process8 >n handicrafts and manufacture, the "or+man ma+es use of a tool, in the factor*, the machine ma+es use of him8 'here the mo)ements of the instrument of labour proceed from him, here it is the mo)ements of the machine that he must follo"8 >n manufacture the "or+men are parts of a li)ing mechanism8 >n the factor* "e ha)e a lifeless mechanism independent of the "or+man, "ho becomes its mere li)ing appendage8 @'he miserable routine of endless drudger* and toil in "hich the same mechanical process is gone through o)er and o)er again, is li+e the labour of Sis*phus8 'he burden of labour, li+e the roc+, +eeps e)er falling bac+ on the "orn4out labourer8A17 (t the same time that factor* "or+ e9hausts the ner)ous s*stem to the uttermost, it does a"a* "ith the man*4sided pla* of the muscles, and confiscates e)er* atom of freedom, both in bodil* and intellectual acti)it*8173 'he lightening of the labour, e)en, becomes a sort of torture, since the machine does not free the labourer from "or+, but depri)es the "or+ of all interest8 E)er* +ind of capitalist production, in so far as it is not onl* a labour4process, but also a process of creating surplus )alue, has this in common, that it is not the "or+man that emplo*s the instruments of labour, but the instruments of labour that emplo* the "or+man8 /ut it is onl* in the factor* s*stem that this in)ersion for the first time acIuires technical and palpable realit*8 /* means of its con)ersion into an automaton, the instrument of labour confronts the labourer, during the labour4process, in the shape of capital, of dead labour, that dominates, and pumps dr*, li)ing labour4po"er8 'he separation of the intellectual po"ers of production from the manual labour, and the con)ersion of those po"ers into the might of capital o)er labour, is, as "e ha)e alread* sho"n8 finall* completed b* modern industr* erected on the foundation of machiner*8 'he special s+ill of each indi)idual insignificant factor* operati)e )anishes as an infinitesimal

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Iuantit* before the science, the gigantic ph*sical forces, and the mass of labour that are embodied in the factor* mechanism and, together "ith that mechanism, constitute the po"er of the @master8A 'his @master,A therefore, in "hose brain the machiner* and his monopol* of it are inseparabl* united, "hene)er he falls out "ith his @hands,A contemptuousl* tells them: @'he factor* operati)es should +eep in "holesome remembrance the fact that theirs is reall* a lo" species of s+illed labour; and that there is none "hich is more easil* acIuired, or of its Iualit* more ampl* remunerated, or "hich b* a short training of the least e9pert can be more Iuic+l*, as "ell as abundantl*, acIuired8888 'he master?s machiner* reall* pla*s a far more important part in the business of production than the labour and the s+ill of the operati)e, "hich si9 months? education can teach, and a common labourer can learn8A 176 'he technical subordination of the "or+man to the uniform motion of the instruments of labour, and the peculiar composition of the bod* of "or+people, consisting as it does of indi)iduals of both se9es and of all ages, gi)e rise to a barrac+ discipline, "hich is elaborated into a complete s*stem in the factor*, and "hich full* de)elops the before mentioned labour of o)erloo+ing, thereb* di)iding the "or+people into operati)es and o)erloo+ers, into pri)ate soldiers and sergeants of an industrial arm*8 @'he main difficult* Gin the automatic factor*H 888 la* 888 abo)e all in training human beings to renounce their desultor* habits of "or+, and to identif* themsel)es "ith the un)ar*ing regularit* of the comple9 automaton8 'o de)ise and administer a successful code of factor* discipline, suited to the necessities of factor* diligence, "as the -erculean enterprise, the noble achie)ement of (r+"rightQ E)en at the present da*, "hen the s*stem is perfectl* organised and its labour lightened to the utmost, it is found nearl* impossible to con)ert persons past the age of pubert*, into useful factor* hands8A 177 'he factor* code in "hich capital formulates, li+e a pri)ate legislator, and at his o"n good "ill, his autocrac* o)er his "or+people, unaccompanied b* that di)ision of responsibilit*, in other matters so much appro)ed of b* the bourgeoisie, and unaccompanied b* the still more appro)ed representati)e s*stem, this code is but the capitalistic caricature of that social regulation of the labour4process "hich becomes reIuisite in co4operation on a great scale, and in the emplo*ment in common, of instruments of labour and especiall* of machiner*8 'he place of the sla)e4dri)er?s lash is ta+en b* the o)erloo+er?s boo+ of penalties8 (ll punishments naturall* resol)e themsel)es into fines and deductions from "ages, and the la"4gi)ing talent of the factor* <*curgus so arranges matters, that a )iolation of his la"s is, if possible, more profitable to him than the +eeping of them8 178 Be shall here merel* allude to the material conditions under "hich factor* labour is carried on8 E)er* organ of sense is inDured in an eIual degree b* artificial ele)ation of the temperature, b* the dust4 laden atmosphere, b* the deafening noise, not to mention danger to life and limb among the thic+l* cro"ded machiner*, "hich, "ith the regularit* of the seasons, issues its list of the +illed and "ounded in the industrial battle8172 Econom* of the social means of production, matured and forced as in a hothouse b* the factor* s*stem, is turned, in the hands of capital, into s*stematic robber* of "hat is necessar* for the life of the "or+man "hile he is at "or+, robber* of space, light, air, and of protection to his person against the dangerous and un"holesome accompaniments of the producti)e process, not to mention the robber* of appliances for the comfort of the "or+man8117 >s Fourier "rong "hen he calls factories @tempered bagnosVE 111

Section 8: The Strife Between 3orkman and $achine

'he contest bet"een the capitalist and the "age4labourer dates bac+ to the )er* origin of capital8 >t raged on throughout the "hole manufacturing period8 116 /ut onl* since the introduction of

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machiner* has the "or+man fought against the instrument of labour itself, the material embodiment of capital8 -e re)olts against this particular form of the means of production, as being the material basis of the capitalist mode of production8 >n the 17th centur* nearl* all Europe e9perienced re)olts of the "or+people against the ribbon4 loom, a machine for "ea)ing ribbons and trimmings, called in German* /andmThle, SchnurmThle, and $Thlenstuhl8 'hese machines "ere in)ented in German*8 (bbR <ancellotti, in a "or+ that appeared in ;enice in 16:6, but "hich "as "ritten in 1372, sa*s as follo"s: @(nthon* $Tller of 0an1ig sa" about 37 *ears ago in that to"n, a )er* ingenious machine, "hich "ea)es to 6 pieces at once8 /ut the $a*or being apprehensi)e that this in)ention might thro" a large number of "or+men on the streets, caused the in)entor to be secretl* strangled or dro"ned8A >n <e*den, this machine "as not used till 1662; there the riots of the ribbon4"ea)ers at length compelled the 'o"n 5ouncil to prohibit it8 @>n hac urbe,A sa*s /o9horn (>nst8 #ol8, 166:!, referring to the introduction of this machine into <e*den, @ante hos )iginti circiter annos instrumentum Iuidam in)enerunt te9torium, Iuo solus plus panni et facilius conficere poterat, Iuan plures aeIuali tempore8 -inc turbae ortae et Iuerulae te9torum, tandemIue usus huDus instrumenti a magistratu prohibitus est8A G>n this to"n, about t"ent* *ears ago certain people in)ented an instrument for "ea)ing , "ith "hich a single person could "ea)e more cloth, and more easil*, than man* others in the same length of time8 (s a result there arose disturbances and complaints from the "ea)ers, until the 'o"n 5ouncil finall* prohibited the use of this instrument8H (fter ma+ing )arious decrees more or less prohibiti)e against this loom in 16:6, 16:2, Pc8, the States General of -olland at length permitted it to be used, under certain conditions, b* the decree of the 13th 0ecember, 16618 >t "as also prohibited in 5ologne in 1676, at the same time that its introduction into England "as causing disturbances among the "or+people8 /* an imperial Edict of 12th Feb8, 1683, its use "as forbidden throughout all German*8 >n -amburg it "as burnt in public b* order of the Senate8 'he Emperor 5harles ;>8, on 2th Feb8, 1712, rene"ed the edict of 1683, and not till 1763 "as its use openl* allo"ed in the Electorate of Sa9on*8 'his machine, "hich shoo+ Europe to its foundations, "as in fact the precursor of the mule and the po"er4loom, and of the industrial re)olution of the 18th centur*8 >t enabled a totall* ine9perienced bo*, to set the "hole loom "ith all its shuttles in motion, b* simpl* mo)ing a rod bac+"ards and for"ards, and in its impro)ed form produced from 7 to 37 pieces at once8 (bout 16:7, a "ind4sa"mill, erected near <ondon b* a 0utchman, succumbed to the e9cesses of the populace8 E)en as late as the beginning of the 18th centur*, sa"mills dri)en b* "ater o)ercame the opposition of the people, supported as it "as b* #arliament, onl* "ith great difficult*8 Co sooner had E)eret in 1738 erected the first "ool4shearing machine that "as dri)en b* "ater4po"er, than it "as set on fire b* 177,777 people "ho had been thro"n out of "or+8 Fift* thousand "or+people, "ho had pre)iousl* li)ed b* carding "ool, petitioned #arliament against (r+"right?s scribbling mills and carding engines8 'he enormous destruction of machiner* that occurred in the English manufacturing districts during the first 13 *ears of this centur*, chiefl* caused b* the emplo*ment of the po"er4loom, and +no"n as the <uddite mo)ement, ga)e the anti4Lacobin go)ernments of a Sidmouth, a 5astlereagh, and the li+e, a prete9t for the most reactionar* and forcible measures8 >t too+ both time and e9perience before the "or+people learnt to distinguish bet"een machiner* and its emplo*ment b* capital, and to direct their attac+s, not against the material instruments of production, but against the mode in "hich the* are used8 11:

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'he contests about "ages in $anufacture, pre4suppose manufacture, and are in no sense directed against its e9istence8 'he opposition against the establishment of ne" manufactures, proceeds from the guilds and pri)ileged to"ns, not from the "or+people8 -ence the "riters of the manufacturing period treat the di)ision of labour chiefl* as a means of )irtuall* suppl*ing a deficienc* of labourers, and not as a means of actuall* displacing those in "or+8 'his distinction is self4e)ident8 >f it be said that 177 millions of people "ould be reIuired in England to spin "ith the old spinning4"heel the cotton that is no" spun "ith mules b* 377,777 people, this does not mean that the mules too+ the place of those millions "ho ne)er e9isted8 >t means onl* this, that man* millions of "or+people "ould be reIuired to replace the spinning machiner*8 >f, on the other hand, "e sa*, that in England the po"er4loom thre" 877,777 "ea)ers on the streets, "e do not refer to e9isting machiner*, that "ould ha)e to be replaced b* a definite number of "or+people, but to a number of "ea)ers in e9istence "ho "ere actuall* replaced or displaced b* the looms8 0uring the manufacturing period, handicraft labour, altered though it "as b* di)ision of labour, "as8 *et the basis8 'he demands of the ne" colonial mar+ets could not be satisfied o"ing to the relati)el* small number of to"n operati)es handed do"n from the middle ages, and the manufactures proper opened out ne" fields of production to the rural population, dri)en from the land b* the dissolution of the feudal s*stem8 (t that time, therefore, di)ision of labour and co4 operation in the "or+shops, "ere )ie"ed more from the positi)e aspect, that the* made the "or+people more producti)e811 <ong before the period of modern industr*, co4operation and the concentration of the instruments of labour in the hands of a fe", ga)e rise, in numerous countries "here these methods "ere applied in agriculture, to great, sudden and forcible re)olutions in the modes of production, and conseIuentiall*, in the conditions of e9istence, and the means of emplo*ment of the rural populations8 /ut this contest at first ta+es place more bet"een the large and the small landed proprietors, than bet"een capital and "age labour; on the other hand, "hen the labourers are displaced b* the instruments of labour, b* sheep, horses, Pc8, in this case force is directl* resorted to in the first instance as the prelude to the industrial re)olution8 'he labourers are first dri)en from the land, and then come the sheep8 <and grabbing on a great scale, such as "as perpetrated in England, is the first step in creating a field for the establishment of agriculture on a great scale8113 -ence this sub)ersion of agriculture puts on, at first, more the appearance of a political re)olution8 'he instrument of labour, "hen it ta+es the form of a machine, immediatel* becomes a competitor of the "or+man himself8 116 'he self4e9pansion of capital b* means of machiner* is thencefor"ard directl* proportional to the number of the "or+people, "hose means of li)elihood ha)e been destro*ed b* that machiner*8 'he "hole s*stem of capitalist production is based on the fact that the "or+man sells his labour4po"er as a commodit*8 0i)ision of labour specialises this labour4po"er, b* reducing it to s+ill in handling a particular tool8 So soon as the handling of this tool becomes the "or+ of a machine, then, "ith the use4)alue, the e9change4)alue too, of the "or+man?s labour4po"er )anishes; the "or+man becomes unsaleable, li+e paper mone* thro"n out of currenc* b* legal enactment8 'hat portion of the "or+ing4class, thus b* machiner* rendered superfluous, i8e8, no longer immediatel* necessar* for the self4e9pansion of capital, either goes to the "all in the uneIual contest of the old handicrafts and manufactures "ith machiner*, or else floods all the more easil* accessible branches of industr*, s"amps the labour4 mar+et, and sin+s the price of labour4po"er belo" its )alue8 >t is impressed upon the "or+people, as a great consolation, first, that their sufferings are onl* temporar* (@a temporar* incon)enienceV!, secondl*, that machiner* acIuires the master* o)er the "hole of a gi)en field of production, onl* b* degrees, so that the e9tent and intensit* of its destructi)e effect is diminished8 'he first consolation neutralises the second8 Bhen machiner* sei1es on an industr* b* degrees, it produces chronic miser* among the operati)es "ho compete "ith it8 Bhere the transition is rapid,

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the effect is acute and felt b* great masses8 -istor* discloses no traged* more horrible than the gradual e9tinction of the English hand4loom "ea)ers, an e9tinction that "as spread o)er se)eral decades, and finall* sealed in 18:88 $an* of them died of star)ation, man* "ith families )egetated for a long time on 6[ d8 a da*8 117 =n the other hand, the English cotton machiner* produced an acute effect in >ndia8 'he Go)ernor General reported 18: 4:3: @'he miser* hardl* finds a parallel in the histor* of commerce8 'he bones of the cotton4"ea)ers are bleaching the plains of >ndia8A Co doubt, in turning them out of this @temporalA "orld, the machiner* caused them no more than @a temporar* incon)enience8A For the rest, since machiner* is continuall* sei1ing upon ne" fields of production, its temporar* effect is reall* permanent8 -ence, the character of independence and estrangement "hich the capitalist mode of production as a "hole gi)es to the instruments of labour and to the product, as against the "or+man, is de)eloped b* means of machiner* into a thorough antagonism8118 'herefore, it is "ith the ad)ent of machiner*, that the "or+man for the first time brutall* re)olts against the instruments of labour8 'he instrument of labour stri+es do"n the labourer8 'his direct antagonism bet"een the t"o comes out most strongl*, "hene)er ne"l* introduced machiner* competes "ith handicrafts or manufactures, handed do"n from former times8 /ut e)en in modern industr* the continual impro)ement of machiner*, and the de)elopment of the automatic s*stem, has an analogous effect8 @'he obDect of impro)ed machiner* is to diminish manual labour, to pro)ide for the performance of a process or the completion of a lin+ in a manufacture b* the aid of an iron instead of the human apparatus8A 112@'he adaptation of po"er to machiner* heretofore mo)ed b* hand, is almost of dail* occurrence 888 the minor impro)ements in machiner* ha)ing for their obDect econom* of po"er, the production of better "or+, the turning off more "or+ in the same time, or in suppl*ing the place of a child, a female, or a man, are constant, and although sometimes apparentl* of no great moment, ha)e some"hat important results8A 167 @Bhene)er a process reIuires peculiar de9terit* and steadiness of hand, it is "ithdra"n, as soon as possible, from the cunning "or+man, "ho is prone to irregularities of man* +inds, and it is placed in charge of a peculiar mechanism, so self4regulating that a child can superintend it8A 161@=n the automatic plan s+illed labour gets progressi)el* superseded8A 166@'he effect of impro)ements in machiner*, not merel* in superseding the necessit* for the emplo*ment of the same Iuantit* of adult labour as before, in order to produce a gi)en result, but in substituting one description of human labour for another, the less s+illed for the more s+illed, Du)enile for adult, female for male, causes a fresh disturbance in the rate of "ages8A16: @'he effect of substituting the self4acting mule for the common mule, is to discharge the greater part of the men spinners, and to retain adolescents and children8A16 'he e9traordinar* po"er of e9pansion of the factor* s*stem o"ing to accumulated practical e9perience, to the mechanical means at hand, and to constant technical progress, "as pro)ed to us b* the giant strides of that s*stem under the pressure of a shortened "or+ing da*8 /ut "ho, in 1867, the ,enith *ear of the English cotton industr*, "ould ha)e dreamt of the galloping impro)ements in machiner*, and the corresponding displacement of "or+ing people, called into being during the follo"ing : *ears, under the stimulus of the (merican 5i)il BarE ( couple of e9amples from the &eports of the >nspectors of Factories "ill suffice on this point8 ( $anchester manufacturer states:

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@Be formerl* had 73 carding engines, no" "e ha)e 16, doing the same Iuantit* of "or+8888 Be are doing "ith fe"er hands b* 1 , at a sa)ing in "ages of ]17 a4 "ee+8 =ur estimated sa)ing in "aste is about 17` in the Iuantit* of cotton consumed8A @>n another fine4spinning mill in $anchester, > "as informed that through increased speed and the adoption of some self4acting processes, a reduction had been made, in number, of a fourth in one department, and of abo)e half in another, and that the introduction of the combing machine in place of the second carding, had considerabl* reduced, the number of hands formerl* emplo*ed in the carding4room8A (nother spinning4mill is estimated to effect a sa)ing of labour of 17`8 'he $essrs8 Gilmour, spinners at $anchester, state: @>n our blo"ing4room department "e consider our e9pense "ith ne" machiner* is full* one4third less in "ages and hands 888 in the Dac+4frame and dra"ing4frame room, about one4third less in e9pense, and li+e"ise one4third less in hands; in the spinning room about one4third less in e9penses8 /ut this is not all; "hen our *arn goes to the manufacturers, it is so much better b* the application of our ne" machiner*, that the* "ill produce a greater Iuantit* of cloth, and cheaper than from the *arn produced b* old machiner*8A 163 $r8 &edgra)e further remar+s in the same &eport: @'he reduction of hands against increased production is, in fact, constantl* ta+ing place, in "oollen mills the reduction commenced some time since, and is continuing; a fe" da*s since, the master of a school in the neighbourhood of &ochdale said to me, that the great falling off in the girls? school is not onl* caused b* the distress, but b* the changes of machiner* in the "oollen mills, in conseIuence of "hich a reduction of 77 short4timers had ta+en place8A 166 'he follo"ing table sho"s the total result of the mechanical impro)ements in the English cotton industr* due to the (merican 5i)il Bar8 Cumber of Factories England and Bales Scotland >reland %nited .ingdom Cumber of #o"er <ooms England and Bales Scotland >reland %nited .ingdom Cumber of Spindles England and Bales Scotland >reland %nited .ingdom Cumber of #ersons Emplo*ed 1837 6,7 6 136 16 6,617 1837 673,327 61,66 1,6:: 628,8 7 1837 63,818,37 6 6,7 1,162 137,316 68,717,61 7 1837 1861 6,713 16: 2 6,887 1861 :68,163 :7,117 1,737 :22,226 1861 68,:36,16 3 1,213,:28 112,2 :7,:87, 6 7 1861 1868 6, 73 1:1 1: 6,3 2 1868 : ,712 :1,86 6,7 6 :72,:62 1868 :7, 78,668 1,:27,3 6 16 ,6 7 :6,777,71 1868

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England and Bales Scotland >reland %nited .ingdom

: 1,177 : ,628 :,: 3 :72,61:

77,328 1,6:7 6,7: 36,362

:37,736 :2,872 ,67: 71,76

-ence, bet"een 1861 and 1868, ::8 cotton factories disappeared, in other "ords more producti)e machiner* on a larger scale "as concentrated in the hands of a smaller number of capitalists8 'he number of po"er4looms decreased b* 67,66:; but since their product increased in the same period, an impro)ed loom must ha)e *ielded more than an old one8 <astl* the number of spindles increased b* 1,616,3 1, "hile the number of operati)es decreased b* 37,3738 'he @temporar*A miser* inflicted on the "or+people b* the cotton4crisis, "as heightened, and from being temporar* made permanent, b* the rapid and persistent progress of machiner*8 /ut machiner* not onl* acts as a competitor "ho gets the better of the "or+man, and is constantl* on the point of ma+ing him superfluous8 >t is also a po"er inimical to him, and as such capital proclaims it from the roof tops and as such ma+es use of it8 >t is the most po"erful "eapon for repressing stri+es, those periodical re)olts of the "or+ing4class against the autocrac* of capital8167 (ccording to Gas+ell, the steam4engine "as from the )er* first an antagonist of human po"er, an antagonist that enabled the capitalist to tread under foot the gro"ing claims of the "or+men, "ho threatened the ne"l* born factor* s*stem "ith a crisis8 168 >t "ould be possible to "rite Iuite a histor* of the in)entions, made since 18:7, for the sole purpose of suppl*ing capital "ith "eapons against the re)olts of the "or+ing4class8 (t the head of these in importance, stands the self4acting mule, because it opened up a ne" epoch in the automatic s*stem8 162 Casm*th, the in)entor of the steam4hammer, gi)es the follo"ing e)idence before the 'rades? %nion 5ommission, "ith regard to the impro)ements made b* him in machiner* and introduced in conseIuence of the "ide4spread and long stri+es of the engineers in 18318 @'he characteristic feature of our modern mechanical impro)ements, is the introduction of self4acting tool machiner*8 Bhat e)er* mechanical "or+man has no" to do, and "hat e)er* bo* can do, is not to "or+ himself but to superintend the beautiful labour of the machine8 'he "hole class of "or+men that depend e9clusi)el* on their s+ill, is no" done a"a* "ith8 Formerl*, > emplo*ed four bo*s to e)er* mechanic8 'han+s to these ne" mechanical combinations, > ha)e reduced the number of gro"n4up men from 1,377 to 7378 'he result "as a considerable increase in m* profits8A %re sa*s of a machine used in calico printing: @(t length capitalists sought deli)erance from this intolerable bondageA Gnamel* the, in their e*es, burdensome terms of their contracts "ith the "or+menH @in the resources of science, and "ere speedil* re4instated in their legitimate rule, that of the head o)er the inferior members8A Spea+ing of an in)ention for dressing "arps: @'hen the combined malcontents, "ho fancied themsel)es impregnabl* entrenched behind the old lines of di)ision of labour, found their flan+s turned and their defences rendered useless b* the ne" mechanical tactics, and "ere obliged to surrender at discretion8A Bith regard to the in)ention of the self4acting mule, he sa*s: @( creation destined to restore order among the industrious classes8888 'his in)ention confirms the great doctrine alread* propounded, that "hen capital

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enlists science into her ser)ice, the refractor* hand of labour "ill al"a*s be taught docilit*8A1:7 (lthough %re?s "or+ appeared :7 *ears ago, at a time "hen the factor* s*stem "as comparati)el* but little de)eloped, it still perfectl* e9presses the spirit of the factor*, not onl* b* its undisguised c*nicism, but also b* the nao)etR "ith "hich it blurts out the stupid contradictions of the capitalist brain8 For instance, after propounding the @doctrineA stated abo)e, that capital, "ith the aid of science ta+en into its pa*, al"a*s reduces the refractor* hand of labour to docilit*, he gro"s indignant because @it (ph*sico4mechanical science! has been accused of lending itself to the rich capitalist as an instrument for harassing the poor8A (fter preaching a long sermon to sho" ho" ad)antageous the rapid de)elopment of machiner* is to the "or+ing4classes, he "arns them, that b* their obstinac* and their stri+es the* hasten that de)elopment8 @;iolent re)ulsions of this nature,A he sa*s, @displa* short4sighted man in the contemptible character of a self4tormentor8A ( fe" pages before he states the contrar*8 @-ad it not been for the )iolent collisions and interruptions resulting from erroneous )ie"s among the factor* operati)es, the factor* s*stem "ould ha)e been de)eloped still more rapidl* and beneficiall* for all concerned8A 'hen he e9claims again: @Fortunatel* for the state of societ* in the cotton districts of Great /ritain, the impro)ements in machiner* are gradual8A @>tA (impro)ement in machiner*! @is said to lo"er the rate of earnings of adults b* displacing a portion of them, and thus rendering their number superabundant as compared "ith the demand for their labour8 >t certainl* augments the demand for the labour of children and increases the rate of their "ages8A =n the other hand, this same dispenser of consolation defends the lo"ness of the children?s "ages on the ground that it pre)ents parents from sending their children at too earl* an age into the factor*8 'he "hole of his boo+ is a )indication of a "or+ing da* of unrestricted length; that #arliament should forbid children of 1: *ears to be e9hausted b* "or+ing 16 hours a da*, reminds his liberal soul of the dar+est da*s of the $iddle (ges8 'his does not pre)ent him from calling upon the factor* operati)es to than+ #ro)idence, "ho b* means of machiner* has gi)en them the leisure to thin+ of their @immortal interests8A 1:1

Section :: The Theor of Compensation as .e%ards the 3orkpeople -isplaced b $achiner

Lames $ill, $ac5ulloch, 'orrens, Senior, Lohn Stuart $ill, and a "hole series besides, of bourgeois political economists, insist that all machiner* that displaces "or+men, simultaneousl* and necessaril* sets free an amount of capital adeIuate to emplo* the same identical "or+men8 1:6 Suppose a capitalist to emplo* 177 "or+men, at ]:7 a *ear each, in a carpet factor*8 'he )ariable capital annuall* laid out amounts, therefore, to ]:,7778 Suppose, also, that he discharges 37 of his "or+men, and emplo*s the remaining 37 "ith machiner* that costs him ]1,3778 'o simplif* matters, "e ta+e no account of buildings, coal, Pc8 Further suppose that the ra" material annuall* consumed costs ]:,777, both before and after the change8 1:: >s an* capital set free b* this metamorphosisE /efore the change, the total sum of ]6,777 consisted half of constant, and half of

662

5hapter 13

)ariable capital8 (fter the change it consists of ] ,377 constant ( ]:,777 ra" material and ]1,377 machiner*!, and ]1,377 )ariable capital8 'he )ariable capital, instead of being one half, is onl* one Iuarter, of the total capital8 >nstead of being set free, a part of the capital is here loc+ed up in such a "a* as to cease to be e9changed against labour4po"er: )ariable has been changed into constant capital8 =ther things remaining unchanged, the capital of ]6,777, can, in future, emplo* no more than 37 men8 Bith each impro)ement in the machiner*, it "ill emplo* fe"er8 >f the ne"l* introduced machiner* had cost less than did the labour4po"er and implements displaced b* it, if, for instance, instead of costing ]1,377, it had cost onl* ]1,777, a )ariable capital of ]1,777 "ould ha)e been con)erted into constant capital, and loc+ed up; and a capital of ]377 "ould ha)e been set free8 'he latter sum, supposing "ages unchanged, "ould form a fund sufficient to emplo* about 16 out of the 37 men discharged; na*, less than 16, for, in order to be emplo*ed as capital, a part of this ]377 must no" become constant capital, thus lea)ing onl* the remainder to be laid out in labour4po"er8 /ut, suppose, besides, that the ma+ing of the ne" machiner* affords emplo*ment to a greater number of mechanics, can that be called compensation to the carpet4ma+ers, thro"n on the streetsE (t the best, its construction emplo*s fe"er men than its emplo*ment displaces8 'he sum of ]1,377 that formerl* represented the "ages of the discharged carpet4ma+ers, no" represents in the shape of machiner*: (1! the )alue of the means of production used in the construction of that machiner*, (6! the "ages of the mechanics emplo*ed in its construction, and (:! the surplus )alue failing to the share of their @master8A Further, the machiner* need not be rene"ed till it is "orn out8 -ence, in order to +eep the increased number of mechanics in constant emplo*ment, one carpet manufacturer after another must displace "or+men b* machines8 (s a matter of fact the apologists do not mean this sort of setting free8 'he* ha)e in their minds the means of subsistence of the liberated "or+4people8 >t cannot be denied, in the abo)e instance, that the machiner* not onl* liberates 37 men, thus placing them at others? disposal, but, at the same time, it "ithdra"s from their consumption, and sets free, means of subsistence to the )alue of ]1,3778 'he simple fact, b* no means a ne" one, that machiner* cuts off the "or+men from their means of subsistence is, therefore, in economic parlance tantamount to this, that machiner* liberates means of subsistence for the "or+man, or con)erts those means into capital for his emplo*ment8 'he mode of e9pression, *ou see, is e)er*thing8 Cominibus mollire licet mala8 'his theor* implies that the ]1,377 "orth of means of subsistence "as capital that "as being e9panded b* the labour of the 37 men discharged8 'hat, conseIuentl*, this capital falls out of emplo*ment so soon as the* commence their forced holida*s, and ne)er rests till it has found a fresh in)estment, "here it can again be producti)el* consumed b* these same 37 men8 'hat sooner or later, therefore, the capital and the "or+men must come together again, and that, then, the compensation is complete8 'hat the sufferings of the "or+men displaced b* machiner* are therefore as transient as are the riches of this "orld8 >n relation to the discharged "or+men, the ]1,377 "orth of means of subsistence ne)er "as capital8 Bhat reall* confronted them as capital, "as the sum of ]1,377, after"ards laid out in machiner*8 =n loo+ing closer it "ill be seen that this sum represented part of the carpets produced in a *ear b* the 37 discharged men, "hich part the* recei)ed as "ages from their emplo*er in mone* instead of in +ind8 Bith the carpets in the form of mone*, the* bought means of subsistence to the )alue of ]1,3778 'hese means, therefore, "ere to them, not capital, but commodities, and the*, as regards these commodities, "ere not "age4labourers, but bu*ers8 'he circumstance that the* "ere @freedA b* the machiner*, from the means of purchase, changed them from bu*ers into non4bu*ers8 -ence a lessened demand for those commodities F )oilX tout8 >f this

6:7

5hapter 13

diminution be not compensated b* an increase from some other Iuarter, the mar+et price of the commodities falls8 >f this state of things lasts for some time, and e9tends, there follo"s a discharge of "or+men emplo*ed in the production of these commodities8 Some of the capital that "as pre)iousl* de)oted to production of necessar* means of subsistence, has to become reproduced in another form8 Bhile prices fall, and capital is being displaced, the labourers emplo*ed in the production of necessar* means of subsistence are in their turn @freedA from a part of their "ages8 >nstead, therefore, of pro)ing that, "hen machiner* frees the "or+man from his means of subsistence, it simultaneousl* con)erts those means into capital for his further emplo*ment, our apologists, "ith their cut4and4dried la" of suppl* and demand, pro)e, on the contrar*, that machiner* thro"s "or+men on the streets, not onl* in that branch of production in "hich it is introduced, but also in those branches in "hich it is not introduced8 'he real facts, "hich are tra)estied b* the optimism of economists, are as follo"s: 'he labourers, "hen dri)en out of the "or+shop b* the machiner*, are thro"n upon the labour mar+et, and there add to the number of "or+men at the disposal of the capitalists8 >n #art ;>> of this boo+ it "ill be seen that this effect of machiner*, "hich, as "e ha)e seen, is represented to be a compensation to the "or+ing class, is on the contrar* a most frightful scourge8 For the present > "ill onl* sa* this: 'he labourers that are thro"n out of "or+ in an* branch of industr*, can no doubt see+ for emplo*ment in some other branch8 >f the* find it, and thus rene" the bond bet"een them and the means of subsistence, this ta+es place onl* b* the intermediar* of a ne" and additional capital that is see+ing in)estment; not at all b* the intermediar* of the capital that formerl* emplo*ed them and "as after"ards con)erted into machiner*8 (nd e)en should the* find emplo*ment, "hat a poor loo+4out is theirsQ 5rippled as the* are b* di)ision of labour, these poor de)ils are "orth so little outside their old trade, that the* cannot find admission into an* industries, e9cept a fe" of inferior +ind, that are o)er4supplied "ith underpaid "or+men8 1: Further, e)er* branch of industr* attracts each *ear a ne" stream of men, "ho furnish a contingent from "hich to fill up )acancies, and to dra" a suppl* for e9pansion8 So soon as machiner* sets free a part of the "or+men emplo*ed in a gi)en branch of industr*, the reser)e men are also di)erted into ne" channels of emplo*ment, and become absorbed in other branches; mean"hile the original )ictims, during the period of transition, for the most part star)e and perish8 >t is an undoubted fact that machiner*, as such, is not responsible for @setting freeA the "or+man from the means of subsistence8 >t cheapens and increases production in that branch "hich it sei1es on, and at first ma+es no change in the mass of the means of subsistence produced in other branches8 -ence, after its introduction, the societ* possesses as much, if not more, of the necessaries of life than before, for the labourers thro"n out of "or+; and that Iuite apart from the enormous share of the annual produce "asted b* the non4"or+ers8 (nd this is the point relied on b* our apologistsQ 'he contradictions and antagonisms inseparable from the capitalist emplo*ment of machiner*, do not e9ist, the* sa*, since the* do not arise out of machiner*, as such, but out of its capitalist emplo*mentQ Since therefore machiner*, considered alone, shortens the hours of labour, but, "hen in the ser)ice of capital, lengthens them; since in itself it lightens labour, but "hen emplo*ed b* capital, heightens the intensit* of labour; since in itself it is a )ictor* of man o)er the forces of Cature, but in the hands of capital, ma+es man the sla)e of those forces; since in itself it increases the "ealth of the producers, but in the hands of capital, ma+es them paupers4for all these reasons and others besides, sa*s the bourgeois economist "ithout more ado, it is clear as noon4da* that all these contradictions are a mere semblance of the realit*, and that, as a matter of fact, the* ha)e neither an actual nor a theoretical e9istence8 'hus he sa)es himself from all further pu11ling of the brain, and "hat is more, implicitl* declares his opponent to be stupid enough to contend against, not the capitalistic emplo*ment of machiner*, but machiner* itself8

6:1

5hapter 13

Co doubt he is far from den*ing that temporar* incon)enience ma* result from the capitalist use of machiner*8 /ut "here is the medal "ithout its re)erseQ (n* emplo*ment of machiner*, e9cept b* capital, is to him an impossibilit*8 E9ploitation of the "or+man b* the machine is therefore, "ith him, identical "ith e9ploitation of the machine b* the "or+man8 Bhoe)er, therefore, e9poses the real state of things in the capitalistic emplo*ment of machiner*, is against its emplo*ment in an* "a*, and is an enem* of social progressQ 1:3 E9actl* the reasoning of the celebrated /ill S*+es8 @Gentlemen of the Dur*, no doubt the throat of this commercial tra)eller has been cut8 /ut that is not m* fault, it is the fault of the +nife8 $ust "e, for such a temporar* incon)enience, abolish the use of the +nifeE =nl* considerQ "here "ould agriculture and trade be "ithout the +nifeE >s it not as salutar* in surger*, as it is +no"ing in anatom*E (nd in addition a "illing help at the festi)e boardE >f *ou abolish the +nife F *ou hurl us bac+ into the depths of barbarism8A1:6 (lthough machiner* necessaril* thro"s men out of "or+ in those industries into "hich it is introduced, *et it ma*, not"ithstanding this, bring about an increase of emplo*ment in other industries8 'his effect, ho"e)er, has nothing in common "ith the so4called theor* of compensation8 Since e)er* article produced b* a machine is cheaper than a similar article produced b* hand, "e deduce the follo"ing infallible la": >f the total Iuantit* of the article produced b* machiner*, be eIual to the total Iuantit* of the article pre)iousl* produced b* a handicraft or b* manufacture, and no" made b* machiner*, then the total labour e9pended is diminished8 'he ne" labour spent on the instruments of labour, on the machiner*, on the coal, and so on, must necessaril* be less than the labour displaced b* the use of the machiner*; other"ise the product of the machine "ould be as dear, or dearer, than the product of the manual labour8 /ut, as a matter of fact, the total Iuantit* of the article produced b* machiner* "ith a diminished number of "or+men, instead of remaining eIual to, b* far e9ceeds the total Iuantit* of the hand4made article that has been displaced8 Suppose that 77,777 *ards of cloth ha)e been produced on po"er4looms b* fe"er "ea)ers than could "ea)e 177,777 *ards b* hand8 >n the Iuadrupled product there lies four times as much ra" material8 -ence the production of ra" material must be Iuadrupled8 /ut as regards the instruments of labour, such as buildings, coal, machiner*, and so on, it is different; the limit up to "hich the additional labour reIuired for their production can increase, )aries "ith the difference bet"een the Iuantit* of the machine4made article, and the Iuantit* of the same article that the same number of "or+men could ma+e b* hand8 -ence, as the use of machiner* e9tends in a gi)en industr*, the immediate effect is to increase production in the other industries that furnish the first "ith means of production8 -o" far emplo*ment is thereb* found for an increased number of men, depends, gi)en the length of the "or+ing da* and the intensit* of labour, on the composition of the capital emplo*ed, i8e8, on the ratio of its constant to its )ariable component8 'his ratio, in its turn, )aries considerabl* "ith the e9tent to "hich machiner* has alread* sei1ed on, or is then sei1ing on, those trades8 'he number of the men condemned to "or+ in coal and metal mines increased enormousl* o"ing to the progress of the English factor* s*stem; but during the last fe" decades this increase of number has been less rapid, o"ing to the use of ne" machiner* in mining8 1:7 ( ne" t*pe of "or+man springs into life along "ith the machine, namel*, its ma+er8 Be ha)e alread* learnt that machiner* has possessed itself e)en8 of this branch of production on a scale that gro"s greater e)er* da*81:8 (s to ra" material, 1:2 there is not the least doubt that the rapid strides of cotton spinning, not onl* pushed on "ith tropical lu9uriance the gro"th of cotton in the %nited States, and "ith it the (frican sla)e trade, but also made the breeding of sla)es the chief business of the border sla)e4states8 Bhen, in 1727, the first census of sla)es "as ta+en in the %nited States, their number "as 627,777; in 1861 it had nearl* reached four millions8 =n the other hand, it is no less

6:6

5hapter 13

certain that the rise of the English "oollen factories, together "ith the gradual con)ersion of arable land into sheep pasture, brought, about the superfluit* of agricultural labourers that led to their being dri)en in masses into the to"ns8 >reland, ha)ing during the last t"ent* *ears reduced its population b* nearl* one half, is at this moment undergoing the process of still further reducing the number of its inhabitants, so as e9actl* to suit the reIuirements of its landlords and of the English "oollen manufacturers8 Bhen machiner* is applied to an* of the preliminar* or intermediate stages through "hich the subDect of labour has to pass on its "a* to completion, there is an increased *ield of material in those stages, and simultaneousl* an increased demand for labour in the handicrafts or manufactures supplied b* the produce of the machines8 Spinning b* machiner*, for e9ample, supplied *arn so cheapl* and so abundantl* that the hand4loom "ea)ers "ere, at first, able to "or+ full time "ithout increased outla*8 'heir earnings accordingl* rose8 1 7 -ence a flo" of people into the cotton4"ea)ing trade, till at length the 877,777 "ea)ers, called into e9istence b* the Lenn*, the throstle and the mule, "ere o)er"helmed b* the po"er4loom8 So also, o"ing to the abundance of clothing materials produced b* machiner*, the number of tailors, seamstresses and needle"omen, "ent on increasing until the appearance of the se"ing4machine8 >n proportion as machiner*, "ith the aid of a relati)el* small number of "or+people, increases the mass of ra" materials, intermediate products, instruments of labour, Pc8, the "or+ing4up of these ra" materials and intermediate products becomes split up into numberless branches; social production increases in di)ersit*8 'he factor* s*stem carries the social di)ision of labour immeasurabl* further than does manufacture, for it increases the producti)eness of the industries it sei1es upon, in a far higher degree8 'he immediate result of machiner* is to augment surplus )alue and the mass of products in "hich surplus )alue is embodied8 (nd, as the substances consumed b* the capitalists and their dependents become more plentiful, so too do these orders of societ*8 'heir gro"ing "ealth, and the relati)el* diminished number of "or+men reIuired to produce the necessaries of life beget, simultaneousl* "ith the rise of ne" and lu9urious "ants, the means of satisf*ing those "ants8 ( larger portion of the produce of societ* is changed into surplus4produce, and a larger part of the surplus4produce is supplied for consumption in a multiplicit* of refined shapes8 >n other "ords, the production of lu9uries increases81 1 'he refined and )aried forms of the products are also due to ne" relations "ith the mar+ets of the "orld, relations that are created b* modern industr*8 Cot onl* are greater Iuantities of foreign articles of lu9ur* e9changed for home products, but a greater mass of foreign ra" materials, ingredients, and intermediate products, are used as means of production in the home industries8 ="ing to these relations "ith the mar+ets of the "orld, the demand for labour increases in the carr*ing trades, "hich split up into numerous )arieties8 1 6 'he increase of the means of production and subsistence, accompanied b* a relati)e diminution in the number of labourers, causes an increased demand for labour in ma+ing canals, doc+s, tunnels, bridges, and so on, "or+s that can onl* bear fruit in the far future8 Entirel* ne" branches of production, creating ne" fields of labour, are also formed, as the direct result either of machiner* or of the general industrial changes brought about b* it8 /ut the place occupied b* these branches in the general production is, e)en in the most de)eloped countries, far from important8 'he number of labourers that find emplo*ment in them is directl* proportional to the demand, created b* those industries, for the crudest form of manual labour8 'he chief industries of this +ind are, at present, gas4"or+s, telegraphs, photograph*, steam na)igation, and rail"a*s8 (ccording to the census of 1861 for England and Bales, "e find in the gas industr* (gas4"or+s, production of mechanical apparatus, ser)ants of 8 the gas companies, Pc!, 13,611 persons; in telegraph*, 6,:22; in photograph*, 6,:66; steam na)igation, :,377; and in rail"a*s, 77,322, of "hom the uns+illed

6::

5hapter 13

@na))ies,A more or less permanentl* emplo*ed, and the "hole administrati)e and commercial staff, ma+e up about 68,7778 'he total number of persons, therefore, emplo*ed in these fi)e ne" industries amounts to 2 ,1 38 <astl*, the e9traordinar* producti)eness of modern industr*, accompanied as it is b* both a more e9tensi)e and a more intense e9ploitation of labour4po"er in all other spheres of production, allo"s of the unproducti)e emplo*ment of a larger and larger part of the "or+ing4class, and the conseIuent reproduction, on a constantl* e9tending scale, of the ancient domestic sla)es under the name of a ser)ant class, including men4ser)ants, "omen4ser)ants, lac+e*s, Pc8 (ccording to the census of 1861, the population of England and Bales "as 67,766,6 ; of these, 2,776,632 males, and 17,682,263 females8 >f "e deduct from this population all "ho are too old or too *oung for "or+, all unproducti)e "omen, *oung persons and children, the @ideologicalA classes, such as go)ernment officials, priests, la"*ers, soldiers, Pc8; further, all "ho ha)e no occupation but to consume the labour of others in the form of rent, interest, Pc8; and, lastl*, paupers, )agabonds, and criminals, there remain in round numbers eight millions of the t"o se9es of e)er* age, including in that number e)er* capitalist "ho is in an* "a* engaged in industr*, commerce, or finance8 (mong these 8 millions are: P*$ +, (gricultural labourers (including shepherds, farm ser)ants, and maidser)ants li)ing in the houses of farmers! (ll "ho are emplo*ed in cotton, "oollen, "orsted, fla9, hemp, sil+, and Dute factories, in stoc+ing ma+ing and lace ma+ing b* machiner* (ll "ho are emplo*ed in coal mines and metal mines (ll "ho are emplo*ed in metal "or+s (blastfurnaces, rolling mills, Pc8!, and metal manufactures of e)er* +ind 'he ser)ant class
1

1,728,661

1 :

6 6,677

363,8:3 :26,228

1 3

1,678,6 8

(ll the persons emplo*ed in te9tile factories and in mines, ta+en together, number 1,678, 6; those emplo*ed in te9tile factories and metal industries, ta+en together, number 1,7:2,673; in both cases less than the number of modern domestic sla)es8 Bhat a splendid result of the capitalist e9ploitation of machiner*Q

Section 9: .epulsion and ;ttraction of 3orkpeople b the Factor S stem7 Crises in the Cotton Trade
(ll political economists of an* standing admit that the introduction of ne" machiner* has a baneful effect on the "or+men in the old handicrafts and manufactures "ith "hich this machiner* at first competes8 (lmost all of them bemoan the sla)er* of the factor* operati)e8 (nd "hat is the great trump4card that the* pla*E 'hat machiner*, after the horrors of the period of introduction

6:

5hapter 13

and de)elopment ha)e subsided, instead of diminishing, in the long run increases the number of the sla)es of labourQ Nes, #olitical Econom* re)els in the hideous theor*, hideous to e)er* @philanthropistA "ho belie)es in the eternal Cature4ordained necessit* for capitalist production, that after a period of gro"th and transition, e)en its cro"ning success, the factor* s*stem based on machiner*, grinds do"n more "or+people than on its first introduction it thro"s on the streets81 6 >t is true that in some cases, as "e sa" from instances of English "orsted and sil+ factories, an e9traordinar* e9tension of the factor* s*stem ma*, at a certain stage of its de)elopment, be accompanied not onl* b* a relati)e, but b* an absolute decrease in the number of operati)es emplo*ed8 >n the *ear 1867, "hen a special census of all the factories in the %nited .ingdom "as ta+en b* order of #arliament, the factories in those parts of <ancashire, 5heshire, and Nor+shire, included in the district of $r8 /a+er, the factor* inspector, numbered 636; 377 of these contained 83,666 po"er4looms, 6,812,1 6 spindles (e9clusi)e of doubling spindles!, emplo*ed 67, :2 horse4po"er (steam!, and 1,:27 ("ater!, and 2 ,112 persons8 >n the *ear 1863, the same factories contained, looms 23,16:, spindles 7,763,7:1, had a steam4po"er of 68,263 horses, and a "ater4 po"er of 1, 3 horses, and emplo*ed 88,21: persons8 /et"een 1867 and 1863, therefore, the increase in looms "as 11`, in spindles :`, and in engine4po"er :`, "hile the number of persons emplo*ed decreased 3[`8 1 7 /et"een 1836 and 1866, considerable e9tension of the English "oollen manufacture too+ place, "hile the number of hands emplo*ed in it remained almost stationar*, @sho"ing ho" greatl* the introduction of ne" machines had superseded the labour of preceding periods8A1 8 >n certain cases, the increase in the number of hands emplo*ed is onl* apparent; that is, it is not due to the e9tension of the factories alread* established, but to the gradual anne9ation of connected trades; for instance, the increase in po"er4looms, and in the hands emplo*ed b* them bet"een 18:8 and 1836, "as, in the cotton trade, simpl* o"ing to the e9tension of this branch of industr*; but in the other trades to the application of steam4po"er to the carpet4loom, to the ribbon4loom, and to the linen4loom, "hich pre)iousl* had been "or+ed b* the po"er of men8 1 2 -ence the increase of the hands in these latter trades "as merel* a s*mptom of a diminution in the total number emplo*ed8 Finall*, "e ha)e considered this Iuestion entirel* apart from the fact, that e)er*"here, e9cept in the metal industries, *oung persons (under 18!, and "omen and children form the preponderating element in the class of factor* hands8 Ce)ertheless, in spite of the mass of hands actuall* displaced and )irtuall* replaced b* machiner*, "e can understand ho" the factor* operati)es, through the building of more mills and the e9tension of old ones in a gi)en industr*, ma* become more numerous than the manufacturing "or+men and handicraftsman that ha)e been displaced8 Suppose, for e9ample, that in the old mode of production, a capital of ]377 is emplo*ed "ee+l*, t"o4fifths being constant and three4fifths )ariable capital, i$e$, ]677 being laid out in means of production, and ]:77, sa* ]1 per man, in labour4po"er8 =n the introduction of machiner* the composition of this capital becomes altered8 Be "ill suppose it to consist of four4fifths constant and one4fifth )ariable, "hich means that onl* ]177 is no" laid out in labour4po"er8 5onseIuentl*, t"o4thirds of the "or+men are discharged8 >f no" the business e9tends, and the total capital emplo*ed gro"s to ]1,377 under unchanged conditions, the number of operati)es emplo*ed "ill increase to :77, Dust as man* as before the introduction of the machiner*8 >f the capital further gro"s to ]6,777, 77 men "ill be emplo*ed, or one4third more than under the old s*stem8 'heir numbers ha)e, in point of fact, increased b* 177, but relati)el*, i8e8, in proportion to the total capital ad)anced, the* ha)e diminished b* 877, for the ]6,777 capital "ould, in the old state of things, ha)e emplo*ed 1,677

6:3

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instead of 77 men8 -ence, a relati)e decrease in the number of hands is consistent "ith an actual increase8 Be assumed abo)e that "hile the total capital increases, its composition remains the same, because the conditions of production remain constant8 /ut "e ha)e alread* seen that, "ith e)er* ad)ance in the use of machiner*, the constant component of capital, that part "hich consists of machiner*, ra" material, Pc8, increases, "hile the )ariable component, the part laid out in labour4po"er, decreases8 Be also +no" that in no, other s*stem of production is impro)ement so continuous, and the composition of the capital emplo*ed so constantl* changing as in the factor* s*stem8 'hese changes are, ho"e)er, continuall* interrupted b* periods of rest, during "hich there is a mere Iuantitati)e e9tension of the factories on the e9isting technical basis8 0uring such periods the operati)es increase in number88 'hus, in 18:3, the total number of operati)es in the cotton, "oollen, "orsted, fla9, and sil+ factories of the %nited .ingdom "as onl* :3 ,68 ; "hile in 1861 the number of the po"er4loom "ea)ers alone (of both se9es and of all ages, from eight *ears up"ards!, amounted to 6:7,63 8 5ertainl*, this gro"th appears less important "hen "e consider that in 18:8 the hand4loom "ea)ers "ith their families still numbered 877,777,137 not to mention those thro"n out of "or+ in (sia, and on the 5ontinent of Europe8 >n the fe" remar+s > ha)e still to ma+e on this point, > shall refer to some actuall* e9isting relations, the e9istence of "hich our theoretical in)estigation has not *et disclosed8 So long as, in a gi)en branch of industr*, the factor* s*stem e9tends itself at the e9pense of the old handicrafts or of manufacture, the result is as sure as is the result of an encounter bet"een an arm* furnished "ith breach4loaders, and one armed "ith bo"s and arro"s8 'his first period, during "hich machiner* conIuers its field of action, is of decisi)e importance o"ing to the e9traordinar* profits that it helps to produce8 'hese profits not onl* form a source of accelerated accumulation, but also attract into the fa)oured sphere of production a large part of the additional social capital that is being constantl* created, and is e)er on the loo+4out for ne" in)estments8 'he special ad)antages of this first period of fast and furious acti)it* are felt in e)er* branch of production that machiner* in)ades8 So soon, ho"e)er, as the factor* s*stem has gained a certain breadth of footing and a definite degree of maturit*, and, especiall*, so soon as its technical basis, machiner*, is itself produced b* machiner*; so soon as coal mining and iron mining, the metal industries, and the means of transport ha)e been re)olutionised; so soon, in short, as the general conditions reIuisite for production b* the modern industrial s*stem ha)e been established, this mode of production acIuires an elasticit*, a capacit* for sudden e9tension b* leaps and bounds that finds no hindrance e9cept in the suppl* of ra" material and in the disposal of the produce8 =n the one hand, the immediate effect of machiner* is to increase the suppl* of ra" material in the same "a*, for e9ample, as the cotton gin augmented the production of cotton8 131 =n the other hand, the cheapness of the articles produced b* machiner*, and the impro)ed means of transport and communication furnish the "eapons for conIuering foreign mar+ets8 /* ruining handicraft production in other countries, machiner* forcibl* con)erts them into fields for the suppl* of its ra" material8 >n this "a* East >ndia "as compelled to produce cotton, "ool, hemp, Dute, and indigo for Great /ritain8136 /* constantl* ma+ing a part of the hands @supernumerar*,A modern industr*, in all countries "here it has ta+en root, gi)es a spur to emigration and to the colonisation of foreign lands, "hich are thereb* con)erted into settlements for gro"ing the ra" material of the mother countr*; Dust as (ustralia, for e9ample, "as con)erted into a colon* for gro"ing "ool813: ( ne" and international di)ision of labour, a di)ision suited to the reIuirements of the chief centres of modern industr* springs up, and con)erts one part of the globe into a chiefl* agricultural field of production, for suppl*ing the other part "hich remains a chiefl* industrial field8 'his re)olution hangs together "ith radical changes in agriculture "hich "e need not here further inIuire into813

6:6

5hapter 13

=n the motion of $r8 Gladstone, the -ouse of 5ommons ordered, on the 17th Februar*, 1867, a return of the total Iuantities of grain, corn, and flour, of all sorts, imported into, and e9ported from, the %nited .ingdom, bet"een the *ears 18:1 and 18668 > gi)e belo" a summar* of the result8 'he flour is gi)en in Iuarters of corn8 (See the 'able on p8 6868! K%>CK%ECC>(< #E&>=0S (C0 '-E NE(& 1866
(CC%(< 18:1418:3 (;E&(GE >mport E9port E9cess of import o)er e9port 1,726,:7: 663,66: 871,117 18:6418 7 6,:82,762 631,777 6,1:7,232 18 1418 3 6,8 :,863 1:2,736 6,77 ,872 18 641837 8,776,336 133, 61 8,661,721 183141833 8,: 3,6:7 :77, 21 8,7:7,7 6 183641867 17,21:,61 6 : 1,137 17,376, 6 6 186141863 13,772,87 1 :76,73 1 ,777,11 7 1866 16, 37,: 7 616,618 16,6 1,166

#=#%<('>=C Nearl* a)erage in each period ()erage Iuantit* of corn etc,8 in Irs8, consumed annuall* per head o)er and abo)e the home produce consumed 6 ,661,17 7 787:6 63,262,37 7 78786 67,666,36 2 78722 67,727,32 8 78:17 67,376,26 : 78621 68,:21,3 62,:81, 6 7 78371 62,2:3, 7

78:76

783 :

'he enormous po"er, inherent in the factor* s*stem, of e9panding b* Dumps, and the dependence of that s*stem on the mar+ets of the "orld, necessaril* beget fe)erish production, follo"ed b* o)er4filling of the mar+ets, "hereupon contraction of the mar+ets brings on crippling of production8 'he life of modern industr* becomes a series of periods of moderate acti)it*, prosperit*, o)er4production, crisis and stagnation8 'he uncertaint* and instabilit* to "hich machiner* subDects the emplo*ment, and conseIuentl* the conditions of e9istence, of the operati)es become normal, o"ing to these periodic changes of the industrial c*cle8 E9cept in the periods of prosperit*, there rages bet"een the capitalists the most furious combat for the share of each in the mar+ets8 'his share is directl* proportional to the cheapness of the8 product8 /esides the ri)alr* that this struggle begets in the application of impro)ed machiner* for replacing labour4 po"er, and of ne" methods of production, there also comes a time in e)er* industrial c*cle, "hen a forcible reduction of "ages beneath the )alue of labour4po"er, is attempted for the purpose of cheapening commodities8133 ( necessar* condition, therefore, to the gro"th of the number of factor* hands, is a proportionall* much more rapid gro"th of the amount of capital in)ested in mills8 'his gro"th, ho"e)er, is conditioned b* the ebb and flo" of the industrial c*cle8 >t is, besides, constantl*

6:7

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interrupted b* the technical progress that at one time )irtuall* supplies the place of ne" "or+men, at another, actuall* displaces old ones8 'his Iualitati)e change in mechanical industr* continuall* discharges hands from the factor*, or shuts its doors against the fresh stream of recruits, "hile the purel* Iuantitati)e e9tension of the factories absorbs not onl* the men thro"n out of "or+, but also fresh contingents8 'he "or+people are thus continuall* both repelled and attracted, hustled from pillar to post, "hile, at the same time, constant changes ta+e place in the se9, age, and s+ill of the le)ies8 'he lot of the factor* operati)es "ill be best depicted b* ta+ing a rapid sur)e* of the course of the English cotton industr*8 From 1777 to 1813 this trade "as depressed or stagnant for 3 *ears onl*8 0uring this period of 3 *ears the English manufacturers had a monopol* of machiner* and of the mar+ets of the "orld8 From 1813 to 1861 depression; 1866 and 186: prosperit*; 186 abolition of the la"s against 'rades? %nions, great e9tension of factories e)er*"here; 1863 crisis; 1866 great miser* and riots among the factor* operati)es; 1867 slight impro)ement; 1868 great increase in po"er4looms, and in e9ports; 1862 e9ports, especiall* to >ndia, surpass all former *ears; 18:7 glutted mar+ets, great distress; 18:1 to 18:: continued depression, the monopol* of the trade "ith >ndia and 5hina "ithdra"n from the, East >ndia 5ompan*; 18: great increase of factories and machiner*, shortness of hands8 'he ne" poor la" furthers the migration of agricultural labourers into the factor* districts8 'he countr* districts s"ept of children8 Bhite sla)e trade; 18:3 great prosperit*, contemporaneous star)ation of the hand4loom "ea)ers; 18:6 great prosperit*; 18:7 and 18:8 depression and crisis; 18:2 re)i)al; 18 7 great depression, riots, calling out of the militar*; 18 1 and 18 6 frightful suffering among the factor* operati)es; 18 6 the manufacturers loc+ the hands out of the factories in order to enforce the repeal of the 5orn <a"s8 'he operati)es stream in thousands into the to"ns of <ancashire and Nor+shire, are dri)en bac+ b* the militar*, and their leaders brought to trial at <ancaster; 18 : great miser*; 18 re)i)al; 18 3 great prosperit*; 18 6 continued impro)ement at first, then reaction8 &epeal of the 5orn <a"s; 18 7 crisis, general reduction of "ages b* 17 and more per cent8 in honour of the @big loafV; 18 8 continued depression; $anchester under militar*8 protection; 18 2 re)i)al; 1837 prosperit*; 1831 falling prices, lo" "ages, freIuent stri+es; 1836 impro)ement begins, stri+es continue, the manufacturers threaten to import foreign hands; 183: increasing e9ports8 Stri+e for 8 months, and great miser* at #reston; 183 prosperit*, glutted mar+ets; 1833 ne"s of failures stream in from the %nited States, 5anada, and the Eastern mar+ets; 1836 great prosperit*; 1837 crisis; 1838 impro)ement; 1832 great prosperit*, increase in factories; 1867 ,enith of the English cotton trade, the >ndian, (ustralian, and other mar+ets so glutted "ith goods that e)en in 186: the* had not absorbed the "hole lot; the French 'reat* of 5ommerce, enormous gro"th of factories and machiner*; 1861 prosperit* continues for a time, reaction, the (merican 5i)il Bar, cotton famine: 1866 to 186: complete collapse8 'he histor* of the cotton famine is too characteristic to dispense "ith d"elling upon it for a moment8 From the indications as to the condition of the mar+ets of the "orld in 1867 and 1861, "e see that the cotton famine came in the nic+ of time for the manufacturers, and "as to some e9tent ad)antageous to them, a fact that "as ac+no"ledged in the reports of the $anchester 5hamber of 5ommerce, proclaimed in #arliament b* #almerston and 0erb*, and confirmed b* e)ents8136 Co doubt, among the 6,887 cotton mills in the %nited .ingdom in 1861, there "ere man* of small si1e8 (ccording to the report of $r8 (8 &edgra)e, out of the 6,172 mills included in his district, :26, or 12` emplo*ed less than ten horse4po"er each; : 3, or 16` emplo*ed 17 -8 #8, and less than 67 -8 #8; "hile 1,:76 emplo*ed up"ards of 67 -8 #8 137 'he maDorit* of the small mills "ere "ea)ing sheds, built during the period of prosperit* after 1838, for the most part b* speculators, of "hom one supplied the *arn, another the machiner*, a third the buildings, and

6:8

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"ere "or+ed b* men "ho had been o)erloo+ers, or b* other persons of small means8 'hese small manufacturers mostl* "ent to the "all8 'he same fate "ould ha)e o)erta+en them in the commercial crisis that "as sta)ed off onl* b* the cotton famine8 (lthough the* formed one4third of the total number of manufacturers, *et their mills absorbed a much smaller part of the capital in)ested in the cotton trade8 (s to the e9tent of the stoppage, it appears from authentic estimates, that in =ctober 1866, 678:` of the spindles, and 38` of the looms "ere standing8 'his refers to the cotton trade as a "hole, and, of course, reIuires considerable modification for indi)idual districts8 =nl* )er* fe" mills "or+ed full time (67 hours a "ee+!, the remainder "or+ed at inter)als8 E)en in those fe" cases "here full time "as "or+ed, and at the customar* rate of piece4 "age, the "ee+l* "ages of the operati)es necessaril* shran+, o"ing to good cotton being replaced b* bad, Sea >sland b* Eg*ptian (in fine spinning mills!, (merican and Eg*ptian b* Surat, and pure cotton b* mi9ings of "aste and Surat8 'he shorter fibre of the Surat cotton and its dirt* condition, the greater fragilit* of the thread, the substitution of all sorts of hea)* ingredients for flour in si1ing the "arps, all these lessened the speed of the machiner*, or the number of the looms that could be superintended b* one "ea)er, increased the labour caused b* defects in the machiner*, and reduced the piece4"age b* reducing the mass of the product turned off8 Bhere Surat cotton "as used, the loss to the operati)es "hen on full time, amounted to 67, :7, and more per cent8 /ut besides this, the maDorit* of the manufacturers reduced the rate of piece4"age b* 3, 7[, and 17 per cent8 Be can therefore concei)e the situation of those hands "ho "ere emplo*ed for onl* :, :[ or da*s a "ee+, or for onl* 6 hours a da*8 E)en in 186:, after a comparati)e impro)ement had set in, the "ee+l* "ages of spinners and of "ea)ers "ere :s8 d8, :s8 17d8, s8 6d8 and 3s8 1d8138 E)en in this miserable state of things, ho"e)er, the in)enti)e spirit of the master ne)er stood still, but "as e9ercised in ma+ing deductions from "ages8 'hese "ere to some e9tent inflicted as a penalt* for defects in the finished article that "ere reall* due to his bad cotton and to his unsuitable machiner*8 $oreo)er, "here the manufacturer o"ned the cottages of the "or+people, he paid himself his rents b* deducting the amount from these miserable Bages8 $r8 &edgra)e tells us of self4acting minders (operati)es "ho manage a pair of self4acting mules! @earning at the end of a fortnight?s full "or+ 8s8 11d8, and that from this sum "as deducted the rent of the house, the manufacturer, ho"e)er, returning half the rent as a gift8 'he minders too+ a"a* the sum of 6s8 11d8 >n man* places the self4 acting minders ranged from 3s8 to 2s8 per "ee+, and the "ea)ers from 6s8 to 6s8 per "ee+, during the latter part of 18668A132 E)en "hen "or+ing short time the rent "as freIuentl* deducted from the "ages of the operati)es8167 Co "onder that in some parts of <ancashire a +ind of famine fe)er bro+e out8 /ut more characteristic than all this, "as, the re)olution that too+ place in the process of production at the e9pense of the "or+people8 E9perimenta in corpore )ili, li+e those of anatomists on frogs, "ere formall* made8 @(lthough,A sa*s $r8 &edgra)e, @> ha)e gi)en the actual earnings of the operati)es in the se)eral mills, it does not follo" that the* earn the same amount "ee+ b* "ee+8 'he operati)es are subDect to great fluctuation from the constant e9perimentalising of the manufacturers 888 the earnings of the operati)es rise and fall "ith the Iualit* of the cotton mi9ings; sometimes the* ha)e been "ithin 13 per cent8 of former earnings, and then, in a "ee+ or t"o, the* ha)e fallen off from 37 to 67 per cent8A161 'hese e9periments "ere not made solel* at the e9pense of the "or+man?s means of subsistence8 -is fi)e senses also had to pa* the penalt*8

6:2

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@'he people "ho are emplo*ed in ma+ing up Surat cotton complain )er* much8 'he* inform me, on opening the bales of cotton there is an intolerable smell, "hich causes sic+ness8888 >n the mi9ing, scribbling and carding rooms, the dust and dirt "hich are disengaged, irritate the air passages, and gi)e rise to cough and difficult* of breathing8 ( disease of the s+in, no doubt from the irritation of the dirt contained in the Surat cotton, also pre)ails8888 'he fibre being so short, a great amount of si1e, both animal and )egetable, is used8888 /ronchitis is more pre)alent o"ing to the dust8 >nflammator* sore throat is common, from the same cause8 Sic+ness and d*spepsia are produced b* the freIuent brea+ing of the "eft, "hen the "ea)er suc+s the "eft through the e*e of the shuttle8A =n the other hand, the substitutes for flour "ere a Fortunatus? purse to the manufacturers, b* increasing the "eight of the *arn8 'he* caused @13 lbs8 of ra" material to "eigh 66 lbs8 after it "as "o)en8A166 >n the &eport of >nspectors of Factories for :7th (pril, 186 , "e read as follo"s: @'he trade is a)ailing itself of this resource at present to an e9tent "hich is e)en discreditable8 > ha)e heard on good authorit* of a cloth "eighing 8 lbs8 "hich "as made of 3 1J lbs8 cotton and 6 :J lbs8 si1e; and of another cloth "eighing 3 1J lbs8, of "hich 6 lbs8 "as si1e8 'hese "ere ordinar* e9port shirtings8 >n cloths of other descriptions, as much as 37 per cent8 si1e is sometimes added; so that a manufacturer ma*, and does trul* boast, that he is getting rich b* selling cloth for less mone* per pound than he paid for the mere *arn of "hich the* are composed8A 16: /ut the "or+people had to suffer, not onl* from the e9periments of the manufacturers inside the mills, and of the municipalities outside, not onl* from reduced "ages and absence of "or+, from "ant and from charit*, and from the eulogistic speeches of lords and commons8 @%nfortunate females "ho, in conseIuence of the cotton famine, "ere at its commencement thro"n out of emplo*ment, and ha)e thereb* become outcasts of societ*; and no", though trade has re)i)ed, and "or+ is plentiful, continue members of that unfortunate class, and are li+el* to continue so8 'here are also in the borough more *outhful prostitutes than > ha)e +no"n for the last 63 *ears8A 16 Be find then, in the first 3 *ears of the English cotton trade, from 1777 to 1813, onl* 3 *ears of crisis and stagnation; but this "as the period of monopol*8 'he second period from 1813 to 186: counts, during its 8 *ears, onl* 67 *ears of re)i)al and prosperit* against 68 of depression and stagnation8 /et"een 1813 and 18:7 the competition "ith the continent of Europe and "ith the %nited States sets in8 (fter 18::, the e9tension of the (siatic mar+ets is enforced b* @destruction of the human raceA (the "holesale e9tinction of >ndian hand4loom "ea)ers!8 (fter the repeal of the 5orn <a"s, from 18 6 to 186:, there are 8 *ears of moderate acti)it* and prosperit* against 2 *ears of depression and stagnation8 'he condition of the adult male operati)es, e)en during the *ears of prosperit*, ma* be Dudged from the note subDoined8 163

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Section <: .e=olution )ffected in $anufacture5 1andicrafts5 and -omestic Industr b $odern Industr
A. Overthro+ of Co operation Ba#ed on %andicraft and on the Divi#ion of *a$our
Be ha)e seen ho" machiner* does a"a* "ith co4operation based on handicrafts, and "ith manufacture based on the di)ision of handicraft labour8 (n e9ample of the first sort is the mo"ing4machine; it replaces co4operation bet"een mo"ers8 ( stri+ing e9ample of the second +ind, is the needle4ma+ing machine8 (ccording to (dam Smith, 17 men, in his da*, made in co4 operation, o)er 8,777 needles a4da*8 =n the other hand, a single needle4machine ma+es 1 3,777 in a "or+ing da* of 11 hours8 =ne "oman or one girl superintends four such machines, and so produces near upon 677,777 needles in a da*, and up"ards of :,777,777 in a "ee+8 166 ( single machine, "hen it ta+es the place of co4operation or of manufacture, ma* itself ser)e as the basis of an industr* of a handicraft character8 Still, such a return to handicrafts is but a transition to the factor* s*stem, "hich, as a rule, ma+es its appearance so soon as the human muscles are replaced, for the purpose of dri)ing the machines, b* a mechanical moti)e po"er, such as steam or "ater8 -ere and there, but in an* case onl* for a time, an industr* ma* be carried on, on a small scale, b* means of mechanical po"er8 'his is effected b* hiring steam4po"er, as is done in some of the /irmingham trades, or b* the use of small caloric4engines, as in some branches of "ea)ing8167 >n the 5o)entr* sil+ "ea)ing industr* the e9periment of @cottage factoriesA "as tried8 >n the centre of a sIuare surrounded b* ro"s of cottages, an engine4house "as built and the engine connected b* shafts "ith the looms in the cottages8 >n all cases the po"er "as hired at so much per loom8 'he rent "as pa*able "ee+l*, "hether the looms "or+ed or not8 Each cottage held from 6 to 6 looms; some belonged to the "ea)er, some "ere bought on credit, some "ere hired8 'he struggle bet"een these cottage factories and the factor* proper, lasted o)er 16 *ears8 >t ended "ith the complete ruin of the :77 cottage factories8 168 Bhere)er the nature of the process did not in)ol)e production on a large scale, the ne" industries that ha)e sprung up in the last fe" decades, such as en)elope ma+ing, steel4pen ma+ing, Pc8, ha)e, as a general rule, first passed through the handicraft stage, and then the manufacturing stage, as short phases of transition to the factor* stage8 'he transition is )er* difficult in those cases "here the production of the article b* manufacture consists, not of a series of graduated processes, but of a great number of disconnected ones8 'his circumstance formed a great hindrance to the establishment of steel4pen factories8 Ce)ertheless, about 13 *ears ago, a machine "as in)ented that automaticall* performed 6 separate operations at once8 'he first steel4pens "ere supplied b* the handicraft s*stem, in the *ear 1867, at ]7 s8 the gross; in 18:7 the*4"ere supplied b* manufacture at 8s8, and toda* the factor* s*stem supplies them to the trade at from 6 to 6d8 the gross8 162

B. /eaction of the Factory )y#tem on Manufacture and Dome#tic .ndu#trie#

(long "ith the de)elopment of the factor* s*stem and of the re)olution in agriculture that accompanies it, production in all the other branches of industr* not onl* e9tends, but alters its character8 'he principle, carried out in the factor* s*stem, of anal*sing the process of production into its constituent phases, and of sol)ing the problems thus proposed b* the application of mechanics, of chemistr*, and of the "hole range of the natural sciences, becomes the determining principle e)er*"here8 -ence, machiner* sIuee1es itself into the manufacturing industries first for

6 1

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one detail process, then for another8 'hus the solid cr*stal of their organisation, based on the old di)ision of labour, becomes dissol)ed, and ma+es "a* for constant changes8 >ndependentl* of this, a radical change ta+es place in the composition of the collecti)e labourer, a change of the persons "or+ing in combination8 >n contrast "ith the manufacturing period, the di)ision of labour is thenceforth based, "here)er possible, on the emplo*ment of "omen, of children of all ages, and of uns+illed labourers, in one "ord, on cheap labour, as it is characteristicall* called in England8 'his is the case not onl* "ith all production on a large scale, "hether emplo*ing machiner* or not, but also "ith the so4called domestic industr*, "hether carried on in the houses of the "or+people or in small "or+shops8 'his modern so4called domestic industr* has nothing, e9cept the name, in common "ith the old4fashioned domestic industr*, the e9istence of "hich pre4supposes independent urban handicrafts, independent peasant farming, and abo)e all, a d"elling4house for the labourer and his famil*8 'hat old4fashioned industr* has no" been con)erted into an outside department of the factor*, the manufactor*, or the "arehouse8 /esides the factor* operati)es, the manufacturing "or+men and the handicraftsman, "hom it concentrates in large masses at one spot, and directl* commands, capital also sets in motion, b* means, of in)isible threads, another arm*; that of the "or+ers in the domestic industries, "ho d"ell in the large to"ns and 4are also scattered o)er the face of the countr*8 (n e9ample: 'he shirt factor* of $essrs8 'illie at <ondonderr*, "hich emplo*s 1,777 operati)es in the factor* itself, and 2,777 people spread up and do"n the countr* and "or+ing in their o"n houses8 177 'he e9ploitation of cheap and immature labour4po"er is carried out in a more shameless manner in modern $anufacture than in the factor* proper8 'his is because the technical foundation of the factor* s*stem, namel*, the substitution of machines for muscular po"er, and the light character of the labour, is almost entirel* absent in $anufacture, and at the same time "omen and o)er4 *oung children are subDected, in a most unconscionable "a*, to the influence of poisonous or inDurious substances8 'his e9ploitation is more shameless in the so4called domestic industr* than in manufactures, and that because the po"er of resistance in the labourers decreases "ith their dissemination; because a "hole series of plundering parasites insinuate themsel)es bet"een the emplo*er and the "or+man; because a domestic industr* has al"a*s to compete either "ith the factor* s*stem, or "ith manufacturing in the same branch of production; because po)ert* robs the "or+man of the conditions most essential to his labour, of space, light and )entilation; because emplo*ment becomes more and more irregular; and, finall*, because in these the last resorts of the masses made @redundantA b* modern industr* and (griculture, competition for "or+ attains its ma9imum8 Econom* in the means of production, first s*stematicall* carried out in the factor* s*stem, and there, from the )er* beginning, coincident "ith the most rec+less sIuandering of labour4po"er, and robber* of the conditions normall* reIuisite for labour F this econom* no" sho"s its antagonistic and murderous side more and more in a gi)en branch of industr*, the less the social producti)e po"er of labour and the technical basis for a combination of processes are de)eloped in that branch8

C. Modern Manufacture
> no" proceed, b* a fe" e9amples, to illustrate the principles laid do"n abo)e8 (s a matter of fact, the reader is alread* familiar "ith numerous instances gi)en in the chapter on the "or+ing da*8 >n the hard"are manufactures of /irmingham and the neighbourhood, there are emplo*ed, mostl* in )er* hea)* "or+, :7,777 children and *oung persons, besides 17,777 "omen8 'here the* are to be seen in the un"holesome brass4foundries, button factories, enamelling, gal)anising, and lac+ering "or+s8171 ="ing to the e9cessi)e labour of their "or+people, both adult and non4 adult, certain <ondon houses "here ne"spapers and boo+s are printed, ha)e got the ill4omened name of @slaughterhouses8A176 Similar e9cesses are practised in boo+4binding, "here the )ictims

6 6

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are chiefl* "omen, girls, and children; *oung persons ha)e to do hea)* "or+ in rope4"al+s and night4"or+ in salt mines, candle manufactories, and chemical "or+s; *oung people are "or+ed to death at turning the looms in sil+ "ea)ing, "hen it is not carried on b* machiner*8 17: =ne of the most shameful, the most dirt*, and the "orst paid +inds of labour, and one on "hich "omen and *oung girls are b* preference emplo*ed, is the sorting of rags8 >t is "ell +no"n that Great /ritain, apart from its o"n immense store of rags, is the emporium for the rag trade of the "hole "orld8 'he* flo" in from Lapan, from the most remote States of South (merica, and from the 5anar* >slands8 /ut the chief sources of their suppl* are German*, France, &ussia, >tal*, Eg*pt, 'ur+e*, /elgium, and -olland8 'he* are used for manure, for ma+ing bedfloc+s, for shodd*, and the* ser)e as the ra" material of paper8 'he rag4sorters are the medium for the spread of small4po9 and other infectious diseases, and the* themsel)es are the first )ictims8 17 ( classical e9ample of o)er4"or+, of hard and inappropriate labour, and of its brutalising effects on the "or+man from his childhood up"ards, is afforded not onl* b* coal4mining and miners generall*, but also b* tile and bric+ ma+ing, in "hich industr* the recentl* in)ented machiner* is, in England, used onl* here and there8 /et"een $a* and September the "or+ lasts from 3 in the morning till 8 in the e)ening, and "here the dr*ing is done in the open air, it often lasts from in the morning till 2 in the e)ening8 Bor+ from 3 in the morning till 7 in the e)ening is considered @reducedA and @moderate8A /oth bo*s and girls of 6 and e)en of *ears of age are emplo*ed8 'he* "or+ for the same number of hours, often longer, than the adults8 'he "or+ is hard and the summer heat increases the e9haustion8 >n a certain tile4field at $osle*, e8g8, a *oung "oman, 6 *ears of age, "as in the habit of ma+ing 6,777 tiles a da*, "ith the assistance of 6 little girls, "ho carried the cla* for her, and stac+ed the tiles8 'hese girls carried dail* 17 tons up the slipper* sides of the cla* pits, from a depth of :7 feet, and then for a distance of 617 feet8 @>t is impossible for a child to pass through the purgator* of a tile4field "ithout great moral degradation888 the lo" language, "hich the* are accustomed to hear from their tenderest *ears, the filth*, indecent, and shameless habits, amidst "hich, un+no"ing, and half "ild, the* gro" up, ma+e them in after4life la"less, abandoned, dissolute8888 ( frightful source of demoralisation is the mode of li)ing8 Each moulder, "ho is al"a*s a s+illed labourer, and the chief of a group, supplies his 7 subordinates "ith board and lodging in his cottages Bhether members of his famil* or not, the men, bo*s, and girls all sleep in the cottage, "hich contains generall* t"o, e9ceptionall* : rooms, all on the ground floor, and badl* )entilated8 'hese people are so e9hausted after the da*?s hard "or+, that neither the rules of health, of cleanliness, nor of decenc* are in the least obser)ed8 $an* of these cottages are models of untidiness, dirt, and dust8888 'he greatest e)il of the s*stem that emplo*s *oung girls on this sort of "or+, consists in this, that, as a rule, it chains them fast from childhood for the "hole of their after4life to the most abandoned rabble8 'he* become rough, foul4mouthed bo*s, before Cature has taught them that the* are "omen8 5lothed in a fe" dirt* rags, the legs na+ed far abo)e the +nees, hair and face besmeared "ith dirt, the* learn to treat all feelings of decenc* and of shame "ith contempt8 0uring meal4times the* lie at full length in the fields, or "atch the bo*s bathing in a neighbouring canal8 'heir hea)* da*?s "or+ at length completed, the* put on better clothes, and accompan* the men to the public houses8A 'hat e9cessi)e insobriet* is pre)alent from childhood up"ards among the "hole of this class, is onl* natural8

6 :

5hapter 13

@'he "orst is that the bric+ma+ers despair of themsel)es8 Nou might as "ell, said one of the better +ind to a chaplain of Southallfield, tr* to raise and impro)e the de)il as a bric+ie, sirQA173 (s to the manner, in "hich capital effects an econom* in the reIuisites of labour, in modern $anufacture (in "hich > include all "or+shops of larger si1e, e9cept factories proper!, official and most ample material bearing on it is to be found in the #ublic -ealth &eports >;8 (186:! and ;>8 (186 !8 'he description of the Bor+shops, more especiall* those of the <ondon printers and tailors, surpasses the most loathsome phantasies of our romance "riters4 'he effect on the health of the "or+people is self4e)ident8 0r8 Simon, the chief medical officer of the #ri)* 5ouncil and the official editor of the @#ublic -ealth &eports,A sa*s: @>n m* fourth &eport (186:! > sho"ed, ho" it is practicall* impossible for the "or+people to insist upon that "hich is their first sanitar* right, )i18, the right that, no matter "hat the "or+ for "hich their emplo*er brings them together, the labour, so far as it depends upon him, should be freed from all a)oidabl* un"holesome conditions8 > pointed out, that "hile the "or+people are practicall* incapable of doing themsel)es this sanitar* Dustice, the* are unable to obtain an* effecti)e support from the paid administrations of the sanitar* police8888 'he life of m*riads of "or+men and "or+"omen is no" uselessl* tortured and shortened b* the ne)er4ending ph*sical suffering that their mere occupation begets8A 176 >n illustration of the "a* in "hich the "or+rooms influence the state of health 0r8 Simon gi)es the follo"ing table of mortalit*8177 Cumber of #ersons of all ages in the respecti)e industries >ndustr* compared as regards health 0eath4rate per 177,777 men in the respecti)e industries bet"een the stated ages (ge 634:3 238,663 (griculture in England P Bales 7 : (ge :34 3 873 (ge 3433 11 1

66,:71 men 16,:72 "omen 1:,87:

<ondon tailors <ondon printers

238 82

1,666 1,7 7

6,72: 6,:67

D. Modern Dome#tic .ndu#try

> no" come to the so4called domestic industr*8 >n order to get an idea of the horrors of this sphere, in "hich capital conducts its e9ploitation in the bac+ground of modern mechanical industr*, one must go to the apparentl* Iuite id*llic trade of nail4ma+ing, 178 carried on in a fe" remote )illages of England8 >n this place, ho"e)er, it "ill be enough to gi)e a fe" e9amples from those branches of the lace4ma+ing and stra"4plaiting industries that are not *et carried on b* the aid of machiner*, and that as *et do not compete "ith branches carried on in factories or in manufactories8 =f the 137,777 persons emplo*ed in England in the production of lace, about 17,777 fall under the authorit* of the Factor* (ct, 18618 (lmost the "hole of the remaining 1 7,777 are "omen, *oung persons, and children of both se9es, the male se9, ho"e)er, being "ea+l* represented8 'he

5hapter 13

state of health of this cheap material for e9ploitation "ill be seen from the follo"ing table, computed b* 0r8 'rueman, ph*sician to the Cottingham General 0ispensar*8 =ut of 686 female patients "ho "ere lace4ma+ers, most of them bet"een the ages of 17 and 6 , the number of consumpti)e ones "ere: 18368 F 1 in 38 18378 F 1 in 1:8 183:8 F 1 in 688 18388 F 1 in 138 183 8 F 1 in 178 18328 F 1 in 28 18368 F 1 in 138 18618 F 1 in 88172 'his progress in the rate of consumption ought to suffice for the most optimist of progressists, and for the biggest ha"+er of lies among the Free4trade bagmen of German*8 'he Factor* (ct of 1861 regulates the actual ma+ing of the lace, so far as it is done b* machiner*, and this is the rule in England8 'he branches that "e are no" about to e9amine, solel* "ith regard to those of the "or+people "ho "or+ at home, and not those "ho "or+ in manufactories or "arehouses, fall into t"o di)isions, )i18 (1!, finishing; (6!, mending8 'he former gi)es the finishing touches to the machine4made lace, and includes numerous sub4di)isions8 'he lace finishing is done either in "hat are called @mistresses? houses,A or b* "omen in their o"n houses, "ith or "ithout the help of their children8 'he "omen "ho +eep the @mistresses? housesA are themsel)es poor8 'he "or+room is in a pri)ate house8 'he mistresses ta+e orders from manufacturers, or from "arehousemen, and emplo* as man* "omen, girls, and *oung children as the si1e of their rooms and the fluctuating demand of the business "ill allo"8 'he number of the "or+"omen emplo*ed in these "or+rooms )aries from 67 to 7 in some, and from 17 to 67 in others8 'he a)erage age at "hich the children commence "or+ is si9 *ears, but in man* cases it is belo" fi)e8 'he usual "or+ing4hours are from 8 in the morning till eight in the e)ening, "ith 1[ hours for meals, "hich are ta+en at irregular inter)als, and often in the foul "or+rooms8 Bhen business is bris+, the labour freIuentl* lasts from 8 or e)en 6 o?cloc+ in the morning till 17, 11, or 16 o?cloc+ at night8 >n English barrac+s the regulation space allotted to each soldier is 3774677 cubic feet, and in the militar* hospitals 1,677 cubic feet8 /ut in those finishing sties there are but 67 to 177 cubic feet to each person8 (t the same time the o9*gen of the air is consumed b* gas4lights8 >n order to +eep the lace clean, and although the floor is tiled or gagged, the children are often compelled, e)en in "inter, to pull off their shoes8 @>t is not at all uncommon in Cottingham to find 1 to 67 children huddled together in a small room, of, perhaps, not more than 16 feet sIuare, and emplo*ed for 13 hours out of the 6 , at "or+ that of itself is e9hausting, from its "eariness and monoton*, and is besides carried on under e)er* possible un"holesome condition8888 E)en the )er* *oungest children "or+ "ith a strained attention and a rapidit* that is astonishing, hardl* e)er gi)ing their fingers rest or glo"ering their motion8 >f a Iuestion be as+ed them, the* ne)er raise their e*es from their "or+ from fear of losing a single moment8A 'he @long stic+A is used b* the mistresses as a stimulant more and more as the "or+ing hours are prolonged8 @'he children graduall* tire and become as restless as birds to"ards the end of their long detention at an occupation that is monotonous, e*e4straining, and e9hausting from the uniformit* in the posture of the bod*8 'heir "or+ is li+e sla)er*8A 187 Bhen "omen and their children "or+ at home, "hich no"4a4da*s means in a hired room, often in a garret, the state of things is, if possible, still "orse8 'his sort of "or+ is gi)en out "ithin a

6 3

5hapter 13

circle of 87 miles radius from Cottingham8 =n lea)ing the "arehouses at 2 or 17 o?cloc+ at night, the children are often gi)en a bundle of lace to ta+e home "ith them and finish8 'he #harisee of a capitalist represented b* one of his ser)ants, accompanies this action, of course, "ith the unctuous phrase: @'hat?s for mother,A *et he +no"s "ell enough that the poor children must sit up and help8181 #illo" lace4ma+ing is chiefl* carried on in England in t"o agricultural districts; one, the -oniton lace district, e9tending from 67 to :7 miles along the south coast of 0e)onshire, and including a fe" places in Corth 0e)on; the other comprising a great part of the counties of /uc+ingham, /edford, and Corthampton, and also the adDoining portions of =9fordshire and -untingdonshire8 'he cottages of the agricultural labourers are the places "here the "or+ is usuall* carried on8 $an* manufacturers emplo* up"ards of :,777 of these lace4ma+ers, "ho are chiefl* children and *oung persons of the female se9 e9clusi)el*8 'he state of things described as incidental to lace finishing is here repeated, sa)e that instead of the @mistresses? houses,A "e find "hat are called @lace4schools,A +ept b* poor "omen in their cottages8 From their fifth *ear and often earlier, until their t"elfth or fifteenth *ear, the children "or+ in these schools; during the first *ear the )er* *oung ones "or+ from four to eight hours, and later on, from si9 in the morning till eight and ten o?cloc+ at night8 @'he rooms are generall* the ordinar* li)ing rooms of small cottages, the chimne* stopped up to +eep out draughts, the inmates +ept "arm b* their o"n animal heat alone, and this freIuentl* in "inter8 >n other cases, these so4called school4rooms are li+e small store4rooms "ithout fire4places8888 'he o)er4cro"ding in these dens and the conseIuent )itiation of the air are often e9treme8 (dded to this is the inDurious effect of drains, pri)ies, decomposing substances, and other filth usual in the purlieus of the smaller cottages8A Bith regard to space: @>n one lace4school 18 girls and a mistress, :3 cubic feet to each person; in another, "here the smell "as unbearable, 18 persons and 6 [ cubic feet per head8 >n this industr* are to be found emplo*ed children of 6 and 6[ *ears8A186 Bhere lace4ma+ing ends in the counties of /uc+ingham and /edford, stra"4plaiting begins, and e9tends o)er a large part of -ertfordshire and the "esterl* and northerl* parts of Esse98 >n 1861, there "ere 7,7 : persons emplo*ed in stra"4plaiting and stra"4hat ma+ing; of these :,813 "ere males of all ages, the rest females, of "hom 1 ,21:, including about 7,777 children, "ere under 67 *ears of age8 >n the place of the lace4schools "e find here the @stra"4plait schools8A 'he children commence their instruction in stra"4plaiting generall* in their th, often bet"een their :rd and th *ear8 Education, of course, the* get none8 'he children themsel)es call the elementar* schools, @natural schools,A to distinguish them from these blood4suc+ing institutions, in "hich the* are +ept at "or+ simpl* to get through the tas+, generall* :7 *ards dail*, prescribed b* their half4star)ed mothers8 'hese same mothers often ma+e them "or+ at home, after school is o)er, till 17, 11, and 16 o?cloc+ at night8 'he stra" cuts their mouths, "ith "hich the* constantl* moisten it, and their fingers8 0r8 /allard gi)es it as the general opinion of the "hole bod* of medical officers in <ondon, that :77 cubic feet is the minimum space proper for each person in a bedroom or "or+room8 /ut in the stra"4plait schools space is more sparingl* allotted than in the lace4schools, @16 6J:, 17, 18[ and belo" 66 cubic feet for each person8A @'he smaller of these numbers, sa*s one of the commissioners, $r8 Bhite, represents less space than the half of "hat a child "ould occup* if pac+ed in a bo9 measuring : feet in each direction8A

6 6

5hapter 13

'hus do the children enDo* life till the age of 16 or 1 8 'he "retched half4star)ed parents thin+ of nothing but getting as much as possible out of their children8 'he latter, as soon as the* are gro"n up, do not care a farthing, and naturall* so, for their parents, and lea)e them8 @>t is no "onder that ignorance and )ice abound in a population so brought up8888 'heir moralit* is at the lo"est ebb,888 a great number of the "omen ha)e illegitimate children, and that at such an immature age that e)en those most con)ersant "ith criminal statistics are astounded8A 18: (nd the nati)e land of these model families is the pattern 5hristian countr* for Europe; so sa*s at least 5ount $ontalembert, certainl* a competent authorit* on 5hristianit*Q Bages in the abo)e industries, miserable as the* are (the ma9imum "ages of a child in the stra"4 plait schools rising in rare cases to : shillings!, are reduced far belo" their nominal amount b* the pre)alence of the truc+ s*stem e)er*"here, but especiall* in the lace districts8 18

E. 'a##a&e of Modern Manufacture0 and Dome#tic .ndu#try into Modern Mechanical .ndu#try. The %a#tenin& of thi# /evolution $y the Application of the Factory Act# to tho#e .ndu#trie#
'he cheapening of labour4po"er, b* sheer abuse of the labour of "omen and children, b* sheer robber* of e)er* normal condition reIuisite for "or+ing and li)ing, and b* the sheer brutalit* of o)er"or+ and night4"or+, meets at last "ith natural obstacles that cannot be o)erstepped8 So also, "hen based on these methods, do the cheapening of commodities and capitalist e9ploitation in general8 So soon as this point is at last reached F and it ta+es man* *ears F the hour has struc+ for the introduction of machiner*, and for the thenceforth rapid con)ersion of the scattered domestic industries and also of manufactures into factor* industries8 (n e9ample, on the most colossal scale, of this mo)ement is afforded b* the production of "earing apparel8 'his industr*, according to the classification of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, comprises stra"4hat ma+ers, ladies?4hat ma+ers, cap4ma+ers, tailors, milliners and dressma+ers, shirt4ma+ers, corset4ma+ers, glo)e4ma+ers, shoema+ers, besides man* minor branches, such as the ma+ing of nec+4ties, collars, Pc8 >n 1861, the number of females emplo*ed in these industries, in England and Bales, amounted to 386,622, of these 113,6 6 at the least "ere under 67, and 16,6378 under 13 *ears of age8 'he number of these "or+"omen in the %nited .ingdom in 1861, "as 737,:: 8 'he number of males emplo*ed in England and Bales, in hat4 ma+ing, shoema+ing, glo)e4ma+ing and tailoring "as :7,262; of these 1 ,26 under 13 *ears, 82,683 bet"een 13 and 67, and :::,117 o)er 67 *ears8 $an* of the smaller branches are not included in these figures8 /ut ta+e the figures as the* stand; "e then ha)e for England and Bales alone, according to the census of 1861, a total of 1,76 ,677 persons, about as man* as are absorbed b* agriculture and cattle breeding8 Be begin to understand "hat becomes of the immense Iuantities of goods conDured up b* the magic of machiner*, and of the enormous masses of "or+people, "hich that machiner* sets free8 'he production of "earing apparel is carried on partl* in manufactories in "hose "or+rooms there is but a reproduction of that di)ision of labour, the membra disDecta of "hich "ere found read* to hand; partl* b* small master4handicraftsmen; these, ho"e)er, do not, as formerl*, "or+ for indi)idual consumers, but for manufactories and "arehouses, and to such an e9tent that often "hole to"ns and stretches of countr* carr* on certain branches, such as shoema+ing, as a specialit*; finall*, on a )er* great scale b* the so4called domestic "or+ers, "ho form an e9ternal

6 7

5hapter 13

department of the manufactories, "arehouses, and e)en of the "or+shops of the smaller masters8183 'he ra" material, Pc8, is supplied b* mechanical industr*, the mass of cheap human material (taillable X merci et misRricorde! is composed of the indi)iduals @liberatedA b* mechanical industr* and impro)ed agriculture8 'he manufactures of this class o"ed their origin chiefl* to the capitalist?s need of ha)ing at hand an arm* read* eIuipped to meet an* increase of demand8 186 'hese manufactures, ne)ertheless, allo"ed the scattered handicrafts and domestic industries to continue to e9ist as a broad foundation8 'he great production of surplus )alue in these branches of labour, and the progressi)e cheapening of their articles, "ere and are chiefl* due to the minimum "ages paid, no more than reIuisite for a miserable )egetation, and to the e9tension of "or+ing4 time up to the ma9imum endurable b* the human organism8 >t "as in fact b* the cheapness of the human s"eat and the human blood, "hich "ere con)erted into commodities, that the mar+ets "ere constantl* being e9tended, and continue dail* to be e9tended; more especiall* "as this the case "ith England?s colonial mar+ets, "here, besides, English tastes and habits pre)ail8 (t last the critical point "as reached8 'he basis of the old method, sheer brutalit* in the e9ploitation of the "or+people, accompanied more or less b* a s*stematic di)ision of labour, no longer sufficed for the e9tending mar+ets and for the still more rapidl* e9tending competition of the capitalists8 'he hour struc+ for the ad)ent of machiner*8 'he decisi)el* re)olutionar* machine, the machine "hich attac+s in an eIual degree the "hole of the numberless branches of this sphere of production, dressma+ing, tailoring, shoema+ing, se"ing, hat4ma+ing, and man* others, is the se"ing4machine8 >ts immediate effect on the "or+people is li+e that of all machiner*, "hich, since the rise of modern industr*, has sei1ed upon ne" branches of trade8 5hildren of too tender an age are sent adrift8 'he "age of the machine hands rises compared "ith that of the house4"or+ers, man* of "hom belong to the poorest of the poor8 'hat of the better situated handicraftsman, "ith "hom the machine competes, sin+s8 'he ne" machine hands are e9clusi)el* girls and *oung "omen8 Bith the help of mechanical force, the* destro* the monopol* that male labour had of the hea)ier "or+, and the* dri)e off from the lighter "or+ numbers of old "omen and )er* *oung children8 'he o)erpo"ering competition crushes the "ea+est of the manual labourers8 'he fearful increase in death from star)ation during the last 17 *ears in <ondon runs parallel "ith the e9tension of machine se"ing8187 'he ne" "or+"omen turn the machines b* hand and foot, or b* hand alone, sometimes sitting, sometimes standing, according to the "eight, si1e, and special ma+e of the machine, and e9pend a great deal of labour4po"er8 'heir occupation is un"holesome, o"ing to the long hours, although in most cases the* are not so long as under the old s*stem8 Bhere)er the se"ing4machine locates itself in narro" and alread* o)er4cro"ded "or+rooms, it adds to the un"holesome influences8 @'he effect,A sa*s $r8 <ord, @on entering lo"4ceiled "or+rooms in "hich :7 to 7 machine hands are "or+ing is unbearable8888 'he heat, partl* due to the gas sto)es used for "arming the irons, is horrible8888 E)en "hen moderate hours of "or+, i8e8, from 8 in the morning till 6 in the e)ening, pre)ail in such places, *et : or persons fall into a s"oon regularl* e)er* da*8A 188 'he re)olution in the industrial methods "hich is the necessar* result of the re)olution in the instruments of production, is effected b* a medle* of transition forms8 'hese forms )ar* according to the e9tent to "hich the se"ing4machine has become pre)alent in one branch, of industr* or the other, to the time during "hich it has been in operation, to the pre)ious condition of the "or+people, to the preponderance of manufacture, of handicrafts or of domestic industr*, to the rent of the "or+rooms, 182 Pc8 >n dressma+ing, for instance, "here the labour for the most part "as alread* organised, chiefl* b* simple co4operation, the se"ing4machine at first formed

6 8

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merel* a ne" factor in that manufacturing industr*8 >n tailoring, shirtma+ing, shoema+ing, Pc8, all the forms are intermingled8 -ere the factor* s*stem proper8 'here middlemen recei)e the ra" material from the capitalist en chef, and group around their se"ing4machines, in @chambersA and @garrets,A from 17 to 37 or more "or+"omen8 Finall*, as is al"a*s the case "ith machiner* "hen not organised into a s*stem, and "hen it can also be used in d"arfish proportions, handicraftsman and domestic "or+ers, along "ith their families, or "ith a little e9tra labour from "ithout, ma+e use of their o"n se"ing4machines8 127 'he s*stem actuall* pre)alent in England is, that the capitalist concentrates a large number of machines on his premises, and then distributes the produce of those machines for further manipulation amongst the domestic "or+ers8 121 'he )ariet* of the transition forms, ho"e)er, does not conceal the tendenc* to con)ersion into the factor* s*stem proper8 'his tendenc* is nurtured b* the )er* nature of the se"ing4machine, the manifold uses of "hich push on the concentration, under one roof, and one management, of pre)iousl* separated branches of a trade8 >t is also fa)oured b* the circumstance that preparator* needle"or+, and certain other operations, are most con)enientl* done on the premises "here the machine is at "or+; as "ell as b* the ine)itable e9propriation of the hand se"ers, and of the domestic "or+ers "ho "or+ "ith their o"n machines8 'his fate has alread* in part o)erta+en them8 'he constantl* increasing amount of capital in)ested in se"ing4machines, 126 gi)es the spur to the production of, and gluts the mar+ets "ith, machine4made articles, thereb* gi)ing the signal to the domestic "or+ers for the sale of their machines8 'he o)erproduction of se"ing4machines themsel)es, causes their producers, in bad "ant of a sale, to let them out for so much a "ee+, thus crushing b* their deadl* competition the small o"ners of machines8 12: 5onstant changes in the construction of the machines, and their e)er4increasing cheapness, depreciate da* b* da* the older ma+es, and allo" of their being sold in great numbers, at absurd prices, to large capitalists, "ho alone can thus emplo* them at a profit8 Finall*, the substitution of the steam4engine for man gi)es in this, as in all similar re)olutions, the finishing blo"8 (t first, the use of steam po"er meets "ith mere technical difficulties, such as unsteadiness in the machines, difficult* in controlling their speed, rapid "ear and tear of the lighter machines, Pc8, all of "hich are soon o)ercome b* e9perience812 >f, on the one hand, the concentration of man* machines in large manufactories leads to the use of steam po"er, on the other hand, the competition of steam "ith human muscles hastens on the concentration of "or+people and machines in large factories8 'hus England is at present e9periencing, not onl* in the colossal industr* of ma+ing "earing apparel, but in most of the other trades mentioned abo)e, the con)ersion of manufacture, of handicrafts, and of domestic "or+ into the factor* s*stem, after each of those forms of production, totall* changed and disorganised8 under the >nfluence of modern industr*, has long ago reproduced, and e)en o)erdone, all the horrors of the factor* s*stem, "ithout participating in an* of the elements of social progress it contains8123 'his industrial re)olution "hich ta+es place spontaneousl*, is artificiall* helped on b* the e9tension of the Factor* (cts to all industries in "hich "omen, *oung persons and children are emplo*ed8 'he compulsor* regulation of the "or+ing da* as regards its length, pauses, beginning and end, the s*stem of rela*s of children, the e9clusion of all children under a certain age, Pc8, necessitate on the one hand more machiner* 126 and the substitution of steam as a moti)e po"er in the place of muscles8127 =n the other hand, in order to ma+e up for the loss of time, an e9pansion occurs of the means of production used in common, of the furnaces, buildings, Pc8, in one "ord, greater concentration of the means of production and a correspondingl* greater concourse of "or+people8 'he chief obDection, repeatedl* and passionatel* urged on behalf of each manufacture threatened "ith the Factor* (ct, is in fact this, that in order to continue the business on the old scale a greater outla* of capital "ill be necessar*8 /ut as regards labour in the so4called domestic industries and the intermediate forms bet"een them and $anufacture, so soon as limits

6 2

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are put to the "or+ing da* and to the emplo*ment of children, those industries go to the "all8 %nlimited e9ploitation of cheap labour4po"er is the sole foundation of their po"er to compete8 =ne of the essential conditions for the e9istence of the factor* s*stem, especiall* "hen the length of the "or+ing da* is fi9ed, is certaint* in the result, i8e8, the production in a gi)en time of a gi)en Iuantit* of commodities, or of a gi)en useful effect8 'he statutor* pauses in the "or+ing da*, moreo)er, impl* the assumption that periodical and sudden cessation of the "or+ does no harm to the article undergoing the process of production8 'his certaint* in the result, and this possibilit* of interrupting the "or+ are, of course, easier to be attained in the purel* mechanical industries than in those in "hich chemical and ph*sical processes pla* a part; as, for instance, in the earthen"are trade, in bleaching, d*eing, ba+ing, and in most of the metal industries8 Bhere)er there is a "or+ingda* "ithout restriction as to length, "here)er there is night4"or+ and unrestricted "aste of human life, there the slightest obstacle presented b* the nature of the "or+ to a change for the better is soon loo+ed upon as an e)erlasting barrier erected b* Cature8 Co poison +ills )ermin "ith more certaint* than the Factor* (ct remo)es such e)erlasting barriers8 Co one made a greater outcr* o)er @impossibilitiesA than our friends the earthen"are manufacturers8 >n 186 , ho"e)er, the* "ere brought under the (ct, and "ithin si9teen months e)er* @impossibilit*A had )anished8 @'he impro)ed method,A called forth b* the (ct, @of ma+ing slip b* pressure instead of b* e)aporation, the ne"l*4constructed sto)es for dr*ing the "are in its green state, Pc8, are each e)ents of great importance in the potter* art, and mar+ an ad)ance "hich the preceding centur* could not ri)al8888 >t has e)en considerabl* reduced the temperature of the sto)es themsel)es "ith a considerable sa)ing of fuel, and "ith a readier effect on the "are8A 128 >n spite of e)er* prophec*, the cost4price of earthen"are did not rise, but the Iuantit* produced did, and to such an e9tent that the e9port for the t"el)e months, ending 0ecember, 1863, e9ceeded in )alue b* ]1:8,668 the a)erage of the preceding three *ears8 >n the manufacture of matches it "as thought to be an indispensable reIuirement, that bo*s, e)en "hile bolting their dinner, should go on dipping the matches in melted phosphorus, the poisonous )apour from "hich rose into their faces8 'he Factor* (ct (186 ! made the sa)ing of time a necessit*, and so forced into e9istence a dipping machine, the )apour from "hich could not come in contact "ith the "or+ers8122 So, at the present time, in those branches of the lace manufacture not *et subDect to the Factor* (ct, it is maintained that the meal4times cannot be regular o"ing to the different periods reIuired b* the )arious +inds of lace for dr*ing, "hich periods )ar* from three minutes up to an hour and more8 'o this the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommissioners ans"er: @'he circumstances of this case are precisel* analogous to that of the paper4 stainers, dealt "ith in our first report8 Some of the principal manufacturers in the trade urged that in conseIuence of the nature of the materials used, and their )arious processes, the* "ould be unable, "ithout serious loss, to stop for meal4 times at an* gi)en moment8 /ut it "as seen from the e)idence that, b* due care and pre)ious arrangement, the apprehended difficult* "ould be got o)er; and accordingl*, b* clause 6 of section 6 of the Factor* (cts E9tension (ct, passed during this Session of #arliament, an inter)al of eighteen months is gi)en to them from the passing of the (ct before the* are reIuired to conform to the meal hours, specified b* the Factor* (cts8A677

-ardl* had the (ct been passed "hen our friends the manufacturers found out:

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@'he incon)eniences "e e9pected to arise from the introduction of the Factor* (cts into our branch of manufacture, > am happ* to sa*, ha)e not arisen8 Be do not find the production at all interfered "ith; in short, "e produce more in the same time8A671 >t is e)ident that the English legislature, "hich certainl* no one "ill )enture to reproach "ith being o)erdosed "ith genius, has been led b* e9perience to the conclusion that a simple compulsor* la" is sufficient to enact a"a* all the so4called impediments, opposed b* the nature of the process, to the restriction and regulation of the "or+ing da*8 -ence, on the introduction of the Factor* (ct into a gi)en industr*, a period )ar*ing from si9 to eighteen months is fi9ed "ithin "hich it is incumbent on the manufacturers to remo)e all technical impediments to the "or+ing of the (ct8 $irabeau?s @>mpossibleQ ne me dites Damais ce bdte de motQA is particularl* applicable to modern technolog*8 /ut though the Factor* (cts thus artificiall* ripen the material elements necessar* for the con)ersion of the manufacturing s*stem into the factor* s*stem, *et at the same time, o"ing to the necessit* the* impose for greater outla* of capital, the* hasten on the decline of the small masters, and the concentration of capital8 676 /esides the purel* technical impediments that are remo)able b* technical means, the irregular habits of the "or+people themsel)es obstruct the regulation of the hours of labour8 'his is especiall* the case "here piece4"age predominates, and "here loss of time in one part of the da* or "ee+ can be made good b* subseIuent o)er4time, or b* night4"or+, a process "hich brutalises the adult "or+man, and ruins his "ife and children8 67: (lthough this absence of regularit* in the e9penditure of labour4po"er is a natural and rude reaction against the tedium of monotonous drudger*, it originates, also, to a much greater degree from anarch* in production, anarch* that in its turn pre4supposes unbridled e9ploitation of labour4po"er b* the capitalist8 /esides the general periodic changes of the industrial c*cle, and the special fluctuations in the mar+ets to "hich each industr* is subDect, "e ma* also rec+on "hat is called @the season,A dependent either on the periodicit* of fa)ourable seasons of the *ear for na)igation; or on fashion, and the sudden placing of large orders that ha)e to be e9ecuted in the shortest possible time8 'he habit of gi)ing such orders becomes more freIuent "ith the e9tension of rail"a*s and telegraphs8 @'he e9tension of the rail"a* s*stem throughout the countr* has tended )er* much to encourage gi)ing short notice8 #urchasers no" come up from Glasgo", $anchester, and Edinburgh once e)er* fortnight or so to the "holesale cit* "arehouses "hich "e suppl*, and gi)e small orders reIuiring immediate e9ecution, instead of bu*ing from stoc+ as the* used to do8 Nears ago "e "ere al"a*s able to "or+ in the slac+ times, so as to meet demand of the ne9t season, but no" no one can sa* beforehand "hat "ill be the demand then8A 67 >n those factories and manufactories that are not *et subDect to the Factor* (cts, the most fearful o)er4"or+ pre)ails periodicall* during "hat is called the season, in conseIuence of sudden orders8 >n the outside department of the factor*, of the manufactor*, and of the "arehouse, the so4 called domestic "or+ers, "hose emplo*ment is at the best irregular, are entirel* dependent for their ra" material and their orders on the caprice of the capitalist, "ho, in this industr*, is not hampered b* an* regard for depreciation of his buildings and machiner*, and ris+s nothing b* a stoppage of "or+, but the s+in of the "or+er himself8 -ere then he sets himself s*stematicall* to "or+ to form an industrial reser)e force that shall be read* at a moment?s notice; during one part of the *ear he decimates this force b* the most inhuman toil, during the other part, he lets it star)e for "ant of "or+8 @'he emplo*ers a)ail themsel)es of the habitual irregularit* in the home"or+, "hen an* e9tra "or+ is "anted at a push, so that the "or+ goes on till 11, and 16

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p8m8 or 6 a8m8, or as the usual phrase is, @all hours,A and that in localities "here @the stench is enough to +noc+ *ou do"n, *ou go to the door, perhaps, and open it, but shudder to go further8A673 @'he* are curious men,A said one of the "itnesses, a shoema+er, spea+ing of the masters, @the* thin+ it does a bo* no harm to "or+ too hard for half the *ear, if he is nearl* idle for the other half8A 676 >n the same "a* as technical impediments, so, too, those @usages "hich ha)e gro"n "ith the gro"th of tradeA "ere and still are proclaimed b* interested capitalists as obstacles due to the nature of the "or+8 'his "as a fa)ourite cr* of the cotton lords at the time the* "ere first threatened "ith the Factor* (cts8 (lthough their industr* more than an* other depends on na)igation, *et e9perience has gi)en them the lie8 Since then, e)er* pretended obstruction to business has been treated b* the Factor* inspectors as a mere sham8 677 'he thoroughl* conscientious in)estigations of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission pro)e that the effect of the regulation of the hours of "or+, in some industries, "as to spread the mass of labour pre)iousl* emplo*ed more e)enl* o)er the "hole *ear 678 that this regulation "as the first rational bridle on the murderous, meaningless caprices of fashion, 672 caprices that consort so badl* "ith the s*stem of modern industr*; that the de)elopment of ocean na)igation and of the means of communication generall*, has s"ept a"a* the technical basis on "hich season4"or+ "as reall* supported, 617and that all other so4called unconIuerable difficulties )anish before larger buildings, additional machiner*, increase in the number of "or+people emplo*ed, 611 and the alterations caused b* all these in the mode of conducting the "holesale trade8 616 /ut for all that, capital ne)er becomes reconciled to such changes F and this is admitted o)er and o)er again b* its o"n representati)es F e9cept @under the pressure of a General (ct of #arliamentA 61: for the compulsor* regulation of the hours of labour8

Section >: The Factor ;cts7 Sanitar and )ducational Clauses of the same7 Their 4eneral )+tension in )n%land
Factor* legislation, that first conscious and methodical reaction of societ* against the spontaneousl* de)eloped form of the process of production, is, as "e ha)e seen, Dust as much the necessar* product of modern industr* as cotton *arn, self4actors, and the electric telegraph8 /efore passing to the consideration of the e9tension of that legislation in England, "e shall shortl* notice certain clauses contained in the Factor* (cts, and not relating to the hours of "or+8 (part from their "ording, "hich ma+es it eas* for the capitalist to e)ade them, the sanitar* clauses are e9tremel* meagre, and, in fact, limited to pro)isions for "hite"ashing the "alls, for insuring cleanliness in some other matters, for )entilation, and for protection against dangerous machiner*8 >n the third boo+ "e shall return again to the fanatical opposition of the masters to those clauses "hich imposed upon them a slight e9penditure on appliances for protecting the limbs of their "or+people, an opposition that thro"s a fresh and glaring light on the Free4trade dogma, according to "hich, in a societ* "ith conflicting interests, each indi)idual necessaril* furthers the common "eal b* see+ing nothing but his o"n personal ad)antageQ =ne e9ample is enough8 'he reader +no"s that during the last 67 *ears, the fla9 industr* has )er* much e9tended, and that, "ith that e9tension, the number of scutching mills in >reland has increased8 >n 186 there "ere in that countr* 1,877 of these mills8 &egularl* in autumn and "inter "omen and @*oung persons,A the "i)es, sons, and daughters of the neighbouring small farmers, a class of people totall* unaccustomed to machiner*, are ta+en from field labour to feed the rollers of the scutching mills "ith fla98 'he accidents, both as regards number and +ind, are "holl*

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une9ampled in the histor* of machiner*8 >n one scutching mill, at .ildinan, near 5or+, there occurred bet"een 1836 and 1836, si9 fatal accidents and si9t* mutilations; e)er* one of "hich might ha)e been pre)ented b* the simplest appliances, at the cost of a fe" shillings8 0r8 B8 Bhite, the certif*ing surgeon for factories at 0o"npatric+, states in his official report, dated the 13th 0ecember, 1863: @'he serious accidents at the scutching mills are of the most fearful nature8 >n man* cases a Iuarter of the bod* is torn from the trun+, and either in)ol)es death, or a future of "retched incapacit* and suffering8 'he increase of mills in the countr* "ill, of course, e9tend these dreadful results, and it "ill be a great boon if the* are brought under the legislature8 > am con)inced that b* proper super)ision of scutching mills a )ast sacrifice of life and limb "ould be a)erted8A 61 Bhat could possibl* sho" better the character of the capitalist mode of production, than the necessit* that e9ists for forcing upon it, b* (cts of #arliament, the simplest appliances for maintaining cleanliness and healthE >n the potteries the Factor* (ct of 186 @has "hite"ashed and cleansed up"ards of 677 "or+shops, after a period of abstinence from an* such cleaning, in man* cases of 67 *ears, and in some, entirel*,A (this is the @abstinenceA of the capitalistQ! @in "hich "ere emplo*ed 67,877 artisans, hitherto breathing through protracted da*s and often nights of labour, a mephitic atmosphere, and "hich rendered an other"ise comparati)el* innocuous occupation, pregnant "ith disease and death8 'he (ct has impro)ed the )entilation )er* much8A 613 (t the same time, this portion of the (ct stri+ingl* sho"s that the capitalist mode of production, o"ing to its )er* nature, e9cludes all rational impro)ement be*ond a certain point8 >t has been stated o)er and o)er again that the English doctors are unanimous in declaring that "here the "or+ is continuous, 377 cubic feet is the )er* least space that should be allo"ed for each person8 Co", if the Factor* (cts, o"ing to their compulsor* pro)isions, indirectl* hasten on the con)ersion of small "or+shops into factories, thus indirectl* attac+ing the proprietar* rights of the smaller capitalists, and assuring a monopol* to the great ones, so, if it "ere made obligator* to pro)ide the proper space for each "or+man in e)er* "or+shop, thousands of small emplo*ers "ould, at one full s"oop, be e9propriated directl*Q 'he )er* root of the capitalist mode of production, i8e8, the self4e9pansion of all capital, large or small, b* means of the @freeA purchase and consumption of labour4po"er, "ould be attac+ed8 Factor* legislation is therefore brought to a deadloc+ before these 377 cubic feet of breathing space8 'he sanitar* officers, the industrial inIuir* commissioners, the factor* inspectors, all harp, o)er and o)er again, upon the necessit* for those 377 cubic feet, and upon the impossibilit* of "ringing them out of capital8 'he* thus, in fact, declare that consumption and other lung diseases among the "or+people are necessar* conditions to the e9istence of capital8616 #altr* as the education clauses of the (ct appear on the "hole, *et the* proclaim elementar* education to be an indispensable condition to the emplo*ment of children8 617 'he success of those clauses pro)ed for the first time the possibilit* of combining education and g*mnastics 618 "ith manual labour, and, conseIuentl*, of combining manual labour "ith education and g*mnastics8 'he factor* inspectors soon found out b* Iuestioning the schoolmasters, that the factor* children, although recei)ing onl* one half the education of the regular da* scholars, *et learnt Iuite as much and often more8 @'his can be accounted for b* the simple fact that, "ith onl* being at school for one half of the da*, the* are al"a*s fresh, and nearl* al"a*s read* and "illing to recei)e instruction8 'he s*stem on "hich the* "or+, half manual labour, and half school, renders each emplo*ment a rest and a relief to the other; conseIuentl*, both are far more congenial to the child, than "ould be the case "ere he +ept

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constantl* at one8 >t is Iuite clear that a bo* "ho has been at school all the morning, cannot (in hot "eather particularl*! cope "ith one "ho comes fresh and bright from his "or+8A612 Further information on this point "ill be found in Senior?s speech at the Social Science 5ongress at Edinburgh in 186:8 -e there sho"s, amongst other things, ho" the monotonous and uselessl* long school hours of the children of the upper and middle classes, uselessl* add to the labour of the teacher, @"hile he not onl* fruitlessl* but absolutel* inDuriousl*, "astes the time, health, and energ* of the children8A667 From the Factor* s*stem budded, as &obert ="en has sho"n us in detail, the germ of the education of the future, an education that "ill, in the case of e)er* child o)er a gi)en age, combine producti)e labour "ith instruction and g*mnastics, not onl* as one of the methods of adding to the efficienc* of production, but as the onl* method of producing full* de)eloped human beings8 $odern industr*, as "e ha)e seen, s"eeps a"a* b* technical means the manufacturing di)ision of labour, under "hich each man is bound hand and foot for life to a single detail4operation8 (t the same time, the capitalistic form of that industr* reproduces this same di)ision of labour in a still more monstrous shape; in the factor* proper, b* con)erting the "or+man into a li)ing appendage of the machine; and e)er*"here outside the Factor*, partl* b* the sporadic use of machiner* and machine "or+ers,661 partl* b* re4establishing the di)ision of labour on a fresh basis b* the general introduction of the labour of "omen and children, and of cheap uns+illed labour8 'he antagonism bet"een the manufacturing di)ision of labour and the methods of modern industr* ma+es itself forcibl* felt8 >t manifests itself, amongst other "a*s, in the frightful fact that a great part of the children emplo*ed in modern factories and manufactures, are from their earliest *ears ri)eted to the most simple manipulations, and e9ploited for *ears, "ithout being taught a single sort of "or+ that "ould after"ards ma+e them of use, e)en in the same manufactor* or factor*8 >n the English letter4press printing trade, for e9ample, there e9isted formerl* a s*stem, corresponding to that in the old manufactures and handicrafts, of ad)ancing the apprentices from eas* to more and more difficult "or+8 'he* "ent through a course of teaching till the* "ere finished printers8 'o be able to read and "rite "as for e)er* one of them a reIuirement of their trade8 (ll this "as changed b* the printing machine8 >t emplo*s t"o sorts of labourers, one gro"n up, renters, the other, bo*s mostl* from 11 to 17 *ears of age "hose sole business is either to spread the sheets of paper under the machine, or to ta+e from it the printed sheets8 'he* perform this "ear* tas+, in <ondon especiall*, for 1 , 13, and 16 hours at a stretch, during se)eral da*s in the "ee+, and freIuentl* for :6 hours, "ith onl* 6 hours? rest for meals and sleep8 666 ( great part of them cannot read, and the* are, as a rule, utter sa)ages and )er* e9traordinar* creatures8 @'o Iualif* them for the "or+ "hich the* ha)e to do, the* reIuire no intellectual training; there is little room in it for s+ill, and less for Dudgment; their "ages, though rather high for bo*s, do not increase proportionatel* as the* gro" up, and the maDorit* of them cannot loo+ for ad)ancement to the better paid and more responsible post of machine minder, because "hile each machine has but one minder, it has at least t"o, and often four bo*s attached to it8A 66: (s soon as the* get too old for such child?s "or+, that is about 17 at the latest, the* are discharged from the printing establishments8 'he* become recruits of crime8 Se)eral attempts to procure them emplo*ment else"here, "ere rendered of no a)ail b* their ignorance and brutalit*, and b* their mental and bodil* degradation8 (s "ith the di)ision of labour in the interior of the manufacturing "or+shops, so it is "ith the di)ision of labour in the interior of societ*8 So long as handicraft and manufacture form the

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general ground"or+ of social production, the subDection of the producer to one branch e9clusi)el*, the brea+ing up of the multifariousness of his emplo*ment 66 is a necessar* step in the de)elopment8 =n that ground"or+ each separate branch of production acIuires empiricall* the form that is technicall* suited to it, slo"l* perfects it, and, so soon as a gi)en degree of maturit* has been reached, rapidl* cr*stallises that form8 'he onl* thing, that here and there causes a change, besides ne" ra" material supplied b* commerce, is the gradual alteration of the instruments of labour8 /ut their form, too, once definitel* settled b* e9perience, petrifies, as is pro)ed b* their being in man* cases handed do"n in the same form b* one generation to another during thousands of *ears8 ( characteristic feature is, that, e)en do"n into the eighteenth centur*, the different trades "ere called @m*steriesA (m*stnres!; 663 into their secrets none but those dul* initiated could penetrate8 modern industr* rent the )eil that concealed from men their o"n social process of production, and that turned the )arious, spontaneousl* di)ided branches of production into so man* riddles, not onl* to outsiders, but e)en to the initiated8 'he principle "hich it pursued, of resol)ing each process into its constituent mo)ements, "ithout an* regard to their possible e9ecution b* the hand of man, created the ne" modern science of technolog*8 'he )aried, apparentl* unconnected, and petrified forms of the industrial processes no" resol)ed themsel)es into so man* conscious and s*stematic applications of natural science to the attainment of gi)en useful effects8 'echnolog* also disco)ered the fe" main fundamental forms of motion, "hich, despite the di)ersit* of the instruments used, are necessaril* ta+en b* e)er* producti)e action of the human bod*; Dust as the science of mechanics sees in the most complicated machiner* nothing but the continual repetition of the simple mechanical po"ers8 $odern industr* ne)er loo+s upon and treats the e9isting form of a process as final8 'he technical basis of that industr* is therefore re)olutionar*, "hile all earlier modes of production "ere essentiall* conser)ati)e8666 /* means of machiner*, chemical processes and other methods, it is continuall* causing changes not onl* in the technical basis of production, but also in the functions of the labourer, and in the social combinations of the labour4process8 (t the same time, it thereb* also re)olutionises the di)ision of labour "ithin the societ*, and incessantl* launches masses of capital and of "or+people from one branch of production to another8 /ut if modern industr*, b* its )er* nature, therefore necessitates )ariation of labour, fluenc* of function, uni)ersal mobilit* of the labourer, on the other hand, in its capitalistic form, it reproduces the old di)ision of labour "ith its ossified particularisations8 Be ha)e seen ho" this absolute contradiction bet"een the technical necessities of modern industr*, and the social character inherent in its capitalistic form, dispels all fi9it* and securit* in the situation of the labourer; ho" it constantl* threatens, b* ta+ing a"a* the instruments of labour, to snatch from his hands his means of subsistence, 667 and, b* suppressing his detail4function, to ma+e him superfluous, Be ha)e seen, too, ho" this antagonism )ents its rage in the creation of that monstrosit*, an industrial reser)e arm*, +ept in miser* in order to be al"a*s at the disposal of capital; in the incessant human sacrifices from among the "or+ing4class, in the most rec+less sIuandering of labour4po"er and in the de)astation caused b* a social anarch* "hich turns e)er* economic progress into a social calamit*8 'his is the negati)e side8 /ut if, on the one hand, )ariation of "or+ at present imposes itself after the manner of an o)erpo"ering natural la", and "ith the blindl* destructi)e action of a natural la" that meets "ith resistance 668 at all points, modern industr*, on the other hand, through its catastrophes imposes the necessit* of recognising, as a fundamental la" of production, )ariation of "or+, conseIuentl* fitness of the labourer for )aried "or+, conseIuentl* the greatest possible de)elopment of his )aried aptitudes8 >t becomes a Iuestion of life and death for societ* to adapt the mode of production to the normal functioning of this la"8 modern industr*, indeed, compels societ*, under penalt* of death, to replace the detail4"or+er of to4da*, grappled b* life4 long repetition of one and the same tri)ial operation, and thus reduced to the mere fragment of a

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man, b* the full* de)eloped indi)idual, fit for a )ariet* of labours, read* to face an* change of production, and to "hom the different social functions he performs, are but so man* modes of gi)ing free scope to his o"n natural and acIuired po"ers8 =ne step alread* spontaneousl* ta+en to"ards effecting this re)olution is the establishment of technical and agricultural schools, and of @Rcoles d?enseignement professionnel,A in "hich the children of the "or+ing4men recei)e some little instruction in technolog* and in the practical handling of the )arious implements of labour8 'hough the Factor* (ct, that first and meagre concession "rung from capital, is limited to combining elementar* education "ith "or+ in the factor*, there can be no doubt that "hen the "or+ing4class comes into po"er, as ine)itabl* it must, technical instruction, both theoretical and practical, "ill ta+e its proper place in the "or+ing4class schools8 'here is also no doubt that such re)olutionar* ferments, the final result of "hich is the abolition of the old di)ision of labour, are diametricall* opposed to the capitalistic form of production, and to the economic status of the labourer corresponding to that form8 /ut the historical de)elopment of the antagonisms, immanent in a gi)en form of production, is the onl* "a* in "hich that form of production can be dissol)ed and a ne" form established8 @Ce sutor ultra crepidamA F this nec plus ultra of handicraft "isdom became sheer nonsense, from the moment the "atchma+er Batt in)ented the steam4engine, the barber (r+"right, the throstle, and the "or+ing4De"eller, Fulton, the steamship8662 So long as Factor* legislation is confined to regulating the labour in factories, manufactories, Pc8, it is regarded as a mere interference "ith the e9ploiting rights of capital8 /ut "hen it comes to regulating the so4called @home4labour,A6:7 it is immediatel* )ie"ed as a direct attac+ on the patria potestas, on parental authorit*8 'he tender4hearted English #arliament long affected to shrin+ from ta+ing this step8 'he force of facts, ho"e)er, compelled it at last to ac+no"ledge that modern industr*, in o)erturning the economic foundation on "hich "as based the traditional famil*, and the famil* labour corresponding to it, had also unloosened all traditional famil* ties8 'he rights of the children had to be proclaimed8 'he final report of the 5h8 Empl8 5omm8 of 1866, states: @>t is unhappil*, to a painful degree, apparent throughout the "hole of the e)idence, that against no persons do the children of both se9es so much reIuire protection as against their parents8A 'he s*stem of unlimited e9ploitation of children?s labour in general and the so4called home4labour in particular is Vmaintained onl* because the parents are able, "ithout chec+ or control, to e9ercise this arbitrar* and mischie)ous po"er o)er their *oung and tender offspring8888 #arents must not possess the absolute po"er of ma+ing their children mere Wmachines to earn so much "ee+l* "age8888? 'he children and *oung persons, therefore, in all such cases ma* Dustifiabl* claim from the legislature, as a natural right, that an e9emption should be secured to them, from "hat destro*s prematurel* their ph*sical strength, and lo"ers them in the scale of intellectual and moral beings8A6:1 >t "as not, ho"e)er, the misuse of parental authorit* that created the capitalistic e9ploitation, "hether direct or indirect, of children?s labour; but, on the contrar*, it "as the capitalistic mode of e9ploitation "hich, b* s"eeping a"a* the economic basis of parental authorit*, made its e9ercise degenerate into a mischie)ous misuse of po"er8 -o"e)er terrible and disgusting the dissolution, under the capitalist s*stem, of the old famil* ties ma* appear, ne)ertheless, modern industr*, b* assigning as it does an important part in the process of production, outside the domestic sphere, to "omen, to *oung persons, and to children of both se9es, creates a ne" economic foundation for a higher form of the famil* and of the relations bet"een the se9es8 >t is,

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of course, Dust as absurd to hold the 'eutonic45hristian form of the famil* to be absolute and final as it "ould be to appl* that character to the ancient &oman, the ancient Gree+, or the Eastern forms "hich, moreo)er, ta+en together form a series in historical de)elopment8 $oreo)er, it is ob)ious that the fact of the collecti)e "or+ing group being composed of indi)iduals of both se9es and all ages, must necessaril*, under suitable conditions, become a source of humane de)elopment; although in its spontaneousl* de)eloped, brutal, capitalistic form, "here the labourer e9ists for the process of production, and not the process of production for the labourer, that fact is a pestiferous source of corruption and sla)er*8 6:6 'he necessit* for a generalisation of the Factor* (cts, for transforming them from an e9ceptional la" relating to mechanical spinning and "ea)ing F those first creations of machiner* F into a la" affecting social production as a "hole, arose, as "e ha)e seen, from the mode in "hich modern industr* "as historicall* de)eloped8 >n the rear of that industr*, the traditional form of manufacture, of handicraft, and of domestic industr*, is entirel* re)olutionised; manufactures are constantl* passing into the factor* s*stem, and handicrafts into manufactures; and lastl*, the spheres of handicraft and of the domestic industries become, in a, comparati)el* spea+ing, "onderfull* short time, dens of miser* in "hich capitalistic e9ploitation obtains free pla* for the "ildest e9cesses8 'here are t"o circumstances that finall* turn the scale: first, the constantl* recurring e9perience that capital, so soon as it finds itself subDect to legal control at one point, compensates itself all the more rec+lessl* at other points; 6:: secondl*, the cr* of the capitalists for eIualit* in the conditions of competition, i8e8, for eIual restrain on all e9ploitation of labour8 6: =n this point let us listen to t"o heart4bro+en cries8 $essrs8 5oo+sle* of /ristol, nail and chain, Pc8, manufacturers, spontaneousl* introduced the regulations of the Factor* (ct into their business8 @(s the old irregular s*stem pre)ails in neighbouring "or+s, the $essrs8 5oo+sle* are subDect to the disad)antage of ha)ing their bo*s enticed to continue their labour else"here after 6 p8m8 W'his,? the* naturall* sa*, Wis an unDustice and loss to us, as it e9hausts a portion of the bo*?s strength, of "hich "e ought to ha)e the full benefit?8A6:3 $r8 L8 Simpson (paper bo9 and bagma+er, <ondon! states before the commissioners of the 5h8 Empl8 5omm8: @-e "ould sign an* petition for itA (legislati)e interference!888 @(s it "as, he al"a*s felt restless at night, "hen he had closed his place, lest others should be "or+ing later than him and getting a"a* his orders8A 6:6 Summarising, the 5h8 Empl8 5omm8 sa*s: @>t "ould be unDust to the larger emplo*ers that their factories should be placed under regulation, "hile the hours of labour in the smaller places in their o"n branch of business "ere under no legislati)e restriction8 (nd to the inDustice arising from the unfair conditions of competition, in regard to hours, that "ould be created if the smaller places of "or+ "ere e9empt, "ould be added the disad)antage to the larger manufacturers, of finding their suppl* of Du)enile and female labour dra"n off to the places of "or+ e9empt from legislation8 Further, a stimulus "ould be gi)en to the multiplication of the smaller places of "or+, "hich are almost in)ariabl* the least fa)ourable to the health, comfort, education, and general impro)ement of the people8A 6:7 >n its final report the 5ommission proposes to subDect to the Factor* (ct more than 1, 77,777 children, *oung persons, and "omen, of "hich number about one half are e9ploited in small industries and b* the so4called home4"or+86:8 >t sa*s,

637

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@/ut if it should seem fit to #arliament to place the "hole of that large number of children, *oung persons and females under the protecti)e legislation abo)e ad)erted to 888 it cannot be doubted that such legislation "ould ha)e a most beneficent effect, not onl* upon the *oung and the feeble, "ho are its more immediate obDects, but upon the still larger bod* of adult "or+ers, "ho "ould in all these emplo*ments, both directl* and indirectl*, come immediatel* under its influence8 >t "ould enforce upon them regular and moderate hours; it "ould lead to their places of "or+ being +ept in a health* and cleanl* state; it "ould therefore husband and impro)e that store of ph*sical strength on "hich their o"n "ell4 being and that of the countr* so much depends; it "ould sa)e the rising generation from that o)ere9ertion at an earl* age "hich undermines their constitutions and leads to premature deca*; finall*, it "ould ensure them F at least up to the age of 1: F the opportunit* of recei)ing the elements of education, and "ould put an end to that utter ignorance 888 so faithfull* e9hibited in the &eports of our (ssistant 5ommissioners, and "hich cannot be regarded "ithout the deepest pain, and a profound sense of national degradation8A6:2 'he 'or* 5abinet6 7 announced in the Speech from the 'hrone, on Februar* 3, 1867, that it had framed the proposals of the >ndustrial 5ommission of >nIuir* 6 1 into /ills8 'o get that far, another t"ent* *ears of experimentum in corpore vili had been reIuired8 (lread* in 18 7 a #arliamentar* 5ommission of >nIuir* on the labour of children had been appointed8 >ts &eport, in 18 6, unfolded, in the "ords of Cassau B8 Senior, @the most frightful picture of a)arice, selfishness and cruelt* on the part of masters and of parents, and of Du)enile and infantile miser*, degradation and destruction e)er presented8888 >t ma* be supposed that it describes the horrors of a past age8 /ut there is unhappil* e)idence that those horrors continue as intense as the* "ere8 ( pamphlet published b* -ard"ic+e about 6 *ears ago states that the abuses complained of in 18 6, are in full bloom at the present da*8 >t is a strange proof of the general neglect of the morals and health of the children of the "or+ing4class, that this report la* unnoticed for 67 *ears, during "hich the children, Wbred up "ithout the remotest sign of comprehension as to "hat is meant b* the term morals, "ho had neither +no"ledge, nor religion, nor natural affection,? "ere allo"ed to become the parents of the present generation8A 6 6 'he social conditions ha)ing undergone a change, #arliament could not )enture to shel)e the demands of the 5ommission of 1866, as it had done those of the 5ommission of 18 78 -ence in 186 , "hen the 5ommission had not *et published more than a part of its reports, the earthen"are industries (including the potteries!, ma+ers of paperhangings, matches, cartridges, and caps, and fustian cutters "ere made subDect to the (cts in force in the te9tile industries8 >n the Speech from the 'hrone, on 3th Februar*, 1867, the 'or* 5abinet of the da* announced the introduction of /ills, founded on the final recommendations of the 5ommission, "hich had completed its labours in 18668 =n the 13th (ugust, 1867, the Factor* (cts E9tension (ct, and on the 61st (ugust, the Bor+shops? &egulation (ct recei)ed the &o*al (ssent; the former (ct ha)ing reference to large industries, the latter to small8 'he former applies to blast4furnaces, iron? and copper mills, foundries, machine shops, metal manufactories, gutta4percha "or+s, paper mills, glass4"or+s, tobacco manufactories, letter4press printing (including ne"spapers!, boo+4binding, in short to all industrial establishments of the

638

5hapter 13

abo)e +ind, in "hich 37 indi)iduals or more are occupied simultaneousl*, and for not less than 177 da*s during the *ear8 'o gi)e an idea of the e9tent of the sphere embraced b* the Bor+shops? &egulation (ct in its application, "e cite from its interpretation clause, the follo"ing passages: @*andicraft shall mean an* manual labour e9ercised b* "a* of trade, or for purposes of gain in, or incidental to, the ma+ing an* article or part of an article, or in, or incidental to, the altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, or other"ise adapting for sale an* article8A @Aor"shop shall mean an* room or place "hate)er in the open air or underco)er, in "hich an* handicraft is carried on b* an* child, *oung person, or "oman, and to "hich and o)er "hich the person b* "hom such child, *oung person, or "oman is emplo*ed, has the right of access and control8A @Employed shall mean occupied in an* handicraft, "hether for "ages or not, under a master or under a parent as herein defined8A @Parent shall mean parent, guardian, or person, ha)ing the custod* of, or control o)er, an*888 child or *oung person8A 5lause 7, "hich imposes a penalt* for emplo*ment of children, *oung persons, and "omen, contrar* to the pro)isions of the (ct, subDects to fines, not onl* the occupier of the "or+shop, "hether parent or not, but e)en @the parent of, or the person deri)ing an* direct benefit from the labour of, or ha)ing the control o)er, the child, *oung person or "oman8A 'he Factor* (cts E9tension (ct, "hich affects the large establishments, derogates from the Factor* (ct b* a cro"d of )icious e9ceptions and co"ardl* compromises "ith the masters8 'he Bor+shops? &egulation (ct, "retched in all its details, remained a dead letter in the hands of the municipal and local authorities "ho "ere charged "ith its e9ecution8 Bhen, in 1871, #arliament "ithdre" from them this po"er, in order to confer it on the Factor* >nspectors, to "hose pro)ince it thus added b* a single stro+e more than one hundred thousand "or+shops, and three hundred bric+"or+s, care "as ta+en at the same time not to add more than eight assistants to their alread* undermanned staff86 : Bhat stri+es us, then, in the English legislation of 1867, is, on the one hand, the necessit* imposed on the parliament of the ruling classes, of adopting in principle measures so e9traordinar*, and on so great a scale, against the e9cesses of capitalistic e9ploitation; and on the other hand, the hesitation, the repugnance, and the bad faith, "ith "hich it lent itself to the tas+ of carr*ing those measures into practice8 'he >nIuir* 5ommission of 1866 also proposed a ne" regulation of the mining industr*, an industr* distinguished from others b* the e9ceptional characteristic that the interests of landlord and capitalist there Doin hands8 'he antagonism of these t"o interests had been fa)ourable to Factor* legislation, "hile on the other hand the absence of that antagonism is sufficient to e9plain the dela*s and chicaner* of the legislation on mines8 'he >nIuir* 5ommission of 18 7 had made re)elations so terrible, so shoc+ing, and creating such a scandal all o)er Europe, that to sal)e its conscience #arliament passed the $ining (ct of 18 6, in "hich it limited itself to forbidding the emplo*ment underground in mines of children under 17 *ears of age and females8 'hen another (ct, 'he $ines? >nspecting (ct of 1867, pro)ides that mines shall be inspected b* public officers nominated speciall* for that purpose, and that bo*s bet"een the ages of 17 and 16

632

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*ears shall not be emplo*ed, unless the* ha)e a school certificate, or go to school for a certain number of hours8 'his (ct "as a complete dead letter o"ing to the ridiculousl* small number of inspectors, the meagreness of their po"ers, and other causes that "ill become apparent as "e proceed8 =ne of the most recent /lue boo+s on mines is the @&eport from the Select 5ommittee on $ines, together "ith Pc8 E)idence, 6:rd Lul*, 18668A 'his &eport is the "or+ of a #arliamentar* 5ommittee selected from members of the -ouse of 5ommons, and authorised to summon and e9amine "itnesses8 >t is a thic+ folio )olume in "hich the &eport itself occupies onl* fi)e lines to this effect; that the committee has nothing to sa*, and that more "itnesses must be e9aminedQ 'he mode of e9amining the "itnesses reminds one of the cross4e9amination of "itnesses in English courts of Dustice, "here the ad)ocate tries, b* means of impudent, une9pected, eIui)ocal and in)ol)ed Iuestions, put "ithout conne9ion, to intimidate, surprise, and confound the "itness, and to gi)e a forced meaning to the ans"ers e9torted from him8 >n this inIuir* the members of the committee themsel)es are the cross4e9aminers, and among them are to be found both mine4 o"ners and mine e9ploiters; the "itnesses are mostl* "or+ing coal miners8 'he "hole farce is too characteristic of the spirit of capital, not to call for a fe" e9tracts from this &eport8 For the sa+e of conciseness > ha)e classified them8 > ma* also add that e)er* Iuestion and its ans"er are numbered in the English /lue boo+s8 1. *mployment in mines of boys of 1- years and up.ards. F >n the mines the "or+, inclusi)e of going and returning, usuall* lasts 1 or 13 hours, sometimes e)en from :, and 3 o?cloc+ a8m8, till 3 and 6 o?cloc+ p8m8 (n8 6, 36, 8:!8 'he adults "or+ in t"o shifts, of eight hours each; but there is no alternation "ith the bo*s, on account of the e9pense (n8 87, 67:, 67 !8 'he *ounger bo*s are chiefl* emplo*ed in opening and shutting the )entilating doors in the )arious parts of the mine; the older ones are emplo*ed on hea)ier "or+8 in carr*ing coal, Pc8 (n8 166, 7:2, 17 7!8 'he* "or+ these long hours underground until their 18th or 66nd *ear, "hen the* are put to miner?s "or+ proper (n8 161!8 5hildren and *oung persons are at present "orse treated, and harder "or+ed than at an* pre)ious period (n8 166:41667!8 'he miners demand almost unanimousl* an act of #arliament prohibiting the emplo*ment in mines of children under 1 8 (nd no" -usse* ;i)ian (himself an e9ploiter of mines! as+s: @Bould not the opinion of the "or+man depend upon the po)ert* of the "or+man?s famil*EA $r8 /ruce: @0o *ou not thin+ it "ould be a )er* hard case, "here a parent had been inDured, or "here he "as sic+l*, or "here a father "as dead, and there "as onl* a mother, to pre)ent a child bet"een 16 and 1 earning 1s8 7d8 a da* for the good of the famil*E 888 Nou must la* do"n a general ruleE 888 (re *ou prepared to recommend legislation "hich "ould pre)ent the emplo*ment of children under 16 and 1 , "hate)er the state of their parents might beEA @Nes8A (ns8 1774117!8 ;i)ian: @Supposing that an enactment "ere passed pre)enting the emplo*ment of children under the age of 1 , "ould it not be probable that 888 the parents of children "ould see+ emplo*ment for their children in other directions, for instance, in manufactureEA @Cot generall* > thin+A (n8 17 !8 .innaird: @Some of the bo*s are +eepers of doorsEA @Nes8A @>s there not generall* a )er* great draught e)er* time *ou open a door or close itEA @Nes, generall* there is8A @>t sounds a )er* eas* thing, but it is in fact rather a painful oneEA @-e is imprisoned there Dust the same as if he "as in a cell of a gaol8A /ourgeois ;i)ian: @Bhene)er a bo* is furnished "ith a lamp cannot he readEA @Nes, he can read, if he finds himself in candles8888 > suppose he "ould be found fault "ith if he "ere disco)ered reading; he is there to mind his business, he has a dut* to perform, and he has to

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attend to it in the first place, and > do not thin+ it "ould be allo"ed do"n the pit8A (ns8 1:2, 1 1, 1 :, 138, 167!8 //. *ducation. F 'he "or+ing miners "ant a la" for the compulsor* education of their children, as in factories8 'he* declare the clauses of the (ct of 1867, "hich reIuire a school certificate to be obtained before emplo*ing bo*s of 17 and 16 *ears of age, to be Iuite illusor*8 'he e9amination of the "itnesses on this subDect is trul* droll8 @>s it (the (ct! reIuired more against the masters or against the parentsEA @>t is reIuired against both > thin+8A @Nou cannot sa* "hether it is reIuired against one more than against the otherEA @Co; > can hardl* ans"er that Iuestion8A (ns8 113, 116!8 @0oes there appear to be an* desire on the part of the emplo*ers that the bo*s should ha)e such hours as to enable them to go to schoolEA @Co; the hours are ne)er shortened for that purpose8A (n8 1:7! $r8 .innaird: @Should *ou sa* that the colliers generall* impro)e their education; ha)e *ou an* instances of men "ho ha)e, since the* began to "or+, greatl* impro)ed their education, or do the* not rather go bac+, and lose an* ad)antage that the* ma* ha)e gainedEA @'he* generall* become "orse: the* do not impro)e; the* acIuire bad habits; the* get on to drin+ing and gambling and such li+e,, and the* go completel* to "rec+8A (n8 61 18! @0o the* ma+e an* attempt of the +ind (for pro)iding instruction! b* ha)ing schools at nightEA @'here are fe" collieries "here night schools are held, and perhaps at those collieries a fe" bo*s do go to those schools; but the* are so ph*sicall* e9hausted that it is to no purpose that the* go there8A (n8 3 8! @Nou are then,A concludes the bourgeois, @against educationEA @$ost certainl* not; but,A Pc8 (n8 :8! @/ut are the* (the emplo*ers! not compelled to demand them (school certificates!EA @/* la" the* are; but > am not a"are that the* are demanded b* the emplo*ers8A @'hen it is *our opinion, that this pro)ision of the (ct as to reIuiring certificates, is not generall* carried out in the collieriesEA @>t is not carried out8A (ns8 :, 8! @0o the men ta+e a great interest in this Iuestion (of education!EA @'he maDorit* of them do8A (n8 7178! @(re the* )er* an9ious to see the la" enforcedEA @'he maDorit* are8A (n8 7188! @0o *ou thin+ that in this countr* an* la" that *ou pass 888 can reall* be effectual unless the population themsel)es assist in putting it into operationEA @$an* a man might "ish to obDect to emplo*ing a bo*, but he "ould perhaps become mar+ed b* it8A (n8 7678! @$ar+ed b* "homEA @/* his emplo*ers8A (n8 7618! @0o *ou thin+ that the emplo*ers "ould find an* fault "ith a man "ho obe*ed the la"888 EA @> belie)e the* "ould8A (n8 7668! @-a)e *ou e)er heard of an* "or+man obDecting to emplo* a bo* bet"een 17 and 16, "ho could not "rite or readEA @>t is not left to men?s option8A (n8 16:8! @Bould *ou call for the interference of #arliamentEA @> thin+ that if an*thing effectual is to be done in the education of the colliers? children, it "ill ha)e to be made compulsor* b* (ct of #arliament8A (n8 16: 8! @Bould *ou la* that obligation upon the colliers onl*, or all the "or+people of Great /ritainEA @> came to spea+ for the colliers8A (n8 16:68! @Bh* should *ou distinguish them (collier* bo*s! from other bo*sEA @/ecause > thin+ the* are an e9ception to the rule8A (n8 16:88! @>n "hat respectEA @>n a ph*sical respect8A (n8 16:28! @Bh* should education be more )aluable to them than to other classes of ladsEA @> do not +no" that it is more )aluable; but through the o)er4e9ertion in mines there is less chance for the bo*s that are emplo*ed there to get education, either at Sunda* schools, or at da* schools8A (n8 16 78! @>t is impossible to loo+ at a Iuestion of this sort absolutel* b* itselfEA (n8 16 8! @>s there a sufficienc* of schoolsEA F @CoV888

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(n8 16 6!8 @>f the State "ere to reIuire that e)er* child should be sent to school, "ould there be schools for the children to go toEA @Co; but > thin+ if the circumstances "ere to spring up, the schools "ould be forthcoming8A (n8 16 78! @Some of them (the bo*s! cannot read and "rite at all, > supposeEA @'he maDorit* cannot888 'he maDorit* of the men themsel)es cannot8A (ns8 773, 7638! ///. *mployment of .omen. F Since 18 6 "omen are no more emplo*ed underground, but are occupied on the surface in loading the coal, Pc8, in dra"ing the tubs to the canals and rail"a* "aggons, in sorting, Pc8 'heir numbers ha)e considerabl* increased during the last three or four *ears8 (n8 17678! 'he* are mostl* the "i)es, daughters, and "ido"s of the "or+ing miners, and their ages range from 16 to 37 or 67 *ears8 (ns8 6 3, 17728!

@Bhat is the feeling among the "or+ing miners as to the emplo*ment of "omenEA
@> thin+ the* generall* condemn it8A (n8 6 88! @Bhat obDection do *ou see to itEA @> thin+ it is degrading to the se98A (n8 6 28! @'here is a peculiarit* of dressEA @Nes 888 it is rather a man?s dress, and > belie)e in some cases, it dro"ns all sense of decenc*8A @0o the "omen smo+eEA @Some do8A @(nd > suppose it is )er* dirt* "or+EA @;er* dirt*8A @'he* get blac+ and grim*EA @(s blac+ as those "ho are do"n the mines 888 > belie)e that a "oman ha)ing children (and there are plent* on the ban+s that ha)e! cannot do her dut* to her children8A (ns8 637463 , 7718! @0o *ou thin+ that those "ido"s could get emplo*ment an*"here else, "hich "ould bring them in as much "ages as that (from 8s8 to 17s8 a "ee+!EA @> cannot spea+ to that8A (n8 7728! @Nou "ould still be prepared, "ould *ou,A (flint4hearted fello"Q! @to pre)ent their obtaining a li)elihood b* these meansEA @> "ould8A (n8 7178! @Bhat is the general feeling in the district 888 as to the emplo*ment of "omenEA @'he feeling is that it is degrading; and "e "ish as miners to ha)e more respect to the fair se9 than to see them placed on the pit ban+888 Some part of the "or+ is )er* hard; some of these girls ha)e raised as much as 17 tons of stuff a da*8A (ns8 1713,17178! @0o *ou thin+ that the "omen emplo*ed about the collieries are less moral than the "omen emplo*ed in the factoriesEA @8 88the percentage of bad ones ma* be a little more 888 than "ith the girls in the factories8A (n8 16:78! @/ut *ou are not Iuite satisfied "ith the state of moralit* in the factoriesEA @Co8A (n8 17::8! @Bould *ou prohibit the emplo*ment of "omen in factories alsoEA @Co, > "ould not8A (n8 17: 8! @Bh* notEA @> thin+ it a more honourable occupation for them in the mills8A (n8 17:38! @Still it is inDurious to their moralit*, *ou thin+EA @Cot so much as "or+ing on the pit ban+; but it is more on the social position > ta+e it; > do not ta+e it on its moral ground alone8 'he degradation, in its social bearing on the girls, is deplorable in the e9treme8 Bhen these 77 or 377 girls become colliers? "i)es, the men suffer greatl* from this degradation, and it causes them to lea)e their homes and drin+8A (n8 17:68! @Nou "ould be obliged to stop the emplo*ment of "omen in the iron"or+s as "ell, "ould *ou not, if *ou stopped it in the collieriesEA @> cannot spea+ for an* other trade8A (n8 17:78! @5an *ou see an* difference in the circumstances of "omen emplo*ed in iron"or+s, and the circumstances of "omen emplo*ed abo)e ground in collieriesEA @> ha)e not ascertained an*thing as to that8A (n8 17 78! @5an *ou see an*thing that ma+es a distinction bet"een one class and the otherEA @> ha)e not ascertained that, but > +no" from house to house )isitation, that it is a deplorable state of things in our district8888A (n8 17 18! @Bould *ou interfere in e)er* case "ith the emplo*ment of "omen "here that emplo*ment "as degradingEA @>t "ould become inDurious, > thin+, in this "a*: the best feelings of Englishmen ha)e

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been gained from the instruction of a mother8 888 (n8 17378! @'hat eIuall* applies to agricultural emplo*ments, does it notEA @Nes, but that is onl* for t"o seasons, and "e ha)e "or+ all the four seasons8A (n8 17318! @'he* often "or+ da* and night, "et through to the s+in, their constitution undermined and their health ruined8A @Nou ha)e not inIuired into that subDect perhapsEA @> ha)e certainl* ta+en note of it as > ha)e gone along, and certainl* > ha)e seen nothing parallel to the effects of the emplo*ment of "omen on the pit ban+8888 >t is the "or+ of a man888 a strong man8A (ns8 173:, 172:, 172 8! @Nour feeling upon the "hole subDect is that the better class of colliers "ho desire to raise themsel)es and humanise themsel)es, instead of deri)ing help from the "omen, are pulled do"n b* themEA @Nes8A (n8 18788! (fter some further croo+ed Iuestions from these bourgeois, the secret of their @s*mpath*A for "ido"s, poor families, Pc8, comes out at last8 @'he coal proprietor appoints certain gentlemen to ta+e the o)ersight of the "or+ings, and it is their polic*, in order to recei)e approbation, to place things on the most economical basis the* can, and these girls are emplo*ed at from 1s8 up to 1s8 6d8 a da*, "here a man at the rate of 6s8 6d8 a da* "ould ha)e to be emplo*ed8A (n8 18168! /!. Coroner0s in1uests. 2 @Bith regard to coroner?s inIuests in *our district, ha)e the "or+men confidence in the proceedings at those inIuests "hen accidents occurEA @Co; the* ha)e not8A (n8 :678! @Bh* notEA @5hiefl* because the men "ho are generall* chosen, are men "ho +no" nothing about mines and such li+e8A @(re not "or+men summoned at all upon the DuriesEA @Ce)er but as "itnesses to m* +no"ledge8A @Bho are the people "ho are generall* summoned upon these DuriesEA @Generall* tradesmen in the neighbourhood 888 from their circumstances the* are sometimes liable to be influenced b* their emplo*ers 888 the o"ners of the "or+s8 'he* are generall* men "ho ha)e no +no"ledge, and can scarcel* understand the "itnesses "ho are called before them, and the terms "hich are used and such li+e8A @Bould *ou ha)e the Dur* composed of persons "ho had been emplo*ed in miningEA @Nes, partl*888 the* (the "or+men! thin+ that the )erdict is not in accordance "ith the e)idence gi)en generall*8A (ns8 :61, :6 , :66, :68, :71, :738! @=ne great obDect in summoning a Dur* is to ha)e an impartial one, is it notEA @Nes, > should thin+ so8A @0o *ou thin+ that the Duries "ould be impartial if the* "ere composed to a considerable e9tent of "or+menEA @> cannot see an* moti)e "hich the "or+men "ould ha)e to act partiall* 888 the* necessaril* ha)e a better +no"ledge of the operations in conne9ion "ith the mine8A @Nou do not thin+ there "ould be a tendenc* on the part of the "or+men to return unfairl* se)ere )erdictsEA @Co, > thin+ not8A (ns8 :78, :72, :878! !. 3alse .ei)hts and measures. F 'he "or+men demand to be paid "ee+l* instead of fortnightl*, and b* "eight instead of b* cubical contents of the tubs; the* also demand protection against the use of false "eights, Pc8 (n8 17718! @>f the tubs "ere fraudulentl* increased, a man8 could discontinue "or+ing b* gi)ing 1 da*s? noticeEA @/ut if he goes to another place, there is the same thing going on there8A (n8 17718! @/ut he can lea)e that place "here the "rong has been committedEA @>t is general; "here)er he goes, he has to submit to it8A (n8 17768! @5ould a man lea)e b* gi)ing 1 da*s? noticeEA @Nes8A (n8 177:8! (nd *et the* are not satisfiedQ

66:

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!/. /nspection of mines. F 5asualties from e9plosions are not the onl* things the "or+men suffer from8 (n8 6: , sII8! @=ur men complained )er* much of the bad )entilation of the collieries 888 the )entilation is so bad in general that the men can scarcel* breathe; the* are Iuite unfit for emplo*ment of an* +ind after the* ha)e been for a length of time in conne9ion "ith their "or+; indeed, Dust at the part of the mine "here > am "or+ing, men ha)e been obliged to lea)e their emplo*ment and come home in conseIuence of that 888 some of them ha)e been out of "or+ for "ee+s Dust in conseIuence of the bad state of the )entilation "here there is not e9plosi)e gas 888 there is plent* of air generall* in the main courses, *et pains are not ta+en to get air into the "or+ings "here men are "or+ing8A @Bh* do *ou not appl* to the inspectorEA @'o tell the truth there are man* men "ho are timid on that point; there ha)e been cases of men being sacrificed and losing their emplo*ment in conseIuence of appl*ing to the inspector8A @Bh* is he a mar+ed man for ha)ing complainedEA @Nes888888 (nd he finds it difficult to get emplo*ment in another mineEA @Nes8A @0o *ou thin+ the mines in *our neighbourhood are sufficientl* inspected to insure a compliance "ith the pro)isions of the (ctEA @Co; the* are not inspected at all 888 the inspector has been do"n Dust once in the pit, and it has been going se)en *ears8888 >n the district to "hich > belong there are not a sufficient number of inspectors8 Be ha)e one old man more than 77 *ears of age to inspect more than 1:7 collieries8A @Nou "ish to ha)e a class of sub4 inspectorsEA @Nes8A (ns8 6: , 6 1, 631, 63 , 67 , 673, 33 , 676, 62:8! @/ut do *ou thin+ it "ould be possible for Go)ernment to maintain such an arm* of inspectors as "ould be necessar* to do all that *ou "ant them to do, "ithout information from the menEA @Co, > should thin+ it "ould be ne9t to impossible8888A @>t "ould be desirable the inspectors should come oftenerEA @Nes, and "ithout being sent for8A (n8 687, 6778! @0o *ou not thin+ that the effect of ha)ing these inspectors e9amining the collieries so freIuentl* "ould be to shift the responsibilit* (Q! of suppl*ing proper )entilation from the o"ners of the collieries to the Go)ernment officialsEA @Co, > do not thin+ that, > thin+ that the* should ma+e it their business to enforce the (cts "hich are alread* in e9istence8A (n8 6838! @Bhen *ou spea+ of sub4inspectors, do *ou mean men at a less salar*, and of an inferior stamp to the present inspectorsEA @> "ould not ha)e them inferior, if *ou could get them other"ise8A (n8 62 8! @0o *ou merel* "ant more inspectors, or do *ou "ant a lo"er class of men as an inspectorEA @( man "ho "ould +noc+ about, and see that things are +ept right; a man "ho "ould not be afraid of himself8A (n8 6238! @>f *ou obtained *our "ish in getting an inferior class of inspectors appointed, do *ou thin+ that there "ould be no danger from "ant of s+ill, PcEA @> thin+ not, > thin+ that the Go)ernment "ould see after that, and ha)e proper men in that position8A (n8 6278! 'his +ind of e9amination becomes at last too much e)en for the chairman of the committee, and he interrupts "ith the obser)ation: @Nou "ant a class of men "ho "ould loo+ into all the details of the mine, and "ould go into all the holes and corners, and go into the real facts 888 the* "ould report to the chief inspector, "ho "ould then bring his scientific +no"ledge to bear on the facts the* ha)e statedEA (ns8 628, 6228! @Bould it not entail )er* great e9pense if all these old "or+ings "ere +ept )entilatedEA @Nes, e9pense might be incurred, but life "ould be at the same time protected8A (n8 3:18!

66

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( "or+ing miner obDects to the 17th section of the (ct of 1867; he sa*s, @(t the present time, if the inspector of mines finds a part of the mine unfit to "or+ in, he has to report it to the mine4o"ner and the -ome Secretar*8 (fter doing that, there is gi)en to the o"ner 67 da*s to loo+ o)er the matter; at the end of 67 da*s he has the po"er to refuse ma+ing an* alteration in the mine; but, "hen he refuses, the mine4o"ner "rites to the -ome Secretar*, at the same time nominating fi)e engineers, and from those fi)e engineers named b* the mine4 o"ner himself, the -ome Secretar* appoints one, > thin+, as arbitrator, or appoints arbitrators from them; no" "e thin+ in that case the mine4o"ner )irtuall* appoints his o"n arbitrator8A (n8 3818! /ourgeois e9aminer, himself a mine4o"ner: @/ut 888 is this a merel* speculati)e obDectionEA (n8 3868! @'hen *ou ha)e a )er* poor opinion of the integrit* of mining engineersEA @>t is most certainl* unDust and ineIuitable8A (n8 3888! @0o not mining engineers possess a sort of public character, and do not *ou thin+ that the* are abo)e ma+ing such a partial decision as *ou apprehendEA @> do not "ish to ans"er such a Iuestion as that "ith respect to the personal character of those men8 > belie)e that in man* cases the* "ould act )er* partiall* indeed, and that it ought not to be in their hands to do so, "here men?s li)es are at sta+e8A (n8 3828! 'his same bourgeois is not ashamed to put this Iuestion: @0o *ou not thin+ that the mine4o"ner also suffers loss from an e9plosionEA Finall*, @(re not *ou "or+men in <ancashire able to ta+e care of *our o"n interests "ithout calling in the Go)ernment to help *ouEA @Co8A (n8 17 68! >n the *ear 1863 there "ere :,617 coal mines in Great /ritain, and 16 inspectors8 ( Nor+shire mine4o"ner himself calculates ( /imes, 66th Lanuar*, 1867!, that putting on one side their office "or+, "hich absorbs all their time, each mine can be )isited but once in ten *ears b* an inspector8 Co "onder that e9plosions ha)e increased progressi)el*, both in number and e9tent (sometimes "ith a loss of 6774:77 men!, during the last ten *ears8 'hese are the beauties of @freeA capitalist productionQ 8/his sentence has been added to the En lish text in conformity 1ith the Bth =erman edition$ 3 Ed$H 'he )er* defecti)e (ct, passed in 1876, is the first that regulates the hours of labour of the children emplo*ed in mines, and ma+es e9ploiters and o"ners, to a certain e9tent, responsible for so4called accidents8 'he &o*al 5ommission appointed in 1867 to inIuire into the emplo*ment in agriculture of children, *oung persons, and "omen, has published some )er* important reports8 Se)eral attempts to appl* the principles of the Factor* (cts, but in a modified form, to agriculture ha)e been made, but ha)e so far resulted in complete failure8 (ll that > "ish to dra" attention to here is the e9istence of an irresistible tendenc* to"ards the general application of those principles8 >f the general e9tension of factor* legislation to all trades for the purpose of protecting the "or+ing4class both in mind and bod* has become ine)itable, on the other hand, as "e ha)e alread* pointed out, that e9tension hastens on the general con)ersion of numerous isolated small industries into a fe" combined industries carried on upon a large scale; it therefore accelerates the concentration of capital and the e9clusi)e predominance of the factor* s*stem8 >t destro*s both the ancient and the transitional forms, behind "hich the dominion of capital is still in part concealed, and replaces them b* the direct and open s"a* of capital; but thereb* it also generalises the direct opposition to this s"a*8 Bhile in each indi)idual "or+shop it enforces uniformit*, regularit*, order, and econom*, it increases b* the immense spur "hich the limitation and regulation of the "or+ing da* gi)e to technical impro)ement, the anarch* and the

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catastrophes of capitalist production as a "hole, the intensit* of labour, and the competition of machiner* "ith the labourer8 /* the destruction of pett* and domestic industries it destro*s the last resort of the @redundant population,A and "ith it the sole remaining safet*4)al)e of the "hole social mechanism8 /* maturing the material conditions, and the combination on a social scale of the processes of production, it matures the contradictions and antagonisms of the capitalist form of production, and thereb* pro)ides, along "ith the elements for the formation of a ne" societ*, the forces for e9ploding the old one86

Section 1?: $odern Industr and ;%riculture

'he re)olution called forth b* modern industr* in agriculture, and in the social relations of agricultural producers, "ill be in)estigated later on8 >n this place, "e shall merel* indicate a fe" results b* "a* of anticipation8 >f the use of machiner* in agriculture is for the most part free from the inDurious ph*sical effect it has on the factor* operati)e, its action in superseding the labourers is more intense, and finds less resistance, as "e shall see later in detail8 >n the counties of 5ambridge and Suffol+, for e9ample, the area of culti)ated land has e9tended )er* much "ithin the last 67 *ears (up to 1868!, "hile in the same period the rural population has diminished, not onl* relati)el*, but absolutel*8 >n the %nited States it is as *et onl* )irtuall* that agricultural machines replace labourers; in other "ords, the* allo" of the culti)ation b* the farmer of a larger surface, but do not actuall* e9pel the labourers emplo*ed8 >n 1861 the number of persons occupied in England and Bales in the manufacture of agricultural machines "as 1,7: , "hilst the number of agricultural labourers emplo*ed in the use of agricultural machines and steam4engines did not e9ceed 1,6738 >n the sphere of agriculture, modern industr* has a more re)olutionar* effect than else"here, for this reason, that it annihilates the peasant, that bul"ar+ of the old societ*, and replaces him b* the "age4labourer8 'hus the desire for social changes, and the class antagonisms are brought to the same le)el in the countr* as in the to"ns8 'he irrational, old4fashioned methods of agriculture are replaced b* scientific ones8 5apitalist production completel* tears asunder the old bond of union "hich held together agriculture and manufacture in their infanc*8 /ut at the same time it creates the material conditions for a higher s*nthesis in the future, )i18, the union of agriculture and industr* on the basis of the more perfected forms the* ha)e each acIuired during their temporar* separation8 5apitalist production, b* collecting the population in great centres, and causing an e)er4increasing preponderance of to"n population, on the one hand concentrates the historical moti)e po"er of societ*; on the other hand, it disturbs the circulation of matter bet"een man and the soil, i8e8, pre)ents the return to the soil of its elements consumed b* man in the form of food and clothing; it therefore )iolates the conditions necessar* to lasting fertilit* of the soil8 /* this action it destro*s at the same time the health of the to"n labourer and the intellectual life of the rural labourer86 3 /ut "hile upsetting the naturall* gro"n conditions for the maintenance of that circulation of matter, it imperiousl* calls for its restoration as a s*stem, as a regulating la" of social production, and under a form appropriate to the full de)elopment of the human race8 >n agriculture as in manufacture, the transformation of production under the s"a* of capital, means, at the same time, the mart*rdom of the producer; the instrument of labour becomes the means of ensla)ing, e9ploiting, and impo)erishing the labourer; the social combination and organisation of labour4processes is turned into an organised mode of crushing out the "or+man?s indi)idual )italit*, freedom, and independence8 'he dispersion of the rural labourers o)er larger areas brea+s their po"er of resistance "hile concentration increases that of the to"n operati)es8 >n modern agriculture, as in the urban industries, the increased producti)eness and Iuantit* of the labour set in motion are bought at the cost of la*ing "aste and consuming b* disease labour4po"er itself8 $oreo)er, all progress in capitalistic agriculture is a progress in the art, not onl* of robbing the

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labourer, but of robbing the soil; all progress in increasing the fertilit* of the soil for a gi)en time, is a progress to"ards ruining the lasting sources of that fertilit*8 'he more a countr* starts its de)elopment on the foundation of modern industr*, li+e the %nited States, for e9ample, the more rapid is this process of destruction8 6 65apitalist production, therefore, de)elops technolog*, and the combining together of )arious processes into a social "hole, onl* b* sapping the original sources of all "ealth4the soil and the labourer8

Part ': Production of Absolute and $elati%e urplus !alue

(ha)ter 16* A0so$%te and 3e$ati4e S%r)$%s 2a$%e
>n considering the labour4process, "e began (see 5hapter ;>>8! b* treating it in the abstract, apart from its historical forms, as a process bet"een man and Cature8 Be there stated, @>f "e e9amine the "hole labour4process, from the point of )ie" of its result, it is plain that both the instruments and the subDect of labour are means of production, and that the labour itself is producti)e labour8A (nd in Cote 6, same page, "e further added: @'his method of determining, from the standpoint of the labour4process alone, "hat is producti)e labour, is b* no means directl* applicable to the case of the capitalist process of production8A Be no" proceed to the further de)elopment of this subDect8 So far as the labour4process is purel* indi)idual, one and the same labourer unites in himself all the functions, that later on become separated8 Bhen an indi)idual appropriates natural obDects for his li)elihood, no one controls him but himself8 (fter"ards he is controlled b* others8 ( single man cannot operate upon Cature "ithout calling his o"n muscles into pla* under the control of his o"n brain8 (s in the natural bod* head and hand "ait upon each other, so the labour4process unites the labour of the hand "ith that of the head8 <ater on the* part compan* and e)en become deadl* foes8 'he product ceases to be the direct product of the indi)idual, and becomes a social product, produced in common b* a collecti)e labourer, i$e$, b* a combination of "or+men, each of "hom ta+es onl* a part, greater or less, in the manipulation of the subDect of their labour8 (s the co4operati)e character of the labour4process becomes more and more mar+ed, so, as a necessar* conseIuence, does our notion of producti)e labour, and of its agent the producti)e labourer, become e9tended8 >n order to labour producti)el*, it is no longer necessar* for *ou to do manual "or+ *ourself; enough, if *ou are an organ of the collecti)e labourer, and perform one of its subordinate functions8 'he first definition gi)en abo)e of producti)e labour, a definition deduced from the )er* nature of the production of material obDects, still remains correct for the collecti)e labourer, considered as a "hole8 /ut it no longer holds good for each member ta+en indi)iduall*8 =n the other hand, ho"e)er, our notion of producti)e labour becomes narro"ed8 5apitalist production is not merel* the production of commodities, it is essentiall* the production of surplus )alue8 'he labourer produces, not for himself, but for capital8 >t no longer suffices, therefore, that he should simpl* produce8 -e must produce surplus )alue8 'hat labourer alone is producti)e, "ho produces surplus )alue for the capitalist, and thus "or+s for the self4e9pansion of capital8 >f "e ma* ta+e an e9ample from outside the sphere of production of material obDects, a schoolmaster is a producti)e labourer "hen, in addition to belabouring the heads of his scholars, he "or+s li+e a horse to enrich the school proprietor8 'hat the latter has laid out his capital in a teaching factor*, instead of in a sausage factor*, does not alter the relation8 -ence the notion of a producti)e labourer implies not merel* a relation bet"een "or+ and useful effect, bet"een labourer and product of labour, but also a specific, social relation of production, a relation that has sprung up

668

5hapter 16

historicall* and stamps the labourer as the direct means of creating surplus )alue8 'o be a producti)e labourer is, therefore, not a piece of luc+, but a misfortune8 >n /oo+ >;8 "hich treats of the histor* of the theor*, it "ill be more clearl* seen, that the production of surplus )alue has at all times been made, b* classical political economists, the distinguishing characteristic of the producti)e labourer8 -ence their definition of a producti)e labourer changes "ith their comprehension of the nature of surplus )alue8 'hus the #h*siocrats insist that onl* agricultural labour is producti)e, since that alone, the* sa*, *ields a surplus )alue8 (nd the* sa* so because, "ith them, surplus )alue has no e9istence e9cept in the form of rent8 'he prolongation of the "or+ing da* be*ond the point at "hich the labourer "ould ha)e produced Dust an eIui)alent for the )alue of his labour4po"er, and the appropriation of that surplus labour b* capital, this is production of absolute surplus )alue8 >t forms the general ground"or+ of the capitalist s*stem, and the starting4point for the production of relati)e surplus )alue8 'he latter pre4supposes that the "or+ing da* is alread* di)ided into t"o parts, necessar* labour, and surplus labour8 >n order to prolong the surplus labour, the necessar* labour is shortened b* methods "hereb* the eIui)alent for the "ages is produced in less time8 'he production of absolute surplus )alue turns e9clusi)el* upon the length of the "or+ing da*; the production of relati)e surplus )alue, re)olutionises out and out the technical processes of labour, and the composition of societ*8 >t therefore pre4supposes a specific mode, the capitalist mode of production, a mode "hich, along "ith its methods, means, and conditions, arises and de)elops itself spontaneousl* on the foundation afforded b* the formal subDection of labour to capital8 >n the course of this de)elopment, the formal subDection is replaced b* the real subDection of labour to capital8 >t "ill suffice merel* to refer to certain intermediate forms, in "hich surplus labour is not e9torted b* direct compulsion from the producer, nor the producer himself *et formall* subDected to capital8 >n such forms capital has not *et acIuired the direct control of the labour4process8 /* the side of independent producers "ho carr* on their handicrafts and agriculture in the traditional old4fashioned "a*, there stands the usurer or the merchant, "ith his usurer?s capital or merchant?s capital, feeding on them li+e a parasite8 'he predominance, in a societ*, of this form of e9ploitation e9cludes the capitalist mode of production; to "hich mode, ho"e)er, this form ma* ser)e as a transition, as it did to"ards the close of the $iddle (ges8 Finall*, as is sho"n b* modern @domestic industr*,A some intermediate forms are here and there reproduced in the bac+ground of $odern >ndustr*, though their ph*siognom* is totall* changed8 >f, on the one hand, the mere formal subDection of labour to capital suffices for the production of absolute surplus )alue, if, e$ $, it is sufficient that handicraftsman "ho pre)iousl* "or+ed on their o"n account, or as apprentices of a master, should become "age labourers under the direct control of a capitalist; so, on the other hand, "e ha)e seen, ho" the methods of producing relati)e surplus )alue, are, at the same time, methods of producing absolute surplus )alue8 Ca*, more, the e9cessi)e prolongation of the "or+ing da* turned out to be the peculiar product of $odern >ndustr*8 Generall* spea+ing, the specificall* capitalist mode of production ceases to be a mere means of producing relati)e surplus )alue, so soon as that mode has conIuered an entire branch of production; and still more so, so soon as it has conIuered all the important branches8 >t then becomes the general, sociall* predominant form of production8 (s a special method of producing relati)e surplus )alue, it remains effecti)e onl*, first, in so far as it sei1es upon industries that pre)iousl* "ere onl* formall* subDect to capital, that is, so far as it is propagandist; secondl*, in so far as the industries that ha)e been ta+en o)er b* it, continue to be re)olutionised b* changes in the methods of production8

662

5hapter 16

From one standpoint, an* distinction bet"een absolute and relati)e surplus )alue appears illusor*8 &elati)e surplus )alue is absolute, since it compels the absolute prolongation of the "or+ing da* be*ond the labour4time necessar* to the e9istence of the labourer himself8 (bsolute surplus )alue is relati)e, since it ma+es necessar* such a de)elopment of the producti)eness of labour, as "ill allo" of the necessar* labour4time being confined to a portion of the "or+ing da*8 /ut if "e +eep in mind the beha)iour of surplus )alue, this appearance of identit* )anishes8 =nce the capitalist mode of production is established and become general, the difference bet"een absolute and relati)e surplus )alue ma+es itself felt, "hene)er there is a Iuestion of raising the rate of surplus )alue8 (ssuming that labour4po"er is paid for at its )alue, "e are confronted b* this alternati)e: gi)en the producti)eness of labour and its normal intensit*, the rate of surplus )alue can be raised onl* b* the actual prolongation of the "or+ing da*; on the other hand, gi)en the length of the "or+ing da*, that rise can be effected onl* b* a change in the relati)e magnitudes of the components of the "or+ing da*, )i18, necessar* labour and surplus labour; a change "hich, if the "ages are not to fall belo" the )alue of labour4po"er, presupposes a change either in the producti)eness or in the intensit* of the labour8 >f the labourer "ants all his time to produce the necessar* means of subsistence for himself and his race, he has no time left in "hich to "or+ gratis for others8 Bithout a certain degree of producti)eness in his labour, he has no such superfluous time at his disposal; "ithout such superfluous time, no surplus labour, and therefore no capitalists, no sla)e4o"ners, no feudal lords, in one "ord, no class of large proprietors81 'hus "e ma* sa* that surplus )alue rests on a natural basis; but this is permissible onl* in the )er* general sense, that there is no natural obstacle absolutel* pre)enting one man from disburdening himself of the labour reIuisite for his o"n e9istence, and burdening another "ith it, an* more, for instance, than unconIuerable natural obstacle pre)ent one man from eating the flesh of another86 Co m*stical ideas must in an* "a* be connected, as sometimes happens, "ith this historicall* de)eloped producti)eness of labour8 >t is onl* after men ha)e raised themsel)es abo)e the ran+ of animals, "hen therefore their labour has been to some e9tent socialised, that a state of things arises in "hich the surplus labour of the one becomes a condition of e9istence for the other8 (t the da"n of ci)ilisation the producti)eness acIuired b* labour is small, but so too are the "ants "hich de)elop "ith and b* the means of satisf*ing them8 Further, at that earl* period, the portion of societ* that li)es on the labour of others is infinitel* small compared "ith the mass of direct producers8 (long "ith the progress in the producti)eness of labour, that small portion of societ* increases both absolutel* and relati)el*8 : /esides, capital "ith its accompan*ing relations springs up from an economic soil that is the product of a long process of de)elopment8 'he producti)eness of labour that ser)es as its foundation and starting4point, is a gift, not of nature, but of a histor* embracing thousands of centuries8 (part from the degree of de)elopment, greater or less, in the form of social production, the producti)eness of labour is fettered b* ph*sical conditions8 'hese are all referable to the constitution of man himself (race, Pc8!, and to surrounding nature8 'he e9ternal ph*sical conditions fall into t"o great economic classes, (1! Catural "ealth in means of subsistence, i$e$, a fruitful soil, "aters teeming "ith fish, Pc8, and (6!, natural "ealth in the instruments of labour, such as "aterfalls, na)igable ri)ers, "ood, metal, coal, Pc8 (t the da"n of ci)ilisation, it is the first class that turns the scale; at a higher stage of de)elopment, it is the second8 5ompare, for e9ample, England "ith >ndia, or in ancient times, (thens and 5orinth "ith the shores of the /lac+ Sea8 'he fe"er the number of natural "ants imperati)el* calling for satisfaction, and the greater the natural fertilit* of the soil and the fa)ourableness of the climate, so much less is the labour4time

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necessar* for the maintenance and reproduction of the producer8 So much greater therefore can be the e9cess of his labours for others o)er his labour for himself8 0iodorus long ago remar+ed this in relation to the ancient Eg*ptians8 @>t is altogether incredible ho" little trouble and e9pense the bringing up of their children causes them8 'he* coo+ for them the first simple food at hand; the* also gi)e them the lo"er part of the pap*rus stem to eat, so far as it can be roasted in the fire, and the roots and stal+s of marsh plants, some ra", some boiled and roasted8 $ost of the children go "ithout shoes and unclothed, for the air is so mild8 -ence a child, until he is gro"n up, costs his parents not more, on the "hole, than t"ent* drachmas8 >t is this, chiefl*, "hich e9plains "h* the population of Eg*pt is so numerous, and, therefore, "h* so man* great "or+s can be underta+en8A Ce)ertheless the grand structures of ancient Eg*pt are less due to the e9tent of its population than to the large proportion of it that "as freel* disposable8 Lust as the indi)idual labourer can do more surplus labour in proportion as his necessar* labour4time is less, so "ith regard to the "or+ing population8 'he smaller the part of it "hich is reIuired for the production of the necessar* means of subsistence, so much the greater is the part that can be set to do other "or+8 5apitalist production once assumed, then, all other circumstances remaining the same, and gi)en the length of the "or+ing da*, the Iuantit* of surplus labour "ill )ar* "ith the ph*sical conditions of labour, especiall* "ith the fertilit* of the soil8 /ut it b* no means follo"s from this that the most fruitful soil is the most fitted for the gro"th of the capitalist mode of production8 'his mode is based on the dominion of man o)er nature8 Bhere nature is too la)ish, she @+eeps him in hand, li+e a child in leading4strings8A She does not impose upon him an* necessit* to de)elop himself83 >t is not the tropics "ith their lu9uriant )egetation, but the temperate 1one, that is the mother4countr* of capital8 >t is not the mere fertilit* of the soil, but the differentiation of the soil, the )ariet* of its natural products, the changes of the seasons, "hich form the ph*sical basis for the social di)ision of labour, and "hich, b* changes in the natural surroundings, spur man on to the multiplication of his "ants, his capabilities, his means and modes of labour8 >t is the necessit* of bringing a natural force under the control of societ*, of economising, of appropriating or subduing it on a large scale b* the "or+ of man?s hand, that first pla*s the decisi)e part in the histor* of industr*8 E9amples are, the irrigation "or+s in Eg*pt, 6 <ombard*, -olland, or in >ndia and #ersia "here irrigation b* means of artificial canals, not onl* supplies the soil "ith the "ater indispensable to it, but also carries do"n to it, in the shape of sediment from the hills, mineral fertilisers8 'he secret of the flourishing state of industr* in Spain and Sicil* under the dominion of the (rabs la* in their irrigation "or+s8 7 Fa)ourable natural conditions alone, gi)e us onl* the possibilit*, ne)er the realit*, of surplus labour, nor, conseIuentl*, of surplus )alue and a surplus4product8 'he result of difference in the natural conditions of labour is this, that the same Iuantit* of labour satisfies, in different countries, a different mass of reIuirements, 8 conseIuentl*, that under circumstances in other respects analogous, the necessar* labour4time is different8 'hese conditions affect surplus labour onl* as natural limits, i$e$, b* fi9ing the points at "hich labour for others can begin8 >n proportion as industr* ad)ances, these natural limits recede8 >n the midst of our Best European societ*, "here the labourer purchases the right to "or+ for his o"n li)elihood onl* b* pa*ing for it in surplus labour, the idea easil* ta+es root that it is an inherent Iualit* of human labour to furnish a surplus4product82 /ut consider, for e9ample, an inhabitant of the eastern islands of the (siatic (rchipelago, "here sago gro"s "ild in the forests8

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@Bhen the inhabitants ha)e con)inced themsel)es, b* boring a hole in the tree, that the pith is ripe, the trun+ is cut do"n and di)ided into se)eral pieces, the pith is e9tracted, mi9ed "ith "ater and filtered: it is then Iuite fit for use as sago8 =ne tree commonl* *ields :77 lbs8, and occasionall* 377 to 677 lbs8 'here, then, people go into the forests, and cut bread for themsel)es, Dust as "ith us the* cut fire4"ood8A 17 Suppose no" such an eastern bread4cutter reIuires 16 "or+ing hours a "ee+ for the satisfaction of all his "ants8 Cature?s direct gift to him is plent* of leisure time8 /efore he can appl* this leisure time producti)el* for himself, a "hole series of historical e)ents is reIuired; before he spends it in surplus labour for strangers, compulsion is necessar*8 >f capitalist production "ere introduced, the honest fello" "ould perhaps ha)e to "or+ si9 da*s a "ee+, in order to appropriate to himself the product of one "or+ing da*8 'he bount* of Cature does not e9plain "h* he "ould then ha)e to "or+ 6 da*s a "ee+, or "h* he must furnish 3 da*s of surplus labour8 >t e9plains onl* "h* his necessar* labour4time "ould be limited to one da* a "ee+8 /ut in no case "ould his surplus4product arise from some occult Iualit* inherent in human labour8 'hus, not onl* does the historicall* de)eloped social producti)eness of labour, but also its natural producti)eness, appear to be producti)eness of the capital "ith "hich that labour is incorporated8 &icardo ne)er concerns himself about the origin of surplus )alue8 -e treats it as a thing inherent in the capitalist mode of production, "hich mode, in his e*es, is the natural form of social production8 Bhene)er he discusses the producti)eness of labour, he see+s in it, not the cause of surplus )alue, but the cause that determines the magnitude of that )alue8 =n the other hand, his school has openl* proclaimed the producti)eness of labour to be the originating cause of profit (read: Surplus )alue!8 'his at all e)ents is a progress as against the mercantilists "ho, on their side, deri)ed the e9cess of the price o)er the cost of production of the product, from the act of e9change, from the product being sold abo)e its )alue8 Ce)ertheless, &icardo?s school simpl* shir+ed the problem, the* did not sol)e it8 >n fact these bourgeois economists instincti)el* sa", and rightl* so, that it is )er* dangerous to stir too deepl* the burning Iuestion of the origin of surplus )alue8 /ut "hat are "e to thin+ of Lohn Stuart $ill, "ho, half a centur* after &icardo, solemnl* claims superiorit* o)er the mercantilists, b* clumsil* repeating the "retched e)asions of &icardo?s earliest )ulgarisersE $ill sa*s: @'he cause of profit is that labour produces more than is reIuired for its support8A So far, nothing but the old stor*; but $ill "ishing to add something of his o"n, proceeds: @'o )ar* the form of the theorem; the reason "h* capital *ields a profit, is because food, clothing, materials and tools, last longer than the time "hich "as reIuired to produce them8A -e here confounds the duration of labour4time "ith the duration of its products8 (ccording to this )ie", a ba+er "hose product lasts onl* a da*, could ne)er e9tract from his "or+people the same profit, as a machine ma+er "hose products endure for 67 *ears and more8 =f course it is )er* true, that if a bird?s nest did not last longer than the time it ta+es in building, birds "ould ha)e to do "ithout nests8

'his fundamental truth once established, $ill establishes his o"n superiorit* o)er the mercantilists8
@Be thus see,A he proceeds, @that profit arises, not from the incident of e9change, but from the producti)e po"er of labour; and the general profit of the countr* is al"a*s "hat the producti)e po"er of labour ma+es it, "hether an* e9change ta+es

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place or not8 >f there "ere no di)ision of emplo*ments, there "ould be no bu*ing or selling, but there "ould still be profit8A For $ill then, e9change, bu*ing and selling, those general conditions of capitalist production, are but an incident, and there "ould al"a*s be profits e)en "ithout the purchase and sale of labour4 po"erQ @>f,A he continues, @the labourers of the countr* collecti)el* produce t"ent* per cent more than their "ages, profits "ill be t"ent* per cent, "hate)er prices ma* or ma* not be8A 'his is, on the one hand, a rare bit of tautolog*; for if labourers produce a surplus )alue of 67` for the capitalist, his profit "ill be to the total "ages of the labourers as 67:1778 =n the other hand, it is absolutel* false to sa* that @profits "ill be 67`8A 'he* "ill al"a*s be less, because the* are calculated upon the sum total of the capital ad)anced8 >f, for e9ample, the capitalist ha)e ad)anced ]377, of "hich ] == is laid out in means of production and ]177 in "ages, and if the rate of surplus )alue be 67`, the rate of profit "ill be 67:377, i$e$, ` and not 67`8 'hen follo"s a splendid e9ample of $ill?s method of handling the different historical forms of social production8 @> assume, throughout, the state of things "hich, "here the labourers and capitalists are separate classes, pre)ails, "ith fe" e9ceptions, uni)ersall*; namel*, that the capitalist ad)ances the "hole e9penses, including the entire remuneration of the labourer8A Strange optical illusion to see e)er*"here a state of things "hich as *et e9ists onl* e9ceptionall* on our earth811 /ut let us finish F $ill is "illing to concede, @that he should do so is not a matter of inherent necessit*8A =n the contrar*: @the labourer might "ait, until the production is complete, for all that part of his "ages "hich e9ceeds mere necessaries: and e)en for the "hole, if he has funds in hand sufficient for his temporar* support8 /ut in the latter case, the labourer is to that e9tent reall* a capitalist in the concern, b* suppl*ing a portion of the funds necessar* for carr*ing it on8A $ill might ha)e gone further and ha)e added, that the labourer "ho ad)ances to himself not onl* the necessaries of life but also the means of production, is in realit* nothing but his o"n "age4 labourer8 -e might also ha)e said that the (merican peasant proprietor is but a serf "ho does enforced labour for himself instead of for his lord8 (fter thus pro)ing clearl*, that e)en if capitalist production had no e9istence, still it "ould al"a*s e9ist, $ill is consistent enough to sho", on the contrar*, that it has no e9istence, e)en "hen it does e9ist8 @(nd e)en in the former caseA ("hen the "or+man is a "age labourer to "hom the capitalist ad)ances all the necessaries of life, he the labourer!, @ma* be loo+ed upon in the same light,A (i8e8, as a capitalist!, @since, contributing his labour at less than the mar+et4price, (Q! he ma* be regarded as lending the difference (E! to his emplo*er and recei)ing it bac+ "ith interest, Pc8A 16 >n realit*, the labourer ad)ances his labour gratuitousl* to the capitalist during, sa* one "ee+, in order to recei)e the mar+et price at the end of the "ee+, Pc8, and it is this "hich, according to $ill, transforms him into a capitalist8 =n the le)el plain, simple mounds loo+ li+e hills; and the imbecile flatness of the present bourgeoisie is to be measured b* the altitude of its great intellects8

(ha)ter 17* (han#es of Ma#nit%de in the Price of /a0o%r1Power and in S%r)$%s 2a$%e
'he )alue of labour4po"er is determined b* the )alue of the necessaries of life habituall* reIuired b* the a)erage labourer8 'he Iuantit* of these necessaries is +no"n at an* gi)en epoch of a gi)en societ*, and can therefore be treated as a constant magnitude8 Bhat changes, is the )alue of this Iuantit*8 'here are, besides, t"o other factors that enter into the determination of the )alue of labour4po"er8 =ne, the e9penses of de)eloping that po"er, "hich e9penses )ar* "ith the mode of production; the other, its natural di)ersit*, the difference bet"een the labour4po"er of men and "omen, of children and adults8 'he emplo*ment of these different sorts of labour4 po"er, an emplo*ment "hich is, in its turn, made necessar* b* the mode of production, ma+es a great difference in the cost of maintaining the famil* of the labourer, and in the )alue of the labour4po"er of the adult male8 /oth these factors, ho"e)er, are e9cluded in the follo"ing in)estigation81 > assume (1! that commodities are sold at their )alue; (6! that the price of labour4po"er rises occasionall* abo)e its )alue, but ne)er sin+s belo" it8 =n this assumption "e ha)e seen that the relati)e magnitudes of surplus )alue and of price of labour4po"er are determined b* three circumstances; (1! the length of the "or+ing da*, or the e9tensi)e magnitude of labour; (6! the normal intensit* of labour, its intensi)e magnitude, "hereb* a gi)en Iuantit* of labour is e9pended in a gi)en time; (:! the producti)eness of labour, "hereb* the same Iuantum of labour *ields, in a gi)en time, a greater or less Iuantum of product, dependent on the degree of de)elopment in the conditions of production8 ;er* different combinations are clearl* possible, according as one of the three factors is constant and t"o )ariable, or t"o constant and one )ariable, or lastl*, all three simultaneousl* )ariable8 (nd the number of these combinations is augmented b* the fact that, "hen these factors simultaneousl* )ar*, the amount and direction of their respecti)e )ariations ma* differ8 >n "hat follo"s the chief combinations alone are considered8

Section 1: (en%th of the 3orkin% da and Intensit of (abour Constant7 Producti=eness of (abour Variable
=n these assumptions the )alue of labour4po"er, and the magnitude of surplus )alue, are determined b* three la"s8 (4$5 ( "or+ing da* of gi)en length al"a*s creates the same amount of )alue, no matter ho" the producti)eness of labour, and, "ith it, the mass of the product, and the price of each single commodit* produced, ma* )ar*8 >f the )alue created b* a "or+ing da* of 16 hours be, sa*, si9 shillings, then, although the mass of the articles produced )aries "ith the producti)eness of labour, the onl* result is that the )alue represented b* si9 shillings is spread o)er a greater or less number of articles8

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(6$5 surplus )alue and the )alue of labour4po"er )ar* in opposite directions8 ( )ariation in the producti)eness of labour, its increase or diminution, causes a )ariation in the opposite direction in the )alue of labour4po"er, and in the same direction in surplus )alue8 'he )alue created b* a "or+ing da* of 16 hours is a constant Iuantit*, sa*, si9 shillings8 'his constant Iuantit* is the sum of the surplus )alue plus the )alue of the labour4po"er, "hich latter )alue the labourer replaces b* an eIui)alent8 >t is self4e)ident, that if a constant Iuantit* consists of t"o parts, neither of them can increase "ithout the other diminishing8 <et the t"o parts at starting be eIual; : shillings )alue of labour4po"er, : shillings surplus )alue8 'hen the )alue of the labour4po"er cannot rise from three shillings to four, "ithout the surplus )alue falling from three shillings to t"o; and the surplus )alue cannot rise from three shillings to four, "ithout the )alue of labour4po"er falling from three shillings to t"o8 %nder these circumstances, therefore, no change can ta+e place in the absolute magnitude, either of the surplus )alue, or of the )alue of labour4po"er, "ithout a simultaneous change in their relati)e magnitudes, i$e$, relati)el* to each other8 >t is impossible for them to rise or fall simultaneousl*8 Further, the )alue of labour4po"er cannot fall, and conseIuentl* surplus )alue cannot rise, "ithout a rise in the producti)eness of labour8 For instance, in the abo)e case, the )alue of the labour4po"er cannot sin+ from three shillings to t"o, unless an increase in the producti)eness of labour ma+es it possible to produce in hours the same Iuantit* of necessaries as pre)iousl* reIuired 6 hours to produce8 =n the other hand, the )alue of the labour4po"er cannot rise from three shillings to four, "ithout a decrease in the producti)eness of labour, "hereb* eight hours become reIuisite to produce the same Iuantit* of necessaries, for the production of "hich si9 hours pre)iousl* sufficed8 >t follo"s from this, that an increase in the producti)eness of labour causes a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er and a conseIuent rise in surplus )alue, "hile, on the other hand, a decrease in such producti)eness causes a rise in the )alue of labour4po"er, and a fall in surplus )alue8 >n formulating this la", &icardo o)erloo+ed one circumstance; although a change in the magnitude of the surplus )alue or surplus labour causes a change in the opposite direction in the magnitude of the )alue of labour4po"er, or in the Iuantit* of necessar* labour, it b* no means follo"s that the* )ar* in the same proportion8 'he* do increase or diminish b* the same Iuantit*8 /ut their proportional increase or diminution depends on their original magnitudes before the change in the producti)eness of labour too+ place8 >f the )alue of the labour4po"er be shillings, or the necessar* labour time 8 hours, and the surplus )alue be 6 shillings, or the surplus labour hours, and if, in conseIuence of an increase in the producti)eness of labour, the )alue of the labour4po"er fall to : shillings, or the necessar* labour to 6 hours, the surplus )alue "ill rise to : shillings, or the surplus labour to 6 hours8 'he same Iuantit*, 1 shilling or 6 hours, is added in one case and subtracted in the other8 /ut the proportional change of magnitude is different in each case8 Bhile the )alue of the labour4po"er falls from shillings to :, i$e$, b* 1J or 63`, the surplus )alue rises from 6 shillings to :, i$e$, b* 1J6 or 37`8 >t therefore follo"s that the proportional increase or diminution in surplus )alue, conseIuent on a gi)en change in the producti)eness of labour, depends on the original magnitude of that portion of the "or+ing da* "hich embodies itself in surplus )alue; the smaller that portion, the greater is the proportional change; the greater that portion, the less is the proportional change8 (7$5 >ncrease or diminution in surplus )alue is al"a*s conseIuent on, and ne)er the cause of, the corresponding diminution or increase in the )alue of labour4po"er8 6 Since the "or+ing da* is constant in magnitude, and is represented b* a )alue of constant magnitude, since, to e)er* )ariation in the magnitude of surplus )alue, there corresponds an in)erse )ariation in the )alue of labour4po"er, and since the )alue of labour4po"er cannot

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change, e9cept in conseIuence of a change in the producti)eness of labour, it clearl* follo"s, under these conditions, that e)er* change of magnitude in surplus )alue arises from an in)erse change of magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er8 >f, then, as "e ha)e alread* seen, there can be no change of absolute magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er, and in surplus )alue, unaccompanied b* a change in their relati)e magnitudes, so no" it follo"s that no change in their relati)e magnitudes is possible, "ithout a pre)ious change in the absolute magnitude of the )alue of labour4po"er8 (ccording to the third la", a change in the magnitude of surplus )alue, presupposes a mo)ement in the )alue of labour4po"er, "hich mo)ement is brought about b* a )ariation in the producti)eness of labour8 'he limit of this change is gi)en b* the altered )alue of labour4po"er8 Ce)ertheless, e)en "hen circumstances allo" the la" to operate, subsidiar* mo)ements ma* occur8 For e9ample: if in conseIuence of the increased producti)eness of labour, the )alue of labour4po"er falls from shillings to :, or the necessar* labour time from 8 hours to 6, the price of labour4po"er ma* possibl* not fall belo" :s8 8d8, :s8 6d8, or :s8 6d8, and the surplus )alue conseIuentl* not rise abo)e :s8 d8, :s8 6d8, or :s8 17d8 'he amount of this fall, the lo"est limit of "hich is : shillings (the ne" )alue of labour4po"er!, depends on the relati)e "eight, "hich the pressure of capital on the one side, and the resistance of the labourer on the other, thro"s into the scale8 'he )alue of labour4po"er is determined b* the )alue of a gi)en Iuantit* of necessaries8 >t is the )alue and not the mass of these necessaries that )aries "ith the producti)eness of labour8 >t is, ho"e)er, possible that, o"ing to an increase of producti)eness, both the labourer and the capitalist ma* simultaneousl* be able to appropriate a greater Iuantit* of these necessaries, "ithout an* change in the price of labour4po"er or in surplus )alue8 >f the )alue of labour4po"er be : shillings, and the necessar* labour time amount to 6 hours, if the surplus )alue li+e"ise be : shillings, and the surplus labour 6 hours, then if the producti)eness of labour "ere doubled "ithout altering the ratio of necessar* labour to surplus labour, there "ould be no change of magnitude in surplus )alue and price of labour4po"er8 'he onl* result "ould be that each of them "ould represent t"ice as man* use4)alues as before; these use4)alues being t"ice as cheap as before8 (lthough labour4po"er "ould be unchanged in price, it "ould be abo)e its )alue8 >f, ho"e)er, the price of labour4po"er had fallen, not to 1s8 6d8, the lo"est possible point consistent "ith its ne" )alue, but to 6s8 17d8 or 6s8 6d8, still this lo"er price "ould represent an increased mass of necessaries8 >n this "a* it is possible "ith an increasing producti)eness of labour, for the price of labour4po"er to +eep on falling, and *et this fall to be accompanied b* a constant gro"th in the mass of the labourerUs means of subsistence8 /ut e)en in such case, the fall in the )alue of labour4po"er "ould cause a corresponding rise of surplus )alue, and thus the ab*ss bet"een the labourerUs position and that of the capitalist "ould +eep "idening8 : &icardo "as the first "ho accuratel* formulated the three la"s "e ha)e abo)e stated8 /ut he falls into the follo"ing errors: (1! he loo+s upon the special conditions under "hich these la"s hold good as the general and sole conditions of capitalist production8 -e +no"s no change, either in the length of the "or+ing da*, or in the intensit* of labour; conseIuentl* "ith him there can be onl* one )ariable factor, )i18, the producti)eness of labour; (6!, and this error )itiates his anal*sis much more than (1!, he has not, an* more than ha)e the other economists, in)estigated surplus )alue as such, i$e$, independentl* of its particular forms, such as profit, rent, Pc8 -e therefore confounds together the la"s of the rate of surplus )alue and the la"s of the rate of profit8 'he rate of profit is, as "e ha)e alread* said, the ratio of the surplus )alue to the total capital ad)anced; the rate of surplus )alue is the ratio of the surplus )alue to the )ariable part of that capital8 (ssume that a capital 5 of ]377 is made up of ra" material, instruments of labour, Pc8 (c! to the amount of ] 77; and of "ages ()! to the amount of ]177; and further, that the surplus )alue (s! Y

676

5hapter 17

]1778 'hen "e ha)e rate of surplus )alue sJ) Y ]177J]177 Y 177`8 /ut the rate of profit sJc Y ]177J]377 Y 67`8 >t is, besides, ob)ious that the rate of profit ma* depend on circumstances that in no "a* affect the rate of surplus )alue8 > shall sho" in /oo+ >>>8 that, "ith a gi)en rate of surplus )alue, "e ma* ha)e an* number of rates of profit, and that )arious rates of surplus )alue ma*, under gi)en conditions, e9press themsel)es in a single rate of profit8

Section ': 3orkin% da Constant7 Producti=eness of (abour Constant7 Intensit of (abour Variable
>ncreased intensit* of labour means increased e9penditure of labour in a gi)en time8 -ence a "or+ing da* of more intense labour is embodied in more products than is one of less intense labour, the length of each da* being the same8 >ncreased producti)eness of labour also, it is true, "ill suppl* more products in a gi)en "or+ing da*8 /ut in this latter case, the )alue of each single product falls, for it costs less labour than before; in the former case, that )alue remains unchanged, for each article costs the same labour as before8 -ere "e ha)e an increase in the number of products, unaccompanied b* a fall in their indi)idual prices: as their number increases, so does the sum of their prices8 /ut in the case of increased producti)eness, a gi)en )alue is spread o)er a greater mass of products8 -ence the length of the "or+ing da* being constant, a da*Us labour of increased intensit* "ill be incorporated in an increased )alue, and, the )alue of mone* remaining unchanged, in more mone*8 'he )alue created )aries "ith the e9tent to "hich the intensit* of labour de)iates from its normal intensit* in the societ*8 ( gi)en "or+ing da*, therefore, no longer creates a constant, but a )ariable )alue; in a da* of 16 hours of ordinar* intensit*, the )alue created is, sa* 6 shillings, but "ith increased intensit*, the )alue created ma* be 7, 8, or more shillings8 >t is clear that, if the )alue created b* a da*Us labour increases from, sa*, 6 to 8 shillings then the t"o parts into "hich this )alue is di)ided, )i18, price of labour4po"er and surplus )alue, ma* both of them increase simultaneousl*, and either eIuall* or uneIuall*8 'he* ma* both simultaneousl* increase from : shillings to 8 -ere, the rise in the price of labour4 po"er does not necessaril* impl* that the price has risen abo)e the )alue of labour4po"er8 =n the contrar*, the rise in price ma* be accompanied b* a fall in )alue8 'his occurs "hene)er the rise in the price of labour4po"er does not compensate for its increased "ear and tear8 Be +no" that, "ith transitor* e9ceptions, a change in the producti)eness of labour does not cause an* change in the )alue of labour4po"er, nor conseIuentl* in the magnitude of surplus )alue, unless the products of the industries affected are articles habituall* consumed b* the labourers8 >n the present case this condition no longer applies8 For "hen the )ariation is either in the duration or in the intensit* of labour, there is al"a*s a corresponding change in the magnitude of the )alue created, independentl* of the nature of the article in "hich that )alue is embodied8 >f the intensit* of labour "ere to increase simultaneousl* and eIuall* in e)er* branch of industr*, then the ne" and higher degree of intensit* "ould become the normal degree for the societ*, and "ould therefore cease to be ta+en account of8 /ut still, e)en then, the intensit* of labour "ould be different in different countries, and "ould modif* the international application of the la" of )alue8 'he more intense "or+ing da* of one nation "ould be represented b* a greater sum of mone* than "ould the less intense da* of another nation8

677

5hapter 17

Section *: Producti=eness and Intensit of (abour Constant7 (en%th of the 3orkin% da Variable
'he "or+ing da* ma* )ar* in t"o "a*s8 >t ma* be made either longer or shorter8 From our present data, and "ithin the limits of the assumptions made abo)e "e obtain the follo"ing la"s: (4$5 'he "or+ing da* creates a greater or less amount of )alue in proportion to its length F thus, a )ariable and not a constant Iuantit* of )alue8 (6$5 E)er* change in the relation bet"een the magnitudes of surplus )alue and of the )alue of labour4po"er arises from a change in the absolute magnitude of the surplus labour, and conseIuentl* of the surplus )alue8 (7$5 'he absolute )alue of labour4po"er can change onl* in conseIuence of the reaction e9ercised b* the prolongation of surplus labour upon the "ear and tear of labour4po"er8 E)er* change in this absolute )alue is therefore the effect, but ne)er the cause, of a change in the magnitude of surplus )alue8 Be begin "ith the case in "hich the "or+ing da* is shortened8 (4$5 ( shortening of the "or+ing da* under the conditions gi)en abo)e, lea)es the )alue of labour4po"er, and "ith it, the necessar* labour time, unaltered8 >t reduces the surplus labour and surplus )alue8 (long "ith the absolute magnitude of the latter, its relati)e magnitude also falls, i$e$+ its magnitude relati)el* to the )alue of labour4po"er "hose magnitude remains unaltered8 =nl* b* lo"ering the price of labour4po"er belo" its )alue could the capitalist sa)e himself harmless8 (ll the usual arguments against the shortening of the "or+ing da*, assume that it ta+es place under the conditions "e ha)e here supposed to e9ist; but in realit* the )er* contrar* is the case: a change in the producti)eness and intensit* of labour either precedes, or immediatel* follo"s, a shortening of the "or+ing da*83 (6$5 <engthening of the "or+ing da*8 <et the necessar* labour time be 6 hours, or the )alue of labour4po"er : shillings; also let the surplus labour be 6 hours or the surplus )alue : shillings8 'he "hole "or+ing da* then amounts to 16 hours and is embodied in a )alue of 6 shillings8 >f, no", the "or+ing da* be lengthened b* 6 hours and the price of labour4po"er remain unaltered, the surplus )alue increases both absolutel* and relati)el*8 (lthough there is no absolute change in the )alue of labour4po"er, it suffers a relati)e fall8 %nder the conditions assumed in 18 there could not be a change of relati)e magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er "ithout a change in its absolute magnitude8 -ere, on the contrar*, the change of relati)e magnitude in the )alue of labour4po"er is the result of the change of absolute magnitude in surplus )alue8 Since the )alue in "hich a da*Us labour is embodied, increases "ith the length of that da*, it is e)ident that the surplus )alue and the price of labour4po"er ma* simultaneousl* increase, either b* eIual or uneIual Iuantities8 'his simultaneous increase is therefore possible in t"o cases, one, the actual lengthening of the "or+ing da*, the other, an increase in the intensit* of labour unaccompanied b* such lengthening8 Bhen the "or+ing da* is prolonged, the price of labour4po"er ma* fall belo" its )alue, although that price be nominall* unchanged or e)en rise8 'he )alue of a da*Us labour4po"er is, as "ill be remembered, estimated from its normal a)erage duration, or from the normal duration of life among the labourers, and from corresponding normal transformations of organised bodil* matter into motion,6 in conformit* "ith the nature of man8 %p to a certain point, the increased "ear and tear of labour4po"er, inseparable from a lengthened "or+ing da*, ma* be compensated b* higher

678

5hapter 17

"ages8 /ut be*ond this point the "ear and tear increases in geometrical progression, and e)er* condition suitable for the normal reproduction and functioning of labour4po"er is suppressed8 'he price of labour4po"er and the degree of its e9ploitation cease to be commensurable Iuantities8

Section ,: Simultaneous Variations in the -uration5 Producti=eness5 and Intensit of (abour

>t is ob)ious that a large number of combinations are here possible8 (n* t"o of the factors ma* )ar* and the third remain constant, or all three ma* )ar* at once8 'he* ma* )ar* either in the same or in different degrees, in the same or in opposite directions, "ith the result that the )ariations counteract one another, either "holl* or in part8 Ce)ertheless the anal*sis of e)er* possible case is eas* in )ie" of the results gi)en in >8, >>8, and >>>8 'he effect of e)er* possible combination ma* be found b* treating each factor in turn as )ariable, and the other t"o constant for the time being8 Be shall, therefore, notice, and that briefl*, but t"o important cases8

A. Dimini#hin& 'roductivene## of *a$our +ith a )imultaneou# *en&thenin& of the ,or-in& day

>n spea+ing of diminishing producti)eness of labour, "e here refer to diminution in those industries "hose products determine the )alue of labour4po"er; such a diminution, for e9ample, as results from decreasing fertilit* of the soil, and from the corresponding dearness of its products8 'a+e the "or+ing da* at 16 hours and the )alue created b* it at 6 shillings, of "hich one half replaces the )alue of the labour4po"er, the other forms the surplus )alue8 Suppose, in conseIuence of the increased dearness of the products of the soil, that the )alue of labour4po"er rises from : shillings to , and therefore the necessar* labour time from 6 hours to 88 >f there be no change in the length of the "or+ing da*, the surplus labour "ould fall from 6 hours to , the surplus )alue from : shillings to 68 >f the da* be lengthened b* 6 hours, i$e$, from 16 hours to 1 , the surplus labour remains at 6 hours, the surplus )alue at : shillings Z, but the surplus )alue decreases compared "ith the )alue of labour4po"er, as measured b* the necessar* labour time8 >f the da* be lengthened b* hours, )i18, from 16 hours to 16, the proportional magnitudes of surplus )alue and )alue of labour4po"er, of surplus labour and necessar* labour, continue unchanged, but the absolute magnitude of surplus )alue rises from : shillings to , that of the surplus labour from 6 hours to 8, an increment of :: 1J:`8 'herefore, "ith diminishing producti)eness of labour and a simultaneous lengthening of the "or+ing da*, the absolute magnitude of surplus )alue ma* continue unaltered, at the same time that its relati)e magnitude diminishes; its relati)e magnitude ma* continue unchanged, at the same time that its absolute magnitude increases; and, pro)ided the lengthening of the da* be sufficient, both ma* increase8 >n the period bet"een 1722 and 1813 the increasing price of pro)isions led in England to a nominal rise in "ages, although the real "ages, e9pressed in the necessaries of life, fell8 From this fact Best and &icardo dre" the conclusion, that the diminution in the producti)eness of agricultural labour had brought about a fall in the rate of surplus )alue, and the* made this assumption of a fact that e9isted onl* in their imaginations, the starting4point of important in)estigations into the relati)e magnitudes of "ages, profits, and rent8 /ut, as a matter of fact, surplus )alue had at that time, than+s to the increased intensit* of labour, and to the prolongation
Z

Earlier English translations ha)e @6 sh8A instead of : shillings8 'his error "as pointed out to us b* a reader, "e ha)e in)estigated and chec+ed "ith the 1876 German Edition and dul* corrected an ob)ious error8

672

5hapter 17

of the "or+ing da*, increased both in absolute and relati)e magnitude8 'his "as the period in "hich the right to prolong the hours of labour to an outrageous e9tent "as established; 7 the period that "as especiall* characterised b* an accelerated accumulation of capital here, b* pauperism there88

B. .ncrea#in& .nten#ity and 'roductivene## of *a$our +ith )imultaneou# )hortenin& of the ,or-in& day
>ncreased producti)eness and greater intensit* of labour, both ha)e a li+e effect8 'he* both augment the mass of articles produced in a gi)en time8 /oth, therefore, shorten that portion of the "or+ing da* "hich the labourer needs to produce his means of subsistence or their eIui)alent8 'he minimum length of the "or+ing da* is fi9ed b* this necessar* but contractile portion of it8 >f the "hole "or+ing da* "ere to shrin+ to the length of this portion, surplus labour "ould )anish, a consummation utterl* impossible under the rRgime of capital8 =nl* b* suppressing the capitalist form of production could the length of the "or+ing da* be reduced to the necessar* labour time8 /ut, e)en in that case, the latter "ould e9tend its limits8 =n the one hand, because the notion of @means of subsistenceA "ould considerabl* e9pand, and the labourer "ould la* claim to an altogether different standard of life8 =n the other hand, because a part of "hat is no" surplus labour, "ould then count as necessar* labour; > mean the labour of forming a fund for reser)e and accumulation8 'he more the producti)eness of labour increases, the more can the "or+ing da* be shortened; and the more the "or+ing da* is shortened, the more can the intensit* of labour increase8 From a social point of )ie", the producti)eness increases in the same ratio as the econom* of labour, "hich, in its turn, includes not onl* econom* of the means of production, but also the a)oidance of all useless labour8 'he capitalist mode of production, "hile on the one hand, enforcing econom* in each indi)idual business, on the other hand, begets, b* its anarchical s*stem of competition, the most outrageous sIuandering of labour4po"er and of the social means of production, not to mention the creation of a )ast number of emplo*ments, at present indispensable, but in themsel)es superfluous8 'he intensit* and producti)eness of labour being gi)en, the time "hich societ* is bound to de)ote to material production is shorter, and as a conseIuence, the time at its disposal for the free de)elopment, intellectual and social, of the indi)idual is greater, in proportion as the "or+ is more and more e)enl* di)ided among all the able4bodied members of societ*, and as a particular class is more and more depri)ed of the po"er to shift the natural burden of labour from its o"n shoulders to those of another la*er of societ*8 >n this direction, the shortening of the "or+ing da* finds at last a limit in the generalisation of labour8 >n capitalist societ* spare time is acIuired for one class b* con)erting the "hole life4time of the masses into labour time8

(ha)ter 18* 2ario%s Form%$a for the rate of S%r)$%s 4a$%e

Be ha)e seen that the rate of surplus )alue is represented b* the follo"ing formulae: Surplus )alue s Surplus )alue Surplus labour /. Y Y ;ariable 5apital ) ;alue of labor4po"er Cecessar* labor

( !

'he t"o first of these formulae represent, as a ratio of )alues, that "hich, in the third, is represented as a ratio of the times during "hich those )alues are produced8 'hese formulae, supplementar* the one to the other, are rigorousl* definite and correct8 Be therefore find them substantiall*, but not consciousl*, "or+ed out in classical #olitical Econom*8 'here "e meet "ith the follo"ing deri)ati)e formulae8 Surplus4labor Surplus )alue Surplus4product //. Y Y Bor+ing da* ;alue of the #roduct 'otal #roduct =ne and the same ratio is here e9pressed as a ratio of labor4times, of the )alues in "hich those labor4times are embodied, and of the products in "hich those )alues e9ist8 >t is of course understood that, b* @;alue of the #roduct,A is meant onl* the )alue ne"l* created in a "or+ing da*, the constant part of the )alue of the product being e9cluded8 >n all of these formulae (>>8!, the actual degree of e9ploitation of labor, or the rate of surplus )alue, is falsel* e9pressed8 <et the "or+ing da* be 16 hours8 'hen, ma+ing the same assumptions as in former instances, the real degree of e9ploitation of labor "ill be represented in the follo"ing proportions8 6 hours surplus4labor Surplus )alue of : sh8 Y Y 177` 6 hours necessar* labor ;ariable 5apital of : sh8 From formulae >>8 "e get )er* differentl*, 6 hours surplus4labor Surplus )alue of : sh8 Y Y 37` Bor+ing da* of 16 hours ;alue created of 6 sh8 'hese deri)ati)e formulae e9press, in realit*, onl* the proportion in "hich the "or+ing da*, or the )alue produced b* it, is di)ided bet"een capitalist and laborer8 >f the* are to be treated as direct e9pressions of the degree of self4e9pansion of capital, the follo"ing erroneous la" "ould hold good: Surplus4labor or surplus )alue can ne)er reach 177`8 1 Since the surplus4labor is onl* an aliIuot part of the "or+ing da*, or since surplus )alue is onl* an aliIuot part of the )alue created, the surplus4labor must necessaril* be al"a*s less than the "or+ing da*, or the surplus )alue al"a*s less than the total )alue created8 >n order, ho"e)er, to attain the ratio of 177:177 the* must be eIual8 >n order that the surplus4labor ma* absorb the "hole da* (i8e8, an a)erage da* of an* "ee+ or *ear!, the necessar* labor must sin+ to 1ero8 /ut if the necessar* labor )anish, so too does the surplus4labor, since it is onl* a function of the former8 'he ratio Surplus4labor or Surplus )alue Bor+ing da* ;alue created can therefore ne)er reach the limit 177J177, still less rise to 177 _ 9J1778 /ut not so the rate of surplus )alue, the real degree of e9ploitation of labor8 'a+e, e8g8, the estimate of <8 de <a)ergne,

681

5hapter 18

according to "hich the English agricultural laborer gets onl* 1J , the capitalist (farmer! on the other hand :J of the product 6 or its )alue, apart from the Iuestion of ho" the boot* is subseIuentl* di)ided bet"een the capitalist, the landlord, and others8 (ccording to this, this surplus4labor of the English agricultural laborer is to his necessar* labor as ::1, "hich gi)es a rate of e9ploitation of :77`8 'he fa)orite method of treating the "or+ing da* as constant in magnitude became, through the use of formulae >>8, a fi9ed usage, because in them surplus4labor is al"a*s compared "ith a "or+ing da* of gi)en length8 'he same holds good "hen the repartition of the )alue produced is e9clusi)el* +ept insight8 'he "or+ing da* that has alread* been reali1ed in gi)en )alue, must necessaril* be a da* of gi)en length8 'he habit of representing surplus )alue and )alue of labor4po"er as fractions of the )alue created F a habit that originates in the capitalist mode of production itself, and "hose import "ill hereafter be disclosed F conceals the )er* transaction that characteri1es capital, namel* the e9change of )ariable capital for li)ing labor4po"er, and the conseIuent e9clusion of the laborer from the product8 >nstead of the real fact, "e ha)e false semblance of an association, in "hich laborer and capitalist di)ide the product in proportion to the different elements "hich the* respecti)el* contribute to"ards its formation8: $oreo)er, the formulae >>8 can at an* time be recon)erted into formulae >8 >f, for instance, "e ha)e Surplus4labor of 6 hours Bor+ing da* of 16 hours then the necessar* labor4time being 16 hours less the surplus4labor of 6 hours, "e get the follo"ing result, Surplus4labor of 6 hours 177 Y Cecessar* labor of 6 hours 177 'here is a third formula "hich > ha)e occasionall* alread* anticipated; it is Surplus )alue Surplus4labor %npaid labor ///. Y Y ;alue of labor4po"er Cecessar* labor #aid labor (fter the in)estigations "e ha)e gi)en abo)e, it is no longer possible to be misled, b* the formula %npaid labor, #aid labor into concluding, that the capitalist pa*s for labor and not for labor4po"er8 'his formula is onl* a popular e9pression for Surplus4labor, Cecessar* labor 'he capitalist pa*s the )alue, so far as price coincides "ith )alue, of the labor4po"er, and recei)es in e9change the disposal of the li)ing labor4po"er itself8 -is usufruct is spread o)er t"o periods8 0uring one the laborer produces a )alue that is onl* eIual to the )alue of his labor4 po"er; he produces its eIui)alent8 'his the capitalist recei)es in return for his ad)ance of the price of the labor4po"er, a product read* made in the mar+et8 0uring the other period, the period of surplus4labor, the usufruct of the labor4po"er creates a )alue for the capitalist, that costs him no eIui)alent8 'his e9penditure of labor4po"er comes to him gratis8 >n this sense it is that surplus4labor can be called unpaid labor8

686

5hapter 18

5apital, therefore, it not onl*, as (dam Smith sa*s, the command o)er labor8 >t is essentiall* the command o)er unpaid labor8 (ll surplus )alue, "hate)er particular form (profit, interest, or rent!, it ma* subseIuentl* cr*stalli1e into, is in substance the materiali1ation of unpaid labor8 'he secret of the self4e9pansion of capital resol)es itself into ha)ing the disposal of a definite Iuantit* of other people?s unpaid labor8

68:

Part 6: (a)es
(ha)ter 1&* "he "ransformation of the 2a$%e (and 3es)ecti4e Price) of /a0o%r1Power into 5a#es
=n the surface of bourgeois societ* the "age of the labourer appears as the price of labour, a certain Iuantit* of mone* that is paid for a certain Iuantit* of labour8 'hus people spea+ of the )alue of labour and call its e9pression in mone* its necessar* or natural price8 =n the other hand the* spea+ of the mar+et4prices of labour, i8e8, prices oscillating abo)e or belo" its natural price8 /ut "hat is the )alue of a commodit*E 'he obDecti)e form of the social labour e9pended in its production8 (nd ho" do "e measure the Iuantit* of this )alueE /* the Iuantit* of the labour contained in it8 -o" then is the )alue, e8g8, of a 16 hour "or+ing da* to be determinedE8 /* the 16 "or+ing4hours contained in a "or+ing da* of 16 hours, "hich is an absurd tautolog*8 1 >n order to be sold as a commodit* in the mar+et, labour must at all e)ents e9ist before it is sold8 /ut, could the labourer gi)e it an independent obDecti)e e9istence, he "ould sell a commodit* and not labour86 (part from these contradictions, a direct e9change of mone*, i8e8, of reali1ed labour, "ith li)ing labour "ould either do a"a* "ith the la" of )alue "hich onl* begins to de)elop itself freel* on the basis of capitalist production, or do a"a* "ith capitalist production itself, "hich rests directl* on "age4labour8 'he "or+ing da* of 16 hours embodies itself, e8g8, in a mone*4)alue of 6s8 Either eIui)alents are e9changed, and then the labourer recei)es 6s, for 16 hours? labour; the price of his labour "ould be eIual to the price of his product8 >n this case he produces no surplus )alue for the bu*er of his labour, the 6s8 are not transformed into capital, the basis of capitalist production )anishes8 /ut it is on this )er* basis that he sells his labour and that his labour is "age4labour8 =r else he recei)es for 16 hours? labour less than 6s8, i8e8, less than 16 hours? labour8 '"el)e hours? labour are e9changed against 17, 6, Pc8, hours? labour8 'his eIuali1ation of uneIual Iuantities not merel* does a"a* "ith the determination of )alue8 Such a self4 destructi)e contradiction cannot be in an* "a* e)en enunciated or formulated as a la"8 : >t is of no a)ail to deduce the e9change of more labour against less, from their difference of form, the one being reali1ed, the other li)ing8 'his is the more absurd as the )alue of a commodit* is determined not b* the Iuantit* of labour actuall* reali1ed in it, but b* the Iuantit* of li)ing labour necessar* for its production8 ( commodit* represents, sa*, 6 "or+ing4hours8 >f an in)ention is made b* "hich it can be produced in : hours, the )alue, e)en of the commodit* alread* produced, falls b* half8 >t represents no" : hours of social labour instead of the 6 formerl* necessar*8 >t is the Iuantit* of labour reIuired for its production, not the reali1ed form of that labour, b* "hich the amount of the )alue of a commodit* is determined8 'hat "hich comes directl* face to face "ith the possessor of mone* on the mar+et, is in fact not labour, but the labourer8 Bhat the latter sells is his labour4po"er8 (s soon as his labour actuall* begins, it has alread* ceased to belong to him; it can therefore no longer be sold b* him8 <abour is the substance, and the immanent measure of )alue, but has itself no )alue8 3

68

5hapter 12

>n the e9pression @)alue of labour,A the idea of )alue is not onl* completel* obliterated, but actuall* re)ersed8 >t is an e9pression as imaginar* as the )alue of the earth8 'hese imaginar* e9pressions, arise, ho"e)er, from the relations of production themsel)es8 'he* are categories for the phenomenal forms of essential relations8 'hat in their appearance things often represent themsel)es in in)erted form is prett* "ell +no"n in e)er* science e9cept #olitical Econom*8 6 5lassical #olitical Econom* borro"ed from e)er*4da* life the categor* @price of labourA "ithout further criticism, and then simpl* as+ed the Iuestion, ho" is this price determinedE >t soon recogni1ed that the change in the relations of demand and suppl* e9plained in regard to the price of labour, as of all other commodities, nothing e9cept its changes i8e8, the oscillations of the mar+et4price abo)e or belo" a certain mean8 >f demand and suppl* balance, the oscillation of prices ceases, all other conditions remaining the same8 /ut then demand and suppl* also cease to e9plain an*thing8 'he price of labour, at the moment "hen demand and suppl* are in eIuilibrium, is its natural price, determined independentl* of the relation of demand and suppl*8 (nd ho" this price is determined is Dust the Iuestion8 =r a larger period of oscillations in the mar+et4price is ta+en, e8g8, a *ear, and the* are found to cancel one the other, lea)ing a mean a)erage Iuantit*, a relati)el* constant magnitude8 'his had naturall* to be determined other"ise than b* its o"n compensating )ariations8 'his price "hich al"a*s finall* predominates o)er the accidental mar+et4prices of labour and regulates them, this @necessar* priceA (#h*siocrats! or @natural priceA of labour ((dam Smith! can, as "ith all other commodities, be nothing else than its )alue e9pressed in mone*8 >n this "a* #olitical Econom* e9pected to penetrate ath"art the accidental prices of labour, to the )alue of labour8 (s "ith other commodities, this )alue "as determined b* the cost of production8 /ut "hat is the cost of production4of the labourer, i8e8, the cost of producing or reproducing the labourer himselfE 'his Iuestion unconsciousl* substituted itself in #olitical Econom* for the original one; for the search after the cost of production of labour as such turned in a circle and ne)er left the spot8 Bhat economists therefore call )alue of labour, is in fact the )alue of labour4po"er, as it e9ists in the personalit* of the labourer, "hich is as different from its function, labour, as a machine is from the "or+ it performs8 =ccupied "ith the difference bet"een the mar+et4price of labour and its so4called )alue, "ith the relation of this )alue to the rate of profit, and to the )alues of the commodities produced b* means of labour, Pc8, the* ne)er disco)ered that the course of the anal*sis had led not onl* from the mar+et4prices of labour to its presumed )alue, but had led to the resolution of this )alue of labour itself into the )alue of labour4po"er8 5lassical econom* ne)er arri)ed at a consciousness of the results of its o"n anal*sis; it accepted uncriticall* the categories @)alue of labour,A @natural price of labour,A Pc8,8 as final and as adeIuate e9pressions for the )alue4relation under consideration, and "as thus led, as "ill be seen later, into ine9tricable confusion and contradiction, "hile it offered to the )ulgar economists a secure basis of operations for their shallo"ness, "hich on principle "orships appearances onl*8 <et us ne9t see ho" )alue (and price! of labour4po"er, present themsel)es in this transformed condition as "ages8 Be +no" that the dail* )alue of labour4po"er is calculated upon a certain length of the labourer?s life, to "hich, again, corresponds a certain length of "or+ing da*8 (ssume the habitual "or+ing da* as 16 hours, the dail* )alue of labour4po"er as :s8, the e9pression in mone* of a )alue that embodies 6 hours of labour8 >f the labourer recei)es :s8, then he recei)es the )alue of his labour4 po"er functioning through 16 hours8 >f, no", this )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er is e9pressed as the )alue of a da*?s labour itself, "e ha)e the formula: '"el)e hours? labour has a )alue of :s8 'he )alue of labour4po"er thus determines the )alue of labour, or, e9pressed in mone*, its necessar* price8 >f, on the other hand, the price of labour4po"er differs from its )alue, in li+e manner the price of labour differs from its so4called )alue8

683

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(s the )alue of labour is onl* an irrational e9pression for the )alue of labour4po"er, it follo"s, of course, that the )alue of labour must al"a*s be less than the )alue it produces, for the capitalist al"a*s ma+es labour4po"er "or+ longer than is necessar* for the reproduction of its o"n )alue8 >n the abo)e e9ample, the )alue of the labour4po"er that functions through 16 hours is :s8, a )alue for the reproduction of "hich 6 hours are reIuired8 'he )alue "hich the labour4po"er produces is, on the other hand, 6s8, because it, in fact, functions during 16 hours, and the )alue it produces depends, not on its o"n )alue, but on the length of time it is in action8 'hus, "e ha)e a result absurd at first sight that labour "hich creates a )alue of 6s8 possesses a )alue of :s8 7 Be see, further: 'he )alue of :s8 b* "hich a part onl* of the "or+ing da* F i8e8, 6 hours? labour4is paid for, appears as the )alue or price of the "hole "or+ing da* of 16 hours, "hich thus includes 6 hours unpaid for8 'he "age form thus e9tinguishes e)er* trace of the di)ision of the "or+ing da* into necessar* labour and surplus labour, into paid and unpaid labour8 (ll labour appears as paid labour8 >n the cor)Re, the labour of the "or+er for himself, and his compulsor* labour for his lord, differ in space and time in the clearest possible "a*8 >n sla)e labour, e)en that part of the "or+ing da* in "hich the sla)e is onl* replacing the )alue of his o"n means of e9istence, in "hich, therefore, in fact, he "or+s for himself alone, appears as labour for his master8 (ll the sla)e?s labour appears as unpaid labour8 8 >n "age labour, on the contrar*, e)en surplus labour, or unpaid labour, appears as paid8 'here the propert*4relation conceals the labour of the sla)e for himself; here the mone*4relation conceals the unreIuited labour of the "age labourer8 -ence, "e ma* understand the decisi)e importance of the transformation of )alue and price of labour4po"er into the form of "ages, or into the )alue and price of labour itself8 'his phenomenal form, "hich ma+es the actual relation in)isible, and, indeed, sho"s the direct opposite of that relation, forms the basis of all the Duridical notions of both labourer and capitalist, of all the m*stifications of the capitalistic mode of production, of all its illusions as to libert*, of all the apologetic shifts of the )ulgar economists8 >f histor* too+ a long time to get at the bottom of the m*ster* of "ages, nothing, on the other hand, is more eas* to understand than the necessit*, the raison d?etre, of this phenomenon8 'he e9change bet"een capital and labour at first presents itself to the mind in the same guise as the bu*ing and selling of all other commodities8 'he bu*er gi)es a certain sum of mone*, the seller an article of a nature different from mone*8 'he Durist?s consciousness recogni1es in this, at most, a material difference, e9pressed in the Duridicall* eIui)alent formula: @0o ut des, do ut facias, facio ut des, facio ut facias8A 2 Furthermore, e9change4)alue and use4)alue, being intrinsicall* incommensurable magnitudes, the e9pressions @)alue of labour,A @price of labour,A do not seem more irrational than the e9pressions @)alue of cotton,A @price of cotton8A $oreo)er, the labourer is paid after he has gi)en his labour8 >n its function of means of pa*ment, mone* reali1es subseIuentl* the )alue or price of the article supplied F i8e8, in this particular case, the )alue or price of the labour supplied8 Finall*, the use4 )alue supplied b* the labourer to the capitalist is not, in fact, his labour4po"er, but its function, some definite useful labour, the "or+ of tailoring, shoema+ing, spinning, Pc8 'hat this same labour is, on the other hand, the uni)ersal )alue4creating element, and thus possesses a propert* b* "hich it differs from all other commodities, is be*ond the cogni1ance of the ordinar* mind8 <et us put oursel)es in the place of the labourer "ho recei)es for 16 hours? labour, sa* the )alue produced b* 6 hours? labour, sa* :s8 For him, in fact, his 16 hours? labour is the means of bu*ing the :s8 'he )alue of his labour4po"er ma* )ar*, "ith the )alue of his usual means of subsistence, from : to shillings, or from : to 6 shillings; or, if the )alue of his labour4po"er remains constant, its price ma*, in conseIuence of changing relations of demand and suppl*, rise to s8 or fall to 6s8 -e al"a*s gi)es 16 hours of labour8 E)er* change in the amount of the eIui)alent that

686

5hapter 12

he recei)es appears to him, therefore, necessaril* as a change in the )alue or price of his 16 hours? "or+8 'his circumstance misled (dam Smith, "ho treated the "or+ing da* as a constant Iuantit*,17 to the assertion that the )alue of labour is constant, although the )alue of the means of subsistence ma* )ar*, and the same "or+ing da*, therefore, ma* represent itself in more or less mone* for the labourer8 <et us consider, on the other hand, the capitalist8 -e "ishes to recei)e as much labour as possible for as little mone* as possible8 #racticall*, therefore, the onl* thing that interests him is the difference bet"een the price of labour4po"er and the )alue "hich its function creates8 /ut, then, he tries to bu* all commodities as cheapl* as possible, and al"a*s accounts for his profit b* simple cheating, b* bu*ing under, and selling o)er the )alue8 -ence, he ne)er comes to see that, if such a thing as the )alue of labour reall* e9isted, and he reall* paid this )alue, no capital "ould e9ist, his mone* "ould not be turned into capital8 $oreo)er, the actual mo)ement of "ages presents phenomena "hich seem to pro)e that not the )alue of labour4po"er is paid, but the )alue of its function, of labour itself8 Be ma* reduce these phenomena to t"o great classes: 18! 5hange of "ages "ith the changing length of the "or+ing da*8 =ne might as "ell conclude that not the )alue of a machine is paid, but that of its "or+ing, because it costs more to hire a machine for a "ee+ than for a da*8 68! 'he indi)idual difference in the "ages of different labourers "ho do the same +ind of "or+8 Be find this indi)idual difference, but are not decei)ed b* it, in the s*stem of sla)er*, "here, fran+l* and openl*, "ithout an* circumlocution, labour4po"er itself is sold8 =nl*, in the sla)e s*stem, the ad)antage of a labour4po"er abo)e the a)erage, and the disad)antage of a labour4po"er belo" the a)erage, affects the sla)e4o"ner; in the "age4labour s*stem, it affects the labourer himself, because his labour4po"er is, in the one case, sold b* himself, in the other, b* a third person8 For the rest, in respect to the phenomenal form, @)alue and price of labour,A or @"ages,A as contrasted "ith the essential relation manifested therein, )i18, the )alue and price of labour4 po"er, the same difference holds that holds in respect to all phenomena and their hidden substratum8 'he former appear directl* and spontaneousl* as current modes of thought; the latter must first be disco)ered b* science8 5lassical #olitical Econom* nearl* touches the true relation of things, "ithout, ho"e)er, consciousl* formulating it8 'his it cannot, so long as it stic+s in its bourgeois s+in8

(ha)ter 2'* "ime15a#es

Bages themsel)es again ta+e man* forms, a fact not recogni1able in the ordinar* economic treatises "hich, e9clusi)el* interested in the material side of the Iuestion, neglect e)er* difference of form8 (n e9position of all these forms ho"e)er, belongs to the special stud* of "age labour, not therefore to this "or+8 Still the t"o fundamental forms must be briefl* "or+ed out here8 'he sale of labour4po"er, as "ill be remembered, ta+es place for a definite period of time8 'he con)erted form under "hich the dail*, "ee+l*, Pc8, )alue of labour4po"er presents itself, is hence that of time "ages, therefore da*4"ages, Pc8 Ce9t it is to be noted that the la"s set forth, in the 17th chapter, on the changes in the relati)e magnitudes of price of labour4po"er and surplus )alue, pass b* a simple transformation of form, into la"s of "ages8 Similarl* the distinction bet"een the e9change4)alue of labour po"er, and the sum of the necessaries of life into "hich this )alue is con)erted, no" reappears as the distinction bet"een nominal and real "ages8 >t "ould be useless to repeat here, "ith regard to the phenomenal form, "hat has been alread* "or+ed out in the substantial form8 Be limit oursel)es therefore to a fe" points characteristic of time4"ages8 'he sum of mone*1 "hich the labourer recei)es for his dail* or "ee+l* labour, forms the amount of his nominal "ages, or of his "ages estimated in )alue8 /ut it is clear that according to the length of the "or+ing da*, that is, according to the amount of actual labour dail* supplied, the same dail* or "ee+l* "age ma* represent )er* different prices of labour, i8e8, )er* different sums of mone* for the same Iuantit* of labour86 Be must, therefore, in considering time4"ages, again distinguish bet"een the sum4total of the dail* or "ee+l* "ages, Pc8, and the price of labour8 -o" then, to find this price, i8e8, the mone*4)alue of a gi)en Iuantit* of labourE 'he a)erage price of labour is found, "hen the a)erage dail* )alue of the labour4po"er is di)ided b* the a)erage number of hours in the "or+ing da*8 >f, e8g8, the dail* )alue of labour4po"er is : shillings, the )alue of the product of 6 "or+ing4hours, and if the "or+ing da* is 16 hours, the price of 1 "or+ing hour is :J16 shillings Y :d8 'he price of the "or+ing4hour thus found ser)es as the unit measure for the price of labour8 >t follo"s therefore that the dail* and "ee+l* "ages, Pc8, ma* remain the same, although the price of labour falls constantl*8 >f, e8g8, the habitual "or+ing da* is 17 hours and the dail* )alue of the labour4po"er :s8, the price of the "or+ing4hour is : :J3d8 >t falls to :s8 as soon as the "or+ing da* rises to 16 hours, to 6 6J3d as soon as it rises to 13 hours8 0ail* or "ee+l* "ages remain, despite all this, unchanged8 =n the contrar*, the dail* or "ee+l* "ages ma* rise, although the price of labour remains constant or e)en falls8 >f, e8g8, the "or+ing da* is 17 hours, and the dail* )alue of labour4po"er : shillings, the price of one "or+ing4hour is : :J3d8 >f the labourer, in conseIuence of increase of trade, "or+s 16 hours, the price of labour remaining the same, his dail* "age no" rises to : shillings 7 1J3 d8 "ithout an* )ariation in the price of labour8 'he same result might follo" if, instead of the e9tensi)e amount of labour, its intensi)e amount increased8 :'he rise of the nominal dail* or "ee+l* "ages ma* therefore be accompanied b* a price of labour that remains stationar* or falls8 'he same holds as to the income of the labourer?s famil*, as soon as the Iuantit* of labour e9pended b* the head of the famil* is increased b* the labour of the members of his famil*8 'here are, therefore, methods of lo"ering the price of labour independent of the reduction of the nominal dail* or "ee+l* "ages8

688

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(s a general la" it follo"s that, gi)en the amount of dail* or "ee+l* labour, Pc8, the dail* or "ee+l* "ages depend on the price of labour "hich itself )aries either "ith the )alue of labour4 po"er, or "ith the difference bet"een its price and its )alue8 Gi)en, on the other hand, the price of labour, the dail* or "ee+l* "ages depend on the Iuantit* of the dail* or "ee+l* labour8 'he unit4measure for time4"ages, the price of the "or+ing4hour, is the Iuotient of the )alue of a da*?s labour4po"er, di)ided b* the number of hours of the a)erage "or+ing da*8 <et the latter be 16 hours, and the dail* )alue of labour4po"er : shillings, the )alue of the product of 6 hours of labour8 %nder these circumstances the price of a "or+ing hour is :d8; the )alue produced in it is 6d8 >f the labourer is no" emplo*ed less than 16 hours (or less than 6 da*s in the "ee+!, e8g8, onl* 6 or 8 hours, he recei)es, "ith this price of labour, onl* 6s8 or 1s8 6d8 a da*8 3 (s on our h*pothesis he must "or+ on the a)erage 6 hours dail*, in order to produce a da*?s "age corresponding merel* to the )alue of his labour po"er, as according to the same h*pothesis he "or+s onl* half of e)er* hour for himself, and half for the capitalist, it is clear that he cannot obtain for himself the )alue of the product of 6 hours if he is emplo*ed less than 16 hours8 >n pre)ious chapters "e sa" the destructi)e conseIuences of o)er4"or+; here "e find the sources of the sufferings that result to the labourer from his insufficient emplo*ment8 >f the hour?s "age is fi9ed so that the capitalist does not bind himself to pa* a da*?s or a "ee+?s "age, but onl* to pa* "ages for the hours during "hich he chooses to emplo* the labourer, he can emplo* him for a shorter time than that "hich is originall* the basis of the calculation of the hour4"age, or the unit4measure of the price of labour8 Since this unit is determined b* the ratio dail* )alue of labour4po"er "or+ing da* of a gi)en number of hours? it, of course, loses all meaning as soon as the "or+ing da* ceases to contain a definite number of hours8 'he connection bet"een the paid and the unpaid labour is destro*ed8 'he capitalist can no" "ring from the labour a certain Iuantit* of surplus labour "ithout allo"ing him the labour4 time necessar* for his o"n subsistence8 -e can annihilate all regularit* of emplo*ment, and according to his o"n con)enience, caprice, and the interest of the moment, ma+e the most enormous o)er"or+ alternate "ith relati)e or absolute cessation of "or+8 -e can, under the pretense of pa*ing @the normal price of labour,A abnormall* lengthen the "or+ing da* "ithout an* corresponding compensation to the labourer8 -ence the perfectl* rational re)olt in 1867 of the <ondon labourers, emplo*ed in the building trades, against the attempt of the capitalists to impose on them this sort of "age b* the hour8 'he legal limitation of the "or+ing da* puts an end to such mischief, although not, of course, to the diminution of emplo*ment caused b* the competition of machiner*, b* changes in the Iualit* of the labourers emplo*ed, and b* crises partial or general8 Bith an increasing dail* or "ee+l* "age the price of labour ma* remain nominall* constant, and *et ma* fall belo" its normal le)el8 'his occurs e)er* time that, the price of labour (rec+oned per "or+ing4hour! remaining constant, the "or+ing da* is prolonged be*ond its customar* length8 >f in the fraction: dail* )alue of labour po"er "or+ing da* the denominator increases, the numerator increases *et more rapidl*8 'he )alue of labour4po"er, as dependent on its "ear and tear, increases "ith the duration of its functioning, and in more rapid proportion than the increase of that duration8 >n man* branches of industr* "here time4"age is the general rule "ithout legal limits to the "or+ing4time, the habit has, therefore, spontaneousl* gro"n up of regarding the "or+ing da* as normal onl* up to a certain point, e8g8, up to the

682

5hapter 67

e9piration of the tenth hour (@normal "or+ing da*,A @the da*?s "or+,A @the regular hours of "or+A!8 /e*ond this limit the "or+ing4time is o)er4time, and is, ta+ing the hour as unit4measure, paid better (@e9tra pa*A!, although often in a proportion ridiculousl* small8 6 'he normal "or+ing da* e9ists here as a fraction of the actual "or+ing da*, and the latter, often during the "hole *ear, lasts longer than the former8 7 'he increase in the price of labour "ith the e9tension of the "or+ing da* be*ond a certain normal limit, ta+es such a shape in )arious /ritish industries that the lo" price of labour during the so4called normal time compels the labourer to "or+ during the better paid o)er4time, if he "ishes to obtain a sufficient "age at all8 8 <egal limitation of the "or+ing da* puts an end to these amenities82 >t is a fact generall* +no"n that, the longer the "or+ing da*s, in an* branch of industr*, the lo"er are the "ages817 (8 &edgra)e, factor* inspector, illustrates this b* a comparati)e re)ie" of the 67 *ears from 18:241832, according to "hich "ages rose in the factories under the 17 -ours <a", "hilst the* fell in the factories in "hich the "or+ lasted 1 to 13 hours dail*8 11 From the la", @the price of labour being gi)en, the dail* or "ee+l* "age depends on the Iuantit* of labour e9pended,A it follo"s, first of all, that the lo"er the price of labour, the greater must be the Iuantit* of labour, or the longer must be the "or+ing da* for the labourer to secure e)en a miserable a)erage "age8 'he lo"ness of the price of labour acts here as a stimulus to the e9tension of the labour4time816 =n the other hand, the e9tension of the "or+ing4time produces, in its turn, a fall in the price of labour, and "ith this a fall in the da*?s or "ee+?s "ages8 'he determination of the price of labour b*: dail* )alue of labour po"er "or+ing da* of a gi)en number of hours sho"s that a mere prolongation of the "or+ing da* lo"ers the price of labour, if no compensation steps in8 /ut the same circumstances "hich allo" the capitalist in the long run to prolong the "or+ing da*, also allo" him first, and compel him finall*, to nominall* lo"er the price of labour until the total price of the increased number of hours is lo"ered, and, therefore, the dail* or "ee+l* "age8 &eference to t"o circumstances is sufficient here8 >f one man does the "or+ of 1[ or 6 men, the suppl* of labour increases, although the suppl* of labour4po"er on the mar+et remains constant8 'he competition thus created bet"een the labourers allo"s the capitalist to beat do"n the price of labour, "hilst the falling price of labour allo"s him, on the other hand, to scre" up still further the "or+ing4time8 1: Soon, ho"e)er, this command o)er abnormal Iuantities of unpaid labour, i8e8, Iuantities in e9cess of the a)erage social amount, becomes a source of competition amongst the capitalists themsel)es8 ( part of the price of the commodit* consists of the price of labour8 'he unpaid part of the labour4price need not be rec+oned in the price of the commodit*8 >t ma* be presented to the bu*er8 'his is the first step to "hich competition leads8 'he second step to "hich it dri)es is to e9clude also from the selling price of the commodit* at least a part of the abnormal surplus )alue created b* the e9tension of the "or+ing da*8 >n this "a*, an abnormall* lo" selling price of the commodit* arises, at first sporadicall*, and becomes fi9ed b* degrees; a lo"er selling price "hich hencefor"ard becomes the constant basis of a miserable "age for an e9cessi)e "or+ing4time, as originall* it "as the product of these )er* circumstances8 'his mo)ement is simpl* indicated here, as the anal*sis of competition does not belong to this part of our subDect8 Ce)ertheless, the capitalist ma*, for a moment, spea+ for himself8 @>n /irmingham there is so much competition of masters one against another that man* are obliged to do things as emplo*ers that the* "ould other"ise be ashamed of; and *et no more mone* is made, but onl* the public gets the benefit8A 1 'he reader "ill remember the t"o sorts of <ondon ba+ers, of "hom one sold the bread at its full price (the @full4pricedA ba+ers!, the other

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belo" its normal price (@the under4priced,A @the undersellersA!8 'he @full4pricedA denounced their ri)als before the #arliamentar* 5ommittee of >nIuir*: @'he* onl* e9ist no" b* first defrauding the public, and ne9t getting 18 hours? "or+ out of their men for 16 hours? "ages8888 'he unpaid labour of the men "as made 888 the source "hereb* the competition "as carried on, and continues so to this da*8888 'he competition among the master ba+ers is the cause of the difficult* in getting rid of night4"or+8 (n underseller, "ho sells his bread belo" the cost4price according to the price of flour, must ma+e it up b* getting more out of the labour of the men8888 >f > got onl* 16 hours? "or+ out of m* men, and m* neighbor got 18 or 67, he must beat me in the selling price8 >f the men could insist on pa*ment for o)er4"or+, this "ould be set right8888 ( large number of those emplo*ed b* the undersellers are foreigners and *ouths, "ho are obliged to accept almost an* "ages the* can obtain8A13 'his Deremiad is also interesting because it sho"s ho" the appearance onl* of the relations of production mirrors itself in the brain of the capitalist8 'he capitalist does not +no" that the normal price of labour also includes a definite Iuantit* of unpaid labour, and that this )er* unpaid labour is the normal source of his gain8 'he categor* of surplus labour4time does not e9ist at all for him, since it is included in the normal "or+ing da*, "hich he thin+s he has paid for in the da*?s "ages8 /ut o)er4time does e9ist for him, the prolongation of the "or+ing da* be*ond the limits corresponding "ith the usual price of labour8 Face to face "ith his underselling competitor, he e)en insists upon e9tra pa* for this o)er4time8 -e again does not +no" that this e9tra pa* includes unpaid labour, Dust as "ell as does the price of the customar* hour of labour8 For e9ample, the price of one hour of the 16 hours? "or+ing da* is :d8, sa* the )alue4product of half a "or+ing4hour, "hilst the price of the o)er4time "or+ing4hour is d8, or the )alue4product of 6J: of a "or+ing hour8 >n the first case the capitalist appropriates to himself one4half, in the second, one4third of the "or+ing4hour "ithout pa*ing for it8

(ha)ter 21* Piece 5a#es

Bages b* the piece are nothing else than a con)erted form of "ages b* time, Dust as "ages b* time are a con)erted form of the )alue or price of labour4po"er8

>n piece "ages it seems at first sight as if the use4)alue bought from the labourer "as, not the function of his labour4po"er, li)ing labour, but labour alread* reali1ed in the product, and as if the price of this labour "as determined, not as "ith time4"ages, b* the fraction dail* )alue of labour4po"er the "or+ing da* of a gi)en number of hours but b* the capacit* for "or+ of producer81 'he confidence that trusts in this appearance ought to recei)e a first se)ere shoc+ from the fact that both forms of "ages e9ist side b* side, simultaneousl*, in the same branches of industr*; e8g8,
@the compositors of <ondon, as a general rule, "or+ b* the piece, time4"or+ being the e9ception, "hile those in the countr* "or+ b* the da*, the e9ception being "or+ b* the piece8 'he ship"rights of the port of <ondon "or+ b* the Dob or piece, "hile those of all other parts "or+ b* the da*8A 6 >n the same saddler* shops of <ondon, often for the same "or+, piece "ages are paid to the French, time4"ages to the English8 >n the regular factories in "hich throughout piece "ages predominate, particular +inds of "or+ are unsuitable to this form of "age, and are therefore paid b* time8: /ut it is, moreo)er, self4e)ident that the difference of form in the pa*ment of "ages alters in no "a* their essential nature, although the one form ma* be more fa)orable to the de)elopment of capitalist production than the other8 <et the ordinar* "or+ing da* contain 16 hours of "hich 6 are paid, 6 unpaid8 <et its )alue4 product be 6 shillings, that of one hour?s labour therefore 6d8 <et us suppose that, as the result of e9perience, a labourer "ho "or+s "ith the a)erage amount of intensit* and s+ill, "ho, therefore, gi)es in fact onl* the time sociall* necessar* to the production of an article, supplies in 16 hours 6 pieces, either distinct products or measurable parts of a continuous "hole8 'hen the )alue of these 6 pieces, after8 subtraction of the portion of constant capital contained in them, is 6 shillings, and the )alue of a single piece :d8 'he labourer recei)es 1 [d8 per piece, and thus earns in 16 hours : shillings8 Lust as, "ith time4"ages, it does not matter "hether "e assume that the labourer "or+s 6 hours for himself and 6 hours for the capitalist, or half of e)er* hour for himself, and the other half for the capitalist, so here it does not matter "hether "e sa* that each indi)idual piece is half paid, and half unpaid for, or that the price of 16 pieces is the eIui)alent onl* of the )alue of the labour4po"er, "hilst in the other 16 pieces surplus )alue is incorporated8 'he form of piece "ages is Dust as irrational as that of time4"ages8 Bhilst in our e9ample t"o pieces of a commodit*, after subtraction of the )alue of the means of production consumed in them, are "orth 6d8 as being the product of one hour, the labourer recei)es for them a price of :d8 piece "ages do not, in fact, distinctl* e9press an* relation of )alue8 >t is not, therefore, a Iuestion of measuring the )alue of the piece b* the "or+ing4time incorporated in it, but on the contrar*, of measuring the "or+ing4time the labourer has e9pended b* the number of pieces he has produced8 >n time4"ages, the labour is measured b* its immediate duration; in piece "ages, b* the Iuantit* of products in "hich the labour has embodied itself during a gi)en time8 'he price of labour time

626

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itself is finall* determined b* the eIuation: )alue of a da*?s labour Y dail* )alue of labour4po"er8 #iece4"age is, therefore, onl* a modified form of time4"age8 <et us no" consider a little more closel* the characteristic peculiarities of piece "ages8 'he Iualit* of the labour is here controlled b* the "or+ itself, "hich must be of a)erage perfection if the piece4price is to be paid in full8 piece "ages become, from this point of )ie", the most fruitful source of reductions of "ages and capitalistic cheating8 'he* furnish to the capitalist an e9act measure for the intensit* of labour8 =nl* the "or+ing4time "hich is embodied in a Iuantum of commodities determined beforehand, and e9perimentall* fi9ed, counts as sociall* necessar* "or+ing4time, and is paid as such8 >n the larger "or+shops of the <ondon tailors, therefore, a certain piece of "or+, a "aistcoat, e8g8, is called an hour, or half an hour, the hour at 6d8 /* practice it is +no"n ho" much is the a)erage product of one hour8 Bith ne" fashions, repairs, Pc8, a contest arises bet"een master and labourer as to "hether a particular piece of "or+ is one hour, and so on, until here also e9perience decides8 Similarl* in the <ondon furniture "or+shops, Pc8 >f the labourer does not possess the a)erage capacit*, if he cannot in conseIuence suppl* a certain minimum of "or+ per da*, he is dismissed8 3 Since the Iualit* and intensit* of the "or+ are here controlled b* the form of "age itself, superintendence of labour becomes in great part superfluous8 piece "ages therefore la* the foundation of the modern @domestic labour,A described abo)e, as "ell as of a hierarchicall* organi1ed s*stem of e9ploitation and oppression8 'he latter has t"o fundamental forms8 =n the one hand, piece "ages facilitate the interposition of parasites bet"een the capitalist and the "age4 labourer, the @sub4letting of labour8A 'he gain of these middlemen comes entirel* from the difference bet"een the labour4price "hich the capitalist pa*s, and the part of that price "hich the* actuall* allo" to reach the labourer8 6 >n England this s*stem is characteristicall* called the @s"eating s*stem8A =n the other hand, piece4"age allo"s the capitalist to ma+e a contract for so much per piece "ith the head labourer F in manufactures "ith the chief of some group, in mines "ith the e9tractor of the coal, in the factor* "ith the actual machine4"or+er F at a price for "hich the head labourer himself underta+es the enlisting and pa*ment of his assistant "or+ people8 'he e9ploitation of the labourer b* capital is here effected through the e9ploitation of the labourer b* the labourer87 Gi)en piece4"age, it is naturall* the personal interest of the labourer to strain his labour4po"er as intensel* as possible; this enables the capitalist to raise more easil* the normal degree of intensit* of labour88 >t is moreo)er no" the personal interest of the labourer to lengthen the "or+ing da*, since "ith it his dail* or "ee+l* "ages rise8 2 'his graduall* brings on a reaction li+e that alread* described in time4"ages, "ithout rec+oning that the prolongation of the "or+ing da*, e)en if the piece "age remains constant, includes of necessit* a fall in the price of the labour8 >n time4"ages, "ith fe" e9ceptions, the same "age holds for the same +ind of "or+, "hilst in piece "ages, though the price of the "or+ing time is measured b* a certain Iuantit* of product, the da*?s or "ee+?s "age "ill )ar* "ith the indi)idual differences of the labourers, of "hom one supplies in a gi)en time the minimum of product onl*, another the a)erage, a third more than the a)erage8 Bith regard to actual receipts there is, therefore, great )ariet* according to the different s+ill, strength, energ*, sta*ing4po"er, Pc8, of the indi)idual labourers8 17 =f course this does not alter the general relations bet"een capital and "age4labour8 First, the indi)idual differences balance one another in the "or+shop as a "hole, "hich thus supplies in a gi)en "or+ing4time the a)erage product, and the total "ages paid "ill be the a)erage "ages of that particular branch of industr*8 Second, the proportion bet"een "ages and surplus )alue remains unaltered, since the mass of surplus labour supplied b* each particular labourer corresponds "ith the "age recei)ed b* him8 /ut the "ider scope that piece4"age gi)es to indi)idualit* tends to de)elop on the one

62:

5hapter 61

hand that indi)idualit*, and "ith it the sense of libert*, independence, and self4control of the labourers, and on the other, their competition one "ith another8 #iece4"or+ has, therefore, a tendenc*, "hile raising indi)idual "ages abo)e the a)erage, to lo"er this a)erage itself8 /ut "here a particular rate of piece4"age has for a long time been fi9ed b* tradition, and its lo"ering, therefore, presented especial difficulties, the masters, in such e9ceptional cases, sometimes had recourse to its compulsor* transformation into time4"ages8 -ence, e8g8, in 1867 a great stri+e among the ribbon4"ea)ers of 5o)entr*8 11 #iece4"age is finall* one of the chief supports of the hour4s*stem described in the preceding chapter8 16 From "hat has been sho"n so far, it follo"s that piece4"age is the form of "ages most in harmon* "ith the capitalist mode of production8 (lthough b* no means ne" F it figures side b* side "ith time4"ages officiall* in the French and English labour statutes of the 1 th centur* F it onl* conIuers a larger field for action during the period of manufacture, properl* so4called8 >n the storm* *outh of modern industr*, especiall* from 1727 to 1813, it ser)ed as a le)er for the lengthening of the "or+ing da*, and the lo"ering of "ages8 ;er* important materials for the fluctuation of "ages during that period are to be found in the /lue boo+s: @&eport and E)idence from the Select 5ommittee on #etitions respecting the 5orn <a"sA (#arliamentar* Session of 181:41 !, and @&eport from the <ords? 5ommittee, on the State of the Gro"th, 5ommerce, and 5onsumption of Grain, and all <a"s relating theretoA (Session of 181 413!8 -ere "e find documentar* e)idence of the constant lo"ering of the price of labour from the beginning of the anti4Lacobin Bar8 >n the "ea)ing industr*, e8g8, piece "ages had fallen so lo" that, in spite of the )er* great lengthening of the "or+ing da*, the dail* "ages "ere then lo"er than before8 @'he real earnings of the cotton "ea)er are no" far less than the* "ere; his superiorit* o)er the common labourer, "hich at first "as )er* great, has no" almost entirel* ceased8 >ndeed888 the difference in the "ages of s+illful and common labour is far less no" than at an* former period8A 1: -o" little the increased intensit* and e9tension of labour through piece "ages benefited the agricultural proletariat, the follo"ing passage borro"ed from a "or+ on the side of the landlords and farmers sho"s: @/* far the greater part of agricultural operations is done b* people "ho are hired for the da* or on piece4"or+8 'heir "ee+l* "ages are about 16s8, and although it ma* be assumed that a man earns on piece4"or+ under the greater stimulus to labour, 1s8 or perhaps 6s8 more than on "ee+l* "ages, *et it is found, on calculating his total income, that his loss of emplo*ment, during the *ear, out"eighs this gain888Further, it "ill generall* be found that the "ages of these men bear a certain proportion to the price of the necessar* means of subsistence, so that a man "ith t"o children is able to bring up his famil* "ithout recourse to parish relief8A 1 $althus at that time remar+ed "ith reference to the facts published b* #arliament: @> confess that > see, "ith misgi)ing, the great e9tension of the practice of piece4 "age8 &eall* hard "or+ during 16 or 1 hours of the da*, or for an* longer time, is too much for an* human being8A 13 >n the "or+shops under the Factor* (cts, piece "ages become the general rule, because capital can there onl* increase the efficac* of the "or+ing da* b* intensif*ing labour8 16 Bith the changing producti)eness of labour the same Iuantum of product represents a )ar*ing "or+ing4time8 'herefore, piece4"age also )aries, for it is the mone* e9pression of a determined "or+ing4time8 >n our e9ample abo)e, 6 pieces "ere produced in 16 hours, "hilst the )alue of the product of the 16 hours "as 6s8, the dail* )alue of the labour4po"er :s8, the price of the labour4

62

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hour :d8, and the "age for one piece [d8 >n one piece half4an4hour?s labour "as absorbed8 >f the same "or+ing da* no" supplies, in conseIuence of the doubled producti)eness of labour, 8 pieces instead of 6 , and all other circumstances remain unchanged, then the piece4"age falls from 1 [d8 to :J d8, as e)er* piece no" onl* represents 1J , instead of [ of a "or+ing4hour8 6 b* 1[d8 Y :s8, and in li+e manner 8 b* :J d8 Y :s8 >n other "ords, piece4"age is lo"ered in the same proportion as the number of the pieces produced in the same time rises, 17 and, therefore, as the "or+ing time spent on the same piece falls8 'his change in piece4"age, so far purel* nominal, leads to constant battles bet"een capitalist and labour8 Either because the capitalist uses it as a prete9t for actuall* lo"ering the price of labour, or because increased producti)e po"er of labour is accompanied b* an increased intensit* of the same8 =r because the labourer ta+es seriousl* the appearance of piece "ages ()i18, that his product is paid for, and not his labour4po"er! and therefore re)olts against a lo"ering of "ages, unaccompanied b* a lo"ering in the selling price of the commodit*8 @'he operati)es888carefull* "atch the price of the ra" material and the price of manufactured goods, and are thus enabled to form an accurate estimate of their master?s profits8A18 'he capitalist rightl* +noc+s on the head such pretensions as gross errors as to the nature of "age4labour812 -e cries out against this usurping attempt to la* ta9es on the ad)ance of industr*, and declares roundl* that the producti)eness of labour does not concern the labourer at all8 67

(ha)ter 22* 9ationa$ 7ifferences of 5a#es

>n the 17th chapter "e "ere occupied "ith the manifold combinations "hich ma* bring about a change in magnitude of the )alue of labour4po"er F this magnitude being considered either absolutel* or relati)el*, i8e8, as compared "ith surplus )alue; "hilst on the other hand, the Iuantum of the means of subsistence in "hich the price of labour is reali1ed might again undergo fluctuations independent of, or different from, the changes of this price8 1 (s has been alread* said, the simple translation of the )alue, or respecti)el* of the price, of labour4po"er into the e9oteric form of "ages transforms all these la"s into la"s of the fluctuations of "ages8 'hat "hich appears in these fluctuations of "ages "ithin a single countr* as a series of )ar*ing combinations, ma* appear in different countries as contemporaneous difference of national "ages8 >n the comparison of the "ages in different nations, "e must therefore ta+e into account all the factors that determine changes in the amount of the )alue of labour4po"er; the price and the e9tent of the prime necessaries of life as naturall* and historicall* de)eloped, the cost of training the labourers, the part pla*ed b* the labour of "omen and children, the producti)eness of labour, its e9tensi)e and intensi)e magnitude8 E)en the most superficial comparison reIuires the reduction first of the a)erage da*4"age for the same trades, in different countries, to a uniform "or+ing da*8 (fter this reduction to the same terms of the da*4"ages, time4"age must again be translated into piece4"age, as the latter onl* can be a measure both of the producti)it* and the intensit* of labour8 >n e)er* countr* there is a certain a)erage intensit* of labour belo" "hich the labour for the production of a commodit* reIuires more than the sociall* necessar* time, and therefore does not rec+on as labour of normal Iualit*8 =nl* a degree of intensit* abo)e the national a)erage affects, in a gi)en countr*, the measure of )alue b* the mere duration of the "or+ing4time8 'his is not the case on the uni)ersal mar+et, "hose integral parts are the indi)idual countries8 'he a)erage intensit* of labour changes from countr* to countr*; here it is greater, there less8 'hese national a)erages form a scale, "hose unit of measure is the a)erage unit of uni)ersal labour8 'he more intense national labour, therefore, as compared "ith the less intense, produces in the same time more )alue, "hich e9presses itself in more mone*8 /ut the la" of )alue in its international application is *et more modified b* the fact that on the "orld4mar+et the more producti)e national labour rec+ons also as the more intense, so long as the more producti)e nation is not compelled b* competition to lo"er the selling price of its commodities to the le)el of their )alue8 >n proportion as capitalist production is de)eloped in a countr*, in the same proportion do the national intensit* and producti)it* of labour there rise abo)e the international le)el8 6 'he different Iuantities of commodities of the same +ind, produced in different countries in the same "or+ing4 time, ha)e, therefore, uneIual international )alues, "hich are e9pressed in different prices, i8e8, in sums of mone* )ar*ing according to international )alues8 'he relati)e )alue of mone* "ill, therefore, be less in the nation "ith more de)eloped capitalist mode of production than in the nation "ith less de)eloped8 >t follo"s, then, that the nominal "ages, the eIui)alent of labour4 po"er e9pressed in mone*, "ill also be higher in the first nation than in the second; "hich does not at all pro)e that this holds also for the real "ages, i8e8, for the means of subsistence placed at the disposal of the labourer8 /ut e)en apart from these relati)e differences of the )alue of mone* in different countries, it "ill be found, freIuentl*, that the dail* or "ee+l*, Ptc8, "age in the first nation is higher than in the

626

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second, "hilst the relati)e price of labour, i8e8, the price of labour as compared both "ith surplus )alue and "ith the )alue of the product, stands higher in the second than in the first8 : L8 B8 5o"ell, member of the Factor* 5ommission of 18::, after careful in)estigation of the spinning trade, came to the conclusion that @in England "ages are )irtuall* lo"er to the capitalist, though higher to the operati)e than on the 5ontinent of Europe8A 'he English Factor* >nspector, (le9ander &edgra)e, in his report of =ct8 :1st, 1866, pro)es b* comparati)e statistics "ith continental states, that in spite of lo"er "ages and much longer "or+ing4time, continental labour is, in proportion to the product, dearer than English8 (n English manager of a cotton factor* in =ldenburg declares that the "or+ing time there lasted from 3::7 a8m8 to 8 p8m8, Saturda*s included, and that the "or+people there, "hen under English o)erloo+ers, did not suppl* during this time Iuite so much product as the English in 17 hours, but under German o)erloo+ers much less8 Bages are much lo"er than in England, in man* cases 37`, but the number of hands in proportion to the machiner* "as much greater, in certain departments in the proportion of 3::8 $r8 &edgra)e gi)es )er* full details as to the &ussian cotton factories8 'he data "ere gi)en him b* an English manager until recentl* emplo*ed there8 =n this &ussian soil, so fruitful of all infamies, the old horrors of the earl* da*s of English factories are in full s"ing8 'he managers are, of course, English, as the nati)e &ussian capitalist is of no use in factor* business8 0espite all o)er4"or+, continued da* and night, despite the most shameful under4pa*ment of the "or+people, &ussian manufacture manages to )egetate onl* b* prohibition of foreign competition8 > gi)e, in conclusion, a comparati)e table of $r8 &edgra)e?s, on the a)erage number of spindles per factor* and per spinner in the different countries of Europe8 -e himself remar+s that he had collected these figures a fe" *ears ago, and that since that time the si1e of the factories and the number of spindles per labourer in England has increased8 -e supposes, ho"e)er, an appro9imatel* eIual progress in the continental countries mentioned, so that the numbers gi)en "ould still ha)e their )alue for purposes of comparison8 A!*$A4* ,5M6*$ +3 P/,78* P*$ 3ACT+$9 *n)land, avera e of spindles per factory 16,677 3rance, avera e of spindles per factory 1,377 Prussia, avera e of spindles per factory 1,377 6el)ium, avera e of spindles per factory ,777 a:ony, avera e of spindles per factory ,377 Austria, avera e of spindles per factory 7,777 .it;erland, avera e of spindles per factory 8,777 A!*$A4* ,5M6*$ +3 P*$ +, *MP8+9*7 T+ P/,78* 3rance one person to 1 spindles $ussia one person to 68 spindles Prussia one person to :7 spindles 6a%aria one person to 6 spindles Austria one person to 2 spindles 6el)ium one person to 37 spindles a:ony one person to 37 spindles

627

5hapter 66

.it;erland maller tates of 4ermany 4reat 6ritain

one person to 33 spindles one person to 33 spindles one person to 7 spindles

@'his comparison,A sa*s $r8 &edgra)e, @is *et more unfa)orable to Great /ritain, inasmuch as there is so large a number of factories in "hich "ea)ing b* po"er is carried on in conDunction "ith spinningA ("hilst in the table the "ea)ers are not deducted!, @and the factories abroad are chiefl* spinning factories; if it "ere possible to compare li+e "ith li+e, strictl*, > could find man* cotton spinning factories in m* district in "hich mules containing 6,677 spindles are minded b* one man (the minder! and t"o assistants onl*, turning off dail* 667 lbs8 of *arn, measuring 77 miles in length8A 3 >t is "ell +no"n that in Eastern Europe, as "ell as in (sia, English companies ha)e underta+en the construction of rail"a*s, and ha)e, in ma+ing them, emplo*ed side b* side "ith the nati)e labourers, a certain number of English "or+ing4men8 5ompelled b* practical necessit*, the* thus ha)e had to ta+e into account the national difference in the intensit* of labour, but this has brought them no loss8 'heir e9perience sho"s that e)en if the height of "ages corresponds more or less "ith the a)erage intensit* of labour, the relati)e price of labour )aries generall* in the in)erse direction8 >n an @Essa* on the &ate of Bages,A 6 one of his first economic "ritings, -8 5are* tries to pro)e that the "ages of the different nations are directl* proportional to the degree of producti)eness of the national "or+ing da*s, in order to dra" from this international relation the conclusion that "ages e)er*"here rise and fall in proportion to the producti)eness of labour8 'he "hole of our anal*sis of the production of surplus )alue sho"s the absurdit* of this conclusion, e)en if 5are* himself had pro)ed his premises instead of, after his usual uncritical and superficial fashion, shuffling to and fro a confused mass of statistical materials8 'he best of it is that he does not assert that things actuall* are as the* ought to be according to his theor*8 For State inter)ention has falsified the natural economic relations8 'he different national "ages must be rec+oned, therefore, as if that part of each that goes to the State in the form of ta9es, came to the labourer himself8 =ught not $r8 5are* to consider further "hether those @State e9pensesA are not the @naturalA fruits of capitalistic de)elopmentE 'he reasoning is Iuite "orth* of the man "ho first declared the relations of capitalist production to be eternal la"s of nature and reason, "hose free, harmonious "or+ing is onl* disturbed b* the inter)ention of the State, in order after"ards to disco)er that the diabolical influence of England on the "orld mar+et (an influence "hich, it appears, does not spring from the natural la"s of capitalist production! necessitates State inter)ention, i8e8, the protection of those la"s of nature and reason b* the State, alias the S*stem of #rotection8 -e disco)ered further that the theorems of &icardo and others, in "hich e9isting social antagonisms and contradictions are formulated, are not the ideal product of the real economic mo)ement, but on the contrar*, that the real antagonisms of capitalist production in England and else"here are the result of the theories of &icardo and othersQ Finall* he disco)ered that it is, in the last resort, commerce that destro*s the inborn beauties and harmonies of the capitalist mode of production8 ( step further and he "ill, perhaps, disco)er that the one e)il in capitalist production is capital itself8 =nl* a man "ith such atrocious "ant of the critical facult* and such spurious erudition deser)ed, in spite of his #rotectionist heres*, to become the secret source of the harmonious "isdom of a /astiat, and of all the other Free4trade optimists of toda*8

Part &: The Accumulation of Capital

'he con)ersion of a sum of mone* into means of production and labour4po"er, is the first step ta+en b* the Iuantum of )alue that is going to function as capital8 'his con)ersion ta+es place in the mar+et, "ithin the sphere of circulation8 'he second step, the process of production, is complete so soon as the means of production ha)e been con)erted into commodities "hose )alue e9ceeds that of their component parts, and, therefore, contains the capital originall* ad)anced, plus a surplus )alue8 'hese commodities must then be thro"n into circulation8 'he* must be sold, their )alue realised in mone*, this mone* afresh con)erted into capital, and so o)er and o)er again8 'his circular mo)ement, in "hich the same phases are continuall* gone through in succession, forms the circulation of capital8 'he first condition of accumulation is that the capitalist must ha)e contri)ed to sell his commodities, and to recon)ert into capital the greater part of the mone* so recei)ed8 >n the follo"ing pages "e shall assume that capital circulates in its normal "a*8 'he detailed anal*sis of the process "ill be found in /oo+ >>8 'he capitalist "ho produces surplus )alue F i$e8, "ho e9tracts unpaid labour directl* from the labourers, and fi9es it in commodities, is, indeed, the first appropriator, but b* no means the ultimate o"ner, of this surplus )alue8 -e has to share it "ith capitalists, "ith lando"ners, Pc8, "ho fulfil other functions in the comple9 of social production8 Surplus )alue, therefore, splits up into )arious parts8 >ts fragments fall to )arious categories of persons, and ta+e )arious forms, independent the one of the other, such as profit, interest, merchants? profit, rent, Pc8 >t is onl* in /oo+ >>>8 that "e can ta+e in hand these modified forms of surplus )alue8 =n the one hand, then, "e assume that the capitalist sells at their )alue the commodities he has produced, "ithout concerning oursel)es either about the ne" forms that capital assumes "hile in the sphere of circulation, or about the concrete conditions of reproduction hidden under these forms8 =n the other hand, "e treat the capitalist producer as o"ner of the entire surplus )alue, or, better perhaps, as the representati)e of all the sharers "ith him in the boot*8 Be, therefore, first of all consider accumulation from an abstract point of )ie" F i$e8, as a mere phase in the actual process of production8 So far as accumulation ta+es place, the capitalist must ha)e succeeded in selling his commodities, and in recon)erting the sale4mone* into capital8 $oreo)er, the brea+ing4up of surplus )alue into fragments neither alters its nature nor the conditions under "hich it becomes an element of accumulation8 Bhate)er be the proportion of surplus )alue "hich the industrial capitalist retains for himself, or *ields up to others, he is the one "ho, in the first instance, appropriates it8 Be, therefore, assume no more than "hat actuall* ta+es place8 =n the other hand, the simple fundamental form of the process of accumulation is obscured b* the incident of the circulation "hich brings it about, and b* the splitting up of surplus )alue8 (n e9act anal*sis of the process, therefore, demands that "e should, for a time, disregard all phenomena that hide the pla* of its inner mechanism8

(ha)ter 2 * Sim)$e 3e)rod%ction

Bhate)er the form of the process of production in a societ*, it must be a continuous process, must continue to go periodicall* through the same phases8 ( societ* can no more cease to

622

5hapter 6:

produce than it can cease to consume8 Bhen )ie"ed, therefore, as a connected "hole, and as flo"ing on "ith incessant rene"al, e)er* social process of production is, at the same time, a process of reproduction8 'he conditions of production are also those of reproduction8 Co societ* can go on producing, in other "ords, no societ* can reproduce, unless it constantl* recon)erts a part of its products into means of production, or elements of fresh products8 (ll other circumstances remaining the same, the onl* mode b* "hich it can reproduce its "ealth, and maintain it at one le)el, is b* replacing the means of production F i$e$+ the instruments of labour, the ra" material, and the au9iliar* substances consumed in the course of the *ear F b* an eIual Iuantit* of the same +ind of articles; these must be separated from the mass of the *earl* products, and thro"n afresh into the process of production8 -ence, a definite portion of each *ear?s product belongs to the domain of production8 0estined for producti)e consumption from the )er* first, this portion e9ists, for the most part, in the shape of articles totall* unfitted for indi)idual consumption8 >f production be capitalistic in form, so, too, "ill be reproduction8 Lust as in the former the labour process figures but as a means to"ards the self4e9pansion of capital, so in the latter it figures but as a means of reproducing as capital F i$e8, as self4e9panding )alue F the )alue ad)anced8 >t is onl* because his mone* constantl* functions as capital that the economic guise of a capitalist attaches to a man8 >f, for instance, a sum of ]177 has this *ear been con)erted into capital8 and produced a surplus )alue of ]67, it must continue during ne9t *ear, and subseIuent *ears, to repeat the same operation8 (s a periodic increment of the capital ad)anced, or periodic fruit of capital in process, surplus )alue acIuires the form of a re)enue flo"ing out of capital8 1 >f this re)enue ser)e the capitalist onl* as a fund to pro)ide for his consumption, and be spent as periodicall* as it is gained, then, caeteris paribus+ simple reproduction "ill ta+e place8 (nd although this reproduction is a mere repetition of the process of production on the old scale, *et this mere repetition, or continuit*, gi)es a ne" character to the process, or, rather, causes the disappearance of some apparent characteristics "hich it possessed as an isolated discontinuous process8 'he purchase of labour4po"er for a fi9ed period is the prelude to the process of production; and this prelude is constantl* repeated "hen the stipulated term comes to an end, "hen a definite period of production, such as a "ee+ or a month, has elapsed8 /ut the labourer is not paid until after he has e9pended his labour4po"er, and realised in commodities not onl* its )alue, but surplus )alue8 -e has, therefore, produced not onl* surplus )alue, "hich "e for the present regard as a fund to meet the pri)ate consumption of the capitalist, but he has also produced, before it flo"s bac+ to him in the shape of "ages, the fund out of "hich he himself is paid, the )ariable capital; and his emplo*ment lasts onl* so long as he continues to reproduce this fund8 -ence, that formula of the economists, referred to in 5hapter O;>>>, "hich represents "ages as a share in the product itself86 Bhat flo"s bac+ to the labourer in the shape of "ages is a portion of the product that is continuousl* reproduced b* him8 'he capitalist, it is true, pa*s him in mone*, but this mone* is merel* the transmuted form of the product of his labour8 Bhile he is con)erting a F portion of the means of production into products, a portion of his former product is being turned into mone*8 >t is his labour of last "ee+, or of last *ear, that pa*s for his labour4po"er this "ee+ or this *ear8 'he illusion begotten b* the inter)ention of mone* )anishes immediatel*, if, instead of ta+ing a single capitalist and a single labourer, "e ta+e the class of capitalists and the class of labourers as a "hole8 'he capitalist class is constantl* gi)ing to the labouring class order4notes, in the form of mone*, on a portion of the commodities produced b* the latter and appropriated b* the former8 'he labourers gi)e these order4notes bac+ Dust as constantl* to the capitalist class, and

:77

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in this "a* get their share of their o"n product8 'he transaction is )eiled b* the commodit* form of the product and the mone* form of the commodit*8 ;ariable capital is therefore onl* a particular historical form of appearance of the fund for pro)iding the necessaries of life, or the labour4fund "hich the labourer reIuires for the maintenance of himself and famil*, and "hich, "hate)er be the s*stem of social production, he must himself produce and reproduce8 >f the labour4fund constantl* flo"s to him in the form of mone* that pa*s for his labour, it is because the product he has created mo)es constantl* a"a* from him in the form of capital8 /ut all this does not alter the fact, that it is the labourer?s o"n labour, realised in a product, "hich is ad)anced to him b* the capitalist8 : <et us ta+e a peasant liable to do compulsor* ser)ice for his lord8 -e "or+s on his o"n land, "ith his o"n means of production, for, sa*, : da*s a "ee+8 'he : other da*s he does forced "or+ on the lord?s domain8 -e constantl* reproduces his o"n labour4fund, "hich ne)er, in his case, ta+es the form of a mone* pa*ment for his labour, ad)anced b* another person8 /ut in return, his unpaid forced labour for the lord, on its side, ne)er acIuires the character of )oluntar* paid labour8 >f one fine morning the lord appropriates to himself the land, the cattle, the seed, in a "ord, the, means of production of this peasant, the latter "ill thenceforth be obliged to sell his labour4po"er to the lord8 -e "ill, ceteris paribus+ labour 6 da*s a "ee+ as before, : for himself, : for his lord, "ho thenceforth becomes a "ages4pa*ing capitalist8 (s before, he "ill use up the means of production as means of production, and transfer their )alue to the product8 (s before, a definite portion of the product "ill be de)oted to reproduction8 /ut from the moment that the forced labour is changed into "age labour, from that moment the labour4fund, "hich the peasant himself continues as before to produce and reproduce, ta+es the form of a capital ad)anced in the form of "ages b* the lord8 'he bourgeois economist "hose narro" mind is unable to separate the form of appearance from the thing that appears, shuts his e*es to the fact, that it is but here and there on the face of the earth, that e)en no"ada*s the labour fund crops up in the form of capital8 ;ariable capital, it is true, onl* then loses its character of a )alue ad)anced out of the capitalist?s funds, 3 "hen "e )ie" the process of capitalist production in the flo" of its constant rene"al8 /ut that process must ha)e had a beginning of some +ind8 From our present standpoint it therefore seems li+el* that the capitalist, once upon a time, became possessed of mone*, b* some accumulation that too+ place independentl* of the unpaid labour of others, and that this "as, therefore, ho" he "as enabled to freIuent the mar+et as a bu*er of labour4po"er8 -o"e)er this ma* be, the mere continuit* of the process, the simple reproduction, brings about some other "onderful changes, "hich affect not onl* the )ariable, but the total capital8 >f a capital of ]1,777 beget *earl* a surplus )alue of ]677, and if this surplus )alue be consumed e)er* *ear, it is clear that at the end of 3 *ears the surplus )alue consumed "ill amount to 3 h ]677 or the ]1,777 originall* ad)anced8 >f onl* a part, sa* one half, "ere consumed, the same result "ould follo" at the end of 17 *ears, since 17 h ]177Y ]1,7778 General &ule: 'he )alue of the capital ad)anced di)ided b* the surplus )alue annuall* consumed, gi)es the number of *ears, or reproduction periods, at the e9piration of "hich the capital originall* ad)anced has been consumed b* the capitalist and has disappeared8 'he capitalist thin+s, that he is consuming the produce of the unpaid labour of others, i$e8, the surplus )alue, and is +eeping intact his original capital; but "hat he thin+s cannot alter facts8 (fter the lapse of a certain number of *ears, the capital )alue he then possesses is eIual to the sum total of the surplus )alue appropriated b* him during those *ears, and the total )alue he has consumed is eIual to that of his original capital8 >t is true, he has in hand a capital "hose amount has not changed, and of "hich a part, )i18, the buildings, machiner*, Pc8, "ere alread* there "hen the "or+ of his business began8 /ut "hat "e ha)e to do "ith here, is not the material elements, but the )alue, of that capital8 Bhen a person gets through all his propert*, b* ta+ing upon himself debts eIual to the )alue of that propert*, it is

:71

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clear that his propert* represents nothing but the sum total of his debts8 (nd so it is "ith the capitalist; "hen he has consumed the eIui)alent of his original capital, the )alue of his present capital represents nothing but the total amount of the surplus )alue appropriated b* him "ithout pa*ment8 Cot a single atom of the )alue of his old capital continues to e9ist8 (part then from all accumulation, the mere continuit* of the process of production, in other "ords simple reproduction, sooner or later, and of necessit*, con)erts e)er* capital into accumulated capital, or capitalised surplus )alue8 E)en if that capital "as originall* acIuired b* the personal labour of its emplo*er, it sooner or later becomes )alue appropriated "ithout an eIui)alent, the unpaid labour of others materialised either in mone* or in some other obDect8 Be sa" in 5hapt8 >;84;>8 that in order to con)ert mone* into capital something more is reIuired than the production and circulation of commodities8 Be sa" that on the one side the possessor of )alue or mone*, on the other, the possessor of the )alue4creating substance; on the one side, the possessor of the means of production and subsistence, on the other, the possessor of nothing but labour4po"er, must confront one another as bu*er and seller8 'he separation of labour from its product, of subDecti)e labour4po"er from the obDecti)e conditions of labour, "as therefore the real foundation in fact, and the starting4point of capitalist production8 /ut that "hich at first "as but a starting4point, becomes, b* the mere continuit* of the process, b* simple reproduction, the peculiar result, constantl* rene"ed and perpetuated, of capitalist production8 =n the one hand, the process of production incessantl* con)erts material "ealth into capital, into means of creating more "ealth and means of enDo*ment for the capitalist8 =n the other hand, the labourer, on Iuitting the process, is "hat he "as on entering it, a source of "ealth, but de)oid of all means of ma+ing that "ealth his o"n8 Since, before entering on the process, his o"n labour has alread* been alienated from himself b* the sale of his labour4po"er, has been appropriated b* the capitalist and incorporated "ith capital, it must, during the process, be realised in a product that does not belong to him8 Since the process of production is also the process b* "hich the capitalist consumes labour4po"er, the product of the labourer is incessantl* con)erted, not onl* into commodities, but into capital, into )alue that suc+s up the )alue4creating po"er, into means of subsistence that bu* the person of the labourer, into means of production that command the producers86 'he labourer therefore constantl* produces material, obDecti)e "ealth, but in the form of capital, of an alien po"er that dominates and e9ploits him; and the capitalist as constantl* produces labour4po"er, but in the form of a subDecti)e source of "ealth, separated from the obDects in and b* "hich it can alone be realised; in short he produces the labourer, but as a "age labourer8 7 'his incessant reproduction, this perpetuation of the labourer, is the sine IuM non of capitalist production8 'he labourer consumes in a t"o4fold "a*8 Bhile producing he consumes b* his labour the means of production, and con)erts them into products "ith a higher )alue than that of the capital ad)anced8 'his is his producti)e consumption8 >t is at the same time consumption of his labour4 po"er b* the capitalist "ho bought it8 =n the other hand, the labourer turns the mone* paid to him for his labour4po"er, into means of subsistence: this is his indi)idual consumption8 'he labourer?s producti)e consumption, and his indi)idual consumption, are therefore totall* distinct8 >n the former, he acts as the moti)e po"er of capital, and belongs to the capitalist8 >n the latter, he belongs to himself, and performs his necessar* )ital functions outside the process of production8 'he result of the one is, that the capitalist li)es; of the other, that the labourer li)es8 Bhen treating of the "or+ing da*, "e sa" that the labourer is often compelled to ma+e his indi)idual consumption a mere incident of production8 >n such a case, he supplies himself "ith necessaries in order to maintain his labour4po"er, Dust as coal and "ater are supplied to the steam4engine and oil to the "heel8 -is means of consumption, in that case, are the mere means of

:76

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consumption reIuired b* a means of production; his indi)idual consumption is directl* producti)e consumption8 'his, ho"e)er, appears to be an abuse not essentiall* appertaining to capitalist production88 'he matter ta+es Iuite another aspect, "hen "e contemplate, not the single capitalist, and the single labourer, but the capitalist class and the labouring class, not an isolated process of production, but capitalist production in full s"ing, and on its actual social scale8 /* con)erting part of his capital into labour4po"er, the capitalist augments the )alue of his entire capital8 -e +ills t"o birds "ith one stone8 -e profits, not onl* b* "hat he recei)es from, but b* "hat he gi)es to, the labourer8 'he capital gi)en in e9change for labour4po"er is con)erted into necessaries, b* the consumption of "hich the muscles, ner)es, bones, and brains of e9isting labourers are reproduced, and ne" labourers are begotten8 Bithin the limits of "hat is strictl* necessar*, the indi)idual consumption of the "or+ing class is, therefore, the recon)ersion of the means of subsistence gi)en b* capital in e9change for labour4po"er, into fresh labour4po"er at the disposal of capital for e9ploitation8 >t is the production and reproduction of that means of production so indispensable to the capitalist: the labourer himself8 'he indi)idual consumption of the labourer, "hether it proceed "ithin the "or+shop or outside it, "hether it be part of the process of production or not, forms therefore a factor of the production and reproduction of capital; Dust as cleaning machiner* does, "hether it be done "hile the machiner* is "or+ing or "hile it is standing8 'he fact that the labourer consumes his means of subsistence for his o"n purposes, and not to please the capitalist, has no bearing on the matter8 'he consumption of food b* a beast of burden is none the less a necessar* factor in the process of production, because the beast enDo*s "hat it eats8 'he maintenance and reproduction of the "or+ing class is, and must e)er be, a necessar* condition to the reproduction of capital8 /ut the capitalist ma* safel* lea)e its fulfilment to the labourer?s instincts of self4preser)ation and of propagation8 (ll the capitalist cares for, is to reduce the labourer?s indi)idual consumption as far as possible to "hat is strictl* necessar*, and he is far a"a* from imitating those brutal South (mericans, "ho force their labourers to ta+e the more substantial, rather than the less substantial, +ind of food8 2 -ence both the capitalist and his ideological representati)e, the political economist, consider that part alone of the labourer?s indi)idual consumption to be producti)e, "hich is reIuisite for the perpetuation of the class, and "hich therefore must ta+e place in order that the capitalist ma* ha)e labour4po"er to consume; "hat the labourer consumes for his o"n pleasure be*ond that part, is unproducti)e consumption817 >f the accumulation of capital "ere to cause a rise of "ages and an increase in the labourer?s consumption, unaccompanied b* increase in the consumption of labour4po"er b* capital, the additional capital "ould be consumed unproducti)el*8 11 >n realit*, the indi)idual consumption of the labourer is unproducti)e as regards himself, for it reproduces nothing but the need* indi)idual; it is producti)e to the capitalist and to the State, since it is the production of the po"er that creates their "ealth8 16 From a social point of )ie", therefore, the "or+ing class, e)en "hen not directl* engaged in the labour process, is Dust as much an appendage of capital as the ordinar* instruments of labour8 E)en its indi)idual consumption is, "ithin certain limits, a mere factor in the process of production8 'hat process, ho"e)er, ta+es good care to pre)ent these self4conscious instruments from lea)ing it in the lurch, for it remo)es their product, as fast as it is made, from their pole to the opposite pole of capital8 >ndi)idual consumption pro)ides, on the one hand, the means for their maintenance and reproduction: on the other hand, it secures b* the annihilation of the necessaries of life, the continued re4appearance of the "or+man in the labour4mar+et8 'he &oman sla)e "as held b* fetters: the "age labourer is bound to his o"ner b* in)isible threads8 'he appearance of independence is +ept up b* means of a constant change of emplo*ers, and b* the fictio Duris of a contract8

:7:

5hapter 6:

>n former times, capital resorted to legislation, "hene)er necessar*, to enforce its proprietar* rights o)er the free labourer8 For instance, do"n to 1813, the emigration of mechanics emplo*ed in machine ma+ing "as, in England, forbidden, under grie)ous pains and penalties8 'he reproduction of the "or+ing class carries "ith it the accumulation of s+ill, that is handed do"n from one generation to another8 1: 'o "hat e9tent the capitalist rec+ons the e9istence of such a s+illed class among the factors of production that belong to him b* right, and to "hat e9tent he actuall* regards it as the realit* of his )ariable capital, is seen so soon as a crisis threatens him "ith its loss8 >n conseIuence of the ci)il "ar in the %nited States and of the accompan*ing cotton famine, the maDorit* of the cotton operati)es in <ancashire "ere, as is "ell +no"n, thro"n out of "or+8 /oth from the "or+ing class itself, and from other ran+s of societ*, there arose a cr* for State aid, or for )oluntar* national subscriptions, in order to enable the @superfluousA hands to emigrate to the colonies or to the %nited States8 'hereupon, /he /imes published on the 6 th $arch, 186:, a letter from Edmund #otter, a former president of the $anchester 5hamber of 5ommerce8 'his letter "as rightl* called in the -ouse of 5ommons, the manufacturers? manifesto81 Be cull here a fe" characteristic passages, in "hich the proprietar* rights of capital o)er labour4po"er are unblushingl* asserted8 @-eA (the man out of "or+! @ma* be told the suppl* of cotton4"or+ers is too large 888 and 888 must 888 in fact be reduced b* a third, perhaps, and that then there "ill be a health* demand for the remaining t"o4thirds8888 #ublic opinion888 urges emigration8888 'he master cannot "illingl* see his labour suppl* being remo)ed; he ma* thin+, and perhaps Dustl*, that it is both "rong and unsound8888 /ut if the public funds are to be de)oted to assist emigration, he bas a right to be heard, and perhaps to protest8A $r8 #otter then sho"s ho" useful the cotton trade is, ho" the @trade has undoubtedl* dra"n the surplus4population from >reland and from the agricultural districts,A ho" immense is its e9tent, ho" in the *ear 1867 it *ielded 3J1: ths of the total English e9ports, ho", after a fe" *ears, it "ill again e9pand b* the e9tension of the mar+et, particularl* of the >ndian mar+et, and b* calling forth a plentiful suppl* of cotton at 6d8 per lb8 -e then continues: @Some time 888,one, t"o, or three *ears, it ma* be, "ill produce the Iuantit*8888 'he Iuestion > "ould put then is this F >s the trade "orth retainingE >s it "orth "hile to +eep the machiner* (he means the li)ing labour machines! in order, and is it not the greatest foll* to thin+ of parting "ith thatE > thin+ it is8 > allo" that the "or+ers are not a propert*, not the propert* of <ancashire and the masters; but the* are the strength of both; the* are the mental and trained po"er "hich cannot be8 replaced for a generation; the mere machiner* "hich the* "or+ might much of it be beneficiall* replaced, na* impro)ed, in a t"el)emonth 13 Encourage or allo" (Q! the "or+ing4po"er to emigrate, and "hat of the capitalistE888 'a+e a"a* the cream of the "or+ers, and fi9ed capital "ill depreciate in a great degree, and the floating "ill not subDect itself to a struggle "ith the short suppl* of inferior labour8888 Be are told the "or+ers "ish itA (emigration!8 @;er* natural it is that the* should do so8888 &educe, compress the cotton trade b* ta+ing a"a* its "or+ing po"er and reducing their "ages e9penditure, sa* one4fifth, or fi)e millions, and "hat then "ould happen to the class abo)e, the small shop+eepers; and "hat of the rents, the cottage rents8888 'race out the effects up"ards to the small farmer, the better householder, and 888 the lando"ner, and sa* if there could be an* suggestion more suicidal to all classes of the countr* than b* enfeebling a nation b* e9porting the best of its manufacturing population, and destro*ing the )alue of some of its most

:7

5hapter 6:

producti)e capital and enrichment 8888 > ad)ise a loan (of fi)e or si9 millions sterling!, 888 e9tending it ma* be o)er t"o or three *ears, administered b* special commissioners added to the /oards of Guardians in the cotton districts, under special legislati)e regulations, enforcing some occupation or labour, as a means of +eeping up at least the moral standard of the recipients of the loan888 can an*thing be "orse for lando"ners or masters than parting "ith the best of the "or+ers, and demoralising and disappointing the rest b* an e9tended depleti)e emigration, a depletion of capital and )alue in an entire pro)inceEA #otter, the chosen mouthpiece of the manufacturers, distinguishes t"o sorts of @machiner*,A each of "hich belongs to the capitalist, and of "hich one stands in his factor*, the other at night4time and on Sunda*s is housed outside the factor*, in cottages8 'he one is inanimate, the other li)ing8 'he inanimate machiner* not onl* "ears out and depreciates from da* to da*, but a great part of it becomes so Iuic+l* superannuated, b* constant technical progress, that it can be replaced "ith ad)antage b* ne" machiner* after a fe" months8 'he li)ing machiner*, on the contrar* gets better the longer it lasts, and in proportion as the s+ill, handed from one generation to another, accumulates8 /he /imes ans"ered the cotton lord as follo"s: @$r8 Edmund #otter is so impressed "ith the e9ceptional and supreme importance of the cotton masters that, in order to preser)e this class and perpetuate their profession, he "ould +eep half a million of the labouring class confined in a great moral "or+house against their "ill8 W>s the trade "orth retainingE? as+s $r8 #otter8 W5ertainl* b* all honest means it is,? "e ans"er8 W>s it "orth "hile +eeping the machiner* in orderE? again as+s $r8 #otter8 -ere "e hesitate8 /* the Wmachiner*? $r8 #otter means the human machiner*, for he goes on to protest that he does not mean to use them as an absolute propert*8 Be must confess that "e do not thin+ it W"orth "hile,? or e)en possible, to +eep the human machiner* in order F that is to shut it up and +eep it oiled till it is "anted8 -uman machiner* "ill rust under inaction, oil and rub it as *ou ma*8 $oreo)er, the human machiner* "ill, as "e ha)e Dust seen, get the steam up of its o"n accord, and burst or run amuc+ in our great to"ns8 >t might, as $r8 #otter sa*s, reIuire some time to reproduce the "or+ers, but, ha)ing machinists and capitalists at hand, "e could al"a*s find thrift*, hard, industrious men "here"ith to impro)ise more master manufacturers than "e can e)er "ant8 $r8 #otter tal+s of the trade re)i)ing Win one, t"o, or three *ears,? and he as+s us not Wto encourage or allo" (Q! the "or+ing po"er to emigrate8?16 -e sa*s that it is )er* natural the "or+ers should "ish to emigrate; but he thin+s that in spite of their desire, the nation ought to +eep this half million of "or+ers "ith their 777,777 dependents, shut up in the cotton districts; and as a necessar* conseIuence, he must of course thin+ that the nation ought to +eep do"n their discontent b* force, and sustain them b* alms F and upon the chance that the cotton masters ma* some da* "ant them8888 'he time is come "hen the great public opinion of these islands must operate to sa)e this W"or+ing po"er? from those "ho "ould deal "ith it as the* "ould deal "ith iron, and coal, and cotton8A /he /imesC article "as onl* a Deu d?esprit8 'he @great public opinionA "as, in fact, of $r8 #otter?s opinion, that the factor* operati)es are part of the mo)able fittings of a factor*8 'heir emigration "as pre)ented8 'he* "ere loc+ed up in that @moral "or+house,A the cotton districts, and the* form, as before, @the strengthA of the cotton manufacturers of <ancashire8

:73

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5apitalist production, therefore, of itself reproduces the separation bet"een labour4po"er and the means of labour8 >t thereb* reproduces and perpetuates the condition for e9ploiting the labourer8 >t incessantl* forces him to sell his labour4po"er in order to li)e, and enables the capitalist to purchase labour4po"er in order that he ma* enrich himself8 17 >t is no longer a mere accident, that capitalist and labourer confront each other in the mar+et as bu*er and seller8 >t is the process itself that incessantl* hurls bac+ the labourer on to the mar+et as a )endor of his labour4po"er, and that incessantl* con)erts his o"n product into a means b* "hich another man can purchase him8 >n realit*, the labourer belongs to capital before he has sold himself to capital8 -is economic bondage18 is both brought about and concealed b* the periodic sale of himself, b* his change of masters, and b* the oscillations in the mar+et4price of labour4po"er8 12 5apitalist production, therefore, under its aspect of a continuous connected process, of a process of reproduction, produces not onl* commodities, not onl* surplus )alue, but it also produces and reproduces the capitalist relation; on the one side the capitalist, on the other the "age labourer8 67

(ha)ter 2-* (on4ersion of S%r)$%s 4a$%e into (a)ita$

Section 1: Capitalist Production on a Pro%ressi=el Increasin% Scale7 Transition of the (aws of Propert that Characterise Production of Commodities into (aws of Capitalist ;ppropriation
-itherto "e ha)e in)estigated ho" surplus )alue emanates from capital; "e ha)e no" to see ho" capital arises from surplus )alue8 Emplo*ing surplus )alue as capital, recon)erting it into capital, is called accumulation of capital81 First let us consider this transaction from the standpoint of the indi)idual capitalist8 Suppose a spinner to ha)e ad)anced a capital of ]17,777, of "hich four4fifths (]8,777! are laid out in cotton, machiner*, Pc8, and one4fifth (]6,777! in "ages8 <et him produce 6 7,777 lbs8 of *arn annuall*, ha)ing a )alue of ]6,7778 'he rate of surplus )alue being 177`, the surplus )alue lies in the surplus or net product of 7,777 lbs8 of *arn, one4si9th of the gross product, "ith a )alue of ]6,777 "hich "ill be realised b* a sale8 ]6,777 is ]6,7778 Be can neither see nor smell in this sum of mone* a trace of surplus )alue8 Bhen "e +no" that a gi)en )alue is surplus )alue, "e +no" ho" its o"ner came b* it; but that does not alter the nature either of )alue or of mone*8 >n order to con)ert this additional sum of ]6,777 into capital, the master4spinner "ill, all circumstances remaining as before, ad)ance four4fifths of it (]1,677! in the purchase of cotton, Pc8, and one4fifth (] 77! in the purchase of additional spinners, "ho "ill find in the mar+et the necessaries of life "hose )alue the master has ad)anced to them8 'hen the ne" capital of ]6,777 functions in the spinning mill, and brings in, in its turn, a surplus )alue of ] 778 'he capital )alue "as originall* ad)anced in the mone* form8 'he surplus )alue on the contrar* is, originall*, the )alue of a definite portion of the gross product8 >f this gross product be sold, con)erted into mone*, the capital )alue regains its original form8 From this moment the capital )alue and the surplus )alue are both of them sums of mone*, and their recon)ersion into capital ta+es place in precisel* the same "a*8 'he one, as "ell as the other, is laid out b* the capitalist in the purchase of commodities that place him in a position to begin afresh the fabrication of his goods, and this time, on an e9tended scale8 /ut in order to be able to bu* those commodities, he must find them read* in the mar+et8 -is o"n *arns circulate, onl* because he brings his annual product to mar+et, as all other capitalists li+e"ise do "ith their commodities8 /ut these commodities, before coming to mar+et, "ere part of the general annual product, part of the total mass of obDects of e)er* +ind, into "hich the sum of the indi)idual capitals, i$e8, the total capital of societ*, had been con)erted in the course of the *ear, and of "hich each capitalist had in hand onl* an aliIuot part8 'he transactions in the mar+et effectuate onl* the interchange of the indi)idual components of this annual product, transfer them from one hand to another, but can neither augment the total annual production, nor

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alter the nature of the obDects produced8 -ence the use that can be made of the total annual product, depends entirel* upon its o"n composition, but in no "a* upon circulation8 'he annual production must in the first place furnish all those obDects (use )alues! from "hich the material components of capital, used up in the course of the *ear, ha)e to be replaced8 0educting these there remains the net or surplus4product, in "hich the surplus )alue lies8 (nd of "hat does this surplus4product consistE =nl* of things destined to satisf* the "ants and desires of the capitalist class, things "hich, conseIuentl*, enter into the consumption fund of the capitalistsE Bere that the case, the cup of surplus )alue "ould be drained to the )er* dregs, and nothing but simple reproduction "ould e)er ta+e place8 'o accumulate it is necessar* to con)ert a portion of the surplus4product into capital8 /ut "e cannot, e9cept b* a miracle, con)ert into capital an*thing but such articles as can be emplo*ed in the labour process (i$e8, means of production!, and such further articles as are suitable for the sustenance of the labourer (i$e8, means of subsistence!8 5onseIuentl*, a part of the annual surplus labour must ha)e been applied to the production of additional means of production and subsistence, o)er and abo)e the Iuantit* of these things reIuired to replace the capital ad)anced8 >n one "ord, surplus )alue is con)ertible into capital solel* because the surplus4product, "hose )alue it is, alread* comprises the material elements of ne" capital8 6 Co" in order to allo" of these elements actuall* functioning as capital, the capitalist class reIuires additional labour8 >f the e9ploitation of the labourers alread* emplo*ed do not increase, either e9tensi)el* or intensi)el*, then additional labour4po"er must be found8 For this the mechanism of capitalist production pro)ides beforehand, b* con)erting the "or+ing class into a class dependent on "ages, a class "hose ordinar* "ages suffice, not onl* for its maintenance, but for its increase8 >t is onl* necessar* for capital to incorporate this additional labour4po"er, annuall* supplied b* the "or+ing class in the shape of labourers of all ages, "ith the surplus means of production comprised in the annual produce, and the con)ersion of surplus )alue into capital is complete8 From a concrete point of )ie", accumulation resol)es itself into the reproduction of capital on a progressi)el* increasing scale8 'he circle in "hich simple reproduction mo)es, alters its form, and, to use Sismondi?s e9pression, changes into a spiral8 : <et us no" return to our illustration8 >t is the old stor*: (braham begat >saac, >saac begat Lacob, and so on8 'he original capital of ]17,777 brings in a surplus )alue of ]6,777, "hich is capitalised8 'he ne" capital of ]6,777 brings in a surplus )alue of ] 77, and this, too, is capitalised, con)erted into a second additional capital, "hich, in its turn, produces a further surplus )alue of ]878 (nd so the ball rolls on8 Be here lea)e out of consideration the portion of the surplus )alue consumed b* the capitalist8 Lust as little does it concern us, for the moment, "hether the additional capital is Doined on to the original capital, or is separated from it to function independentl*; "hether the same capitalist, "ho accumulated it, emplo*s it, or "hether he hands it o)er to another8 'his onl* "e must not forget, that b* the side of the ne"l*4formed capital, the original capital continues to reproduce itself, and to produce surplus )alue, and that this is also true of all accumulated capital, and the additional capital engendered b* it8 'he original capital "as formed b* the ad)ance of ]17,7778 -o" did the o"ner become possessed of itE @/* his o"n labour and that of his forefathers,A ans"er unanimousl* the spo+esmen of #olitical Econom*8 (nd, in fact, their supposition appears the onl* one consonant "ith the la"s of the production of commodities8 /ut it is Iuite other"ise "ith regard to the additional capital of ]6,7778 -o" that originated "e +no" perfectl* "ell8 'here is not one single atom of its )alue that does not o"e its e9istence to unpaid labour8 'he means of production, "ith "hich the additional labour4po"er is incorporated,

:78

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as "ell as the necessaries "ith "hich the labourers are sustained, are nothing but component parts of the surplus4product, of the tribute annuall* e9acted from the "or+ing class b* the capitalist class8 'hough the latter "ith a portion of that tribute purchases the additional labour4po"er e)en at its full price, so that eIui)alent is e9changed for eIui)alent, *et the transaction is for all that onl* the old dodge of e)er* conIueror "ho bu*s commodities from the conIuered "ith the mone* he has robbed them of8 >f the additional capital emplo*s the person "ho produced it, this producer must not onl* continue to augment the )alue of the original capital, but must bu* bac+ the fruits of his pre)ious labour "ith more labour than the* cost8 Bhen )ie"ed as a transaction bet"een the capitalist class and the "or+ing class, it ma+es no difference that additional labourers are emplo*ed b* means of the unpaid labour of the pre)iousl* emplo*ed labourers8 'he capitalist ma* e)en con)ert the additional capital into a machine that thro"s the producers of that capital out of "or+, and that replaces them b* a fe" children8 >n e)er* case the "or+ing class creates b* the surplus labour of one *ear the capital destined to emplo* additional labour in the follo"ing *ear8 3 (nd this is "hat is called: creating capital out of capital8 'he accumulation of the first additional capital of ]6,777 presupposes a )alue of ]17,777 belonging to the capitalist b* )irtue of his @primiti)e labour,A and ad)anced b* him8 'he second additional capital of ] 77 presupposes, on the contrar*, onl* the pre)ious accumulation of the ]6,777, of "hich the ] 77 is the surplus )alue capitalised8 'he o"nership of past unpaid labour is thenceforth the sole condition for the appropriation of li)ing unpaid labour on a constantl* increasing scale8 'he more the capitalist has accumulated, the more is he able to accumulate8 >n so far as the surplus )alue, of "hich the additional capital, Co8 1, consists, is the result of the purchase of labour4po"er "ith part of the original capital, a purchase that conformed to the la"s of the e9change of commodities, and that, from a legal standpoint, presupposes nothing be*ond the free disposal, on the part of the labourer, of his o"n capacities, and on the part of the o"ner of mone* or commodities, of the )alues that belong to him; in so far as the additional capital, Co8 6, Pc8, is the mere result of Co8 1, and, therefore, a conseIuence of the abo)e conditions; in so far as each single transaction in)ariabl* conforms to the la"s of the e9change of commodities, the capitalist bu*ing labour4po"er, the labourer selling it, and "e "ill assume at its real )alue; in so far as all this is true, it is e)ident that the la"s of appropriation or of pri)ate propert*, la"s that are based on the production and circulation of commodities, become b* their o"n inner and ine9orable dialectic changed into their )er* opposite8 'he e9change of eIui)alents, the original operation "ith "hich "e started, has no" become turned round in such a "a* that there is onl* an apparent e9change8 'his is o"ing to the fact, first, that the capital "hich is e9changed for labour4 po"er is itself but a portion of the product of others? labour appropriated "ithout an eIui)alent; and, secondl*, that this capital must not onl* be replaced b* its producer, but replaced together "ith an added surplus8 'he relation of e9change subsisting bet"een capitalist and labourer becomes a mere semblance appertaining to the process of circulation, a mere form, foreign to the real nature of the transaction, and onl* m*stif*ing it8 'he e)er repeated purchase and sale of labour4po"er is no" the mere form; "hat reall* ta+es place is this F the capitalist again and again appropriates, "ithout eIui)alent, a portion of the pre)iousl* materialised labour of others, and e9changes it for a greater Iuantit* of li)ing labour8 (t first the rights of propert* seemed to us to be based on a man?s o"n labour8 (t least, some such assumption "as necessar* since onl* commodit*4o"ners "ith eIual rights confronted each other, and the sole means b* "hich a man could become possessed of the commodities of others, "as b* alienating his o"n commodities; and these could be replaced b* labour alone8 Co", ho"e)er, propert* turns out to be the right, on the part of the capitalist, to appropriate the unpaid labour of others or its product, and to be the impossibilit*, on the part of the labourer, of appropriating his o"n product8 'he separation of

:72

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propert* from labour has become the necessar* conseIuence of a la" that apparentl* originated in their identit*86 'herefore,7 ho"e)er much the capitalist mode of appropriation ma* seem to fl* in the face of the original la"s of commodit* production, it ne)ertheless arises, not from a )iolation, but, on the contrar*, from the application of these la"s8 <et us ma+e this clear once more b* briefl* re)ie"ing the consecuti)e phases of motion "hose culminating point is capitalist accumulation8 Be sa", in the first place, that the original con)ersion of a sum of )alues into capital "as achie)ed in complete accordance "ith the la"s of e9change8 =ne part* to the contract sells his labour4po"er, the other bu*s it8 'he former recei)es the )alue of his commodit*, "hose use )alue F labour F is thereb* alienated to the bu*er8 $eans of production "hich alread* belong to the latter are then transformed b* him, "ith the aid of labour eIuall* belonging to him, into a ne" product "hich is li+e"ise la"full* his8 'he )alue of this product includes: first, the )alue of the used4up means of production8 %seful labour cannot consume these means of production "ithout transferring their )alue to the ne" product, but, to be saleable, labour4po"er must be capable of suppl*ing useful labour in the branch of industr* in "hich it is to be emplo*ed8 'he )alue of the ne" product further includes: the eIui)alent of the )alue of the labour4po"er together "ith a surplus )alue8 'his is so because the )alue of the labour4po"er F sold for a definite length of time, sa* a da*, a "ee+, etc8 F is less than the )alue created b* its use during that time8 /ut the "or+er has recei)ed pa*ment for the e9change4)alue of his labour4po"er and b* so doing has alienated its use )alue F this being the case in e)er* sale and purchase8 'he fact that this particular commodit*, labour4po"er, possesses the peculiar use )alue of suppl*ing labour, and therefore of creating )alue, cannot affect the general la" of commodit* production8 >f, therefore, the magnitude of )alue ad)anced in "ages is not merel* found again in the product, but is found there augmented b* a surplus )alue, this is not because the seller has been defrauded, for he has reall* recei)ed the )alue of his commodit*; it is due solel* to the fact that this commodit* has been used up b* the bu*er8 'he la" of e9change reIuires eIualit* onl* bet"een the e9change4)alues of the commodities gi)en in e9change for one another8 From the )er* outset it presupposes e)en a difference bet"een their use )alues and it has nothing "hate)er to do "ith their consumption, "hich onl* begins after the deal is closed and e9ecuted8 'hus the original con)ersion of mone* into capital is achie)ed in the most e9act accordance "ith the economic la"s of commodit* production and "ith the right of propert* deri)ed from them8 Ce)ertheless, its result is: (1! that the product belongs to the capitalist and not to the "or+er; (6! that the )alue of this product includes, besides the )alue of the capital ad)anced, a surplus )alue "hich costs the "or+er labour but the capitalist nothing, and "hich none the less becomes the legitimate propert* of the capitalist; (:! that the "or+er has retained his labour4po"er and can sell it ane" if he can find a bu*er8 Simple reproduction is onl* the periodical repetition of this first operation; each time mone* is con)erted afresh into capital8 'hus the la" is not bro+en; on the contrar*, it is merel* enabled to operate continuousl*8 @Se)eral successi)e acts of e9change ha)e onl* made the last represent the firstA (Sismondi, @Cou)eau9 #rincipes, etc8,A p8 77!8 (nd *et "e ha)e seen that simple reproduction suffices to stamp this first operation, in so far as it is concei)ed as an isolated process, "ith a totall* changed character8 @=f those "ho share the national income among themsel)es, the one side (the "or+ers! acIuire e)er* *ear a fresh right to

:17

5hapter 6

their share b* fresh "or+; the others (the capitalists! ha)e alread* acIuired, b* "or+ done originall*, a permanent right to their shareA (Sismondi, l8 c8, pp8 117, 111!8 >t is indeed notorious that the sphere of labour is not the onl* one in "hich primogeniture "or+s miracles8 Cor does it matter if simple reproduction is replaced b* reproduction on an e9tended scale, b* accumulation8 >n the former case the capitalist sIuanders the "hole surplus )alue in dissipation, in the latter he demonstrates his bourgeois )irtue b* consuming onl* a portion of it and con)erting the rest into mone*8 'he surplus )alue is his propert*; it, has ne)er belonged to an*one else8 >f he ad)ances it for the purposes of production, the ad)ances made come from his o"n funds, e9actl* as on the da* "hen he first entered the mar+et8 'he fact that on this occasion the funds are deri)ed from the unpaid labour of his "or+ers ma+es absolutel* no difference8 >f "or+er / is paid out of the surplus )alue "hich "or+er ( produced, then, in the first place, ( furnished that surplus )alue "ithout ha)ing the Dust price of his commodit* cut b* a half4penn*, and, in the second place, the transaction is no concern of /?s "hate)er8 Bhat / claims, and has a right to claim, is that the capitalist should pa* him the )alue of his labour4po"er8 @/oth "ere still gainers: the "or+er because he "as ad)anced the fruits of his labourA (should read: of the unpaid labour of other "or+ers! @before the "or+ "as doneA (should read: before his o"n labour had borne fruit!; @the emplo*er (le maDtre5+ because the labour of this "or+er "as "orth more than his "agesA (should read: produced more )alue than the )alue of his "ages!8 (Sismondi, l8 c8, p8 1:38! 'o be sure, the matter loo+s Iuite different if "e consider capitalist production in the uninterrupted flo" of its rene"al, and if, in place of the indi)idual capitalist and the indi)idual "or+er, "e )ie" in their totalit*, the capitalist class and the "or+ing class confronting each other8 /ut in so doing "e should be appl*ing standards entirel* foreign to commodit* production8 =nl* bu*er and seller, mutuall* independent, face each other in commodit* production8 'he relations bet"een them cease on the da* "hen the term stipulated in the contract the* concluded e9pires8 >f the transaction is repeated, it is repeated as the 4result of a ne" agreement "hich has nothing to do "ith the pre)ious one and "hich onl* b* chance brings the same seller together again "ith the same bu*er8 >f, therefore, commodit* production, or one of its associated processes, is to be Dudged according to its o"n economic la"s, "e must consider each act of e9change b* itself, apart from an* conne9ion "ith the act of e9change preceding it and that follo"ing it8 (nd since sales and purchases are negotiated solel* bet"een particular indi)iduals, it is not admissible to see+ here for relations bet"een "hole social classes8 -o"e)er long a series of periodical reproductions and preceding accumulations the capital functioning toda* ma* ha)e passed through, it al"a*s preser)es its original )irginit*8 So long as the la"s of e9change are obser)ed in e)er* single act of e9change the mode of appropriation can be completel* re)olutionised "ithout in an* "a* affecting the propert* rights "hich correspond to commodit* production8 'hese same rights remain in force both at the outset, "hen the product belongs to its producer, "ho, e9changing eIui)alent for eIui)alent, can enrich himself onl* b* his o"n labour, and also in the period of capitalism, "hen social "ealth becomes to an e)er4 increasing degree the propert* of those "ho are in a position to appropriate continuall* and e)er afresh the unpaid labour of others8 'his result becomes ine)itable from the moment there is a free sale, b* the labourer himself, of labour4po"er as a commodit*8 /ut it is also onl* from then on"ards that commodit* production is generalised and becomes the t*pical form of production; it is onl* from then on"ards that, from the first, e)er* product is produced for sale and all "ealth produced goes through the sphere of circulation8 =nl* "hen and "here "age labour is its basis does commodit* production impose

:11

5hapter 6

itself upon societ* as a "hole; but onl* then and there also does it unfold all its hidden potentialities8 'o sa* that the super)ention of "age labour adulterates commodit* production is to sa* that commodit* production must not de)elop if it is to remain unadulterated8 'o the e9tent that commodit* production, in accordance "ith its o"n inherent la"s, de)elops further, into capitalist production, the propert* la"s of commodit* production change into the la"s of capitalist appropriation88 Be ha)e seen that e)en in the case of simple reproduction, all capital, "hate)er its original source, becomes con)erted into accumulated capital, capitalised surplus )alue8 /ut in the flood of production all the capital originall* ad)anced becomes a )anishing Iuantit* (ma nitudo evanescens+ in the mathematical sense!, compared "ith the directl* accumulated capital, i$e8, "ith the surplus )alue or surplus4product that is recon)erted into capital, "hether it functions in the hands of its accumulator, or in those of others8 -ence, #olitical Econom* describes capital in general as @accumulated "ealthA (con)erted surplus )alue or re)enue!, @that is emplo*ed o)er again in the production of surplus )alue,A 2 and the capitalist as @the o"ner of surplus )alue8A 17 >t is merel* another "a* of e9pressing the same thing to sa* that all e9isting capital is accumulated or capitalised interest, for interest is a mere fragment of surplus )alue8 11

Section ': )rroneous Conception5 b Political )conom 5 of .eproduction on a Pro%ressi=el Increasin% Scale
/efore "e further in)estigate accumulation or the recon)ersion of surplus )alue into capital, "e must brush on one side an ambiguit* introduced b* the classical economists8 Lust as little as the commodities that the capitalist bu*s "ith a part of the surplus )alue for his o"n consumption, ser)e the purpose of production and of creation of )alue, so little is the labour that he bu*s for the satisfaction of his natural and social reIuirements, producti)e labour8 >nstead of con)erting surplus )alue into capital, he, on the contrar*, b* the purchase of those commodities and that labour, consumes or e9pends it as re)enue8 >n the face of the habitual mode of life of the old feudal nobilit*, "hich, as -egel rightl* sa*s, @consists in consuming "hat is in hand,A and more especiall* displa*s itself in the lu9ur* of personal retainers, it "as e9tremel* important for bourgeois econom* to promulgate the doctrine that accumulation of capital is the first dut* of e)er* citi1en, and to preach "ithout ceasing, that a man cannot accumulate, if he eats up all his re)enue, instead of spending a good part of it in the acIuisition of additional producti)e labourers, "ho bring in more than the* cost8 =n the other hand the economists had to contend against the popular preDudice, that confuses capitalist production "ith hoarding, 16 and fancies that accumulated "ealth is either "ealth that is rescued from being destro*ed in its e9isting form, i$e8, from being consumed, or "ealth that is "ithdra"n from circulation8 E9clusion of mone* from circulation "ould also e9clude absolutel* its self4e9pansion as capital, "hile accumulation of a hoard in the shape of commodities "ould be sheer tomfooler*8 1: 'he accumulation of commodities in great masses is the result either of o)er4production or of a stoppage of circulation81 >t is true that the popular mind is impressed b* the sight, on the one hand, of the mass of goods that are stored up for gradual consumption b* the rich, 13 and on the other hand, b* the formation of reser)e stoc+s; the latter, a phenomenon that is common to all modes of production, and on "hich "e shall d"ell for a moment, "hen "e come to anal*se circulation8 5lassical econom* is therefore Iuite right, "hen it maintains that the consumption of surplus4 products b* producti)e, instead of b* unproducti)e labourers, is a characteristic feature of the process of accumulation8 /ut at this point the mista+es also begin8 (dam Smith has made it the

:16

5hapter 6

fashion, to represent accumulation as nothing more than consumption of surplus products b* producti)e labourers, "hich amounts to sa*ing, that the capitalising of surplus )alue consists in merel* turning surplus )alue into labour4po"er8 <et us see "hat &icardo, e$ 8, sa*s: @>t must be understood that all the productions of a countr* are consumed; but it ma+es the greatest difference imaginable "hether the* are consumed b* those "ho reproduce, or b* those "ho do not reproduce another )alue8 Bhen "e sa* that re)enue is sa)ed, and added to capital, "hat "e mean is, that the portion of re)enue, so said to be added to capital, is consumed b* producti)e instead of unproducti)e labourers8A 'here can be no greater error than in supposing that capital is increased b* non4consumption8A 16 'here can be no greater error than that "hich &icardo and all subseIuent economists repeat after (8 Smith, )i18, that @the part of re)enue, of "hich it is said, it has been added to capital, is consumed b* producti)e labourers8A (ccording to this, all surplus )alue that is changed into capital becomes )ariable capital8 So far from this being the case, the surplus )alue, li+e the original capital, di)ides itself into constant capital and )ariable capital, into means of production and labour4po"er8 <abour4po"er is the form under "hich )ariable capital e9ists during the process of production8 >n this process the labour4po"er is itself consumed b* the capitalist "hile the means of production are consumed b* the labour4po"er in the e9ercise of its function, labour8 (t the same time, the mone* paid for the purchase of the labour4po"er, is con)erted into necessaries, that are consumed, not b* @producti)e labour,A but b* the @producti)e labourer8A (dam Smith, b* a fundamentall* per)erted anal*sis, arri)es at the absurd conclusion, that e)en though each indi)idual capital is di)ided into a constant and a )ariable part, the capital of societ* resol)es itself onl* into )ariable capital, i$e$, is laid out e9clusi)el* in pa*ment of "ages8 For instance, suppose a cloth manufacturer con)erts ]6,777 into capital8 =ne portion he la*s out in bu*ing "ea)ers, the other in "oollen *arn, machiner*, Pc8 /ut the people, from "hom he bu*s the *arn and the machiner*, pa* for labour "ith a part of the purchase mone*, and so on until the "hole ]6,777 are spent in the pa*ment of "ages, i$e$, until the entire product represented b* the ]6,777 has been consumed b* producti)e labourers8 >t is e)ident that the "hole gist of this argument lies in the "ords @and so on,A "hich send us from pillar to post8 >n truth, (dam Smith brea+s his in)estigation off, Dust "here its difficulties begin817 'he annual process of reproduction is easil* understood, so long as "e +eep in )ie" merel* the sum total of the *ear?s production8 /ut e)er* single component of this product must be brought into the mar+et as a commodit*, and there the difficult* begins8 'he mo)ements of the indi)idual capitals, and of the personal re)enues, cross and intermingle and are lost in the general change of places, in the circulation of the "ealth of societ*; this da1es the sight, and propounds )er* complicated problems for solution8 >n the third part of /oo+ >>8 > shall gi)e the anal*sis of the real bearings of the facts8 >t is one of the great merits of the #h*siocrats, that in their /ableau ?conomi&ue the* "ere the first to attempt to depict the annual production in the shape in "hich it is presented to us after passing through the process of circulation8 18 For the rest, it is a matter of course, that #olitical Econom*, acting in the interests of the capitalist class, has not failed to e9ploit the doctrine of (dam8 Smith, )i18, that the "hole of that part of the surplus4product "hich is con)erted into capital, is consumed b* the "or+ing class8

:1:

5hapter 6

Section *: Separation of Surplus =alue into Capital and .e=enue7 The ;bstinence Theor
>n the last preceding chapter, "e treated surplus )alue (or the surplus4product! solel* as a fund for suppl*ing the indi)idual consumption of the capitalist8 >n this chapter "e ha)e, so far, treated it solel* as a fund for accumulation8 >t is, ho"e)er, neither the one nor the other, but is both together8 =ne portion is consumed b* the capitalist as re)enue, 12 the other is emplo*ed as capital, is accumulated8 Gi)en the mass of surplus )alue, then, the larger the one of these parts, the smaller is the other8 Caeteris paribus, the ratio of these parts determines the magnitude of the accumulation8 /ut it is b* the o"ner of the surplus )alue, b* the capitalist alone, that the di)ision is made8 >t is his deliberate act8 'hat part of the tribute e9acted b* him "hich he accumulates, is said to be sa)ed b* him, because he does not eat it, i$e$, because he performs the function of a capitalist, and enriches himself8 E9cept as personified capital, the capitalist has no historical )alue, and no right to that historical e9istence, "hich, to use an e9pression of the "itt* <ichno"s+*, @hasn?t got no date8A (nd so far onl* is the necessit* for his o"n transitor* e9istence implied in the transitor* necessit* for the capitalist mode of production8 /ut, so far as he is personified capital, it is not )alues in use and the enDo*ment of them8 but e9change4)alue and its augmentation, that spur him into action8 Fanaticall* bent on ma+ing )alue e9pand itself, he ruthlessl* forces the human race to produce for production?s sa+e; he thus forces the de)elopment of the producti)e po"ers of societ*, and creates those material conditions, "hich alone can form the real basis of a higher form of societ*, a societ* in "hich the full and free de)elopment of e)er* indi)idual forms the ruling principle8 =nl* as personified capital is the capitalist respectable8 (s such, he shares "ith the miser the passion for "ealth as "ealth8 /ut that "hich in the miser is a mere idios*ncras*, is, in the capitalist, the effect of the social mechanism, of "hich he is but one of the "heels8 $oreo)er, the de)elopment of capitalist production ma+es it constantl* necessar* to +eep increasing the amount of the capital laid out in a gi)en industrial underta+ing, and competition ma+es the immanent la"s of capitalist production to be felt b* each indi)idual capitalist, as e9ternal coerci)e la"s8 >t compels him to +eep constantl* e9tending his capital, in order to preser)e it, but e9tend it he cannot, e9cept b* means of progressi)e accumulation8 So far, therefore, as his actions are a mere function of capital F endo"ed as capital is, in his person, "ith consciousness and a "ill F his o"n pri)ate consumption is a robber* perpetrated on accumulation, Dust as in boo+4+eeping b* double entr*, the pri)ate e9penditure of the capitalist is placed on the debtor side of his account against his capital8 'o accumulate, is to conIuer the "orld of social "ealth, to increase the mass of human beings e9ploited b* him, and thus to e9tend both the direct and the indirect s"a* of the capitalist8 67 /ut original sin is at "or+ e)er*"here8 (s capitalist production, accumulation, and "ealth, become de)eloped, the capitalist ceases to be the mere incarnation of capital8 -e has a fello"4 feeling for his o"n (dam, and his education graduall* enables him to smile at the rage for asceticism, as a mere preDudice of the old4fashioned miser8 Bhile the capitalist of the classical t*pe brands indi)idual consumption as a sin against his function, and as @abstinenceA from accumulating, the modernised capitalist is capable of loo+ing upon accumulation as @abstinenceA from pleasure8 @'"o souls, alas, do d"ell "ith in his breast; 'he one is e)er parting from the other8A61

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(t the historical da"n of capitalist production, F and e)er* capitalist upstart has personall* to go through this historical stage F a)arice, and desire to get rich, are the ruling passions8 /ut the progress of capitalist production not onl* creates a "orld of delights; it la*s open, in speculation and the credit s*stem, a thousand sources of sudden enrichment8 Bhen a certain stage of de)elopment has been reached, a con)entional degree of prodigalit*, "hich is also an e9hibition of "ealth, and conseIuentl* a source of credit, becomes a business necessit* to the @unfortunateA capitalist8 <u9ur* enters into capital?s e9penses of representation8 $oreo)er, the capitalist gets rich, not li+e the miser, in proportion to his personal labour and restricted consumption, but at the same rate as he sIuee1es out the labour4po"er of others, and enforces on the labourer abstinence from all life?s enDo*ments8 (lthough, therefore, the prodigalit* of the capitalist ne)er possesses the bona fide character of the open4handed feudal lord?s prodigalit*, but, on the contrar*, has al"a*s lur+ing behind it the most sordid a)arice and the most an9ious calculation, *et his e9penditure gro"s "ith his accumulation, "ithout the one necessaril* restricting the other8 /ut along "ith this gro"th, there is at the same time de)eloped in his breast, a Faustian conflict bet"een the passion for accumulation, and the desire for enDo*ment8 0r8 (i+in sa*s in a "or+ published in 1723: @'he trade of $anchester ma* be di)ided into four periods8 First, "hen manufacturers "ere obliged to "or+ hard for their li)elihood8A 'he* enriched themsel)es chiefl* b* robbing the parents, "hose children "ere bound as apprentices to them; the parents paid a high premium, "hile the apprentices "ere star)ed8 =n the other hand, the a)erage profits "ere lo", and to accumulate, e9treme parsimon* "as reIuisite8 'he* li)ed li+e misers and "ere far from consuming e)en the interest on their capital8 @'he second period, "hen the* had begun to acIuire little fortunes, but "or+ed as hard as before,A F for direct e9ploitation of labour costs labour, as e)er* sla)e4 dri)er +no"s F @and li)ed in as plain a manner as before8888 'he third, "hen lu9ur* began, and the trade "as pushed b* sending out riders for orders into e)er* mar+et to"n in the .ingdom8888 >t is probable that fe" or no capitals of ]:,777 to ] ,777 acIuired b* trade e9isted here before 16278 -o"e)er, about that time, or a little later, the traders had got mone* beforehand, and began to build modern bric+ houses, instead of those of "ood and plaster8A E)en in the earl* part of the 18th centur*, a $anchester manufacturer, "ho placed a pint of foreign "ine before his guests, e9posed himself to the remar+s and headsha+ings of all his neighbours8 /efore the rise of machiner*, a manufacturer?s e)ening e9penditure at the public house "here the* all met, ne)er e9ceeded si9pence for a glass of punch, and a penn* for a scre" of tobacco8 >t "as not till 1738, and this mar+s an epoch, that a person actuall* engaged in business "as seen "ith an eIuipage of his o"n8 @'he fourth period,A the last :7 *ears of the 18th centur*, @is that in "hich e9pense and lu9ur* ha)e made great progress, and "as supported b* a trade e9tended b* means of riders and factors through e)er* part of Europe8A 66 Bhat "ould the good 0r8 (i+in sa* if he could rise from his gra)e and see the $anchester of toda*E (ccumulate, accumulateQ 'hat is $oses and the prophetsQ @>ndustr* furnishes the material "hich sa)ing accumulates8A6: 'herefore, sa)e, sa)e, i$e$, recon)ert the greatest possible portion of surplus )alue, or surplus4product into capitalQ (ccumulation for accumulation?s sa+e, production for production?s sa+e: b* this formula classical econom* e9pressed the historical mission of the bourgeoisie, and did not for a single instant decei)e itself o)er the birth4throes of "ealth8 6 /ut "hat a)ails lamentation in the face of historical necessit*E >f to classical econom*, the proletarian

:13

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is but a machine for the production of surplus )alue; on the other hand, the capitalist is in its e*es onl* a machine for the con)ersion of this surplus )alue into additional capital8 #olitical Econom* ta+es the historical function of the capitalist in bitter earnest8 >n order to charm out of his bosom the a"ful conflict bet"een the desire for enDo*ment and the chase after riches, $althus, about the *ear 1867, ad)ocated a di)ision of labour, "hich assigns to the capitalist actuall* engaged in production, the business of accumulating, and to the other sharers in surplus )alue, to the landlords, the place4men, the beneficed clerg*, Pc8, the business of spending8 >t is of the highest importance, he sa*s, @to +eep separate the passion for e9penditure and the passion for accumulation8A 63 'he capitalists ha)ing long been good li)ers and men of the "orld, uttered loud cries8 Bhat, e9claimed one of their spo+esmen, a disciple of &icardo, $r8 $althus preaches high rents, hea)* ta9es, Pc8, so that the pressure of the spur ma* constantl* be +ept on the industrious b* unproducti)e consumersQ /* all means, production, production on a constantl* increasing scale, runs the shibboleth; but @production "ill, b* such a process, be far more curbed in than spurred on8 Cor is it Iuite fair thus to maintain in idleness a number of persons, onl* to pinch others, "ho are li+el*, from their characters, if *ou can force them to "or+, to "or+ "ith success8A66 %nfair as he finds it to spur on the industrial capitalist, b* depri)ing his bread of its butter, *et he thin+s it necessar* to reduce the labourer?s "ages to a minimum Vto +eep him industrious8A Cor does he for a moment conceal the fact, that the appropriation of unpaid labour is the secret of surplus )alue8 @>ncreased demand on the part of the labourers means nothing more than their "illingness to ta+e less of their o"n product for themsel)es, and lea)e a greater part of it to their emplo*ers; and if it be said, that this begets glut, b* lessening consumptionA (on the part of the labourers!, @> can onl* repl* that glut is s*non*mous "ith large profits8A67 'he learned disputation, ho" the boot* pumped out of the labourer ma* be di)ided, "ith most ad)antage to accumulation, bet"een the industrial capitalist and the rich idler, "as hushed in face of the re)olution of Lul*8 Shortl* after"ards, the to"n proletariat at <*ons sounded the tocsin of re)olution, and the countr* proletariat in England began to set fire to farm4*ards and corn4stac+s8 =n this side of the 5hannel ="enism began to spread; on the other side, St8 Simonism and Fourierism8 'he hour of )ulgar econom* had struc+8 E9actl* a *ear before Cassau B8 Senior disco)ered at $anchester, that the profit (including interest! of capital is the product of the last hour of the t"el)e, he had announced to the "orld another disco)er*8 @> substitute,A he proudl* sa*s, @for the "ord capital, considered as an instrument of production, the "ord abstinence8A (n unparalleled sample this, of the disco)eries of )ulgar econom*Q >t substitutes for an economic categor*, a s*cophantic phrase F voilE tout$ Gthat?s allH @Bhen the sa)age,A sa*s Senior, @ma+es bo"s, he e9ercises an industr*, but he does not practise abstinence8A68 'his e9plains ho" and "h*, in the earlier states of societ*, the implements of labour "ere fabricated "ithout abstinence on the part of the capitalist8 @'he more societ* progresses, the more abstinence is demanded,A 62 Camel*, from those "ho pl* the industr* of appropriating the fruits of others? industr*8 (ll the conditions for carr*ing on the labour process are suddenl* con)erted into so man* acts of

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abstinence on the part of the capitalist8 >f the corn is not all eaten, but part of it also so"n F abstinence of the capitalist8 >f the "ine gets time to mature F abstinence of the capitalist :7 'he capitalist robs his o"n self, "hene)er he @lends (Q! the instruments of production to the labourer,A that is, "hene)er b* incorporating labour4po"er "ith them, he uses them to e9tract surplus )alue out of that labour4po"er, instead of eating them up, steam4engines, cotton, rail"a*s, manure, horses, and all; or as the )ulgar economist childishl* puts it, instead of dissipating @their )alueA in lu9uries and other articles of consumption8 :1 -o" the capitalists as a class are to perform that feat, is a secret that )ulgar econom* has hitherto obstinatel* refused to di)ulge8 Enough, that the "orld still Dogs on, solel* through the self4chastisement of this modern penitent of ;ishnu, the capitalist8 Cot onl* accumulation, but the simple @conser)ation of a capital reIuires a constant effort to resist the temptation of consuming it8A :6 'he simple dictates of humanit* therefore plainl* enDoin the release of the capitalist from this mart*rdom and temptation, in the same "a* that the Georgian sla)e4o"ner "as latel* deli)ered, b* the abolition of sla)er*, from the painful dilemma, "hether to sIuander the surplus4product, lashed out of his niggers, entirel* in champagne, or "hether to recon)ert a part of it into more niggers and more land8 >n economic forms of societ* of the most different +inds, there occurs, not onl* simple reproduction, but, in )ar*ing degrees, reproduction on a progressi)el* increasing scale8 /* degrees more is produced and more consumed, and conseIuentl* more products ha)e to be con)erted into means of production8 'his process, ho"e)er, does not present itself as accumulation of capital, nor as the function of a capitalist, so long as the labourer?s means of production, and "ith them, his product and means of subsistence, do not confront him in the shape of capital8:: &ichard Lones, "ho died a fe" *ears ago, and "as the successor of $althus in the chair of #olitical Econom* at -aile*bur* 5ollege, discusses this point "ell in the light of t"o important facts8 Since the great mass of the -indu population are peasants culti)ating their land themsel)es, their products, their instruments of labour and means of subsistence ne)er ta+e @the shape of a fund sa)ed from re)enue, "hich fund has, therefore, gone through a pre)ious process of accumulation8A: =n the other hand, the non4agricultural labourers in those pro)inces "here the English rule has least disturbed the old s*stem, are directl* emplo*ed b* the magnates, to "hom a portion of the agricultural surplus4product is rendered in the shape of tribute or rent8 =ne portion of this product is consumed b* the magnates in +ind, another is con)erted, for their use, b* the labourers, into articles of lu9ur* and such li+e things, "hile the rest forms the "ages of the labourers, "ho o"n their implements of labour8 -ere, production and reproduction on a progressi)el* increasing scale, go on their "a* "ithout an* inter)ention from that Iueer saint, that +night of the "oeful countenance, the capitalist @abstainer8A

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5hapter 6

Section ,: Circumstances that5 Independentl of the Proportional -i=ision of Surplus =alue into Capital and .e=enue5 -etermine the ;mount of ;ccumulation7 -e%ree of )+ploitation of (abour"Power7 Producti=it of (abour7 4rowin% -ifference in ;mount Between Capital )mplo ed and Capital Consumed7 $a%nitude of Capital ;d=anced
'he proportion in "hich surplus )alue brea+s up into capital and re)enue being gi)en, the magnitude of the capital accumulated clearl* depends on the absolute magnitude of the surplus )alue8 Suppose that 87 per cent8 "ere capitalised and 67 per cent8 eaten up, the accumulated capital "ill be ]6, 77 or ]677, according as the total surplus )alue has amounted to ]:,777 or ]3778 -ence all the circumstances that determine the mass of surplus )alue operate to determine the magnitude of the accumulation8 Be sum them up once again, but onl* in so far as the* afford ne" points of )ie" in regard to accumulation8 >t "ill be remembered that the rate of surplus )alue depends, in the first place, on the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er8 #olitical Econom* )alues this fact so highl*, that it occasionall* identifies the acceleration of accumulation due to increased producti)eness of labour, "ith its acceleration due to increased e9ploitation of the labourer8 :3 >n the chapters on the production of surplus )alue it "as constantl* presupposed that "ages are at least eIual to the )alue of labour4 po"er8 Forcible reduction of "ages belo" this )alue pla*s, ho"e)er, in practice too important a part, for us not to pause upon it for a moment8 >t, in fact, transforms, "ithin certain limits, the labourer?s necessar* consumption fund into a fund for the accumulation of capital8 @Bages,A sa*s Lohn Stuart $ill, @ha)e no producti)e po"er; the* are the price of a producti)e po"er8 Bages do not contribute, along "ith labour, to the production of commodities, no more than the price of tools contributes along "ith the tools themsel)es8 >f labour could be had "ithout purchase, "ages might be dispensed "ith8A:6 /ut if the labourers could li)e on air the* could not be bought at an* price8 'he 1ero of their cost is therefore a limit in a mathematical sense, al"a*s be*ond reach, although "e can al"a*s appro9imate more and more nearl* to it8 'he constant tendenc* of capital is to force the cost of labour bac+ to"ards this 1ero8 ( "riter of the 18th centur*, often Iuoted alread*, the author of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce,A onl* betra*s the innermost secret soul of English capitalism, "hen he declares the historic mission of England to be the forcing do"n of English "ages to the le)el of the French and the 0utch8 :7 Bith other things he sa*s nai)el*: @/ut if our poorA (technical term for labourers! @"ill li)e lu9uriousl* 888 then labour must, of course, be dear 888 Bhen it is considered "hat lu9uries the manufacturing populace consume, such as brand*, gin, tea, sugar, foreign fruit, strong beer, printed linens, snuff, tobacco, Pc8A:8 -e Iuotes the "or+ of a Corthamptonshire manufacturer, "ho, "ith e*es sIuinting hea)en"ard moans: @<abour is one4third cheaper in France than in England; for their poor "or+ hard, and fare hard, as to their food and clothing8 'heir chief diet is bread, fruit, herbs,

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5hapter 6

roots, and dried fish; for the* )er* seldom eat flesh; and "hen "heat is dear, the* eat )er* little bread8A:2 @'o "hich ma* be added,A our essa*ist goes on, @that their drin+ is either "ater or other small liIuors, so that the* spend )er* little mone*8888 'hese things are )er* difficult to be brought about; but the* are not impracticable, since the* ha)e been effected both in France and in -olland8A 7 '"ent* *ears later, an (merican humbug, the baronised Nan+ee, /enDamin 'hompson ( alias 5ount &umford! follo"ed the same line of philanthrop* to the great satisfaction of God and man8 -is @Essa*sA are a coo+er* boo+ "ith receipts of all +inds for replacing b* some succedaneum the ordinar* dear food of the labourer8 'he follo"ing is a particularl* successful receipt of this "onderful philosopher: @3 lbs8 of barle*meal, 7[d8; 3 lbs8 of >ndian corn, 6fd8; :d8 "orth of red herring, 1d8 salt, 1d8 )inegar, 6d8 pepper and s"eet herbs, in all 67e8; ma+e a soup for 6 men, and at the medium price of barle* and of >ndian corn 888 this soup ma* be pro)ided at fd8, the portion of 67 ounces8A 1 Bith the ad)ance of capitalistic production, the adulteration of food rendered 'hompson?s ideal superfluous8 6 (t the end of the 18th and during the first ten *ears of the 12th centur*, the English farmers and landlords enforced the absolute minimum of "age, b* pa*ing the agricultural labourers less than the minimum in the form of "ages, and the remainder in the shape of parochial relief8 (n e9ample of the "aggish "a* in "hich the English 0ogberries acted in their @legalA fi9ing of a "ages tariff: @'he sIuires of Corfol+ had dined, sa*s $r8 /ur+e, "hen the* fi9ed the rate of "ages; the sIuires of /er+s e)identl* thought the labourers ought not to do so, "hen the* fi9ed the rate of "ages at Speenhamland, 17238888 'here the* decide that Wincome ("ee+l*! should be :s8 for a man,? "hen the gallon or half4pec+ loaf of 8 lbs8 11 o18 is at 1s8, and increase regularl* till bread is 1s8 3d8; "hen it is abo)e that sum decrease regularl* till it be at 6s8, and then his food should be 1J3 th less8A : /efore the 5ommittee of >nIuir* of the -ouse of <ords, 181 , a certain (8 /ennett, a large farmer, magistrate, poor4la" guardian, and "age4regulator, "as as+ed: @-as an* proportion of the )alue of dail* labour been made up to the labourers out of the poors? rateEA (ns"er: @Nes, it has; the "ee+l* income of e)er* famil* is made up to the gallon loaf (8 lbs8 11 o18!, and :d8 per headQ888 'he gallon loaf per "ee+ is "hat "e suppose sufficient for the maintenance of e)er* person in the famil* for the "ee+; and the :d8 is for clothes, and if the parish thin+ proper to find clothes; the :d8 is deducted8 'his practice goes through all the "estern part of Biltshire, and, > belie)e, throughout the countr*8A @For *ears,A e9claims a bourgeois author of that time, @the* (the farmers! ha)e degraded a respectable class of their countr*men, b* forcing them to ha)e recourse to the "or+house 888 the farmer, "hile increasing his o"n gains, has pre)ented an* accumulation on the part of his labouring dependents8A 3 'he part pla*ed in our da*s b* the direct robber* from the labourer?s necessar* consumption fund in the formation of surplus )alue, and, therefore, of the accumulation fund of capital, the so4called domestic industr* has ser)ed to sho"8 (5h8 9)8, sect8 8, c8! Further facts on this subDect "ill be gi)en later8 (lthough in all branches of industr* that part of the constant capital consisting of instruments of labour must be sufficient for a certain number of labourers (determined b* the magnitude of the underta+ing!, it b* no means al"a*s necessaril* increases in the same proportion as the Iuantit*

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of labour emplo*ed8 >n a factor*, suppose that 177 labourers "or+ing 8 hours a da* *ield 877 "or+ing4hours8 >f the capitalist "ishes to raise this sum b* one half, he can emplo* 37 more "or+ers; but then he must also ad)ance more capital, not merel* for "ages, but for instruments of labour8 /ut he might also let the 177 labourers "or+ 16 hours instead of 8, and then the instruments of labour alread* to hand "ould be enough8 'hese "ould then simpl* be more rapidl* consumed8 'hus additional labour, begotten of the greater tension of labour4po"er, can augment surplus4product and surplus )alue (i8e8, the subDect4matter of accumulation!, "ithout corresponding augmentation in the constant part of capital8 >n the e9tracti)e industries, mines, Pc8, the ra" materials form no part of the capital ad)anced8 'he subDect of labour is in this case not a product of pre)ious labour, but is furnished b* Cature gratis, as in the case of metals, minerals, coal, stone, Pc8 >n these cases the constant capital consists almost e9clusi)el* of instruments of labour, "hich can )er* "ell absorb an increased Iuantit* of labour (da* and night shifts of labourers, e$ 8!8 (ll other things being eIual, the mass and )alue of the product "ill rise in direct proportion to the labour e9pended8 (s on the first da* of production,8 the original produce4formers, no" turned into the creators of the material elements of capital F man and Cature F still "or+ together8 'han+s to the elasticit* of labour4 po"er, the domain of accumulation has e9tended "ithout an* pre)ious enlargement of constant capital8 >n agriculture the land under culti)ation cannot be increased "ithout the ad)ance of more seed and manure8 /ut this ad)ance once made, the purel* mechanical "or+ing of the soil itself produces a mar)ellous effect on the amount of the product8 ( greater Iuantit* of labour, done b* the same number of labourers as before, thus increases the fertilit*, "ithout reIuiring an* ne" ad)ance in the instruments of labour8 >t is once again the direct action of man on Cature "hich becomes an immediate source of greater accumulation, "ithout the inter)ention of an* ne" capital8 Finall*, in "hat is called manufacturing industr*, e)er* additional e9penditure of labour presupposes a corresponding additional e9penditure of ra" materials, but not necessaril* of instruments of labour8 (nd as e9tracti)e industr* and agriculture suppl* manufacturing industr* "ith its ra" materials and those of its instruments of labour, the additional product the former ha)e created "ithout additional ad)ance of capital, tells also in fa)our of the latter8 General result: b* incorporating "ith itself the t"o primar* creators of "ealth, labour4po"er and the land, capital acIuires a po"er of e9pansion that permits it to augment the elements of its accumulation be*ond the limits apparentl* fi9ed b* its o"n magnitude, or b* the )alue and the mass of the means of production, alread* produced, in "hich it has its being8 (nother important factor in the accumulation of capital is the degree of producti)it* of social labour8 Bith the producti)e po"er of labour increases the mass of the products, in "hich a certain )alue, and, therefore, a surplus )alue of a gi)en magnitude, is embodied8 'he rate of surplus )alue remaining the same or e)en falling, so long as it onl* falls more slo"l*, than the producti)e po"er of labour rises, the mass of the surplus4product increases8 'he di)ision of this product into re)enue and additional capital remaining the same, the consumption of the capitalist ma*, therefore, increase "ithout an* decrease in the fund of accumulation8 'he relati)e magnitude of the accumulation fund ma* e)en increase at the e9pense of the consumption fund, "hilst the cheapening of commodities places at the disposal of the capitalist as man* means of enDo*ment as formerl*, or e)en more than formerl*8 /ut hand4in4hand "ith the increasing producti)it* of labour, goes, as "e ha)e seen, the cheapening of the labourer, therefore a higher rate of surplus )alue, e)en "hen the real "ages are rising8 'he latter ne)er rise proportionall* to the producti)e

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po"er of labour8 'he same )alue in )ariable capital therefore sets in mo)ement more labour4 po"er, and, therefore, more labour8 'he same )alue in constant capital is embodied in more means of production, i$e8, in more instruments of labour, materials of labour and au9iliar* materials; it therefore also supplies more elements for the production both of use )alue and of )alue, and "ith these more absorbers of labour8 'he )alue of the additional capital, therefore, remaining the same or e)en diminishing, accelerated accumulation still ta+es place8 Cot onl* does the scale of reproduction materiall* e9tend, but the production of surplus )alue increases more rapidl* than the )alue of the additional capital8 'he de)elopment of the producti)e po"er of labour reacts also on the original capital alread* engaged in the process of production8 ( part of the functioning constant capital consists of instruments of labour, such as machiner*, Pc8, "hich are not consumed, and therefore not reproduced, or replaced b* ne" ones of the same +ind, until after long periods of time8 /ut e)er* *ear a part of these instruments of labour perishes or reaches the limit of its producti)e function8 >t reaches, therefore, in that *ear, the time for its periodical reproduction, for its replacement b* ne" ones of the same +ind8 >f the producti)eness of labour has, during the using up of these instruments of labour, increased (and it de)elops continuall* "ith the uninterrupted ad)ance of science and technolog*!, more efficient and (considering their increased efficienc*!, cheaper machines, tools, apparatus, Pc8, replace the old8 'he old capital is reproduced in a more producti)e form, apart from the constant detail impro)ements in the instruments of labour alread* in use8 'he other part of the constant capital, ra" material and au9iliar* substances, is constantl* reproduced in less than a *ear; those produced b* agriculture, for the most part annuall*8 E)er* introduction of impro)ed methods, therefore, "or+s almost simultaneousl* on the ne" capital and on that alread* in action8 E)er* ad)ance in 5hemistr* not onl* multiplies the number of useful materials and the useful applications of those alread* +no"n, thus e9tending "ith the gro"th of capital its sphere of in)estment8 >t teaches at the same time ho" to thro" the e9crements of the processes of production and consumption bac+ again into the circle of the process of reproduction, and thus, "ithout an* pre)ious outla* of capital, creates ne" matter for capital8 <i+e the increased e9ploitation of natural "ealth b* the mere increase in the tension of labour4 po"er, science and technolog* gi)e capital a po"er of e9pansion independent of the gi)en magnitude of the capital actuall* functioning8 'he* react at the same time on that part of the original capital "hich has entered upon its stage of rene"al8 'his, in passing into its ne" shape, incorporates gratis the social ad)ance made "hile its old shape "as being used up8 =f course, this de)elopment of producti)e po"er is accompanied b* a partial depreciation of functioning capital8 So far as this depreciation ma+es itself acutel* felt in competition, the burden falls on the labourer, in the increased e9ploitation of "hom the capitalist loo+s for his indemnification8 <abour transmits to its product the )alue of the means of production consumed b* it8 =n the other hand, the )alue and mass of the means of production set in motion b* a gi)en Iuantit* of labour increase as the labour becomes more producti)e8 'hough the same Iuantit* of labour adds al"a*s to its products onl* the same sum of ne" )alue, still the old capital )alue, transmitted b* the labour to the products, increases "ith the gro"ing producti)it* of labour8 (n English and a 5hinese spinner, e8g8, ma* "or+ the same number of hours "ith the same intensit*; then the* "ill both in a "ee+ create eIual )alues8 /ut in spite of this eIualit*, an immense difference "ill obtain bet"een the )alue of the "ee+?s product of the Englishman, "ho "or+s "ith a might* automaton, and that of the 5hinaman, "ho has but a spinning4"heel8 >n the same time as the 5hinaman spins one pound of cotton, the Englishman spins se)eral hundreds of pounds8 ( sum, man* hundred times as great, of old )alues s"ells the )alue of his product, in "hich those re4appear in a ne", useful form, and can thus function ane" as capital8

:61

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@>n 1786,A as Frederic+ Engels teaches us, @all the "ool crop in England of the three preceding *ears, la* untouched for "ant of labourers, and so it must ha)e lain, if ne"l* in)ented machiner* had not come to its aid and spun it8A 6 <abour embodied in the form of machiner* of course did not directl* force into life a single man, but it made it possible for a smaller number of labourers, "ith the addition of relati)el* less li)ing labour, not onl* to consume the "ool producti)el*, and put into it ne" )alue, but to preser)e in the form of *arn, Pc8, its old )alue8 (t the same time, it caused and stimulated increased reproduction of "ool8 >t is the natural propert* of li)ing labour, to transmit old )alue, "hilst it creates ne"8 -ence, "ith the increase in efficac*, e9tent and )alue of its means of production, conseIuentl* "ith the accumulation that accompanies the de)elopment of its producti)e po"er, labour +eeps up and eternises an al"a*s increasing capital )alue in a form e)er ne"8A 7 'his natural po"er of labour ta+es the appearance of an intrinsic propert* of capital, in "hich it is incorporated, Dust as the producti)e forces of social labour ta+e the appearance of inherent properties of capital, and as the constant appropriation of surplus labour b* the capitalists, ta+es that of a constant self4e9pansion of capital8 Bith the increase of capital, the difference bet"een the capital emplo*ed and the capital consumed increases8 >n other "ords, there is increase in the )alue and the material mass of the instruments of labour, such as buildings, machiner*, drain4pipes, "or+ing4cattle, apparatus of e)er* +ind that function for a longer or shorter time in processes of production constantl* repeated, or that ser)e for the attainment of particular useful effects, "hilst the* themsel)es onl* graduall* "ear out, therefore onl* lose their )alue piecemeal, therefore transfer that )alue to the product onl* bit b* bit8 >n the same proportion as these instruments of labour ser)e as product4 formers "ithout adding )alue to the product, i$e$+ in the same proportion as the* are "holl* emplo*ed but onl* partl* consumed, the* perform, as "e sa" earlier, the same gratuitous ser)ice as the natural forces, "ater, steam, air, electricit*, etc8 'his gratuitous ser)ice of past labour, "hen sei1ed and filled "ith a soul b* li)ing labour, increases "ith the ad)ancing stages of accumulation8 Since past labour al"a*s disguises itself as capital, i$e$, since the passi)e of the labour of (, /, 5, etc8, ta+es the form of the acti)e of the non4labourer O, bourgeois and political economists are full of praises of the ser)ices of dead and gone labour, "hich, according to the Scotch genius $ac5ulloch, ought to recei)e a special remuneration in the shape of interest, profit, etc8 8 'he po"erful and e)er4increasing assistance gi)en b* past labour to the li)ing labour process under the form of means of production is, therefore, attributed to that form of past labour in "hich it is alienated, as unpaid labour, from the "or+er himself, i$e$, to its capitalistic form8 'he practical agents of capitalistic production and their pettifogging ideologists are as unable to thin+ of the means of production as separate from the antagonistic social mas+ the* "ear toda*, as a sla)e4 o"ner to thin+ of the "or+er himself as distinct from his character as a sla)e8 Bith a gi)en degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, the mass of the surplus )alue produced is determined b* the number of "or+ers simultaneousl* e9ploited; and this corresponds, although in )ar*ing proportions, "ith the magnitude of the capital8 'he more, therefore, capital increases b* means of successi)e accumulations, the more does the sum of the )alue increase that is di)ided into consumption fund and accumulation fund8 'he capitalist can, therefore, li)e a more Doll* life, and at the same time sho" more @abstinence8A (nd, finall*, all the springs of production act "ith greater elasticit*, the more its scale e9tends "ith the mass of the capital ad)anced8

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Section 8: The So"Called (abour Fund

>t has been sho"n in the course of this inIuir* that capital is not a fi9ed magnitude, but is a part of social "ealth, elastic and constantl* fluctuating "ith the di)ision of fresh surplus )alue into re)enue and additional capital8 >t has been seen further that, e)en "ith a gi)en magnitude of functioning capital, the labour4po"er, the science, and the land (b* "hich are to be understood, economicall*, all conditions of labour furnished b* Cature independentl* of man!, embodied in it, form elastic po"ers of capital, allo"ing it, "ithin certain limits, a field of action independent of its o"n magnitude8 >n this inIuir* "e ha)e neglected all effects of the process of circulation, effects "hich ma* produce )er* different degrees of efficienc* in the same mass of capital8 (nd as "e presupposed the limits set b* capitalist production, that is to sa*, presupposed the process of social production in a form de)eloped b* purel* spontaneous gro"th, "e neglected an* more rational combination, directl* and s*stematicall* practicable "ith the means of production, and the mass of labour4po"er at present disposable8 5lassical econom* al"a*s lo)ed to concei)e social capital as a fi9ed magnitude of a fi9ed degree of efficienc*8 /ut this preDudice "as first established as a dogma b* the arch4#hilistine, Lerem* /entham, that insipid, pedantic, leather4 tongued oracle of the ordinar* bourgeois intelligence of the 12th centur*8 2 /entham is among philosophers "hat $artin 'upper is among poets8 /oth could onl* ha)e been manufactured in England837 >n the light of his dogma the commonest phenomena of the process of production, as, e$ $+ its sudden e9pansions and contractions, na*, e)en accumulation itself, become perfectl* inconcei)able8 31'he dogma "as used b* /entham himself, as "ell as b* $althus, Lames $ill, $ac5ulloch, etc8, for an apologetic purpose, and especiall* in order to represent one part of capital, namel*, )ariable capital, or that part con)ertible into labour4po"er, as a fi9ed magnitude8 'he material of )ariable capital, i$e$, the mass of the means of subsistence it represents for the labourer, or the so4called labour fund, "as fabled as a separate part of social "ealth, fi9ed b* natural la"s and unchangeable8 'o set in motion the part of social "ealth "hich is to function as constant capital, or, to e9press it in a material form, as means of production, a definite mass of li)ing labour is reIuired8 'his mass is gi)en technologicall*8 /ut neither is the number of labourers reIuired to render fluid this mass of labour4po"er gi)en (it changes "ith the degree of e9ploitation of the indi)idual labour4po"er!, nor is the price of this labour4po"er gi)en, but onl* its minimum limit, "hich is moreo)er )er* )ariable8 'he facts that lie at the bottom of this dogma are these: on the one hand, the labourer has no right to interfere in the di)ision of social "ealth into means of enDo*ment for the non4labourer and means of production8 36 =n the other hand, onl* in fa)ourable and e9ceptional cases, has he the po"er to enlarge the so4called labour fund at the e9pense of the @re)enueA of the "ealth*8 Bhat sill* tautolog* results from the attempt to represent the capitalistic limits of the labour fund as its natural and social limits ma* be seen, e8g8, in #rofessor Fa"cett8 3: @'he circulating capital of a countr*,A he sa*s, @is its "age4fund8 -ence, if "e desire to calculate the a)erage mone* "ages recei)ed b* each labourer, "e ha)e simpl* to di)ide the amount of this capital b* the number of the labouring population8A 3 'hat is to sa*, "e first add together the indi)idual "ages actuall* paid, and then "e affirm that the sum thus obtained, forms the total )alue of the @labour fundA determined and )ouchsafed to us b* God and Cature8 <astl*, "e di)ide the sum thus obtained b* the number of labourers to find out again ho" much ma* come to each on the a)erage8 (n uncommonl* +no"ing dodge this8 >t did not pre)ent $r8 Fa"cett sa*ing in the same breath: @'he aggregate "ealth "hich is annuall* sa)ed in England, is di)ided into t"o portions; one portion is emplo*ed as capital to maintain our industr*, and the other portion is e9ported to

:6:

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foreign countries888 =nl* a portion, and perhaps, not a large portion of the "ealth "hich is annuall* sa)ed in this countr*, is in)ested in our o"n industr*8 33 'he greater part of the *earl* accruing surplus4product, embe11led, because abstracted "ithout return of an eIui)alent, from the English labourer, is thus used as capital, not in England, but in foreign countries8 /ut "ith the additional capital thus e9ported, a part of the @labour fundA in)ented b* God and /entham is also e9ported836

(ha)ter 2!* "he Genera$ /aw of (a)ita$ist Acc%m%$ation

Section 1: The Increased -emand for labour power that ;ccompanies ;ccumulation5 the Composition of Capital .emainin% the same
>n this chapter "e consider the influence of the gro"th of capital on the lot of the labouring class8 'he most important factor in this inIuir* is the composition of capital and the changes it undergoes in the course of the process of accumulation8 'he composition of capital is to be understood in a t"o4fold sense8 =n the side of )alue, it is determined b* the proportion in "hich it is di)ided into constant capital or )alue of the means of production, and )ariable capital or )alue of labour po"er, the sum total of "ages8 =n the side of material, as it functions in the process of production, all capital is di)ided into means of production and li)ing labour po"er8 'his latter composition is determined b* the relation bet"een the mass of the means of production emplo*ed, on the one hand, and the mass of labour necessar* for their emplo*ment on the other8 > call the former the value)composition, the latter the technical composition of capital8 /et"een the t"o there is a strict correlation8 'o e9press this, > call the )alue composition of capital, in so far as it is determined b* its technical composition and mirrors the changes of the latter, the or anic composition of capital8 Bhere)er > refer to the composition of capital, "ithout further Iualification, its organic composition is al"a*s understood8 'he man* indi)idual capitals in)ested in a particular branch of production ha)e, one "ith another, more or less different compositions8 'he a)erage of their indi)idual compositions gi)es us the composition of the total capital in this branch of production8 <astl*, the a)erage of these a)erages, in all branches of production, gi)es us the composition of the total social capital of a countr*, and "ith this alone are "e, in the last resort, concerned in the follo"ing in)estigation8 Gro"th of capital in)ol)es gro"th of its )ariable constituent or of the part in)ested in labour po"er8 ( part of the surplus )alue turned into additional capital must al"a*s be re4transformed into )ariable capital, or additional labour fund8 >f "e suppose that, all other circumstances remaining the same, the composition of capital also remains constant ( i$e8, that a definite mass of means of production constantl* needs the same mass of labour po"er to set it in motion!, then the demand for labour and the subsistence4fund of the labourers clearl* increase in the same proportion as the capital, and the more rapidl*, the more rapidl* the capital increases8 Since the capital produces *earl* a surplus )alue, of "hich one part is *earl* added to the original capital; since this increment itself gro"s *earl* along "ith the augmentation of the capital alread* functioning; since lastl*, under special stimulus to enrichment, such as the opening of ne" mar+ets, or of ne" spheres for the outla* of capital in conseIuence of ne"l* de)eloped social "ants, Pc8, the scale of accumulation ma* be suddenl* e9tended, merel* b* a change in the di)ision of the surplus )alue or surplus4product into capital and re)enue, the reIuirements of accumulating capital ma* e9ceed the increase of labour po"er or of the number of labourers; the demand for labourers ma* e9ceed the suppl*, and, therefore, "ages ma* rise8 'his must, indeed,

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ultimatel* be the case if the conditions supposed abo)e continue8 For since in each *ear more labourers are emplo*ed than in its predecessor, sooner or later a point must be reached, at "hich the reIuirements of accumulation begin to surpass the customar* suppl* of labour, and, therefore, a rise of "ages ta+es place8 ( lamentation on this score "as heard in England during the "hole of the fifteenth, and the first half of the eighteenth centuries8 'he more or less fa)ourable circumstances in "hich the "age "or+ing class supports and multiplies itself, in no "a* alter the fundamental character of capitalist production8 (s simple reproduction constantl* reproduces the capital relation itself, i$e8, the relation of capitalists on the one hand, and "age "or+ers on the other, so reproduction on a progressi)e scale, i$e8, accumulation, reproduces the capital relation on a progressi)e scale, more capitalists or larger capitalists at this pole, more "age "or+ers at that8 'he reproduction of a mass of labour po"er, "hich must incessantl* re4incorporate itself "ith capital for that capital?s self4e9pansion; "hich cannot get free from capital, and "hose ensla)ement to capital is onl* concealed b* the )ariet* of indi)idual capitalists to "hom it sells itself, this reproduction of labour po"er forms, in fact, an essential of the reproduction of capital itself8 (ccumulation of capital is, therefore, increase of the proletariat8 1 5lassical econom* grasped this fact so thoroughl* that (dam Smith, &icardo, Pc8, as mentioned earlier, inaccuratel* identified accumulation "ith the consumption, b* the producti)e labourers, of all the capitalised part of the surplus4product, or "ith its transformation into additional "age labourers8 (s earl* as 1626 Lohn /ellers sa*s: @For if one had a hundred thousand acres of land and as man* pounds in mone*, and as man* cattle, "ithout a labourer, "hat "ould the rich man be, but a labourerE (nd as the labourers ma+e men rich, so the more labourers there "ill be, the more rich men 888 the labour of the poor being the mines of the rich8A 6 So also /ernard de $ande)ille at the beginning of the eighteenth centur*: @>t "ould be easier, "here propert* is "ell secured, to li)e "ithout mone* than "ithout poor; for "ho "ould do the "or+E 888 (s the* Gthe poorH ought to be +ept from star)ing, so the* should recei)e nothing "orth sa)ing8 >f here and there one of the lo"est class b* uncommon industr*, and pinching his bell*, lifts himself abo)e the condition he "as brought up in, nobod* ought to hinder him; na*, it is undeniabl* the "isest course for e)er* person in the societ*, and for e)er* pri)ate famil* to be frugal; but it is the interest of all rich nations, that the greatest part of the poor4should almost ne)er be idle, and *et continuall* spend "hat the* get8888 'hose that get their li)ing b* their dail* labour 888 ha)e nothing to stir them up to be ser)iceable but their "ants "hich it is prudence to relie)e, but foll* to cure8 'he onl* thing then that can render the labouring man industrious, is a moderate Iuantit* of mone*, for as too little "ill, according as his temper is, either dispirit or ma+e him desperate, so too much "ill ma+e him insolent and la1*8888 From "hat has been said, it is manifest, that, in a free nation, "here sla)es are not allo"ed of, the surest "ealth consists in a multitude of laborious poor; for besides, that the* are the ne)er4failing nurser* of fleets and armies, "ithout them there could be no enDo*ment, and no product of an* countr* could be )aluable8 @'o ma+e the societ*A G"hich of course consists of non4"or+ersH @happ* and people easier under the meanest circumstances, it is reIuisite that great numbers of them should be ignorant as "ell as poor; +no"ledge both enlarges and multiplies our desires, and the fe"er things a man "ishes for, the more easil* his necessities ma* be supplied8A:

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Bhat $ande)ille, an honest, clear4headed man, had not *et seen, is that the mechanism of the process of accumulation itself increases, along "ith the capital, the mass of @labouring poor,A i$e8, the "age labourers, "ho turn their labour po"er into an increasing po"er of self4e9pansion of the gro"ing capital, and e)en b* doing so must eternise their dependent relation on their o"n product, as personified in the capitalists8 >n reference to this relation of dependence, Sir F8 $8 Eden in his @'he State of the #oor, an -istor* of the <abouring 5lasses in England,A sa*s, @the natural produce of our soil is certainl* not full* adeIuate to our subsistence; "e can neither be clothed, lodged nor fed but in conseIuence of some pre)ious labour8 ( portion at least of the societ* must be indefatigabl* emplo*ed 8888 'here are others "ho, though the* Wneither toil nor spin,? can *et command the produce of industr*, but "ho o"e their e9emption from labour solel* to ci)ilisation and order 8888 'he* are peculiarl* the creatures of ci)il institutions, "hich ha)e recognised that indi)iduals ma* acIuire propert* b* )arious other means besides the e9ertion of labour8888 #ersons of independent fortune 888 o"e their superior ad)antages b* no means to an* superior abilities of their o"n, but almost entirel* 888 to the industr* of others8 >t is not the possession of land, or of mone*, but the command of labour "hich distinguishes the opulent from the labouring part of the communit* 8888 'his Gscheme appro)ed b* EdenH "ould gi)e the people of propert* sufficient (but b* no means too much! influence and authorit* o)er those "ho 888 "or+ for them; and it "ould place such labourers, not in an abDect or ser)ile condition, but in such a state of eas* and liberal dependence as all "ho +no" human nature, and its histor*, "ill allo" to be necessar* for their o"n comfort8A3 Sir F8 $8 Eden, it ma* be remar+ed in passing, is the onl* disciple of (dam Smith during the eighteenth centur* that produced an* "or+ of importance8 6 %nder the conditions of accumulation supposed thus far, "hich conditions are those most fa)ourable to the labourers, their relation of dependence upon capital ta+es on a form endurable or, as Eden sa*s: @eas* and liberal8A >nstead of becoming more intensi)e "ith the gro"th of capital, this relation of dependence onl* becomes more e9tensi)e, i$e8, the sphere of capital?s e9ploitation and rule merel* e9tends "ith its o"n dimensions and the number of its subDects8 ( larger part of their o"n surplus4product, al"a*s increasing and continuall* transformed into additional capital, comes bac+ to them in the shape of means of pa*ment, so that the* can e9tend the circle of their enDo*ments; can ma+e some additions to their consumption4fund of clothes, furniture, Pc8, and can la* b* small reser)e funds of mone*8 /ut Dust as little as better clothing, food, and treatment, and a larger peculium, do a"a* "ith the e9ploitation of the sla)e, so little do the* set aside that of the "age "or+er8 ( rise in the price of labour, as a conseIuence of accumulation of capital, onl* means, in fact, that the length and "eight of the golden chain the "age "or+er has alread* forged for himself, allo" of a rela9ation of the tension of it8 >n the contro)ersies on this subDect the chief fact has generall* been o)erloo+ed, )i18, the differentia specifica Gdefining characteristicH of capitalistic production8 labour po"er is sold toda*, not "ith a )ie" of satisf*ing, b* its ser)ice or b* its product, the personal needs of the bu*er8 -is aim is augmentation of his capital, production of commodities containing more labour than he pa*s for, containing therefore a portion of )alue that costs him nothing, and that is ne)ertheless realised "hen the commodities are sold8 #roduction of surplus )alue is the absolute la" of this mode of production8 labour po"er is onl* saleable so far as it preser)es the means of production in their capacit* of capital, reproduces its o"n )alue as capital, and *ields in unpaid labour a source of additional capital87 'he conditions of its sale, "hether more or less fa)ourable to the labourer, include therefore the necessit* of its constant re4selling, and the constantl* e9tended reproduction

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of all "ealth in the shape of capital8 Bages, as "e ha)e seen, b* their )er* nature, al"a*s impl* the performance of a certain Iuantit* of unpaid labour on the part of the labourer8 (ltogether, irrespecti)e of the case of a rise of "ages "ith a falling price of labour, Pc8, such an increase onl* means at best a Iuantitati)e diminution of the unpaid labour that the "or+er has to suppl*8 'his diminution can ne)er reach the point at "hich it "ould threaten the s*stem itself8 (part from )iolent conflicts as to the rate of "ages (and (dam Smith has alread* sho"n that in such a conflict, ta+en on the "hole, the master is al"a*s master!, a rise in the price of labour resulting from accumulation of capital implies the follo"ing alternati)e: Either the price of labour +eeps on rising, because its rise does not interfere "ith the progress of accumulation8 >n this there is nothing "onderful, for, sa*s (dam Smith, @after these (profits! are diminished, stoc+ ma* not onl* continue to increase, but to increase much faster than before8888 ( great stoc+, though "ith small profits, generall* increases faster than a small stoc+ "ith great profits8A (l8 c8, ii, p8 1828! >n this case it is e)ident that a diminution in the unpaid labour in no "a* interferes "ith the e9tension of the domain of capital8 F =r, on the other hand, accumulation slac+ens in conseIuence of the rise in the price of labour, because the stimulus of gain is blunted8 'he rate of accumulation lessens; but "ith its lessening, the primar* cause of that lessening )anishes, i$e8, the disproportion bet"een capital and e9ploitable labour po"er8 'he mechanism of the process of capitalist production remo)es the )er* obstacles that it temporaril* creates8 'he price of labour falls again to a le)el corresponding "ith the needs of the self4e9pansion of capital, "hether the le)el be belo", the same as, or abo)e the one "hich "as normal before the rise of "ages too+ place8 Be see thus: >n the first case, it is not the diminished rate either of the absolute, or of the proportional, increase in labour po"er, or labouring population, "hich causes capital to be in e9cess, but con)ersel* the e9cess of capital that ma+es e9ploitable labour po"er insufficient8 >n the second case, it is not the increased rate either of the absolute, or of the proportional, increase in labour po"er, or labouring population, that ma+es capital insufficient; but, con)ersel*, the relati)e diminution of capital that causes the e9ploitable labour po"er, or rather its price, to be in e9cess8 >t is these absolute mo)ements of the accumulation of capital "hich are reflected as relati)e mo)ements of the mass of e9ploitable labour po"er, and therefore seem produced b* the latter?s o"n independent mo)ement8 'o put it mathematicall*: the rate of accumulation is the independent, not the dependent, )ariable; the rate of "ages, the dependent, not the independent, )ariable8 'hus, "hen the industrial c*cle is in the phase of crisis, a general fall in the price of commodities is e9pressed as a rise in the )alue of mone*, and, in the phase of prosperit*, a general rise in the price of commodities, as a fall in the )alue of mone*8 'he so4 called currenc* school concludes from this that "ith high prices too much, "ith lo" prices too little8 mone* is in circulation8 'heir ignorance and complete misunderstanding of facts 2 are "orthil* paralleled b* the economists, "ho interpret the abo)e phenomena of accumulation b* sa*ing that there are no" too fe", no" too man* "age labourers8 'he la" of capitalist production, that is at the bottom of the pretended @natural la" of population,A reduces itself simpl* to this: 'he correlation bet"een accumulation of capital and rate of "ages is nothing else than the correlation bet"een the unpaid labour transformed into capital, and the additional paid labour necessar* for the setting in motion of this additional capital8 >t is therefore in no "a* a relation bet"een t"o magnitudes, independent one of the other: on the one hand, the magnitude of the capital; on the other, the number of the labouring population; it is rather, at bottom, onl* the relation bet"een the unpaid and the paid labour of the same labouring population8 >f the Iuantit* of unpaid labour supplied b* the "or+ing class, and accumulated b* the capitalist class, increases so rapidl* that its con)ersion into capital reIuires an e9traordinar* addition of paid labour, then "ages rise, and, all other circumstances remaining eIual, the unpaid labour diminishes in proportion8 /ut as soon as this diminution touches the

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point at "hich the surplus labour that nourishes capital is no longer supplied in normal Iuantit*, a reaction sets in: a smaller part of re)enue is capitalised, accumulation lags, and the mo)ement of rise in "ages recei)es a chec+8 'he rise of "ages therefore is confined "ithin limits that not onl* lea)e intact the foundations of the capitalistic s*stem, but also secure its reproduction on a progressi)e scale8 'he la" of capitalistic accumulation, metamorphosed b* economists into pretended la" of Cature, in realit* merel* states that the )er* nature of accumulation e9cludes e)er* diminution in the degree of e9ploitation of labour, and e)er* rise in the price of labour, "hich could seriousl* imperil the continual reproduction, on an e)er4enlarging scale, of the capitalistic relation8 >t cannot be other"ise in a mode of production in "hich the labourer e9ists to satisf* the needs of self4e9pansion of e9isting )alues, instead of, on the contrar*, material "ealth e9isting to satisf* the needs of de)elopment on the part of the labourer8 (s, in religion, man is go)erned b* the products of his o"n brain, so in capitalistic production, he is go)erned b* the products of his o"n hand817

Section ': .elati=e -iminution of the Variable Part of Capital Simultaneousl with the Pro%ress of ;ccumulation and of the Concentration that ;ccompanies it
(ccording to the economists themsel)es, it is neither the actual e9tent of social "ealth, nor the magnitude of the capital alread* functioning, that lead to a rise of "ages, but onl* the constant gro"th of accumulation and the degree of rapidit* of that gro"th8 ((dam Smith, /oo+ >8, chapter 88! So far, "e ha)e onl* considered one special phase of this process, that in "hich the increase of capital occurs along "ith a constant technical composition of capital8 /ut the process goes be*ond this phase8 =nce gi)en the general basis of the capitalistic s*stem, then, in the course of accumulation, a point is reached at "hich the de)elopment of the producti)it* of social labour becomes the most po"erful le)er of accumulation8 @'he same cause,A sa*s (dam Smith, @"hich raises the "ages of labour, the increase of stoc+, tends to increase its producti)e po"ers, and to ma+e a smaller Iuantit* of labour produce a greater Iuantit* of "or+8A 11 (part from natural conditions, such as fertilit* of the soil, Pc8, and from the s+ill of independent and isolated producers (sho"n rather Iualitati)el* in the goodness than Iuantitati)el* in the mass of their products!, the degree of producti)it* of labour, in a gi)en societ*, is e9pressed in the relati)e e9tent of the means of production that one labourer, during a gi)en time, "ith the same tension of labour po"er, turns into products8 'he mass of the means of production "hich he thus transforms, increases "ith the producti)eness of his labour8 /ut those means of production pla* a double part8 'he increase of some is a conseIuence, that of the others a condition of the increasing producti)it* of labour8 E$ $+ "ith the di)ision of labour in manufacture, and "ith the use of machiner*, more ra" material is "or+ed up in the same time, and, therefore, a greater mass of ra" material and au9iliar* substances enter into the labour process8 'hat is the conseIuence of the increasing producti)it* of labour8 =n the other hand, the mass of machiner*, beasts of burden, mineral manures, drain4pipes, Pc8, is a condition of the increasing producti)it* of labour8 So also is it "ith the means of production concentrated in buildings, furnaces, means of transport, Pc8 /ut "hether condition or conseIuence, the gro"ing e9tent of the means of production, as compared "ith the labour po"er incorporated "ith them, is an e9pression of the gro"ing producti)eness of labour8 'he increase of the latter appears, therefore, in the diminution of the

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mass of labour in proportion to the mass of means of production mo)ed b* it, or in the diminution of the subDecti)e factor of the labour process as compared "ith the obDecti)e factor8 'his change in the technical composition of capital, this gro"th in the mass of means of production, as compared "ith the mass of the labour po"er that )i)ifies them, is reflected again in its )alue composition, b* the increase of the constant constituent of capital at the e9pense of its )ariable constituent8 'here ma* be, e$ $+ originall* 37 per cent8 of a capital laid out in means of production, and 37 per cent8 in labour po"er; later on, "ith the de)elopment of the producti)it* of labour, 87 per cent8 in means of production, 67 per cent8 in labour po"er, and so on8 'his la" of the progressi)e increase in constant capital, in proportion to the )ariable, is confirmed at e)er* step (as alread* sho"n! b* the comparati)e anal*sis of the prices of commodities, "hether "e compare different economic epochs or different nations in the same epoch8 'he relati)e magnitude of the element of price, "hich represents the )alue of the means of production onl*, or the constant part of capital consumed, is in direct, the relati)e magnitude of the other element of price that pa*s labour (the )ariable part of capital! is in in)erse proportion to the ad)ance of accumulation8 'his diminution in the )ariable part of capital as compared "ith the constant, or the altered )alue4 composition of the capital, ho"e)er, onl* sho"s appro9imatel* the change in the composition of its material constituents8 >f, e$ $+ the capital4)alue emplo*ed toda* in spinning is 7J8 constant and 1J8 )ariable, "hilst at the beginning of the 18th centur* it "as [ constant and [ )ariable, on the other hand, the mass of ra" material, instruments of labour, Pc8, that a certain Iuantit* of spinning labour consumes producti)el* toda*, is man* hundred times greater than at the beginning of the 18th centur*8 'he reason is simpl* that, "ith the increasing producti)it* of labour, not onl* does the mass of the means of production consumed b* it increase, but their )alue compared "ith their mass diminishes8 'heir )alue therefore rises absolutel*, but not in proportion to their mass8 'he increase of the difference bet"een constant and )ariable capital, is, therefore, much less than that of the difference bet"een the mass of the means of production into "hich the constant, and the mass of the labour po"er into "hich the )ariable, capital is con)erted8 'he former difference increases "ith the latter, but in a smaller degree8 /ut, if the progress of accumulation lessens the relati)e magnitude of the )ariable part of capital, it b* no means, in doing this, e9cludes the possibilit* of a rise in its absolute magnitude8 Suppose that a capital4)alue at first is di)ided into 37 per cent8 of constant and 37 per cent8 of )ariable capital; later into 87 per cent8 of constant and 67 per cent8 of )ariable8 >f in the meantime the original capital, sa* ]6,777, has increased to ]18,777, its )ariable constituent has also increased8 >t "as ]:,777, it is no" ]:,6778 /ut "here as formerl* an increase of capital b* 67 per cent8 "ould ha)e sufficed to raise the demand for labour 67 per cent8, no" this latter rise reIuires a tripling of the original capital8 >n #art >;, it "as sho"n, ho" the de)elopment of the producti)eness of social labour presupposes co4operation on a large scale; ho" it is onl* upon this supposition that di)ision and combination of labour can be organised, and the means of production economised b* concentration on a )ast scale; ho" instruments of labour "hich, from their )er* nature, are onl* fit for use in common, such as a s*stem of machiner*, can be called into being; ho" huge natural forces can be pressed into the ser)ice of production; and ho" the transformation can be effected of the process of production into a technological application of science8 =n the basis of the production of commodities, "here the means of production are the propert* of pri)ate persons, and "here the artisan therefore either produces commodities, isolated from and independent of others, or sells his labour po"er as a commodit*, because he lac+s the means for independent industr*, co4 operation on a large scale can realise itself onl* in the increase of indi)idual capitals, onl* in

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proportion as the 4means of social production and the means of subsistence are transformed into the pri)ate propert* of capitalists8 'he basis of the production of commodities can admit of production on a large scale in the capitalistic form alone8 ( certain accumulation of capital, in the hands of indi)idual producers of commodities, forms therefore the necessar* preliminar* of the specificall* capitalistic mode of production8 Be had, therefore, to assume that this occurs during the transition from handicraft to capitalistic industr*8 >t ma* be called primiti)e accumulation, because it is the historic basis, instead of the historic result of specificall* capitalist production8 -o" it itself originates, "e need not here inIuire as *et8 >t is enough that it forms the starting point8 /ut all methods for raising the social producti)e po"er of labour that are de)eloped on this basis, are at the same time methods for the increased production of surplus )alue or surplus4 product, "hich in its turn is the formati)e element of accumulation8 'he* are, therefore, at the same time methods of the production of capital b* capital, or methods of its accelerated accumulation8 'he continual re4transformation of surplus )alue into capital no" appears in the shape of the increasing magnitude of the capital that enters into the process of production8 'his in turn is the basis of an e9tended scale of production, of the methods for raising the producti)e po"er of labour that accompan* it, and of accelerated production of surplus )alue8 >f, therefore, a certain degree of accumulation of capital appears as a condition of the specificall* capitalist mode of production, the latter causes con)ersel* an accelerated accumulation of capital8 Bith the accumulation of capital, therefore, the specificall* capitalistic mode of production de)elops, and "ith the capitalist mode of production the accumulation of capital8 /oth these economic factors bring about, in the compound ratio of the impulses the* reciprocall* gi)e one another, that change in the technical composition of capital b* "hich the )ariable constituent becomes al"a*s smaller and smaller as compared "ith the constant8 E)er* indi)idual capital is a larger or smaller concentration of means of production, "ith a corresponding command o)er a larger or smaller labour4arm*8 E)er* accumulation becomes the means of ne" accumulation8 Bith the increasing mass of "ealth "hich functions as capital, accumulation increases the concentration of that "ealth in the hands of indi)idual capitalists, and thereb* "idens the basis of production on a large scale and of the specific methods of capitalist production8 'he gro"th of social capital is effected b* the gro"th of man* indi)idual capitals8 (ll other circumstances remaining the same, indi)idual capitals, and "ith them the concentration of the means of production, increase in such proportion as the* form aliIuot parts of the total social capital8 (t the same time portions of the original capitals disengage themsel)es and function as ne" independent capitals8 /esides other causes, the di)ision of propert*, "ithin capitalist families, pla*s a great part in this8 Bith the accumulation of capital, therefore, the number of capitalists gro"s to a greater or less e9tent8 '"o points characterise this +ind of concentration "hich gro"s directl* out of, or rather is identical "ith, accumulation8 First: 'he increasing concentration of the social means of production in the hands of indi)idual capitalists is, other things remaining eIual, limited b* the degree of increase of social "ealth8 Second: 'he part of social capital domiciled in each particular sphere of production is di)ided among man* capitalists "ho face one another as independent commodit*4producers competing "ith each other8 (ccumulation and the concentration accompan*ing it are, therefore, not onl* scattered o)er man* points, but the increase of each functioning capital is th"arted b* the formation of ne" and the sub4di)ision of old capitals8 (ccumulation, therefore, presents itself on the one hand as increasing concentration of the means of production, and of the command o)er labour; on the other, as repulsion of man* indi)idual capitals one from another8 'his splitting4up of the total social capital into man* indi)idual capitals or the repulsion of its fractions one from another, is counteracted b* their attraction8 'his last does not mean that simple concentration of the means of production and of the command o)er labour, "hich is identical

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"ith accumulation8 >t is concentration of capitals alread* formed, destruction of their indi)idual independence, e9propriation of capitalist b* capitalist, transformation of man* small into fe" large capitals8 'his process differs from the former in this, that it onl* presupposes a change in the distribution of capital alread* to hand, and functioning; its field of action is therefore not limited b* the absolute gro"th of social "ealth, b* the absolute limits of accumulation8 5apital gro"s in one place to a huge mass in a single hand, because it has in another place been lost b* man*8 'his is centralisation proper, as distinct from accumulation and concentration8 'he la"s of this centralisation of capitals, or of the attraction of capital b* capital, cannot be de)eloped here8 ( brief hint at a fe" facts must suffice8 'he battle of competition is fought b* cheapening of commodities8 'he cheapness of commodities demands, caeteris paribus+ on the producti)eness of labour, and this again on the scale of production8 'herefore, the larger capitals beat the smaller8 >t "ill further be remembered that, "ith the de)elopment of the capitalist mode of production, there is an increase in the minimum amount of indi)idual capital necessar* to carr* on a business under its normal conditions8 'he smaller capitals, therefore, cro"d into spheres of production "hich $odern >ndustr* has onl* sporadicall* or incompletel* got hold of8 -ere competition rages in direct proportion to the number, and in in)erse proportion to the magnitudes, of the antagonistic capitals8 >t al"a*s ends in the ruin of man* small capitalists, "hose capitals partl* pass into the hands of their conIuerors, partl* )anish8 (part from this, "ith capitalist production an altogether ne" force comes into pla* F the credit s*stem, "hich in its first stages furti)el* creeps in as the humble assistant of accumulation, dra"ing into the hands of indi)idual or associated capitalists, b* in)isible threads, the mone* resources "hich lie scattered, o)er the surface of societ*, in larger or smaller amounts; but it soon becomes a ne" and terrible "eapon in the battle of competition and is finall* transformed into an enormous social mechanism for the centralisation of capitals8 5ommensuratel* "ith the de)elopment of capitalist production and accumulation there de)elop the t"o most po"erful le)ers of centralisation F competition and credit8 (t the same time the progress of accumulation increases the material amenable to centralisation, i$e8, the indi)idual capitals, "hilst the e9pansion of capitalist production creates, on the one hand, the social "ant, and, on the other, the technical means necessar* for those immense industrial underta+ings "hich reIuire a pre)ious centralisation of capital for their accomplishment8 toda*, therefore, the force of attraction, dra"ing together indi)idual capitals, and the tendenc* to centralisation are stronger than e)er before8 /ut if the relati)e e9tension and energ* of the mo)ement to"ards centralisation is determined, in a certain degree, b* the magnitude of capitalist "ealth and superiorit* of economic mechanism alread* attained, progress in centralisation does not in an* "a* depend upon a positi)e gro"th in the magnitude of social capital8 (nd this is the specific difference bet"een centralisation and concentration, the latter being onl* another name for reproduction on an e9tended scale8 5entralisation ma* result from a mere change in the distribution of capitals alread* e9isting, from a simple alteration in the Iuantitati)e grouping of the component parts of social capital8 -ere capital can gro" into po"erful masses in a single hand because there it has been "ithdra"n from man* indi)idual hands8 >n an* gi)en branch of industr* centralisation "ould reach its e9treme limit if all the indi)idual capitals in)ested in it "ere fused into a single capital816 >n a gi)en societ* the limit "ould be reached onl* "hen the entire social capital "as united in the hands of either a single capitalist or a single capitalist compan*8 5entralisation completes the "or+ of accumulation b* enabling industrial capitalists to e9tend the scale of their operations8 Bhether this latter result is the conseIuence of accumulation or centralisation, "hether centralisation is accomplished b* the )iolent method of anne9ation F "hen certain capitals become such preponderant centres of attraction for others that the* shatter the indi)idual cohesion of the latter and then dra" the separate fragments to themsel)es F or

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"hether the fusion of a number of capitals alread* formed or in process of formation ta+es place b* the smoother process of organising Doint4stoc+ companies F the economic effect remains the same8 E)er*"here the increased scale of industrial establishments is the starting point for a more comprehensi)e organisation of the collecti)e "or+ of man*, for a "ider de)elopment of their material moti)e forces F in other "ords, for the progressi)e transformation of isolated processes of production, carried on b* customar* methods, into processes of production sociall* combined and scientificall* arranged8 /ut accumulation, the gradual increase of capital b* reproduction as it passes from the circular to the spiral form, is clearl* a )er* slo" procedure compared "ith centralisation, "hich has onl* to change the Iuantitati)e groupings of the constituent parts of social capital8 'he "orld "ould still be "ithout rail"a*s if it had had to "ait until accumulation had got a fe" indi)idual capitals far enough to be adeIuate for the construction of a rail"a*8 5entralisation, on the contrar*, accomplished this in the t"in+ling of an e*e, b* means of Doint4stoc+ companies8 (nd "hilst centralisation thus intensifies and accelerates the effects of accumulation, it simultaneousl* e9tends and speeds those re)olutions in the technical composition of capital "hich raise its constant portion at the e9pense of its )ariable portion, thus diminishing the relati)e demand for labour8 'he masses of capital fused together o)ernight b* centralisation reproduce and multipl* as the others do, onl* more rapidl*, thereb* becoming ne" and po"erful le)ers in social accumulation8 'herefore, "hen "e spea+ of the progress of social accumulation "e tacitl* include F toda* F the effects of centralisation8 'he additional capitals formed in the normal course of accumulation (see 5hapter OO>;, Section 1! ser)e particularl* as )ehicles for the e9ploitation of ne" in)entions and disco)eries, and industrial impro)ements in general8 /ut in time the old capital also reaches the moment of rene"al from top to toe, "hen it sheds its s+in and is reborn li+e the others in a perfected technical form, in "hich a smaller Iuantit* of labour "ill suffice to set in motion a larger Iuantit* of machiner* and ra" materials8 'he absolute reduction in the demand for labour "hich necessaril* follo"s from this is ob)iousl* so much the greater the higher the degree in "hich the capitals undergoing this process of rene"al are alread* massed together b* )irtue of the centralisation mo)ement8 =n the one hand, therefore, the additional capital formed in the course of accumulation attracts fe"er and fe"er labourers in proportion to its magnitude8 =n the other hand, the old capital periodicall* reproduced "ith change of composition, repels more and more of the labourers formerl* emplo*ed b* it8

Section *: Pro%ressi=e Production of a .elati=e surplus population or Industrial .eser=e ;rm

'he accumulation of capital, though originall* appearing as its Iuantitati)e e9tension onl*, is effected, as "e ha)e seen, under a progressi)e Iualitati)e change in its composition, under a constant increase of its constant, at the e9pense of its )ariable constituent8 1: 'he specificall* capitalist mode of production, the de)elopment of the producti)e po"er of labour corresponding to it, and the change thence resulting in the organic composition of capital, do not merel* +eep pace "ith the ad)ance of accumulation, or "ith the gro"th of social "ealth8 'he* de)elop at a much Iuic+er rate, because mere accumulation, the absolute increase of the total social capital, is accompanied b* the centralisation of the indi)idual capitals of "hich that

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total is made up; and because the change in the technological composition of the additional capital goes hand in hand "ith a similar change in the technological composition of the original capital8 Bith the ad)ance of accumulation, therefore, the proportion of constant to )ariable capital changes8 >f it "as originall* sa* 1:1, it no" becomes successi)el* 6:1, ::1, :1, 3:1, 7:1, Pc8, so that, as the capital increases, instead of [ of its total )alue, onl* 1J:, 1J , 1J3, 1J6, 1J8, Pc8, is transformed into labour4po"er, and, on the other hand, 6J:, :J , J3, 3J6, 7J8 into means of production8 Since the demand for labour is determined not b* the amount of capital as a "hole, but b* its )ariable constituent alone, that demand falls progressi)el* "ith the increase of the total capital, instead of, as pre)iousl* assumed, rising in proportion to it8 >t falls relati)el* to the magnitude of the total capital, and at an accelerated rate, as this magnitude increases8 Bith the gro"th of the total capital, its )ariable constituent or the labour incorporated in it, also does increase, but in a constantl* diminishing proportion8 'he intermediate pauses are shortened, in "hich accumulation "or+s as simple e9tension of production, on a gi)en technical basis8 >t is not merel* that an accelerated accumulation of total capital, accelerated in a constantl* gro"ing progression, is needed to absorb an additional number of labourers, or e)en, on account of the constant metamorphosis of old capital, to +eep emplo*ed those alread* functioning8 >n its turn, this increasing accumulation and centralisation becomes a source of ne" changes in the composition of capital, of a more accelerated diminution of its )ariable, as compared "ith its constant constituent8 'his accelerated relati)e diminution of the )ariable constituent, that goes along "ith the accelerated increase of the total capital, and mo)es more rapidl* than this increase, ta+es the in)erse form, at the other pole, of an apparentl* absolute increase of the labouring population, an increase al"a*s mo)ing more rapidl* than that of the )ariable capital or the means of emplo*ment8 /ut in fact, it is capitalistic accumulation itself that constantl* produces, and produces in the direct ratio of its o"n energ* and e9tent, a relati)it* redundant population of labourers, i$e8, a population of greater e9tent than suffices for the a)erage needs of the self4 e9pansion of capital, and therefore a surplus population8 5onsidering the social capital in its totalit*, the mo)ement of its accumulation no" causes periodical changes, affecting it more or less as a "hole, no" distributes its )arious phases simultaneousl* o)er the different spheres of production8 >n some spheres a change in the composition of capital occurs "ithout increase of its absolute magnitude, as a conseIuence of simple centralisation; in others the absolute gro"th of capital is connected "ith absolute diminution of its )ariable constituent, or of the labour po"er absorbed b* it; in others again, capital continues gro"ing for a time on its gi)en technical basis, and attracts additional labour po"er in proportion to its increase, "hile at other times it undergoes organic change, and lessens its )ariable constituent; in all spheres, the increase of the )ariable part of capital, and therefore of the number of labourers emplo*ed b* it, is al"a*s connected "ith )iolent fluctuations and transitor* production of surplus population, "hether this ta+es the more stri+ing form of the repulsion of labourers alread* emplo*ed, or the less e)ident but not less real form of the more difficult absorption of the additional labouring population through the usual channels8 1 Bith the magnitude of social capital alread* functioning, and the degree of its increase, "ith the e9tension of the scale of production, and the mass of the labourers set in motion, "ith the de)elopment of the producti)eness of their labour, "ith the greater breadth and fulness of all sources of "ealth, there is also an e9tension of the scale on "hich greater attraction of labourers b* capital is accompanied b* their greater repulsion; the rapidit* of the change in the organic composition of capital, and in its technical form increases, and an increasing number of spheres of production becomes in)ol)ed in this change, no" simultaneousl*, no" alternatel*8 'he labouring population therefore produces, along "ith the accumulation of capital produced b* it, the means b* "hich it itself is made relati)el* superfluous, is turned into a relati)e surplus population; and it does this to

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an al"a*s increasing e9tent813 'his is a la" of population peculiar to the capitalist mode of production; and in fact e)er* special historic mode of production has its o"n special la"s of population, historicall* )alid "ithin its limits and onl* in so far as man has not interfered "ith them8 /ut if a surplus labouring population is a necessar* product of accumulation or of the de)elopment of "ealth on a capitalist basis, this surplus population becomes, con)ersel*, the le)er of capitalistic accumulation, na*, a condition of e9istence of the capitalist mode of production8 >t forms a disposable industrial reser)e arm*, that belongs to capital Iuite as absolutel* as if the latter had bred it at its o"n cost8 >ndependentl* of the limits of the actual increase of population, it creates, for the changing needs of the self4e9pansion of capital, a mass of human material al"a*s read* for e9ploitation8 Bith accumulation, and the de)elopment of the producti)eness of labour that accompanies it, the po"er of sudden e9pansion of capital gro"s also; it gro"s, not merel* because the elasticit* of the capital alread* functioning increases, not merel* because the absolute "ealth of societ* e9pands, of "hich capital onl* forms an elastic part, not merel* because credit, under e)er* special stimulus, at once places an unusual part of this "ealth at the disposal of production in the form of additional capital; it gro"s, also, because the technical conditions of the process of production themsel)es F machiner*, means of transport, Pc8 F no" admit of the rapidest transformation of masses of surplus4product into additional means of production8 'he mass of social "ealth, o)erflo"ing "ith the ad)ance of accumulation, and transformable into additional capital, thrusts itself franticall* into old branches of production, "hose mar+et suddenl* e9pands, or into ne"l* formed branches, such as rail"a*s, Pc8, the need for "hich gro"s out of the de)elopment of the old ones8 >n all such cases, there must be the possibilit* of thro"ing great masses of men suddenl* on the decisi)e points "ithout inDur* to the scale of production in other spheres8 =)erpopulation supplies these masses8 'he course characteristic of modern industr*, viF8, a decennial c*cle (interrupted b* smaller oscillations!, of periods of a)erage acti)it*, production at high pressure, crisis and stagnation, depends on the constant formation, the greater or less absorption, and the re4formation of the industrial reser)e arm* or surplus population8 >n their turn, the )ar*ing phases of the industrial c*cle recruit the surplus population, and become one of the most energetic agents of its reproduction8 'his peculiar course of modern industr*, "hich occurs in no earlier period of human histor*, "as also impossible in the childhood of capitalist production8 'he composition of capital changed but )er* slo"l*8 Bith its accumulation, therefore, there +ept pace, on the "hole, a corresponding gro"th in the demand for labour8 Slo" as "as the ad)ance of accumulation compared "ith that of more modern times, it found a chec+ in the natural limits of the e9ploitable labouring population, limits "hich could onl* be got rid of b* forcible means to be mentioned later8 'he e9pansion b* fits and starts of the scale of production is the preliminar* to its eIuall* sudden contraction; the latter again e)o+es the former, but the former is impossible "ithout disposable human material, "ithout an increase, in the number of labourers independentl* of the absolute gro"th of the population8 'his increase is effected b* the simple process that constantl* @sets freeA a part of the labourers; b* methods "hich lessen the number of labourers emplo*ed in proportion to the increased production8 'he "hole form of the mo)ement of modern industr* depends, therefore, upon the constant transformation of a part of the labouring population into unemplo*ed or half4emplo*ed hands8 'he superficialit* of #olitical Econom* sho"s itself in the fact that it loo+s upon the e9pansion and contraction of credit, "hich is a mere s*mptom of the periodic changes of the industrial c*cle, as their cause8 (s the hea)enl* bodies, once thro"n into a certain definite motion, al"a*s repeat this, so is it "ith social production as soon as it is once thro"n into this mo)ement of alternate e9pansion and contraction8 Effects, in their turn, become causes, and the )ar*ing accidents of the "hole process, "hich al"a*s reproduces its o"n conditions, ta+e on the

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form of periodicit*8 Bhen this periodicit* is once consolidated, e)en #olitical Econom* then sees that the production of a relati)e surplus population F i$e8, surplus "ith regard to the a)erage needs of the self4e9pansion of capital F is a necessar* condition of modern industr*8 @Suppose,A sa*s -8 $eri)ale, formerl* #rofessor of #olitical Econom* at =9ford, subseIuentl* emplo*ed in the English 5olonial =ffice, @suppose that, on the occasion of some of these crises, the nation "ere to rouse itself to the effort of getting rid b* emigration of some hundreds of thousands of superfluous arms, "hat "ould be the conseIuenceE 'hat, at the first returning demand for labour, there "ould be a deficienc*8 -o"e)er rapid reproduction ma* be, it ta+es, at all e)ents, the space of a generation to replace the loss of adult labour8 Co", the profits of our manufacturers depend mainl* on the po"er of ma+ing use of the prosperous moment "hen demand is bris+, and thus compensating themsel)es for the inter)al during "hich it is slac+8 'his po"er is secured to them onl* b* the command of machiner* and of manual labour8 'he* must ha)e hands read* b* them, the* must be able to increase the acti)it* of their operations "hen reIuired, and to slac+en it again, according to the state of the mar+et, or the* cannot possibl* maintain that pre4eminence in the race of competition on "hich the "ealth of the countr* is founded8A16 E)en $althus recognises o)erpopulation as a necessit* of modern industr*, though, after his narro" fashion, he e9plains it b* the absolute o)er4gro"th of the labouring population, not b* their becoming relati)el* supernumerar*8 -e sa*s: @#rudential habits "ith regard to marriage, carried to a considerable e9tent among the labouring class of a countr* mainl* depending upon manufactures and commerce, might inDure it8888 From the nature of a population, an increase of labourers cannot be brought into mar+et in conseIuence of a particular demand till after the lapse of 16 or 18 *ears, and the con)ersion of re)enue into capital, b* sa)ing, ma* ta+e place much more rapidl*: a countr* is al"a*s liable to an increase in the Iuantit* of the funds for the maintenance of labour faster than the increase of population8A 17 (fter #olitical Econom* has thus demonstrated the constant production of a relati)e surplus population of labourers to be a necessit* of capitalistic accumulation, she )er* aptl*, in the guise of an old maid, puts in the mouth of her @beau idealA of a capitalist the follo"ing "ords addressed to those supernumeraries thro"n on the streets b* their o"n creation of additional capital: F @Be manufacturers do "hat "e can for *ou, "hilst "e are increasing that capital on "hich *ou must subsist, and *ou must do the rest b* accommodating *our numbers to the means of subsistence8A18 5apitalist production can b* no means content itself "ith the Iuantit* of disposable labour po"er "hich the natural increase of population *ields8 >t reIuires for its free pla* an industrial reser)e arm* independent of these natural limits8 %p to this point it has been assumed that the increase or diminution of the )ariable capital corresponds rigidl* "ith the increase or diminution of the number of labourers emplo*ed8 'he number of labourers commanded b* capital ma* remain the same, or e)en fall, "hile the )ariable capital increases8 'his is the case if the indi)idual labourer *ields more labour, and therefore his "ages increase, and this although the price of labour remains the same or e)en falls, onl* more slo"l* than the mass of labour rises8 >ncrease of )ariable capital, in this case, becomes an inde9 of more labour, but not of more labourers emplo*ed8 >t is the absolute interest of e)er* capitalist to press a gi)en Iuantit* of labour out of a smaller, rather than a greater number of

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labourers, if the cost is about the same8 >n the latter case, the outla* of constant capital increases in proportion to the mass of labour set in action; in the former that increase is much smaller8 'he more e9tended the scale of production, the stronger this moti)e8 >ts force increases "ith the accumulation of capital8 Be ha)e seen that the de)elopment of the capitalist mode of production and of the producti)e po"er of labour F at once the cause and effect of accumulation F enables the capitalist, "ith the same outla* of )ariable capital, to set in action more labour b* greater e9ploitation (e9tensi)e or intensi)e! of each indi)idual labour po"er8 Be ha)e further seen that the capitalist bu*s "ith the same capital a greater mass of labour po"er, as he progressi)el* replaces s+illed labourers b* less s+illed, mature labour po"er b* immature, male b* female, that of adults b* that of *oung persons or children8 =n the one hand, therefore, "ith the progress of accumulation, a larger )ariable capital sets more labour in action "ithout enlisting more labourers; on the other, a )ariable capital of the same magnitude sets in action more labour "ith the same mass of labour po"er; and, finall*, a greater number of inferior labour po"ers b* displacement of higher8 'he production of a relati)e surplus population, or the setting free of labourers, goes on therefore *et more rapidl* than the technical re)olution of the process of production that accompanies, and is accelerated b*, the ad)ance of accumulation; and more rapidl* than the corresponding diminution of the )ariable part of capital as compared "ith the constant8 >f the means of production, as the* increase in e9tent and effecti)e po"er, become to a less e9tent means of emplo*ment of labourers, this state of things is again modified b* the fact that in proportion as the producti)eness of labour increases, capital increases its suppl* of labour more Iuic+l* than its demand for labourers8 'he o)er"or+ of the emplo*ed part of the "or+ing class s"ells the ran+s of the reser)e, "hilst con)ersel* the greater pressure that the latter b* its competition e9erts on the former, forces these to submit to o)er"or+ and to subDugation under the dictates of capital8 'he condemnation of one part of the "or+ing class to enforced idleness b* the o)er"or+ of the other part, and the con)erse, becomes a means of enriching the indi)idual capitalists, 12 and accelerates at the same time the production of the industrial reser)e arm* on a scale corresponding "ith the ad)ance of social accumulation8 -o" important is this element in the formation of the relati)e surplus population, is sho"n b* the e9ample of England8 -er technical means for sa)ing labour are colossal8 Ce)ertheless, if to4morro" morning labour generall* "ere reduced to a rational amount, and proportioned to the different sections of the "or+ing class according to age and se9, the "or+ing population to hand "ould be absolutel* insufficient for the carr*ing on of national production on its present scale8 'he great maDorit* of the labourers no" @unproducti)eA "ould ha)e to be turned into @producti)eA ones8 'a+ing them as a "hole, the general mo)ements of "ages are e9clusi)el* regulated b* the e9pansion and contraction of the industrial reser)e arm*, and these again correspond to the periodic changes of the industrial c*cle8 'he* are, therefore, not determined b* the )ariations of the absolute number of the "or+ing population, but b* the )ar*ing proportions in "hich the "or+ing class is di)ided into acti)e and reser)e arm*, b* the increase or diminution in the relati)e amount of the surplus population, b* the e9tent to "hich it is no" absorbed, no" set free8 For $odern >ndustr* "ith its decennial c*cles and periodic phases, "hich, moreo)er, as accumulation ad)ances, are complicated b* irregular oscillations follo"ing each other more and more Iuic+l*8 that "ould indeed be a beautiful la", "hich pretends to ma+e the action of capital dependent on the absolute )ariation of the population, instead of regulating the demand and suppl* of labour b* the alternate e9pansion and contraction of capital, the labour4mar+et no" appearing relati)el* under4full, because capital is e9panding, no" again o)er4full, because it is contracting8 Net this is

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the dogma of the economists8 (ccording to them, "ages rise in conseIuence of accumulation of capital8 'he higher "ages stimulate the "or+ing population to more rapid multiplication, and this goes on until the labour4mar+et becomes too full, and therefore capital, relati)el* to the suppl* of labour, becomes insufficient8 Bages fall, and no" "e ha)e the re)erse of the medal8 'he "or+ing population is little b* little decimated as the result of the fall in "ages, so that capital is again in e9cess relati)el* to them, or, as others e9plain it, falling "ages and the corresponding increase in the e9ploitation of the labourer again accelerates accumulation, "hilst, at the same time, the lo"er "ages hold the increase of the "or+ing class in chec+8 'hen comes again the time, "hen the suppl* of labour is less than the demand, "ages rise, and so on8 ( beautiful mode of motion this for de)eloped capitalist productionQ /efore, in conseIuence of the rise of "ages, an* positi)e increase of the population reall* fit for "or+ could occur, the time "ould ha)e been passed again and again, during "hich the industrial campaign must ha)e been carried through, the battle fought and "on8 /et"een 18 2 and 1832, a rise of "ages practicall* insignificant, though accompanied b* falling prices of corn, too+ place in the English agricultural districts8 >n Biltshire, e$ 8, the "ee+l* "ages rose from 7s8 to 8s8; in 0orsetshire from 7s8 or 8s8, to 2s8, Pc8 'his "as the result of an unusual e9odus of the agricultural surplus population caused b* the demands of "ar, the )ast e9tension of railroads, factories, mines, Pc8 'he lo"er the "ages, the higher is the proportion in "hich e)er so insignificant a rise of them e9presses itself8 >f the "ee+l* "age, e$ 8, is 67s8 and it rises to 66s8, that is a rise of 17 per cent8; but if it is onl* 7s8 and it rises to 2s8, that is a rise of 68 J7 per cent8, "hich sounds )er* fine8 E)er*"here the farmers "ere ho"ling, and the <ondon Economist+ "ith reference to these star)ation4"ages, prattled Iuite seriousl* of @a general and substantial ad)ance8A67 Bhat did the farmers do no"E 0id the* "ait until, in conseIuence of this brilliant remuneration, the agricultural labourers had so increased and multiplied that their "ages must fall again, as prescribed b* the dogmatic economic brainE 'he* introduced more machiner*, and in a moment the labourers "ere redundant again in a proportion satisfactor* e)en to the farmers8 'here "as no" @more capitalA laid out in agriculture than before, and in a more producti)e form8 Bith this the demand for labour fell, not onl* relati)el*, but absolutel*8 'he abo)e economic fiction confuses the la"s that regulate the general mo)ement of "ages, or the ratio bet"een the "or+ing class F i$e8, the total labour po"er F and the total social capital, "ith the la"s that distribute the "or+ing population o)er the different spheres of production8 >f, e$ $+ in conseIuence of fa)ourable circumstances, accumulation in a particular sphere of production becomes especiall* acti)e, and profits in it, being greater than the a)erage profits, attract additional capital, of course the demand for labour rises and "ages also rise8 'he higher "ages dra" a larger part of the "or+ing population into the more fa)oured sphere, until it is glutted "ith labour po"er, and "ages at length fall again to their a)erage le)el or belo" it, if the pressure is too great8 'hen, not onl* does the immigration of labourers into the branch of industr* in Iuestion cease; it gi)es place to their emigration8 -ere the political economist thin+s he sees the "h* and "herefore of an absolute increase of "or+ers accompan*ing an increase of "ages, and of a diminution of "ages accompan*ing an absolute increase of labourers8 /ut he sees reall* onl* the local oscillation of the labour4mar+et in a particular sphere of production F he sees onl* the phenomena accompan*ing the distribution of the "or+ing population into the different spheres of outla* of capital, according to its )ar*ing needs8 'he industrial reser)e arm*, during the periods of stagnation and a)erage prosperit*, "eighs do"n the acti)e labour4arm*; during the periods of o)er4production and paro9*sm, it holds its pretensions in chec+8 &elati)e surplus population is therefore the pi)ot upon "hich the la" of demand and suppl* of labour "or+s8 >t confines the field of action of this la" "ithin the limits absolutel* con)enient to the acti)it* of e9ploitation and to the domination of capital8

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'his is the place to return to one of the grand e9ploits of economic apologetics8 >t "ill be remembered that if through the introduction of ne", or the e9tension of old, machiner*, a portion of )ariable capital is transformed into constant, the economic apologist interprets this operation "hich @fi9esA capital and b* that )er* act sets labourers @free,A in e9actl* the opposite "a*, pretending that it sets free capital for the labourers8 =nl* no" can one full* understand the effronter* of these apologists8 Bhat are set free are not onl* the labourers immediatel* turned out b* the machines, but also their future substitutes in the rising generation, and the additional contingent, that "ith the usual e9tension of trade on the old basis "ould be regularl* absorbed8 'he* are no" all @set free,A and e)er* ne" bit of capital loo+ing out for emplo*ment can dispose of them8 Bhether it attracts them or others, the effect on the general labour demand "ill be nil, if this capital is Dust sufficient to ta+e out of the mar+et as man* labourers as the machines thre" upon it8 >f it emplo*s a smaller number, that of the supernumeraries increases; if it emplo*s a greater, the general demand for labour onl* increases to the e9tent of the e9cess of the emplo*ed o)er those @set free8A 'he impulse that additional capital, see+ing an outlet, "ould other"ise ha)e gi)en to the general demand for labour, is therefore in e)er* case neutralised to the e9tent of the labourers thro"n out of emplo*ment b* the machine8 'hat is to sa*, the mechanism of capitalistic production so manages matters that the absolute increase of capital is accompanied b* no corresponding rise in the general demand for labour8 (nd this the apologist calls a compensation for the miser*, the sufferings, the possible death of the displaced labourers during the transition period that banishes them into the industrial reser)e arm*Q 'he demand for labour is not identical "ith increase of capital, nor suppl* of labour "ith increase of the "or+ing class8 >t is not a case of t"o independent forces "or+ing on one another8 <es dRs sont pipRs8 5apital "or+s on both sides at the same time8 >f its accumulation, on the one hand, increases the demand for labour, it increases on the other the suppl* of labourers b* the @setting freeA of them, "hilst at the same time the pressure of the unemplo*ed compels those that are emplo*ed to furnish more labour, and therefore ma+es the suppl* of labour, to a certain e9tent, independent of the suppl* of labourers8 'he action of the la" of suppl* and demand of labour on this basis completes the despotism of capital8 (s soon, therefore, as the labourers learn the secret, ho" it comes to pass that in the same measure as the* "or+ more, as the* produce more "ealth for others, and as the producti)e po"er of their labour increases, so in the same measure e)en their function as a means of the self4e9pansion of capital becomes more and more precarious for them; as soon as the* disco)er that the degree of intensit* of the competition among themsel)es depends "holl* on the pressure of the relati)e surplus population; as soon as, b* 'rades? %nions, Pc8, the* tr* to organise a regular co4operation bet"een emplo*ed and unemplo*ed in order to destro* or to "ea+en the ruinous effects of this natural la" of capitalistic production on their class, so soon capital and its s*cophant, #olitical Econom*, cr* out at the infringement of the @eternalA and so to sa* @sacredA la" of suppl* and demand8 E)er* combination of emplo*ed and unemplo*ed disturbs the @harmoniousA action of this la"8 /ut, on the other hand, as soon as (in the colonies, e$ 8! ad)erse circumstances pre)ent the creation of an industrial reser)e arm* and, "ith it, the absolute dependence of the "or+ing class upon the capitalist class, capital, along "ith its commonplace Sancho #an1a, rebels against the @sacredA la" of suppl* and demand, and tries to chec+ its incon)enient action b* forcible means and State interference8

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Section ,: -ifferent Forms of the .elati=e surplus population7 The 4eneral (aw of Capitalistic ;ccumulation
'he relati)e surplus population e9ists in e)er* possible form8 E)er* labourer belongs to it during the time "hen he is onl* partiall* emplo*ed or "holl* unemplo*ed8 Cot ta+ing into account the great periodicall* recurring forms that the changing phases of the industrial c*cle impress on it, no" an acute form during the crisis, then again a chronic form during dull times F it has al"a*s three forms, the floating, the latent, the stagnant8 >n the centres of modern industr* F factories, manufactures, iron"or+s, mines, Pc8 F the labourers are sometimes repelled, sometimes attracted again in greater masses, the number of those emplo*ed increasing on the "hole, although in a constantl* decreasing proportion to the scale of production8 -ere the surplus population e9ists in the floating form8 >n the automatic factories, as in all the great "or+shops, "here machiner* enters as a factor, or "here onl* the modern di)ision of labour is carried out, large numbers of bo*s are emplo*ed up to the age of maturit*8 Bhen this term is once reached, onl* a )er* small number continue to find emplo*ment in the same branches of industr*, "hilst the maDorit* are regularl* discharged8 'his maDorit* forms an element of the floating surplus population, gro"ing "ith the e9tension of those branches of industr*8 #art of them emigrates, follo"ing in fact capital that has emigrated8 =ne conseIuence is that the female population gro"s more rapidl* than the male, teste England8 'hat the natural increase of the number of labourers does not satisf* the reIuirements of the accumulation of capital, and *et all the time is in e9cess of them, is a contradiction inherent to the mo)ement of capital itself8 >t "ants larger numbers of *outhful labourers, a smaller number of adults8 'he contradiction is not more glaring than that other one that there is a complaint of the "ant of hands, "hile at the same time man* thousands are out of "or+, because the di)ision of labour chains them to a particular branch of industr*8 61 'he consumption of labour po"er b* capital is, besides, so rapid that the labourer, half4"a* through his life, has alread* more or less completel* li)ed himself out8 -e falls into the ran+s of the supernumeraries, or is thrust do"n from a higher to a lo"er step in the scale8 >t is precisel* among the "or+4people of modern industr* that "e meet "ith the shortest duration of life8 0r8 <ee, $edical =fficer of -ealth for $anchester, stated @that the a)erage age at death of the $anchester 888 upper middle class "as :8 *ears, "hile the a)erage age at death of the labouring class "as 17; "hile at <i)erpool those figures "ere represented as :3 against 138 >t thus appeared that the "ell4to4do classes had a lease of life "hich "as more than double the )alue of that "hich fell to the lot of the less fa)oured citi1ens8A 66 >n order to conform to these circumstances, the absolute increase of this section of the proletariat must ta+e place under conditions that shall s"ell their numbers, although the indi)idual elements are used up rapidl*8 -ence, rapid rene"al of the generations of labourers (this la" does not hold for the other classes of the population!8 'his social need is met b* earl* marriages, a necessar* conseIuence of the conditions in "hich the labourers of modern industr* li)e, and b* the premium that the e9ploitation of children sets on their production8 (s soon as capitalist production ta+es possession of agriculture, and in proportion to the e9tent to "hich it does so, the demand for an agricultural labouring population falls absolutel*, "hile the accumulation of the capital emplo*ed in agriculture ad)ances, "ithout this repulsion being, as in non4agricultural industries, compensated b* a greater attraction8 #art of the agricultural

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population is therefore constantl* on the point of passing o)er into an urban or manufacturing proletariat8 and on the loo+4out for circumstances fa)ourable to this transformation8 ($anufacture is used here in the sense of all nonagricultural industries8! 6: 'his source of relati)e surplus population is thus constantl* flo"ing8 /ut the constant flo" to"ards the to"ns pre4supposes, in the countr* itself, a constant latent surplus population, the e9tent of "hich becomes e)ident onl* "hen its channels of outlet open to e9ceptional "idth8 'he agricultural labourer is therefore reduced to the minimum of "ages, and al"a*s stands "ith one foot alread* in the s"amp of pauperism8 'he third categor* of the relati)e surplus population, the stagnant, forms a part of the acti)e labour arm*, but "ith e9tremel* irregular emplo*ment8 -ence it furnishes to capital an ine9haustible reser)oir of disposable labour po"er8 >ts conditions of life sin+ belo" the a)erage normal le)el of the "or+ing class; this ma+es it at once the broad basis of special branches of capitalist e9ploitation8 >t is characterised b* ma9imum of "or+ing4time, and minimum of "ages8 Be ha)e learnt to +no" its chief form under the rubric of @domestic industr*8A >t recruits itself constantl* from the supernumerar* forces of modern industr* and agriculture, and speciall* from those deca*ing branches of industr* "here handicraft is *ielding to manufacture, manufacture to machiner*8 >ts e9tent gro"s, as "ith the e9tent and energ* of accumulation, the creation of a surplus population ad)ances8 /ut it forms at the same time a self4reproducing and self4 perpetuating element of the "or+ing class, ta+ing a proportionall* greater part in the general increase of that class than the other elements8 >n fact, not onl* the number of births and deaths, but the absolute si1e of the families stand in in)erse proportion to the height of "ages, and therefore to the amount of means of subsistence of "hich the different categories of labourers dispose8 'his la" of capitalistic societ* "ould sound absurd to sa)ages, or e)en ci)ilised colonists8 >t calls to mind the boundless reproduction of animals indi)iduall* "ea+ and constantl* hunted do"n86 'he lo"est sediment of the relati)e surplus population finall* d"ells in the sphere of pauperism8 E9clusi)e of )agabonds, criminals, prostitutes, in a "ord, the @dangerousA classes, this la*er of societ* consists of three categories8 First, those able to "or+8 =ne need onl* glance superficiall* at the statistics of English pauperism to find that the Iuantit* of paupers increases "ith e)er* crisis, and diminishes "ith e)er* re)i)al of trade8 Second, orphans and pauper children8 'hese are candidates for the industrial reser)e arm*, and are, in times of great prosperit*, as 1867, e$ 8, speedil* and in large numbers enrolled in the acti)e arm* of labourers8 'hird, the demoralised and ragged, and those unable to "or+, chiefl* people "ho succumb to their incapacit* for adaptation, due to the di)ision of labour; people "ho ha)e passed the normal age of the labourer; the )ictims of industr*, "hose number increases "ith the increase of dangerous machiner*, of mines, chemical "or+s, Pc8, the mutilated, the sic+l*, the "ido"s, Pc8 #auperism is the hospital of the acti)e labour4arm* and the dead "eight of the industrial reser)e arm*8 >ts production is included in that of the relati)e surplus population, its necessit* in theirs; along "ith the surplus population, pauperism forms a condition of capitalist production, and of the capitalist de)elopment of "ealth8 >t enters into the faux frais of capitalist production; but capital +no"s ho" to thro" these, for the most part, from its o"n shoulders on to those of the "or+ing class and the lo"er middle class8 'he greater the social "ealth, the functioning capital, the e9tent and energ* of its gro"th, and, therefore, also the absolute mass of the proletariat and the producti)eness of its labour, the greater is the industrial reser)e arm*8 'he same causes "hich de)elop the e9pansi)e po"er of capital, de)elop also the labour po"er at its disposal8 'he relati)e mass of the industrial reser)e arm* increases therefore "ith the potential energ* of "ealth8 /ut the greater this reser)e arm* in proportion to the acti)e labour arm*, the greater is the mass of a consolidated surplus population,

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"hose miser* is in in)erse ratio to its torment of labour8 'he more e9tensi)e, finall*, the la1arus la*ers of the "or+ing class, and the industrial reser)e arm*, the greater is official pauperism8 /his is the absolute eneral la1 of capitalist accumulation$ <i+e all other la"s it is modified in its "or+ing b* man* circumstances, the anal*sis of "hich does not concern us here8 'he foll* is no" patent of the economic "isdom that preaches to the labourers the accommodation of their number to the reIuirements of capital8 'he mechanism of capitalist production and accumulation constantl* effects this adDustment8 'he first "ord of this adaptation is the creation of a relati)e surplus population, or industrial reser)e arm*8 >ts last "ord is the miser* of constantl* e9tending strata of the acti)e arm* of labour, and the dead "eight of pauperism8 'he la" b* "hich a constantl* increasing Iuantit* of means of production, than+s to the ad)ance in the producti)eness of social labour, ma* be set in mo)ement b* a progressi)el* diminishing e9penditure of human po"er, this la", in a capitalist societ* F "here the labourer does not emplo* the means of production, but the means of production emplo* the labourer F undergoes a complete in)ersion and is e9pressed thus: the higher the producti)eness of labour, the greater is the pressure of the labourers on the means of emplo*ment, the more precarious, therefore, becomes their condition of e9istence, viF8, the sale of their o"n labour po"er for the increasing of another?s "ealth, or for the self4e9pansion of capital8 'he fact that the means of production, and the producti)eness of labour, increase more rapidl* than the producti)e population, e9presses itself, therefore, capitalisticall* in the in)erse form that the labouring population al"a*s increases more rapidl* than the conditions under "hich capital can emplo* this increase for its o"n self4 e9pansion8 Be sa" in #art >;8, "hen anal*sing the production of relati)e surplus )alue: "ithin the capitalist s*stem all methods for raising the social producti)eness of labour are brought about at the cost of the indi)idual labourer; all means for the de)elopment of production transform themsel)es into means of domination o)er, and e9ploitation of, the producers; the* mutilate the labourer into a fragment of a man, degrade him to the le)el of an appendage of a machine, destro* e)er* remnant of charm in his "or+ and turn it into a hated toil; the* estrange from him the intellectual potentialities of the labour process in the same proportion as science is incorporated in it as an independent po"er; the* distort the conditions under "hich he "or+s, subDect him during the labour process to a despotism the more hateful for its meanness; the* transform his life4time into "or+ing4time, and drag his "ife and child beneath the "heels of the Luggernaut of capital8 /ut all methods for the production of surplus )alue are at the same time methods of accumulation; and e)er* e9tension of accumulation becomes again a means for the de)elopment of those methods8 >t follo"s therefore that in proportion as capital accumulates, the lot of the labourer, be his pa*ment high or lo", must gro" "orse8 'he la", finall*, that al"a*s eIuilibrates the relati)e surplus population, or industrial reser)e arm*, to the e9tent and energ* of accumulation, this la" ri)ets the labourer to capital more firml* than the "edges of ;ulcan did #rometheus to the roc+8 >t establishes an accumulation of miser*, corresponding "ith accumulation of capital8 (ccumulation of "ealth at one pole is, therefore, at the same time accumulation of miser*, agon* of toil sla)er*, ignorance, brutalit*, mental degradation, at the opposite pole, i$e$+ on the side of the class that produces its o"n product in the form of capital8 63 'his antagonistic character of capitalistic accumulation is enunciated in )arious forms b* political economists, although b* them it is confounded "ith phenomena, certainl* to some e9tent analogous, but ne)ertheless essentiall* distinct, and belonging to pre4capitalistic modes of production8 'he ;enetian mon+ =rtes, one of the great economic "riters of the 18th centur*, regards the antagonism of capitalist production as a general natural la" of social "ealth8

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@>n the econom* of a nation, ad)antages and e)ils al"a*s balance one another (il bene ed il male economico in una na1ione sempre all, istessa misura!: the abundance of "ealth "ith some people, is al"a*s eIual to the "ant of it "ith others (la copia dei beni in alcuni sempre e uale alia mancanFa di essi in altri !: the great riches of a small number are al"a*s accompanied b* the absolute pri)ation of the first necessaries of life for man* others8 'he "ealth of a nation corresponds "ith its population, and its miser* corresponds "ith its "ealth8 0iligence in some compels idleness in others8 'he poor and idle are a necessar* conseIuence of the rich and acti)e,A Pc8 66 >n a thoroughl* brutal "a* about 17 *ears after =rtes, the 5hurch of England parson, 'o"nsend, glorified miser* as a necessar* condition of "ealth8 @<egal constraint (to labour! is attended "ith too much trouble, )iolence, and noise, "hereas hunger is not onl* a peaceable, silent, unremitted pressure, but as the most natural moti)e to industr* and labour, it calls forth the most po"erful e9ertions8A E)er*thing therefore depends upon ma+ing hunger permanent among the "or+ing class, and for this, according to 'o"nsend, the principle of population, especiall* acti)e among the poor, pro)ides8 @>t seems to be a la" of Cature that the poor should be to a certain degree impro)identA Gi$e8, so impro)ident as to be born 1ithout a sil)er spoon in the mouthH, @that there ma* al"a*s be some to fulfil the most ser)ile, the most sordid, and the most ignoble offices in the communit*8 'he stoc+ of human happiness is thereb* much increased, "hilst the more delicate are not onl* relie)ed from drudger* 888 but are left at libert* "ithout interruption to pursue those callings "hich are suited to their )arious dispositions 888 itA Gthe #oor <a"H @tends to destro* the harmon* and beaut*, the s*mmetr* and order of that s*stem "hich God and Cature ha)e established in the "orld8 67 >f the ;enetian mon+ found in the fatal destin* that ma+es miser* eternal, the raison dCGtre of 5hristian charit*, celibac*, monasteries and hol* houses, the #rotestant prebendar* finds in it a prete9t for condemning the la"s in )irtue of "hich the poor possessed a right to a miserable public relief8 @'he progress of social "ealth,A sa*s Storch, @begets this useful class of societ* 888 "hich performs the most "earisome, the )ilest, the most disgusting functions, "hich ta+es, in a "ord, on its shoulders all that is disagreeable and ser)ile in life, and procures thus for other classes leisure, serenit* of mind and con)entionalA Gc?est bonQH @dignit* of character8A68 Storch as+s himself in "hat then reall* consists the progress of this capitalistic ci)ilisation "ith its miser* and its degradation of the masses, as compared "ith barbarism8 -e finds but one ans"er: securit*Q @'han+s to the ad)ance of industr* and science,A sa*s Sismondi, @e)er* labourer can produce e)er* da* much more than his consumption reIuires8 /ut at the same time, "hilst his labour produces "ealth, that "ealth "ould, "ere he called on to consume it himself, ma+e him less fit for labour8A (ccording to him, @menA G i$e8, non4"or+ersH @"ould probabl* prefer to do "ithout all artistic perfection, and all the enDo*ments that manufacturers procure for us, if it "ere necessar* that all should bu* them b* constant toil li+e that of the labourer8888 E9ertion toda* is separated from its recompense; it is not the same man that first "or+s, and then

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reposes; but it is because the one "or+s that the other rests8888 'he indefinite multiplication of the producti)e po"ers of labour can then onl* ha)e for result the increase of lu9ur* and enDo*ment of the idle rich8A 62 Finall* 0estutt de 'rac*, the fish4blooded bourgeois doctrinaire, blurts out brutall*: @>n poor nations the people are comfortable, in rich nations the* are generall* poor8A:7

Section 8: Illustrations of the 4eneral (aw of Capitalist ;ccumulation

A. En&land from 123" 12""
Co period of modern societ* is so fa)ourable for the stud* of capitalist accumulation as the period of the last 67 *ears8 >t is as if this period had found Fortunatus? purse8 /ut of all countries England again furnishes the classical e9ample, because it holds the foremost place in the "orld4 mar+et, because capitalist production is here alone completel* de)eloped, and lastl*, because the introduction of the Free4trade millennium since 18 6 has cut off the last retreat of )ulgar econom*8 'he titanic ad)ance of production F the latter half of the 67 *ears? period again far surpassing the former F has been alread* pointed out sufficientl* in #art >;8 (lthough the absolute increase of the English population in the last half centur* "as )er* great, the relati)e increase or rate of gro"th fell constantl*, as the follo"ing table borro"ed from the census sho"s8 (nnual increase per cent8 of the population of England and Bales in decimal numbers: 181141861 1861418:1 18:1418 1 18 141831 183141861 183:: cent$ 18 6 cent$ 18:66 cent$ 18616 cent$ 181 1 cent$ per per per per per

<et us no", on the other hand, consider the increase of "ealth8 -ere the mo)ement of profit, rent of land, Pc8, that come under the income ta98 furnishes the surest basis8 'he increase of profits liable to income ta9 (farmers and some other categories not included! in Great /ritain from 183: to 186 amounted to 378 7` or 838` as the annual a)erage, :1 that of the population during the same period to about 16`8 'he augmentation of the rent of land subDect to ta9ation (including houses, rail"a*s, mines, fisheries, Pc8!, amounted for 183: to 186 to :8` or : 3J16` annuall*8 %nder this head the follo"ing categories sho" the greatest increase:

5hapter 63

E9cess of annual income of 186 o)er that of 183: -ouses :8867` Kuarries 8 876` $ines 68883` >ron"or+s :2826` Fisheries 378:7` Gas"or+s 166876` &ail"a*s 8:862`

>ncrease per *ear :837` 7877` 6866` :86:` 3861` 118 3` 7837`

>f "e compare the *ears from 183: to 186 in three sets of four consecuti)e *ears each, the rate of augmentation of the income increases constantl*8 :6 >t is, e$ $+ for that arising from profits bet"een 183: to 1837, 187:` *earl*; 183741861, 687 `, and for 186146 , 28:7` *earl*8 'he sum of the incomes of the %nited .ingdom that come under the income ta9 "as in 1836, ]:77,768,828; in 1832, ]:68,167, 16; in 18668 ]:31,7 3,6 1; in 186:, ]:32,1 6,827; in 186 , ]:66, 66,672; in 1863, ]:83,3:7,7678:: 'he accumulation of capital "as attended at the same time b* its concentration and centralisation8 (lthough no official statistics of agriculture e9isted for England (the* did for >reland!, the* "ere )oluntaril* gi)en in 17 counties8 'hese statistics ga)e the result that from 1831 to 1861 the number of farms of less than 177 acres had fallen from :1,38: to 66,327, so that 3,716 had been thro"n together into larger farms8 : From 1813 to 1863 no personal estate of more than ]1,777,777 came under the succession dut*; from 1863 to 1833, ho"e)er, 8 did; and from 1836 to Lune, 1832, i$e$+ in [ *ears8:3 'he centralisation "ill, ho"e)er, be best seen from a short anal*sis of the >ncome 'a9 Schedule 0 (profits, e9clusi)e of farms, Pc8!, in the *ears 186 and 18638 > note beforehand that incomes from this source pa* income ta9 on e)er*thing o)er ]678 'hese incomes liable to ta9ation in England, Bales and Scotland, amounted in 186 to ]23,8 ,6668 in 1863 to ]173, :3,3728:6 'he number of persons ta9ed "ere in 186 , :78, 16, out of a population of 6:,821,772; in 1863, ::6, :1 out of a population of 6 ,167,77:8 'he follo"ing table sho"s the distribution of these incomes in the t"o *ears: Near ending (pril 3th, 186 8 >ncome from >ncome from #rofits #eople 'otal >ncome of these of these of these of these ]23,8 ,666 :78, 16 6:,:: :,612 8:6 21 Near ending (pril 3th, 18638 >ncome from >ncome from #rofits #eople 173, :3,7:8 6 ,33 ,627 6,3:3,376 67,333,:1: 11,777,6:8 ::6, :1 6 ,663 ,761 27: 177

37,768,682 :6, 13,663 66,872,781 8,7 ,766

>n 1833 there "ere produced in the %nited .ingdom 61, 3:,772 tons of coal, of )alue ]16,11:,167; in 186 , 26,787,87: tons, of )alue ]6:,127,268; in 1833, :,618,13 tons of pig4iron, of )alue ]8,7 3,:83; 186 , ,767,231 tons, of )alue ]11,212,8778 >n 183 the length of the railroads "or+ed in the %nited .ingdom "as 8,73 miles, "ith a paid4up capital of ]686,768,72 ; in 186 the length "as 16,782 miles, "ith capital paid up of ] 63,712,61:8 >n

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183 the total sum of the e9ports and imports of the %nited .ingdom "as ]668,617,1 3; in 1863, ] 82,26:,6838 'he follo"ing table sho"s the mo)ement of the e9ports: 18 6 18 2 1836 1867 1863 1866:7 ]38,8 6,:7 7 6:,326,736 113,866,2 8 1:3,8 6,81 7 163,866, 7 6 188,217,36 :

(fter these fe" e9amples one understands the cr* of triumph of the &egistrar4General of the /ritish people: @&apidl* as the population has increased, it has not +ept pace "ith the progress of industr* and "ealth8A:8 <et us turn no" to the direct agents of this industr*, or the producers of this "ealth, to the "or+ing class8 @>t is one of the most melanchol* features in the social state of this countr*,A sa*s Gladstone, @that "hile there "as a decrease in the consuming po"ers of the people, and "hile there "as an increase in the pri)ations and distress of the labouring class and operati)es, there "as at the same time a constant accumulation of "ealth in the upper classes, and a constant increase of capital8A :2 'hus spa+e this unctuous minister in the -ouse of 5ommons of Februar* 1:th, 18 :8 =n (pril 16th, 186:, 67 *ears later, in the speech in "hich he introduced his /udget: @From 18 6 to 1836 the ta9able income of the countr* increased b* 6 per cent8888 >n the 8 *ears from 183: to 1861 it had increased from the basis ta+en in 183: b* 67 per cent8Q 'he fact is so astonishing as to be almost incredible 888 this into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er 888 entirel* confined to classes of propert* 888 must be of indirect benefit to the labouring population, because it cheapens the commodities of general consumption8 Bhile the rich ha)e been gro"ing richer, the poor ha)e been gro"ing less poor8 (t an* rate, "hether the e9tremes of po)ert* are less, > do not presume to sa*8A 7 -o" lame an anti4clima9Q >f the "or+ing class has remained @poor,A onl* @less poorA in proportion as it produces for the "ealth* class @an into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"er,A then it has remained relati)el* Dust as poor8 >f the e9tremes of po)ert* ha)e not lessened, the* ha)e increased, because the e9tremes of "ealth ha)e8 (s to the cheapening of the means of subsistence, the official statistics, e$ $+ the accounts of the <ondon =rphan (s*lum, sho" an increase in price of 67` for the a)erage of the three *ears 186741866, compared "ith 18314183:8 >n the follo"ing three *ears, 186:41863, there "as a progressi)e rise in the price of meat, butter, mil+, sugar, salt, coals, and a number of other necessar* means of subsistence8 1 Gladstone?s ne9t /udget speech of (pril 7th, 186 , is a #indaric dith*rambus on the ad)ance of surplus )alue4 ma+ing and the happiness of the people @tempered b* po)ert*8A -e spea+s of masses @on the

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borderA of pauperism, of branches of trade in "hich @"ages ha)e not increased,A and finall* sums up the happiness of the "or+ing class in the "ords: @human life is but, in nine cases out of ten, a struggle for e9istence8A 6 #rofessor Fa"cett, not bound li+e Gladstone b* official considerations, declares roundl*: @> do not, of course, den* that mone* "ages ha)e been augmented b* this increase of capital (in the last ten *ears!, but this apparent ad)antage is to a great e9tent lost, because man* of the necessaries of life are becoming dearerA (he belie)es because of the fall in )alue of the precious metals!888Vthe rich gro" rapidl* richer, "hilst there is no perceptible ad)ance in the comfort enDo*ed b* the industrial classes8888 'he* (the labourers! become almost the sla)es of the tradesman, to "hom the* o"e mone*8A : >n the chapters on the @"or+ing da*A and @machiner*,A the reader has seen under "hat circumstances the /ritish "or+ing class created an @into9icating augmentation of "ealth and po"erA for the propertied classes8 'here "e "ere chiefl* concerned "ith the social functioning of the labourer8 /ut for a full elucidation of the la" of accumulation, his condition outside the "or+shop must also be loo+ed at, his condition as to food and d"elling8 'he limits of this boo+ compel us to concern oursel)es chiefl* "ith the "orst paid part of the industrial proletariat, and "ith the agricultural labourers, "ho together form the maDorit* of the "or+ing class8 /ut first, one "ord on official pauperism, or on that part of the "or+ing class "hich has forfeited its condition of e9istence (the sale of labour po"er!, and )egetates upon public alms8 'he official list of paupers numbered in England 831,:62 persons; in 1836, 877,767; in 1863, 271, ::8 >n conseIuence of the cotton famine, it gre" in the *ears 186: and 186 to 1,772,:86 and 1,71 ,2788 'he crisis of 1866, "hich fell most hea)il* on <ondon, created in this centre of the "orld mar+et, more populous than the +ingdom of Scotland, an increase of pauperism for the *ear 1866 of 1283` compared "ith 1863, and of 6 8 ` compared "ith 186 , and a still greater increase for the first months of 1867 as compared "ith 18668 From the anal*sis of the statistics of pauperism, t"o points are to be ta+en8 =n the one hand, the fluctuation up and do"n of the number of paupers, reflects the periodic changes of the industrial c*cle8 =n the other, the official statistics become more and more misleading as to the actual e9tent of pauperism in proportion as, "ith the accumulation of capital, the class4struggle, and, therefore, the class consciousness of the "or+ing men, de)elop8 E$ 8, the barbarit* in the treatment of the paupers, at "hich the English #ress (/he /imes+ Pall Mall =aFette+ etc8! ha)e cried out so loudl* during the last t"o *ears, is of ancient date8 F8 Engels sho"ed in 18 e9actl* the same horrors, e9actl* the same transient canting outcries of @sensational literature8A /ut frightful increase of @deaths b* star)ationA in <ondon during the last ten *ears pro)es be*ond doubt the gro"ing horror in "hich the "or+ing4 people hold the sla)er* of the "or+house, that place of punishment for miser*8 3

B. The Badly 'aid )trata of the Briti#h .ndu#trial Cla##

0uring the cotton famine of 1866, 0r8 Smith "as charged b* the #ri)* 5ouncil "ith an inIuir* into the conditions of nourishment of the distressed operati)es in <ancashire and 5heshire8 -is obser)ations during man* preceding *ears had led him to the conclusion that @to a)ert star)ation diseases,A the dail* food of an a)erage "oman ought to contain at least :,277 grains of carbon "ith 187 grains of nitrogen; the dail* food of an a)erage man, at least ,:77 grains of carbon "ith 677 grains of nitrogen; for "omen, about the same Iuantit* of nutriti)e elements as are contained in 6 lbs8 of good "heaten bread, for men 1J2 more; for the "ee+l* a)erage of adult men and "omen, at least 68,677 grains of carbon and 1,::7 grains of nitrogen8 -is calculation "as practicall* confirmed in a surprising manner b* its agreement "ith the miserable Iuantit* of

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nourishment to "hich "ant had forced do"n the consumption of the cotton operati)es8 'his "as, in 0ecember, 1866, 62,611 grains of carbon, and 1,623 grains of nitrogen "ee+l*8 >n the *ear 186:, the #ri)* 5ouncil ordered an inIuir* into the state of distress of the "orst4 nourished part of the English "or+ing class8 0r8 Simon, medical officer to the #ri)* 5ouncil, chose for this "or+ the abo)e4mentioned 0r8 Smith8 -is inIuir* ranges on the one hand o)er the agricultural labourers, on the other, o)er sil+4"ea)ers, needle"omen, +id4glo)ers, stoc+ing4 "ea)ers, glo)e4"ea)ers, and shoema+ers8 'he latter categories are, "ith the e9ception of the stoc+ing4"ea)ers, e9clusi)el* to"n4d"ellers8 >t "as made a rule in the inIuir* to select in each categor* the most health* families, and those comparati)el* in the best circumstances8 (s a general result it "as found that @in onl* one of the e9amined classes of in4door operati)es did the a)erage nitrogen suppl* Dust e9ceed, "hile in another it nearl* reached, the estimated standard of bare sufficienc* Gi$e8, sufficient to a)ert star)ation diseasesH, and that in t"o classes there "as defect F in one, a )er* large defect F of both nitrogen and carbon8 $oreo)er, as regards the e9amined families of the agricultural population, it appeared that more than a fifth "ere "ith less than the estimated sufficienc* of carbonaceous food, that more than one4third "ere "ith less than the estimated sufficienc* of nitrogenous food, and that in three counties (/er+shire, =9fordshire, and Somersetshire!, insufficienc* of nitrogenous food "as the a)erage local diet8A 6 (mong the agricultural labourers, those of England, the "ealthiest part of the %nited .ingdom, "ere the "orst fed8 7 'he insufficienc* of food among the agricultural labourers, fell, as a rule, chiefl* on the "omen and children, for @the man must eat to do his "or+8A Still greater penur* ra)aged the to"n4"or+ers e9amined8 @'he* are so ill fed that assuredl* among them there must be man* cases of se)ere and inDurious pri)ation8A 8 (@#ri)ationA of the capitalist all thisQ i$e8, @abstinenceA from pa*ing for the means of subsistence absolutel* necessar* for the mere )egetation of his @hands8A! 2 'he follo"ing table sho"s the conditions of nourishment of the abo)e4named categories of purel* to"n4d"elling "or+4people, as compared "ith the minimum assumed b* 0r8 Smith, and "ith the food4allo"ance of the cotton operati)es during the time of their greatest distress: A%era)e .ee<ly A%era)e .ee<ly 6oth e:es carbon Fi)e in4door 68,876 grains occupations %nemplo*ed <ancashire 68,611 grains =perati)es $inimum Iuantit* to be allo"ed to the <ancashire =perati)es, eIual number of males and females 68,677 grains nitro)en 1,126 grains 1,623 grains

1,::7 grains

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=ne half, or 67J163, of the industrial labour categories in)estigated, had absolutel* no beer, 68` no mil+8 'he "ee+l* a)erage of the liIuid means of nourishment in the families )aried from se)en ounces in the needle4"omen to 6 e ounces in the stoc+ing4ma+ers8 'he maDorit* of those "ho did not obtain mil+ "ere needle4"omen in <ondon8 'he Iuantit* of bread4stuffs consumed "ee+l* )aried from 7e lbs8 for the needle4"omen to 11[ lbs8 for the shoema+ers, and ga)e a total a)erage of 282 lbs8 per adult "ee+l*8 Sugar (treacle, etc8! )aried from ounces "ee+l* for the +id4glo)ers to 11 ounces for the stoc+ing4ma+ers; and the total a)erage per "ee+ for all categories "as 8 ounces per adult "ee+l*8 'otal "ee+l* a)erage of butter (fat, etc8! 3 ounces per adult8 'he "ee+l* a)erage of meat (bacon, etc8! )aried from 7f ounces for the sil+4"ea)ers, to 18f ounces for the +id4glo)ers; total a)erage for the different categories 1:86 ounces8 'he "ee+l* cost of food per adult, ga)e the follo"ing a)erage figures; sil+4"ea)ers 6s8 6[d8, needle4"omen 6s8 7d8, +id4glo)ers 6s8 2[d8, shoema+ers 6s 7ed8, stoc+ing4"ea)ers 6s8 6fd8 For the sil+4 "ea)ers of $acclesfield the a)erage "as onl* 1s8 8[d8 'he "orst categories "ere the needle4 "omen, sil+4"ea)ers and +id4glo)ers8 37 =f these facts, 0r8 Simon in his General -ealth &eport sa*s: @'hat cases are innumerable in "hich defecti)e diet is the cause or the aggra)ator of disease, can be affirmed b* an* one "ho is con)ersant "ith poor la" medical practice, or "ith the "ards and out4patient rooms of hospitals8888 Net in this point of )ie", there is, in m* opinion, a )er* important sanitar* conte9t to be added8 >t must be remembered that pri)ation of food is )er* reluctantl* borne, and that as a rule great poorness of diet "ill onl* come "hen other pri)ations ha)e preceded it8 <ong before insufficienc* of diet is a matter of h*gienic concern, long before the ph*siologist "ould thin+ of counting the grains of nitrogen and carbon "hich inter)ene bet"een life and star)ation, the household "ill ha)e been utterl* destitute of material comfort; clothing and fuel "ill ha)e been e)en scantier than food F against inclemencies of "eather there "ill ha)e been no adeIuate protection F d"elling space "ill ha)e been stinted to the degree in "hich o)ercro"ding produces or increases disease; of household utensils and furniture there "ill ha)e been scarcel* an*4e)en cleanliness "ill ha)e been found costl* or difficult, and if there still be self4respectful endea)ours to maintain it, e)er* such endea)our "ill represent additional pangs of hunger8 'he home, too, "ill be "here shelter can be cheapest bought; in Iuarters "here commonl* there is least fruit of sanitar* super)ision, least drainage, least sca)enging, least suppression of public nuisances, least or "orst "ater suppl*, and, if in to"n, least light and air8 Such are the sanitar* dangers to "hich po)ert* is almost certainl* e9posed, "hen it is po)ert* enough to impl* scantiness of food8 (nd "hile the sum of them is of terrible magnitude against life, the mere scantiness of food is in itself of )er* serious moment8888 'hese are painful reflections, especiall* "hen it is remembered that the po)ert* to "hich the* ad)ert is not the deser)ed po)ert* of idleness8 >n all cases it is the po)ert* of "or+ing populations8 >ndeed, as regards the in4door operati)es, the "or+ "hich obtains the scant* pittance of food, is for the most part e9cessi)el* prolonged8 Net e)identl* it is onl* in a Iualified sense that the "or+ can be deemed self4supporting8888 (nd on a )er* large scale the nominal self4 support can be onl* a circuit, longer or shorter, to pauperism8A 31 'he intimate conne9ion bet"een the pangs of hunger of the most industrious la*ers of the "or+ing class, and the e9tra)agant consumption, coarse or refined, of the rich, for "hich capitalist accumulation is the basis, re)eals itself onl* "hen the economic la"s are +no"n8 >t is other"ise "ith the @housing of the poor8A E)er* unpreDudiced obser)er sees that the greater the

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centralisation of the means of production, the greater is the corresponding heaping together of the labourers, "ithin a gi)en space; that therefore the s"ifter capitalistic accumulation, the more miserable are the d"ellings of the "or+ing4people8 @>mpro)ementsA of to"ns, accompan*ing the increase of "ealth, b* the demolition of badl* built Iuarters, the erection of palaces for ban+s, "arehouses, Pc8, the "idening of streets for business traffic, for the carriages of lu9ur*, and for the introduction of tram"a*s, Pc8, dri)e a"a* the poor into e)en "orse and more cro"ded hiding places8 =n the other hand, e)er* one +no"s that the dearness of d"ellings is in in)erse ratio to their e9cellence, and that the mines of miser* are e9ploited b* house speculators "ith more profit or less cost than e)er "ere the mines of #otosi8 'he antagonistic character of capitalist accumulation, and therefore of the capitalistic relations of propert* generall*, 36 is here so e)ident, that e)en the official English reports on this subDect teem "ith heterodo9 onslaughts on @propert* and its rights8A Bith the de)elopment of industr*, "ith the accumulation of capital, "ith the gro"th and @impro)ementA of to"ns, the e)il ma+es such progress that the mere fear of contagious diseases "hich do not spare e)en @respectabilit*,A brought into e9istence from 18 7 to 186 no less than 17 (cts of #arliament on sanitation, and that the frightened bourgeois in some to"ns, as <i)erpool, Glasgo", Pc8, too+ strenuous measures through their municipalities8 Ce)ertheless 0r8 Simon, in his report of 1863, sa*s: @Spea+ing generall*, it ma* be said that the e)ils are uncontrolled in England8A /* order of the #ri)* 5ouncil, in 186 , an inIuir* "as made into the conditions of the housing of the agricultural labourers, in 1863 of the poorer classes in the to"ns8 'he results of the admirable "or+ of 0r8 Lulian -unter are to be found in the se)enth (1863! and eighth (1866! reports on @#ublic -ealth8A 'o the agricultural labourers, > shall come later8 =n the condition of to"n d"ellings, > Iuote, as preliminar*, a general remar+ of 0r8 Simon8 @(lthough m* official point of )ie",A he sa*s, @is one e9clusi)el* ph*sical, common humanit* reIuires that the other aspect of this e)il should not be ignored 8888 >n its higher degrees it Gi$e8, o)er4cro"dingH almost necessaril* in)ol)es such negation of all delicac*, such unclean confusion of bodies and bodil* functions, such e9posure of animal and se9ual na+edness, as is rather bestial than human8 'o be subDect to these influences is a degradation "hich must become deeper and deeper for those on "hom it continues to "or+8 'o children "ho are born under its curse, it must often be a )er* baptism into infam*8 (nd be*ond all measure hopeless is the "ish that persons thus circumstanced should e)er in other respects aspire to that atmosphere of ci)ilisation "hich has its essence in ph*sical and moral cleanliness8A3: <ondon ta+es the first place in o)er4cro"ded habitations, absolutel* unfit for human beings8 @-e feels clear,A sa*s 0r8 -unter, @on t"o points; first, that there are about 67 large colonies in <ondon, of about 17,777 persons each, "hose miserable condition e9ceeds almost an*thing he has seen else"here in England, and is almost entirel* the result of their bad house accommodation; and second, that the cro"ded and dilapidated condition of the houses of these colonies is much "orse than "as the case 67 *ears ago8A3 @>t is not too much to sa* that life in parts of <ondon and Ce"castle is infernal8A33 Further, the better4off part of the "or+ing class, together "ith the small shop+eepers and other elements of the lo"er middle class, falls in <ondon more and more under the curse of these )ile conditions of d"elling, in proportion as @impro)ements,A and "ith them the demolition of old streets and houses, ad)ance, as factories and the afflu9 of human beings gro" in the metropolis, and finall* as house rents rise "ith the ground4rents8

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@&ents ha)e become so hea)* that fe" labouring men can afford more than one room8A36 'here is almost no house4propert* in <ondon that is not o)erburdened "ith a number of middlemen8 For the price of land in <ondon is al"a*s )er* high in comparison "ith its *earl* re)enue, and therefore e)er* bu*er speculates on getting rid of it again at a Dur* price (the e9propriation )aluation fi9ed b* Dur*men!, or on poc+eting an e9traordinar* increase of )alue arising from the neighbourhood of some large establishment8 (s a conseIuence of this there is a regular trade in the purchase of @fag4ends of leases8A @Gentlemen in this business ma* be fairl* e9pected to do as the* do F get all the* can from the tenants "hile the* ha)e them, and lea)e as little as the* can for their successors8A37 'he rents are "ee+l*, and these gentlemen run no ris+8 >n conseIuence of the ma+ing of railroads in the 5it*, @the spectacle has latel* been seen in the East of <ondon of a number of families "andering about some Saturda* night "ith their scant* "orldl* goods on their bac+s, "ithout an* resting place but the "or+house8A38 'he "or+houses are alread* o)er4cro"ded8 and the @impro)ementsA alread* sanctioned b* #arliament are onl* Dust begun8 >f labourers are dri)en a"a* b* the demolition of their old houses, the* do not lea)e their old parish, or at most the* settle do"n on its borders, as near as the* can get to it8 @'he* tr*, of course, to remain as near as possible to their "or+shops8 'he inhabitants do not go be*ond the same or the ne9t parish, parting their t"o4room tenements into single rooms, and cro"ding e)en those8888 E)en at an ad)anced rent, the people "ho are displaced "ill hardl* be able to get an accommodation so good as the meagre one the* ha)e left8888 -alf the "or+men 888 of the Strand 888 "al+ed t"o miles to their "or+8A32 'his same Strand, a main thoroughfare "hich gi)es strangers an imposing idea of the "ealth of <ondon, ma* ser)e as an e9ample of the pac+ing together of human beings in that to"n8 >n one of its parishes, the =fficer of -ealth rec+oned 381 persons per acre, although half the "idth of the 'hames "as rec+oned in8 >t "ill be self4understood that e)er* sanitar* measure, "hich, as has been the case hitherto in <ondon, hunts the labourers from one Iuarter, b* demolishing uninhabitable houses, ser)es onl* to cro"d them together *et more closel* in another8 @Either,A sa*s 0r8 -unter, @the "hole proceeding "ill of necessit* stop as an absurdit*, or the public compassion (Q! be effectuall* aroused to the obligation "hich ma* no" be "ithout e9aggeration called national, of suppl*ing co)er to those "ho b* reason of their ha)ing no capital, cannot pro)ide it for themsel)es, though the* can b* periodical pa*ments re"ard those "ho, "ill pro)ide it for them8A 67 (dmire this capitalistic DusticeQ 'he o"ner of land, of houses, the businessman, "hen e9propriated b* @impro)ementsA such as railroads, the building of ne" streets, Pc8, not onl* recei)es full indemnit*8 -e must, according to la", human and di)ine, be comforted for his enforced @abstinenceA o)er and abo)e this b* a thumping profit8 'he labourer, "ith his "ife and child and chattels, is thro"n out into the street, and F if he cro"ds in too large numbers to"ards Iuarters of the to"n "here the )estries insist on decenc*, he is prosecuted in the name of sanitationQ

:31

5hapter 63

E9cept <ondon, there "as at the beginning of the 12th centur* no single to"n in England of 177,777 inhabitants8 =nl* fi)e had more than 37,7778 Co" there are 68 to"ns "ith more than 37,777 inhabitants8 @'he result of this change is not onl* that the class of to"n people is enormousl* increased, but the old close4pac+ed little to"ns are no" centres, built round on e)er* side, open no"here to air, and being no longer agreeable to the rich are abandoned b* them for the pleasanter outs+irts8 'he successors of these rich are occup*ing the larger houses at the rate of a famil* to each room G888 and find accommodation for t"o or three lodgers 888H and a population, for "hich the houses "ere not intended and Iuite unfit, has been created, "hose surroundings are trul* degrading to the adults and ruinous to the children8A 61 'he more rapidl* capital accumulates in an industrial or commercial to"n, the more rapidl* flo"s the stream of e9ploitable human material, the more miserable are the impro)ised d"ellings of the labourers8 Ce"castle4on4'*ne, as the centre of a coal and iron district of gro"ing producti)eness, ta+es the ne9t place after <ondon in the housing inferno8 Cot less than : ,777 persons li)e there in single rooms8 /ecause of their absolute danger to the communit*, houses in great numbers ha)e latel* been destro*ed b* the authorities in Ce"castle and Gateshead8 'he building of ne" houses progresses )er* slo"l*, business )er* Iuic+l*8 'he to"n "as, therefore, in 1863, more full than e)er8 Scarcel* a room "as to let8 0r8 Embleton, of the Ce"castle Fe)er -ospital, sa*s: @'here can be little doubt that the great cause of the continuance and spread of the t*phus has been the o)er4cro"ding of human beings, and the uncleanliness of their d"ellings8 'he rooms, in "hich labourers in man* cases li)e, are situated in confined and un"holesome *ards or courts, and for space, light, air, and cleanliness, are models of insufficienc* and insalubrit*, and a disgrace to an* ci)ilised communit*; in them men, "omen, and children lie at night huddled together: and as regards the men, the night4shift succeed the da*4shift, and the da*4shift the night4shift in unbro+en series for some time together, the beds ha)ing scarcel* time to cool; the "hole house badl* supplied "ith "ater and "orse "ith pri)ies; dirt*, un)entilated, and pestiferous8A 66 'he price per "ee+ of such lodgings ranges from 8d8 to :s8 @'he to"n of Ce"castle4on4'*ne,A sa*s 0r8 -unter, @contains a sample of the finest tribe of our countr*men, often sun+ b* e9ternal circumstances of house and street into an almost sa)age degradation8A6: (s a result of the ebbing and flo"ing of capital and labour, the state of the d"ellings of an industrial to"n ma* toda* be bearable, tomorro" hideous8 =r the aedileship of the to"n ma* ha)e pulled itself together for the remo)al of the most shoc+ing abuses8 'omorro", li+e a s"arm of locusts, come cro"ding in masses of ragged >rishmen or deca*ed English agricultural labourers8 'he* are sto"ed a"a* in cellars and lofts, or the hitherto respectable labourer?s d"elling is transformed into a lodging house "hose personnel changes as Iuic+l* as the billets in the :7 *ears? "ar8 E9ample: /radford (Nor+shire!8 'here the municipal philistine "as Dust busied "ith urban impro)ements8 /esides, there "ere still in /radford, in 1861, 1,731 uninhabited houses8 /ut no" comes that re)i)al of trade "hich the mildl* liberal $r8 Forster, the negro?s friend, recentl* cro"ed o)er "ith so much grace8 Bith the re)i)al of trade came of course an o)erflo" from the "a)es of the e)er fluctuating @reser)e arm*A or @relati)e surplus population8A 'he frightful cellar habitations and rooms registered in the list, 6 "hich 0r8 -unter obtained from the agent of an >nsurance 5ompan*, "ere for the most part inhabited b* "ell4paid labourers8

:36

5hapter 63

'he* declared that the* "ould "illingl* pa* for better d"ellings if the* "ere to be had8 $ean"hile, the* become degraded, the* fall ill, one and all, "hilst the mildl* liberal Forster, $8 #8, sheds tears o)er the blessings of Free 'rade, and the profits of the eminent men of /radford "ho deal in "orsted8 >n the &eport of September, 1863, 0r8 /ell, one of the poor la" doctors of /radford, ascribes the frightful mortalit* of fe)er4patients in his district to the nature of their d"ellings8 @>n one small cellar measuring 1,377 cubic feet 888 there are ten persons 8888 ;incent Street, Green (ire #lace, and the <e*s include 66: houses ha)ing 1, 37 inhabitants, :3 beds, and :6 pri)ies8888 'he beds4and in that term > include an* roll of dirt* old rags, or an armful of sha)ings4ha)e an a)erage of :8: persons to each, man* ha)e 3 and 6 persons to each, and some people, > am told, are absolutel* "ithout beds; the* sleep in their ordinar* clothes, on the bare boards F *oung men and "omen, married and unmarried, all together8 > need scarcel* add that man* of these d"ellings are dar+, damp, dirt*, stin+ing holes, utterl* unfit for human habitations; the* are the centres from "hich disease and death are distributed amongst those in better circumstances, "ho ha)e allo"ed them thus to fester in our midst8A63 /ristol ta+es the third place after <ondon in the miser* of its d"ellings8 @/ristol, "here the blan+est po)ert* and domestic miser* abound in the "ealthiest to"n of Europe8A 66

C. The 4omad 'opulation

Be turn no" to a class of people "hose origin is agricultural, but "hose occupation is in great part industrial8 'he* are the light infantr* of capital, thro"n b* it, according to its needs, no" to this point, no" to that8 Bhen the* are not on the march, the* @camp8A Comad labour is used for )arious operations of building and draining, bric+4ma+ing, lime4burning, rail"a*4ma+ing, Pc8 ( fl*ing column of pestilence, it carries into the places in "hose neighbourhood it pitches its camp, small4po9, t*phus, cholera, scarlet fe)er, Pc8 67 >n underta+ings that in)ol)e much capital outla*, such as rail"a*s, Pc8, the contractor himself generall* pro)ides his arm* "ith "ooden huts and the li+e, thus impro)ising )illages "ithout an* sanitar* pro)isions, outside the control of the local boards, )er* profitable to the contractor, "ho e9ploits the labourers in t"o4fold fashion F as soldiers of industr* and as tenants8 (ccording as the "ooden hut contains 1, 6, or : holes, its inhabitant, na))*, or "hate)er he ma* be, has to pa* 1, :, or shillings "ee+l*8 68 =ne e9ample "ill suffice8 >n September, 186 , 0r8 Simon reports that the 5hairman of the Cuisances &emo)al 5ommittee of the parish of Se)enoa+s sent the follo"ing denunciation to Sir George Gre*, -ome Secretar*: F @Small4po9 cases "ere rarel* heard of in this parish until about t"el)e months ago8 Shortl* before that time, the "or+s for a rail"a* from <e"isham to 'unbridge "ere commenced here, and, in addition to the principal "or+s being in the immediate neighbourhood of this to"n, here "as also established the deptt for the "hole of the "or+s, so that a large number of persons "as of necessit* emplo*ed here8 (s cottage accommodation could not be obtained for them all, huts "ere built in se)eral places along the line of the "or+s b* the contractor, $r8 La*, for their especial occupation8 'hese huts possessed no )entilation nor drainage, and, besides, "ere necessaril* o)er4cro"ded, because each occupant had to accommodate lodgers, "hate)er the number in his o"n famil* might be, although there "ere onl* t"o rooms to each tenement8 'he conseIuences "ere, according to the medical report "e recei)ed, that in the night4time these poor

:3:

5hapter 63

people "ere compelled to endure all the horror of suffocation to a)oid the pestiferous smells arising from the filth*, stagnant "ater, and the pri)ies close under their "indo"s8 5omplaints "ere at length made to the Cuisances &emo)al 5ommittee b* a medical gentleman "ho had occasion to )isit these huts, and he spo+e of their condition as d"ellings in the most se)ere terms, and he e9pressed his fears that some )er* serious conseIuences might ensue, unless some sanitar* measures "ere adopted8 (bout a *ear ago, $r8 La* promised to appropriate a hut, to "hich persons in his emplo*, "ho "ere suffering from contagious diseases, might at once be remo)ed8 -e repeated that promise on the 6:rd Lul* last, but although since the date of the last #romise there ha)e been se)eral cases of small4 po9 in his huts, and t"o deaths from the same disease, *et he has ta+en no steps "hate)er to carr* out his promise8 =n the 2th September instant, $r8 .elson, surgeon, reported to me further cases of small4po9 in the same huts, and he described their condition as most disgraceful8 > should add, for *our (the -ome Secretar*?s! information that an isolated house, called the #est4house, "hich is set apart for parishioners "ho might be suffering from infectious diseases, has been continuall* occupied b* such patients for man* months past, and is also no" occupied; that in one famil* fi)e children died from small4po9 and fe)er; that from the 1st (pril to the 1st September this *ear, a period of fi)e months, there ha)e been no fe"er than ten deaths from small4po9 in the parish, four of them being in the huts alread* referred to; that it is impossible to ascertain the e9act number of persons "ho ha)e suffered from that disease although the* are +no"n to be man*, from the fact of the families +eeping it as pri)ate as possible8A 62 'he labourers in coal and other mines belong to the best paid categories of the /ritish proletariat8 'he price at "hich the* bu* their "ages "as sho"n on an earlier page8 77 -ere > merel* cast a hurried glance o)er the conditions of their d"ellings8 (s a rule, the e9ploiter of a mine, "hether its o"ner or his tenant, builds a number of cottages for his hands8 'he* recei)e cottages and coal for firing @for nothingA F i$e8, these form part of their "ages, paid in +ind8 'hose "ho are not lodged in this "a* recei)e in compensation ] per annum8 'he mining districts attract "ith rapidit* a large population, made up of the miners themsel)es, and the artisans, shop+eepers, Pc8, that group themsel)es around them8 'he ground4rents are high, as the* are generall* "here population is dense8 'he master tries, therefore, to run up, "ithin the smallest space possible at the mouth of the pit, Dust so man* cottages as are necessar* to pac+ together his hands and their families8 >f ne" mines are opened in the neighbourhood, or old ones are again set "or+ing, the pressure increases8 >n the construction of the cottages, onl* one point of )ie" is of moment, the @abstinenceA of the capitalist from all e9penditure that is not absolutel* una)oidable8 @'he lodging "hich is obtained b* the pitman and other labourers connected "ith the collieries of Corthumberland and 0urham,A sa*s 0r8 Lulian -unter, @is perhaps, on the "hole, the "orst and the dearest of "hich an* large specimens can be found in England, the similar parishes of $onmouthshire e9cepted8888 'he e9treme badness is in the high number of men found in one room, in the smallness of the ground4plot on "hich a great number of houses are thrust, the "ant of "ater, the absence of pri)ies, and the freIuent placing of one house on the top of another, or distribution into flats, 888 the lessee acts as if the "hole colon* "ere encamped, not resident8A71 @>n pursuance of m* instructions,A sa*s 0r8 Ste)ens, @> )isited most of the large collier* )illages in the 0urham %nion8888 Bith )er* fe" e9ceptions, the general statement that no means are ta+en to secure the health of the inhabitants "ould be

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5hapter 63

true of all of them8888 (ll colliers are bound GUbound,? an e9pression "hich, li+e bondage, dates from the age of serfdomH to the collier* lessee or o"ner for t"el)e months8888 >f the colliers e9press discontent, or in an* "a* anno* the W)ie"er,? a mar+ of memorandum is made against their names, and, at the annual Wbinding,? such men are turned off888 >t appears to me that no part of the Wtruc+ s*stem? could be "orse than "hat obtains in these densel*4populated districts8 'he collier is bound to ta+e as part of his hiring a house surrounded "ith pestiferous influences; he cannot help himself, and it appears doubtful "hether an*one else can help him e9cept his proprietor (he is, to all intents and purposes, a serf!, and his proprietor first consults his balance4sheet, and the result is tolerabl* certain8 'he collier is also often supplied "ith "ater b* the proprietor, "hich, "hether it be good or bad, he has to pa* for, or rather he suffers a deduction for from his "ages8A 76 >n conflict "ith @public opinion,A or e)en "ith the =fficers of -ealth, capital ma+es no difficult* about @Dustif*ingA the conditions partl* dangerous, partl* degrading, to "hich it confines the "or+ing and domestic life of the labourer, on the ground that the* are necessar* for profit8 >t is the same thing "hen capital @abstainsA from protecti)e measures against dangerous machiner* in the factor*, from appliances for )entilation and for safet* in mines, Pc8 >t is the same here "ith the housing of the miners8 0r8 Simon, medical officer of the #ri)* 5ouncil, in his official &eport sa*s: @>n apolog* for the "retched household accommodation 888 it is alleged that miners are commonl* "or+ed on lease; that the duration of the lessee?s interest ("hich in collieries is commonl* for 61 *ears!, is not so long that he should deem it "orth his "hile to create good accommodation for his labourers, and for the tradespeople and others "hom the "or+ attracts; that e)en if he "ere disposed to act liberall* in the matter, this disposition "ould commonl* be defeated b* his landlord?s tendenc* to fi9 on him, as ground4rent, an e9orbitant additional charge for the pri)ilege of ha)ing on the surface of the ground the decent and comfortable )illage "hich the labourers of the subterranean propert* ought to inhabit, and that prohibitor* price (if not actual prohibition! eIuall* e9cludes others "ho might desire to build8 >t "ould be foreign to the purpose of this report to enter upon an* discussion of the merits of the abo)e apolog*8 Cor here is it e)en needful to consider "here it "ould be that, if decent accommodation "ere pro)ided, the cost 888 "ould e)entuall* fall F "hether on landlord, or lessee, or labourer, or public8 /ut in presence of such shameful facts as are )ouched for in the anne9ed reports Gthose of 0r8 -unter, 0r8 Ste)ens, Pc8H a remed* ma* "ell be claimed8888 5laims of landlordship are being so used as to do great public "rong8 'he landlord in his capacit* of mine4o"ner in)ites an industrial colon* to labour on his estate, and then in his capacit* of surface4o"ner ma+es it impossible that the labourers "hom he collects, should find proper lodging "here the* must li)e8 'he lessee Gthe capitalist e9ploiterH mean"hile has no pecuniar* moti)e for resisting that di)ision of the bargain; "ell +no"ing that if its latter conditions be e9orbitant, the conseIuences fall, not on him, that his labourers on "hom the* fall ha)e not education enough to +no" the )alue of their sanitar* rights, that neither obscenest lodging nor foulest drin+ing "ater "ill be appreciable inducements to"ards a Wstri+e8?A7:

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5hapter 63

D. Effect of Cri#e# on the Be#t 'aid 'art of the +or-in& cla##

/efore > turn to the regular agricultural labourers, > ma* be allo"ed to sho", b* one e9ample, ho" industrial re)ulsions affect e)en the best4paid, the aristocrac*, of the "or+ing class8 >t "ill be remembered that the *ear 1837 brought one of the great crises "ith "hich the industrial c*cle periodicall* ends8 'he ne9t termination of the c*cle "as due in 18668 (lread* discounted in the regular factor* districts b* the cotton famine, "hich thre" much capital from its "onted sphere into the great centres of the mone*4 mar+et, the crisis assumed, at this time, an especiall* financial character8 >ts outbrea+ in 1866 "as signalised b* the failure of a gigantic <ondon /an+, immediatel* follo"ed b* the collapse of countless s"indling companies8 =ne of the great <ondon branches of industr* in)ol)ed in the catastrophe "as iron shipbuilding8 'he magnates of this trade had not onl* o)er4produced be*ond all measure during the o)ertrading time, but the* had, besides, engaged in enormous contracts on the speculation that credit "ould be forthcoming to an eIui)alent e9tent8 Co", a terrible reaction set in, that e)en at this hour (the end of $arch, 1867! continues in this and other <ondon industries87 'o sho" the condition of the labourers, > Iuote the follo"ing from the circumstantial report of a correspondent of the Mornin ;tar+ "ho, at the end of 1866, and beginning of 1867, )isited the chief centres of distress:
@>n the East End districts of #oplar, $ill"all, Green"ich, 0eptford, <imehouse and 5anning 'o"n, at least 13,777 "or+men and their families "ere in a state of utter destitution, and :,777 s+illed mechanics "ere brea+ing stones in the "or+house *ard (after distress of o)er half a *ear?s duration!8888 > had great difficult* in reaching the "or+house door, for a hungr* cro"d besieged it8888 'he* "ere "aiting for their tic+ets, but the time had not *et arri)ed for the distribution8 'he *ard "as a great sIuare place "ith an open shed running all round it, and se)eral large heaps of sno" co)ered the pa)ing4stones in the middle8 >n the middle, also, "ere little "ic+er4fenced spaces, li+e sheep pens, "here in finer "eather the men "or+ed; but on the da* of m* )isit the pens "ere so sno"ed up that nobod* could sit in them8 $en "ere bus*, ho"e)er, in the open shed brea+ing pa)ing4stones into macadam8 Each man had a big pa)ing4stone for a seat, and he chipped a"a* at the rime4co)ered granite "ith a big hammer until he had bro+en up, and thin+Q fi)e bushels of it, and then he had done his da*?s "or+, and got his da*?s pa* F threepence and an allo"ance of food8 >n another part of the *ard "as a ric+et* little "ooden house, and "hen "e opened the door of it, "e found it filled "ith men "ho "ere huddled together shoulder to shoulder for the "armth of one another?s bodies and breath8 'he* "ere pic+ing oa+um and disputing the "hile as to "hich could "or+ the longest on a gi)en Iuantit* of food F for endurance "as the point of honour8 Se)en thousand 888 in this one "or+house 888 "ere recipients of relief 888 man* hundreds of them 888 it appeared, "ere, si9 or eight months ago, earning the highest "ages paid to artisans8888 'heir number "ould be more than doubled b* the count of those "ho, ha)ing e9hausted all their sa)ings, still refuse to appl* to the parish, because the* ha)e a little left to pa"n8 <ea)ing the "or+house, > too+ a "al+ through the streets, mostl* of little one4store* houses,

:36

5hapter 63

that abound in the neighbourhood of #oplar8 $* guide "as a member of the 5ommittee of the %nemplo*ed8888 $* first call "as on an iron"or+er "ho had been se)en and t"ent* "ee+s out of emplo*ment8 > found the man "ith his famil* sitting in a little bac+ room8 'he room "as not bare of furniture, and there "as a fire in it8 'his "as necessar* to +eep the na+ed feet of the *oung children from getting frost bitten, for it "as a bitterl* cold da*8 =n a tra* in front of the fire la* a Iuantit* of oa+um, "hich the "ife and children "ere pic+ing in return for their allo"ance from the parish8 'he man "or+ed in the stone *ard of the "or+house for a certain ration of food, and threepence per da*8 -e had no" come home to dinner Iuite hungr*, as he told us "ith a melanchol* smile, and his dinner consisted of a couple of slices of bread and dripping, and a cup of mil+less tea8888 'he ne9t door at "hich "e +noc+ed "as opened b* a middle4aged "oman, "ho, "ithout sa*ing a "ord, led us into a little bac+ parlour, in "hich sat all her famil*, silent and fi9edl* staring at a rapidl* d*ing fire8 Such desolation, such hopelessness "as about these people and their little room, as > should not care to "itness again8 WCothing ha)e the* done, sir,? said the "oman, pointing to her bo*s, Wfor si9 and t"ent* "ee+s; and all our mone* gone F all the t"ent* pounds that me and father sa)ed "hen times "ere better, thin+ing it "ould *ield a little to +eep us "hen "e got past "or+8 <oo+ at it,? she said, almost fiercel*, bringing out a ban+4boo+ "ith all its "ell +ept entries of mone* paid in, and mone* ta+en out, so that "e could see ho" the little fortune had begun "ith the first fi)e shilling deposit, and had gro"n b* little and little to be t"ent* pounds, and ho" it had melted do"n again till the sum in hand got from pounds to shillings, and the last entr* made the boo+ as "orthless as a blan+ sheet8 'his famil* recei)ed relief from the "or+house, and it furnished them "ith Dust one scant* meal per da*8888 =ur ne9t )isit "as to an iron labourer?s "ife, "hose husband had "or+ed in the *ards8 Be found her ill from "ant of food, l*ing on a mattress in her clothes, and Dust co)ered "ith a strip of carpet, for all the bedding had been pa"ned8 '"o "retched children "ere tending her, themsel)es loo+ing as much in need of nursing as their mother8 Cineteen "ee+s of enforced idleness had brought them to this pass, and "hile the mother told the histor* of that bitter past, she moaned as if all her faith in a future that should atone for it "ere dead8888 =n getting outside a *oung fello" came running after us, and as+ed us to step inside his house and see if an*thing could be done for him8 ( *oung "ife, t"o prett* children, a cluster of pa"n4tic+ets, and a bare room "ere all he had to sho"8A =n the after pains of the crisis of 1866, the follo"ing e9tract from a 'or* ne"spaper8 >t must not be forgotten that the East4end of <ondon, "hich is here dealt "ith, is not onl* the seat of the iron shipbuilding mentioned abo)e, but also of a so4called @home4industr*A al"a*s underpaid8 @( frightful spectacle "as to be seen *esterda* in one part of the metropolis8 (lthough the unemplo*ed thousands of the East4end did not parade "ith their blac+ flags en masse+ the human torrent "as imposing enough8 <et us remember "hat these people suffer8 'he* are d*ing of hunger8 'hat is the simple and terrible fact8 'here are 7,777 of them8888 >n our presence, in one Iuarter of this "onderful metropolis, are pac+ed F ne9t door to the most enormous accumulation of "ealth the "orld e)er sa" F chee+ b* Do"l "ith this are 7,777 helpless, star)ing people8 'hese thousands are no" brea+ing in upon the other Iuarters; al"a*s half4 star)ing, the* cr* their miser* in our ears, the* cr* to -ea)en, the* tell us from their miserable d"ellings, that it is impossible for them to find "or+, and useless

:37

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for them to beg8 'he local ratepa*ers themsel)es are dri)en b* the parochial charges to the )erge of pauperism8A F (;tandard+ 3th (pril, 18678! (s it is the fashion amongst English capitalists to Iuote /elgium as the #aradise of the labourer because @freedom of labour,A or "hat is the same thing, @freedom of capital,A is there limited neither b* the despotism of 'rades? %nions, nor b* Factor* (cts, a "ord or t"o on the @happiness? of the /elgian labourer8 (ssuredl* no one "as more thoroughl* initiated in the m*steries of this happiness than the late $8 0ucpRtiau9, inspector4general of /elgian prisons and charitable institutions, and member of the central commission of /elgian statistics8 <et us ta+e his "or+: @/udgets RconomiIues des classes ou)rinres de la /elgiIue,A /ru9elles, 18338 -ere "e find among other matters, a normal /elgian labourer?s famil*, "hose *earl* income and e9penditure he calculates on )er* e9act data, and "hose conditions of nourishment are then compared "ith those of the soldier, sailor, and prisoner8 'he famil* @consists of father, mother, and four children8A =f these 6 persons @four ma* be usefull* emplo*ed the "hole *ear through8A >t is assumed that @there is no sic+ person nor one incapable of "or+, among them,A nor are there @e9penses for religious, moral, and intellectual purposes, e9cept a )er* small sum for church sittings,A nor @contributions to sa)ings ban+s or benefit societies,A nor @e9penses due to lu9ur* or the result of impro)idence8A 'he father and eldest son, ho"e)er, allo" themsel)es @the use of tobacco,A and on Sunda*s @go to the cabaret,A for "hich a "hole 86 centimes a "ee+ are rec+oned8 @From a general compilation of "ages allo"ed to the labourers in different trades, it follo"s that the highest a)erage of dail* "age is 1 franc 36c8, for men, 82 centimes for "omen, 36 centimes for bo*s, and 33 centimes for girls8 5alculated at this rate, the resources of the famil* "ould amount, at the ma9imum, to 1,768 francs a4*ear8888 >n the famil* 888 ta+en as t*pical "e ha)e calculated all possible resources8 /ut in ascribing "ages to the mother of the famil* "e raise the &uestion of the direction of the household$ -o" "ill its internal econom* be cared forE Bho "ill loo+ after the *oung childrenE Bho "ill get read* the meals, do the "ashing and mendingE 'his is the dilemma incessantl* presented to the labourers8A (ccording to this the budget of the famil* is: 'he father mother bo* girl :77 "or+ing da*s at fr8 fr8 68 1836 :77 "or+ing da*s at fr8 fr8 667 7882 :77 "or+ing da*s at fr8 fr8 168 7836 :77 "or+ing da*s at fr8 fr8 163 7833 'otal fr8 1,768 'he annual e9penditure of the famil* "ould cause a deficit upon the h*pothesis that the labourer has the food of:

:38

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'he man4of4"ar?s man fr8 1,868 0eficit fr8 767 'he soldier fr8 1, 7: 0eficit fr8 73 'he prisoner fr8 1,116 0eficit fr8 @Be see that fe" labouring families can reach, "e "ill not sa* the a)erage of the sailor or soldier, but e)en that of the prisoner8 W'he general a)erage (of the cost of each prisoner in the different prisons during the period 18 7418 2!, has been 6: centimes for all prisons8 'his figure, compared "ith that of the dail* maintenance of the labourer, sho"s a difference of 1: centimes8 >t must be remar+ed further, that if in the prisons it is necessar* to set do"n in the account the e9penses of administration and sur)eillance, on the other hand, the prisoners ha)e not to pa* for their lodging; that the purchases the* ma+e at the canteens are not included in the e9penses of maintenance, and that these e9penses are greatl* lo"ered in conseIuence of the large number of persons that ma+e up the establishments, and of contracting for or bu*ing "holesale, the food and other things that enter into their consumption8888 -o" comes it, ho"e)er, that a great number, "e might sa*, a great maDorit*, of labourers, li)e in a more economical "a*E >t is 888 b* adopting e9pedients, the secret of "hich onl* the labourer +no"s;, b* reducing his dail* rations; b* substituting r*e4bread for "heat; b* eating less meat, or e)en none at all, and the same "ith butter and condiments; b* contenting themsel)es "ith one or t"o rooms "here the famil* is crammed together, "here bo*s and girls sleep side b* side, often on the same pallet; b* econom* of clothing, "ashing, decenc*: b* gi)ing up the Sunda* di)ersions; b*, in short, resigning themsel)es to the most painful pri)ations8 =nce arri)ed at this e9treme limit, the least rise in the price of food, stoppage of "or+, illness, increases the labourer?s distress and determines his complete ruin; debts accumulate, credit fails, the most necessar* clothes and furniture are pa"ned, and finall*, the famil* as+s to be enrolled on the list of paupers8A (0ucpRtiau9, l8 c8, pp8 131, 13 , 1338! >n fact, in this @#aradise of capitalistsA there follo"s, on the smallest change in the price of the most essential means of subsistence, a change in the number of deaths and crimesQ (See $anifesto of the $aatschappiD: @0e ;lamingen ;ooruitQA /russels, 1867, pp8 13, 168! >n all /elgium are 2:7,777 families, of "hom, according to the official statistics, 27,777 are "ealth* and on the list of )oters Y 37,777 persons; :27,777 families of the lo"er middle4class in to"ns and )illages, the greater part of them constantl* sin+ing into the proletariat, Y 1,237,777 persons, Finall*, 37,777 "or+ing class families Y 6,637,777 persons, of "hom the model ones enDo* the happiness depicted b* 0ucpRtiau98 =f the 37,777 "or+ing class families, o)er 677,777 are on the pauper list8

E. The Briti#h A&ricultural 'roletariat

Co"here does the antagonistic character of capitalistic product and accumulation assert itself more brutall* than in the progress of English agriculture (including cattle4breeding! and the retrogression of the English agricultural labourer8 /efore > turn to his present situation, a rapid retrospect8 $odern agriculture dates in England from the middle of the 18th centur*, although the re)olution in landed propert*, from "hich the changed mode of production starts as a basis, has a much earlier date8 >f "e ta+e the statements of (rthur Noung, a careful obser)er, though a superficial thin+er, as to the agricultural labourer of 1771, the latter pla*s a )er* pitiable part compared "ith his predecessor of the end of the 1 th centur*,

:32

5hapter 63

@"hen the labourer 888 could li)e in plent*, and accumulate "ealth,A 73 not to spea+ of the 13th centur*, @the golden age of the English labourer in to"n and countr*8A Be need not, ho"e)er, go bac+ so far8 >n a )er* instructi)e "or+ of the *ear 1777 "e read: @'he great farmer is nearl* mounted to a le)el "ith him Gthe gentlemanH; "hile the poor labourer is depressed almost to the earth8 -is unfortunate situation "ill full* appear, b* ta+ing a comparati)e )ie" of it, onl* fort* *ears ago, and at present8888 <andlord and tenant 888 ha)e both gone hand in hand in +eeping the labourer do"n8A76 >t is then pro)ed in detail that the real agricultural "ages bet"een 17:7 and 1777 fell nearl* f or 63 per cent8 @$odern polic*,A sa*s 0r8 &ichard #rice also, @is, indeed, more fa)ourable to the higher classes of people; and the conseIuences ma* in time pro)e that the "hole +ingdom "ill consist of onl* gentr* and beggars, or of grandees and sla)es8A 77 Ce)ertheless, the position of the English agricultural labourer from 1777 to 1787, "ith regard to his food and d"elling, as "ell as to his self4respect, amusements, Pc8, is an ideal ne)er attained again since that time8 -is a)erage "age e9pressed in pints of "heat "as from 1777 to 1771, 27 pints, in Eden?s time (1727! onl* 63, in 1878 but 67878 'he state of the agricultural labourer at the end of the (nti4Lacobin Bar, during "hich landed proprietors, farmers, manufacturers, merchants, ban+ers, stoc+bro+ers, arm*4contractors, Pc8, enriched themsel)es so e9traordinaril*, has been alread* indicated abo)e8 'he nominal "ages rose in conseIuence partl* of the ban+4note depreciation, partl* of a rise in the price of the primar* means of subsistence independent of this depreciation8 /ut the actual "age4)ariation can be e)idenced in a )er* simple "a*, "ithout entering into details that are here unnecessar*8 'he #oor <a" and its administration "ere in 1723 and 181 the same8 >t "ill be remembered ho" this la" "as carried out in the countr* districts: in the form of alms the parish made up the nominal "age to the nominal sum reIuired for the simple )egetation of the labourer8 'he ratio bet"een the "ages paid b* the farmer, and the "age4deficit made good b* the parish, sho"s us t"o things8 First, the falling of "ages belo" their minimum; second, the degree in "hich the agricultural labourer "as a compound of "age labourer and pauper, or the degree in "hich he had been turned into a serf of his parish8 <et us ta+e one count* that represents the a)erage condition of things in all counties8 >n Corthamptonshire, in 1723, the a)erage "ee+l* "age "as 7s8 6d8; the total *earl* e9penditure of a famil* of 6 persons, ]:6 16s8 3d8; their total income, ]62 18s8; deficit made good b* the parish, ]6 1 s8 3d8 >n 181 , in the same count*, the "ee+l* "age "as 16s8 6d8; the total *earl* e9penditure of a famil* of 3 persons, ]3 18s8 d8; their total income, ]:6, 6s8; deficit made good b* the parish, ]18 6s8 d8 72 >n 1723 the deficit "as less than 1J the "age, in 181 , more than half8 >t is self4e)ident that, under these circumstances, the meagre comforts that Eden still found in the cottage of the agricultural labourer, had )anished b* 181 8 87 =f all the animals +ept b* the farmer, the labourer, the instrumentum vocals, "as, thenceforth, the most oppressed, the "orst nourished, the most brutall* treated8 'he same state of things "ent on Iuietl* until @the S"ing riots, in 18:7, re)ealed to us (i$e8, the ruling classes! b* the light of bla1ing corn4stac+s, that miser* and blac+ mutinous discontent smouldered Iuite as fiercel* under the surface of agricultural as of manufacturing England8A 81 (t this time, Sadler, in the -ouse of 5ommons, christened the agricultural labourers @"hite sla)es,A and a /ishop echoed the epithet in the %pper -ouse8 'he most notable political economist of that period F E8 G8 Ba+efield F sa*s:

:67

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@'he peasant of the South of England 888 is not a freeman, nor is he a sla)e; he is a pauper8A86 'he time Dust before the repeal of the 5orn <a"s thre" ne" light on the condition of the agricultural labourers8 =n the one hand; it "as to the interest of the middle4class agitators to pro)e ho" little the 5orn <a"s protected the actual producers of the corn8 =n the other hand, the industrial bourgeoisie foamed "ith sullen rage at the denunciations of the factor* s*stem b* the landed aristocrac*, at the pretended s*mpath* "ith the "oes of the factor* operati)es, of those utterl* corrupt, heartless, and genteel loafers, and at their @diplomatic 1ealA for factor* legislation8 >t is an old English pro)erb that @"hen thie)es fall out, honest men come b* their o"n,A and, in fact, the nois*, passionate Iuarrel bet"een the t"o fractions of the ruling class about the Iuestion, "hich of the t"o e9ploited the labourers the more shamefull*, "as on each hand the mid"ife of the truth8 Earl Shaftesbur*, then <ord (shle*, "as commander4in4chief in the aristocratic, philanthropic, anti4factor* campaign8 -e "as, therefore, in 18 3, a fa)ourite subDect in the re)elations of the Mornin Chronicle on the condition of the agricultural labourers8 'his Dournal, then the most important <iberal organ, sent special commissioners into the agricultural districts, "ho did not content themsel)es "ith mere general descriptions and statistics, but published the names both of the labouring families e9amined and of their landlords8 'he follo"ing list gi)es the "ages paid in three )illages in the neighbourhood of /lanford, Bimbourne, and #oole8 'he )illages are the propert* of $r8 G8 /an+es and of the Earl of Shaftesbur*8 >t "ill be noted that, Dust li+e /an+es, this @lo" church pope,A this head of English pietists, poc+ets a great part of the miserable "ages of the labourers under the prete9t of house4rent: F 3/$ T !/88A4* (a5 5hildren8 (b5 Cumber of $embers in Famil*8 (c5 Bee+l* Bage of the $en8 6 : 3 8s8 7d8 F 8s8 7d8 1s8 6d8 6s8 6d8 1s8 :[d 8 6 6 6 8 7s8 7d8 1J4, 1J6 17s8 6d8 : 3 7s8 7d8

(d5 Bee+l* Bage of the 5hildren8 (e5 Bee+l* >ncome of 8s8 the "hole Famil*8 7d 8 (f5 Bee+l* &ent8 6s8 7d 8 ( 5 'otal Bee+l* 6s8 "age after deduction 7d of &ent8 8 (h5 Bee+l* income 1s8 per head8 6d 8

8s8 7d 8 F

8s8 7d 8 F 8s8 7d 8 1s8 7d 8 7s8 7d 8 1s8 2d 8

8s8 7d 8 F

1J4, 6J4 7s8 7d8

8s8 7d 8 1s8 6s8 7d 7d8 8 7s8 8s8 7d 6d8 8 1s8 1s8 7 2d :J d8 8

1s8 d8

3s8 8d8

1s8 1[d8

:61

5hapter 63

*C+,7 !/88A4* (a5 5hildren8 (b5 Cumber of $embers in Famil*8 (c5 Bee+l* Bage of the $en8 (d5 Bee+l* Bage of the 5hildren8 (e5 Bee+l* >ncome of the "hole Famil*8 (f5 Bee+l* &ent8

6 8 7s8 7d8 1J4, 1J6 17s8 7d8 1s8 6d8

6 8

8 17 7s8 7d8 F 7s8 7d8 1s8 :[d 8 3s8 8[d 8 7s8 7d8

6 7s8 7d8 F 7s8 7d8 1s8 6[d 8 3s8 3[d 8 7s8 11d8

: 3 7s8 7d8 F 7s8 7d8 1s8 6[d8

( 5 'otal Bee+l* "age after deduction of &ent8 (h5 Bee+l* income per head8

7s8 7d8 1J4, 1J6 7s8 7d8 1s8 :[d 8 8s8 3s8 6d8 8[d 8 1s8 7 7s8 :J d8 8[d 8

3s8 3[d8

1s8 1d8

T=/$7 !/88A4* (a5 5hildren8 (b5 Cumber of $embers in Famil*8 (c5 Bee+l* Bage of the $en8 (d5 Bee+l* Bage of the 5hildren8 (e5 Bee+l* >ncome of the "hole Famil*8 (f5 Bee+l* &ent8 ( 5 'otal Bee+l* "age after deduction of &ent8 (h5 Bee+l* income per head88:

: 6 7s8 7d8 4 7s8 7d8 1s8 7d8 6s8 7d8 1s8 7d8 3 7s8 7d8 1J4 6J4 11s8 6d8 7s8 17d8 17s8 8d8 6s8 1 :J3d8

7 6 3s8 7d8 1J4 6J6 3s8 7d8 1s8 7d8 s8 7d8 6s8 7d8

'he repeal of the 5orn <a"s ga)e a mar)ellous impulse to English agriculture8 8 0rainage on the most e9tensi)e scale, ne" methods of stall4feeding, and of the artificial culti)ation of green crops, introduction of mechanical manuring apparatus, ne" treatment of cla* soils, increased use of numeral manures, emplo*ment of the steam4engine, and of all +inds of ne" machiner*, more intensi)e culti)ation generall*, characterised this epoch8 $r8 #use*, 5hairman of the &o*al (gricultural Societ*, declares that the (relati)e! e9penses of farming ha)e been reduced nearl* one half b* the introduction of ne" machiner*8 =n the other hand, the actual return of the soil rose rapidl*8 Greater outla* of capital per acre, and, as a conseIuence, more rapid concentration of farms, "ere essential conditions of the ne" method8 83 (t the same time, the area under

:66

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culti)ation increased, from 18 6 to 1836, b* 6 ,112 acres, "ithout rec+oning the great area in the Eastern 5ounties "hich "as transformed from rabbit "arrens and poor pastures into magnificent corn4fields8 >t has alread* been seen that, at the same time, the total number of persons emplo*ed in agriculture fell8 (s far as the actual agricultural labourers of both se9es and of all ages are concerned, their number fell from 1,6 1,:26, in 1831, to 1,16:, 617 in 18618 86 >f the English &egistrar4General, therefore, rightl* remar+s: @'he increase of farmers and farm4labourers, since 1871, bears no +ind of proportion 888 to the increase of agricultural produce,A 87 this disproportion obtains much more for the last period, "hen a positi)e decrease of the agricultural population "ent hand in hand "ith increase of the area under culti)ation, "ith more intensi)e culti)ation, unheard4of accumulation of the capital incorporated "ith the soil, and de)oted to its "or+ing, an augmentation in the products of the soil "ithout parallel in the histor* of English agriculture, plethoric rent4rolls of landlords, and gro"ing "ealth of the capitalist farmers8 >f "e ta+e this, together "ith the s"ift, unbro+en e9tension of the mar+ets, viF8, the to"ns, and the reign of Free 'rade, then the agricultural labourer "as at last, post tot discrimina rerum+ placed in circumstances that ought, secundum ariem+ to ha)e made him drun+ "ith happiness8 /ut #rofessor &ogers comes to the conclusion that the lot of the English agricultural labourer of toda*, not to spea+ of his predecessor in the last half of the 1 th and in the 13th centur*, but onl* compared "ith his predecessor from 1777 to 1787, has changed for the "orse to an e9traordinar* e9tent, that @the peasant has again become a serf,A and a serf "orse fed and "orse clothed8 88 0r8 Lulian -unter, in his epoch ma+ing report on the d"ellings of the agricultural labourers, sa*s: @'he cost of the hindA (a name for the agricultural labourer, inherited from the time of serfdom! @is fi9ed at the lo"est possible amount on "hich he can li)e 888 the supplies of "ages and shelter are not calculated on the profit to be deri)ed from him8 -e is a 1ero in farming calculations 888 82 'he means Gof subsistenceH being al"a*s supposed to be a fi9ed Iuantit*8 27(s to an* further reduction of his income, he ma* sa*, nihil habeo nihil curo$ -e has no fears for the future, because he has no" onl* the spare suppl* necessar* to +eep him8 -e has reached the 1ero from "hich are dated the calculations of the farmer8 5ome "hat "ill, he has no share either in prosperit* or ad)ersit*8A21 >n the *ear 186:, an official inIuir* too+ place into the conditions of nourishment and labour of the criminals condemned to transportation and penal ser)itude8 'he results are recorded in t"o )oluminous /lue boo+s8 (mong other things it is said: @From an elaborate comparison bet"een the diet of con)icts in the con)ict prisons in England, and that of paupers in "or+houses and of free labourers in the same countr* 888 it certainl* appears that the former are much better fed than either of the t"o other classes,A26 "hilst @the amount of labour reIuired from an ordinar* con)ict under penal ser)itude is about one half of "hat "ould be done b* an ordinar* da*4labourer8A 2: ( fe" characteristic depositions of "itnesses: Lohn Smith, go)ernor of the Edinburgh prison, deposes: Co8 37368 @'he diet of the English prisons GisH superior to that of ordinar* labourers in England8A Co 378 @>t is the fact 888 that the ordinar* agricultural labourers in Scotland )er* seldom get an* meat at all8A (ns"er Co8 :7 78 @>s there an*thing that *ou are a"are of to account for the necessit* of feeding them )er* much better than ordinar* labourersE F 5ertainl* not8A Co8 :7 88 @0o *ou

:6:

5hapter 63

thin+ that further e9periments ought to be made in order to ascertain "hether a dietar* might not be hit upon for prisoners emplo*ed on public "or+s nearl* approaching to the dietar* of free labourersE 888A 2 @-e Gthe agricultural labourerH might sa*: W> "or+ hard, and ha)e not enough to eat, and "hen in prison > did not "or+ harder "here > had plent* to eat, and therefore it is better for me to be in prison again than here8?A 23 From the tables appended to the first )olume of the &eport > ha)e compiled the anne9ed comparati)e summar*8 BEE.<N ($=%C' =F C%'&>EC'S Kuantit* =f Kuantit* =f Kuantit* =f '='(< Citrogenous Con4Citro4 genous >n4 >ngredients gredients =unces =unces #ortland (con)ict! 68823 137876 Sailor in the Ca)* 6286: 136821 Soldier 63833 11 8 2 Bor+ing 5oachma+er 6 83: 166876 5ompositor 6186 17788: 26 (gricultural labourer 1787: 118876 $ineral $atter =unces 868 836 :82 86: :816 :862 =unces 18:862 187876 1 :828 127886 163812 1:2878

'he general result of the inIuir* b* the medical commission of 186: on the food of the lo"est fed classes, is alread* +no"n to the reader8 -e "ill remember that the diet of a great part of the agricultural labourers? families is belo" the minimum necessar* @to arrest star)ation diseases8A 'his is especiall* the case in all the purel* rural districts of 5orn"all, 0e)on, Somerset, Bilts, Stafford, =9ford, /er+s, and -erts8 @'he nourishment obtained b* the labourer himself,A sa*s 0r8 E8 Smith, @is larger than the a)erage Iuantit* indicates, since he eats a larger share 888 necessar* to enable him to perform his labour 888 of food than the other members of the famil*, including in the poorer districts nearl* all the meat and bacon8888 'he Iuantit* of food obtained b* the "ife and also b* the children at the period of rapid gro"th, is in man* cases, in almost e)er* count*, deficient, and particularl* in nitrogen8A 27 'he male and female ser)ants li)ing "ith the farmers themsel)es are sufficientl* nourished8 'heir number fell from 688,677 in 1831, to 67 ,266 in 18618 @'he labour of "omen in the fields,A sa*s 0r8 Smith, @"hate)er ma* be its disad)antages, 888 is under present circumstances of great ad)antage to the famil*, since it adds that amount of income "hich 888 pro)ides shoes and clothing and pa*s the rent, and thus enables the famil* to be better fed8A 28 =ne of the most remar+able results of the inIuir* "as that the agricultural labourer of England, as compared "ith other parts of the %nited .ingdom, @is considerabl* the "orst fed,A as the appended table sho"s: Kuantities of 5arbon and Citrogen "ee+l* consumed b* an a)erage agricultural adult: 5arbon, Citrogen,

:6

5hapter 63

grains grains England 6,67: 1,32 Bales 8,:3 6,7:1 Scotland 8,287 6,: 8 22 >reland :,:66 6, : @'o the insufficient Iuantit* and miserable Iualit* of the house accommodation generall* had,A sa*s 0r8 Simon, in his official -ealth &eport, @b* our agricultural labourers, almost e)er* page of 0r8 -unter?s report bears testimon*8 (nd graduall*, for man* *ears past, the state of the labourer in these respects has been deteriorating, house4room being no" greatl* more difficult for him to find, and, "hen found, greatl* less suitable to his needs than, perhaps, for centuries had been the case8 Especiall* "ithin the last t"ent* or thirt* *ears, the e)il has been in )er* rapid increase, and the household circumstances of the labourer are no" in the highest degree deplorable8 E9cept in so far as the* "hom his labour enriches, see fit to treat him "ith a +ind of pitiful indulgence, he is Iuite peculiarl* helpless in the matter8 Bhether he shall find house4room on the land "hich he contributes to till, "hether the house4room "hich he gets shall be human or s"inish, "hether he shall ha)e the little space of garden that so )astl* lessens the pressure of his po)ert* F all this does not depend on his "illingness and abilit* to pa* reasonable rent for the decent accommodation he reIuires, but depends on the use "hich others ma* see fit to ma+e of their Wright to do as the* "ill "ith their o"n8? -o"e)er large ma* be a farm, there8 is no la" that a certain proportion of labourers? d"ellings (much less of decent d"ellings! shall be upon it; nor does an* la" reser)e for the labourer e)er so little right in that soil to "hich his industr* is as needful as sun and rain8888 (n e9traneous element "eighs the balance hea)il* against him 888 the influence of the #oor <a" in its pro)isions concerning settlement and chargeabilit*8177 %nder this influence, each parish has a pecuniar* interest in reducing to a minimum the number of its resident labourers: F for, unhappil*, agricultural labour instead of impl*ing a safe and permanent independence for the hard"or+ing labourer and his famil*, implies for the most part onl* a longer or shorter circuit to e)entual pauperism F a pauperism "hich, during the "hole circuit, is so near, that an* illness or temporar* failure of occupation necessitates immediate recourse to parochial relief F and thus all residence of agricultural population in a parish is glaringl* an addition to its poor4 rates 8888 <arge proprietors 171 888 ha)e but to resol)e that there shall be no labourers? d"ellings on their estates, and their estates "ill thenceforth be )irtuall* free from half their responsibilit* for the poor8 -o" far it has been intended, in the English constitution and la", that this +ind of unconditional propert* in land should be acIuirable, and that a landlord Wdoing as he "ills "ith his o"n,? should be able to treat the culti)ators of the soil as aliens, "hom he ma* e9pel from his territor*, is a Iuestion "hich > do not pretend to discuss8888 For that (po"er! of e)iction 888 does not e9ist onl* in theor*8 =n a )er* large scale it pre)ails in practice F pre)ails 888 as a main go)erning condition in the household circumstances of agricultural labour8888 (s regards the e9tent of the e)il, it ma* suffice to refer to the e)idence "hich 0r8 -unter has compiled from the last census, that destruction of houses, not"ithstanding increased local demands for them, had, during the last ten *ears, been in progress in 861 separate parishes or

:63

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to"nships of England, so that irrespecti)el* of persons "ho had been forced to become non4resident (that is in the parishes in "hich the* "or+!, these parishes and to"nships "ere recei)ing in 1861, as compared "ith 1831, a population 3 1J: per cent8 greater, into houseroom [ per cent8 less888 Bhen the process of depopulation has completed itself, the result, sa*s 0r8 -unter, is a sho"4)illage "here the cottages ha)e been reduced to a fe", and "here none but persons "ho are needed as shepherds, gardeners, or game4+eepers, are allo"ed to li)e; regular ser)ants "ho recei)e the good treatment usual to their class8 176 /ut the land reIuires culti)ation, and it "ill be found that the labourers emplo*ed upon it are not the tenants of the o"ner, but that the* come from a neighbouring open )illage, perhaps three miles off, "here a numerous small proprietar* had recei)ed them "hen their cottages "ere destro*ed in the close )illages around8 Bhere things are tending to the abo)e result, often the cottages "hich stand, testif*, in their unrepaired and "retched condition, to the e9tinction to "hich the* are doomed8 'he* are seen standing in the )arious stages of natural deca*8 Bhile the shelter holds together, the labourer is permitted to rent it, and glad enough he "ill often be to do so, e)en at the price of decent lodging8 /ut no repair, no impro)ement shall it recei)e, e9cept such as its penniless occupants can suppl*8 (nd "hen at last it becomes Iuite uninhabitable F uninhabitable e)en to the humblest standard of serfdom F it "ill be but one more destro*ed cottage, and future poor4rates "ill be some"hat lightened8 Bhile great o"ners are thus escaping from poor4rates through the depopulation of lands o)er "hich the* ha)e control, the nearest to"n or open )illage recei)e the e)icted labourers: the nearest, > sa*, but this @nearestA ma* mean three or four miles distant from the farm "here the labourer has his dail* toil8 'o that dail* toil there "ill then ha)e to be added, as though it "ere nothing, the dail* need of "al+ing si9 or eight miles for po"er of earning his bread8 (nd "hate)er farm "or+ is done b* his "ife and children, is done at the same disad)antage8 Cor is this nearl* all the toil "hich the distance occasions him8 >n the open )illage, cottage4speculators bu* scraps of land, "hich the* throng as densel* as the* can "ith the cheapest of all possible ho)els8 (nd into those "retched habitations ("hich, e)en if the* adDoin the open countr*, ha)e some of the "orst features of the "orst to"n residences! cro"d the agricultural labourers of England8 17:8888 Cor on the other hand must it be supposed that e)en "hen the labourer is housed upon the lands "hich he culti)ates, his household circumstances are generall* such as his life of producti)e industr* "ould seem to deser)e8 E)en on princel* estates 888 his cottage 888 ma* be of the meanest description8 'here are landlords "ho deem an* st*e good enough for their labourer and his famil*, and "ho *et do not disdain to dri)e "ith him the hardest possible bargain for rent817 >t ma* be but a ruinous one4bedroomed hut, ha)ing no fire4grate, no pri)*, no opening "indo", no "ater suppl* but the ditch, no garden F but the labourer is helpless against the "rong8888 (nd the Cuisances &emo)al (cts 888 are 888 a mere dead letter 888 in great part dependent for their "or+ing on such cottage4o"ners as the one from "hom his (the labourer?s! ho)el is rented8888 From brighter, but e9ceptional scenes, it is reIuisite in the interests of Dustice, that attention should again be dra"n to the o)er"helming preponderance of facts "hich are a reproach to the ci)ilisation of England8 <amentable indeed, must be the case, "hen, not"ithstanding all that is e)ident "ith regard to the Iualit* of the present accommodation, it is the common conclusion of competent obser)ers that

:66

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e)en the general badness of d"ellings is an e)il infinitel* less urgent than their mere numerical insufficienc*8 For *ears the o)er4cro"ding of rural labourers? d"ellings has been a matter of deep concern, not onl* to persons "ho care for sanitar* good, but to persons "ho care for decent and moral life8 For, again and again in phrases so uniform that the* seem stereot*ped, reporters on the spread of epidemic disease in rural districts, ha)e insisted on the e9treme importance of that o)er4cro"ding, as an influence "hich renders it a Iuite hopeless tas+, to attempt the limiting of an* infection "hich is introduced8 (nd again and again it has been pointed out that, not"ithstanding the man* salubrious influences "hich there are in countr* life, the cro"ding "hich so fa)ours the e9tension of contagious disease, also fa)ours the origination of disease "hich is not contagious8 (nd those "ho ha)e denounced the o)er4cro"ded state of our rural population ha)e not been silent as to a further mischief8 E)en "here their primar* concern has been onl* "ith the inDur* to health, often almost perforce the* ha)e referred to other relations on the subDect8 >n sho"ing ho" freIuentl* it happens that adult persons of both se9es, married and unmarried, are huddled together in single small sleeping rooms, their reports ha)e carried the con)iction that, under the circumstances the* describe, decenc* must al"a*s be outraged, and moralit* almost of necessit* must suffer8173 'hus, for instance, in the appendi9 of m* last annual report, 0r8 =rd, reporting on an outbrea+ of fe)er at Bing, in /uc+inghamshire, mentions ho" a *oung man "ho had come thither from Bingra)e "ith fe)er, @in the first da*s of his illness slept in a room "ith nine other persons8 Bithin a fortnight se)eral of these persons "ere attac+ed, and in the course of a fe" "ee+s fi)e out of the nine had fe)er, and one died888A From 0r8 -ar)e*, of St8 George?s -ospital, "ho, on pri)ate professional business, )isited Bing during the time of the epidemic, > recei)ed information e9actl* in the sense of the abo)e report8888 @( *oung "oman ha)ing fe)er, la* at night in a room occupied b* her father and mother, her bastard child, t"o *oung men (her brothers!, and her t"o sisters, each "ith a bastard child F 17 persons in all8 ( fe" "ee+s ago 1: persons slept in it8A176 0r8 -unter in)estigated 3,:73 cottages of agricultural labourers, not onl* in the purel* agricultural districts, but in all counties of England8 =f these, 6,123 had onl* one bedroom (often at the same time used as li)ing4room!, 6,2:7 onl* t"o, and 637, more than t"o8 > "ill gi)e a fe" specimens culled from a do1en counties8 (18! /edfordshire Arestlin 1orth$ /edrooms about 16 feet long and 17 broad, although man* are smaller than this8 'he small, one4storied cots are often di)ided b* partitions into t"o bedrooms, one bed freIuentl* in a +itchen, 3 feet 6 inches in height8 &ent, ]: a *ear8 'he tenants ha)e to ma+e their o"n pri)ies, the landlord onl* supplies a hole8 (s soon as one has made a pri)*, it is made use of b* the "hole neighbourhood8 =ne house, belonging to a famil* called &ichardson, "as of Iuite unapproachable beaut*8 @>ts plaster "alls bulged )er* li+e a lad*?s dress in a curtse*8 =ne gable end "as con)e9, the other conca)e, and on this last, unfortunatel*, stood the chimne*, a cur)ed tube of cla* and "ood li+e an elephant?s trun+8 ( long stic+ ser)ed as prop to pre)ent the chimne* from falling8 'he door"a* and "indo" "ere rhomboidal8A =f 17 houses )isited, onl* had more than one bedroom, and those four o)ercro"ded8 'he cots "ith one bedroom sheltered : adults and : children, a married couple "ith 6 children, Pc8

:67

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Dunton$ -igh rents, from ] to ]3; "ee+l* "ages of the man, 17s8 'he* hope to pa* the rent b* the stra"4plaiting of the famil*8 'he higher the rent, the greater the number that must "or+ together to pa* it8 Si9 adults, li)ing "ith children in one sleeping apartment, pa* ]: 17s8 for it8 'he cheapest house in 0unton, 13 feet long e9ternall*, 17 broad, let for ]:8 =nl* one of the houses in)estigated had 6 bedrooms8 ( little outside the )illage, a house "hose @tenants dunged against the house4side,A the lo"er 2 inches of the door eaten a"a* through sheer rottenness; the door"a*, a single opening closed at night b* a fe" bric+s, ingeniousl* pushed up after shutting and co)ered "ith some matting8 -alf a "indo", "ith glass and frame, had gone the "a* of all flesh8 -ere, "ithout furniture, huddled together "ere : adults and 3 children8 0unton is not "orse than the rest of /iggles"ade %nion8 (68! /er+shire <eenham$ >n Lune, 186 , a man, his "ife and children li)ed in a cot (one4storied cottage!8 ( daughter came home from ser)ice "ith scarlet fe)er8 She died8 =ne child sic+ened and died8 'he mother and one child "ere do"n "ith t*phus "hen 0r8 -unter "as called in8 'he father and one child slept outside, but the difficult* of securing isolation "as seen here, for in the cro"ded mar+et of the miserable )illage la* the linen of the fe)er4stric+en household, "aiting for the "ash8 'he rent of -8?s house, 1s8 a4"ee+; one bedroom for man, "ife, and 6 children8 =ne house let for 8d8 a4"ee+, 1 feet 6 inches long, 7 feet broad, +itchen, 6 feet high; the bedroom "ithout "indo", fire4place, door, or opening, e9cept into the lobb*; no garden8 ( man li)ed here for a little "hile, "ith t"o gro"n4up daughters and one gro"n4up son; father and son slept on the bed, the girls in the passage8 Each of the latter had a child "hile the famil* "as li)ing here, but one "ent to the "or+house for her confinement and then came home8 (:8! /uc+inghamshire :7 cottages F on 1,777 acres of land F contained here about 1:741 7 persons8 'he parish of <radenham comprises 1,777 acres; it numbered, in 1831, :6 houses and a population of 8 males and 3 females8 'his ineIualit* of the se9es "as partl* remedied in 1861, "hen the* numbered 28 males and 87 females; increase in 17 *ears of 1 men and :: "omen8 $ean"hile, the number of houses "as one less8 Ainslo1$ Great part of this ne"l* built in good st*le; demand for houses appears )er* mar+ed, since )er* miserable cots let at 1s8 to 1s8 :d8 per "ee+8 Aater Eaton$ -ere the landlords, in )ie" of the increasing population, ha)e destro*ed about 67 per cent8 of the e9isting houses8 ( poor labourer, "ho had to go about miles to his "or+, ans"ered the Iuestion, "hether he could not find a cot nearer: @Co; the* +no" better than to ta+e a man in "ith m* large famil*8A /in"erCs End+ near Binslo"8 ( bedroom in "hich "ere adults and children; 11 feet long, 2 feet broad, 6 feet 3 inches high at its highest part; another 11 feet : inches b* 2 feet, 3 feet 17 inches high, sheltered 6 persons8 Each of these families had less space than is considered necessar* for a con)ict8 Co house had more than one bedroom, not one of them a bac+4door; "ater )er* scarce; "ee+l* rent from 1s8 d8 to 6s8 >n 16 of the houses )isited, onl* 1 man that earned 17s8 a4"ee+8 'he Iuantit* of air for each person under the circumstances Dust described corresponds to that "hich he "ould ha)e if he "ere shut up in a bo9 of feet measuring each "a*, the "hole night8 /ut then, the ancient dens afforded a certain amount of unintentional )entilation8 ( 8! 5ambridgeshire =amblin ay belongs to se)eral landlords8 >t contains the "retchedest cots to be found an*"here8 $uch stra"4plaiting8 @( deadl* lassitude, a hopeless surrendering up to filth,A reigns in

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Gamblinga*8 'he neglect in its centre, becomes mortification at its e9tremities, north and south, "here the houses are rotting to pieces8 'he absentee landlords bleed this poor roo+er* too freel*8 'he rents are )er* high; 8 or 2 persons pac+ed in one sleeping apartment, in 6 cases 6 adults, each "ith 1 or 6 children in one small bedroom8 (38! Esse9 >n this count*, diminutions in the number of persons and of cottages go, in man* parishes, hand in hand8 >n not less than 66 parishes, ho"e)er, the destruction of houses has not pre)ented increase of population, or has not brought about that e9pulsion "hich, under the name @migration to to"ns,A generall* occurs8 >n Fingringhoe, a parish of :, : acres, "ere in 1831, 1 3 houses; in 1861, onl* 1178 /ut the people did not "ish to go a"a*, and managed e)en to increase under these circumstances8 >n 1831, 636 persons inhabited 61 houses, but in 1861, 666 persons "ere sIuee1ed into 2 houses8 >n /asilden, in 1831, 137 persons li)ed on 1,867 acres, in :3 houses; at the end of ten *ears, 187 persons in 67 houses8 >n the parishes of Fingringhoe, South Fambridge, Bidford, /asilden, and &amsden 5rags, in 1831, 1,:26 persons "ere li)ing on 8, 2 acres in :16 houses; in 1861, on the same area, 1, 7: persons in 6 2 houses8 (68! -erefordshire 'his little count* has suffered more from the @e)iction4spiritA than an* other in England8 (t Cadb*, o)ercro"ded cottages generall*, "ith onl* 6 bedrooms, belonging for the most part to the farmers8 'he* easil* let them for ]: or ] a4*ear, and paid a "ee+l* "age of 2s8 (7! -untingdon *artford had, in 1831, 87 houses; shortl* after this, 12 cottages "ere destro*ed in this small parish of 1,767 acres; population in 18:1, 36; in 1836, :86; and in 1861, : 18 1 cottages, each "ith 1 bedroom, "ere )isited8 >n one, a married couple, : gro"n4up sons, 1 gro"n4up daughter, children F in all 17 in another, : adults, 6 children8 =ne of these rooms, in "hich 8 people slept, "as 16 feet 17 inches long, 16 feet 6 inches broad, 6 feet 2 inches high: the a)erage, "ithout ma+ing an* deduction for proDections into the apartment, ga)e about 1:7 cubic feet per head8 >n the 1 sleeping rooms, : adults and :: children8 'hese cottages are seldom pro)ided "ith gardens, but man* of the inmates are able to farm small allotments at 17s8 or 16s8 per rood8 'hese allotments are at a distance from the houses, "hich are "ithout pri)ies8 'he famil* @must either go to the allotment to deposit their ordures,A or, as happens in this place, sa)ing *our presence, @use a closet "ith a trough set li+e a dra"er in a chest of dra"ers, and dra"n out "ee+l* and con)e*ed to the allotment to be emptied "here its contents "ere "anted8A >n Lapan, the circle of life4conditions mo)es more decentl* than this8 (8! <incolnshire Lan toft$ ( man li)es here, in Bright?s house, "ith his "ife, her mother, and 3 children; the house has a front +itchen, sculler*, bedroom o)er the front +itchen; front +itchen and bedroom, 16 feet 6 inches b* 2 feet 3 inches; the "hole ground floor, 61 feet 6 inches b* 2 feet 3 inches8 'he bedroom is a garret: the "alls run together into the roof li+e a sugar4loaf, a dormer4"indo" opening in front8 @Bh* did he li)e hereE =n account of the gardenE Co; it is )er* small8 &entE -igh, 1s8 :d8 per "ee+8 Cear his "or+E Co; 6 miles a"a*, so that he "al+s dail*, to and fro, 16 miles8 -e li)ed there, because it "as a tenantable cot,A and because he "anted to ha)e a cot for himself alone, an*"here, at an* price, and in an* conditions8 'he follo"ing are the statistics of 16 houses in <angtoft, "ith 16 bedrooms, :8 adults, and :6 children8

:62

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'BE<;E -=%SES >C <(CG'=F' Co8 Co8 Co8 Co8 Co8 Co8 Co8 Co8 Co8 -ouse 18 68 :8 8 38 68 78 88 28 /edrooms8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (dults8 : 3 6 3 : : 6 5hildren8 3 : 6 : : 6 7 Cumber of 8 7 8 2 8 6 3 6 #ersons8

Co8 178 1 6 : 83

Co8 118 1 : : 6

Co8 168 1 6 6

(28! .ent Kennin ton+ )er* seriousl* o)er4populated in 1832, "hen diphtheria appeared, and the parish doctor instituted a medical inIuir* into the condition of the poorer classes8 -e found that in this localit*, "here much labour is emplo*ed, )arious cots had been destro*ed and no ne" ones built8 >n one district stood four houses, named birdcages; each had rooms of the follo"ing dimensions in feet and inches: .itchen: Sculler*: /edroom: /edroom: 2 ft8 3 8 ft8 6 8 ft8 3 8 ft8 : b* 8 ft8 11 b* 6 ft8 6 b* ft8 6 b* 6 ft8 6 b* 3 ft8 17 b* 6 ft8 : b* 8 ft8 b* 6 ft8 :

(178! Corthamptonshire <rin1orth+ Pic"ford and !loore0 in these )illages in the "inter 67:7 men "ere lounging about the streets from "ant of "or+8 'he farmers do not al"a*s till sufficientl* the corn and turnip lands, and the landlord has found it best to thro" all his farms together into 6 or :8 -ence "ant of emplo*ment8 Bhilst on one side of the "all, the land calls for labour, on the other side the defrauded labourers are casting at it longing glances8 Fe)erishl* o)er"or+ed in summer, and half4 star)ed in "inter, it is no "onder if the* sa* in their peculiar dialect, @the parson and gentlefol+ seem frit to death at them8A (t Floore, instances, in one bedroom of the smallest si1e, of couples "ith , 3, 6 children; : adults "ith 3 children; a couple "ith grandfather and 6 children do"n "ith scarlet fe)er, Pc8; in t"o houses "ith t"o bedrooms, t"o families of 8 and 2 adults respecti)el*8 (118! Biltshire ;tratton$ :1 houses )isited, 8 "ith onl* one bedroom8 #entill, in the same parish: a cot let at >s8 :d8 "ee+l* "ith adults and children, had nothing good about it, e9cept the "alls, from the floor of rough4he"n pieces of stones to the roof of "orn4out thatch8 (168! Borcestershire -ouse4destruction here not Iuite so e9cessi)e; *et from 1831 to 1861, the number of inhabitants to each house on the a)erage, has risen from 86 to 868 <adsey$ $an* cots and little gardens here8 Some of the farmers declare that the cots are @a great nuisance here, because the* bring the poor8A =n the statement of one gentleman: @'he poor are none the better for them; if *ou build 377 the* "ill let fast enough, in fact, the more *ou build, the more the* "antA (according to him the houses gi)e birth to the inhabitants, "ho then b* a la" of Cature press on @the means of housingA!8 0r8 -unter remar+s:

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@Co" these poor must come from some"here, and as there is no particular attraction, such as doles, at /adse*, it must be repulsion from some other unfit place, "hich "ill send them here8 >f each could find an allotment near his "or+, he "ould not prefer /adse*, "here he pa*s for his scrap of ground t"ice as much as the farmer pa*s for his8A 'he continual emigration to the to"ns, the continual formation of surplus population in the countr* through the concentration of farms, con)ersion of arable land into pasture, machiner*, Pc8, and the continual e)iction of the agricultural population b* the destruction of their cottages, go hand in hand8 'he more empt* the district is of men, the greater is its @relati)e surplus population,A the greater is their pressure on the means of emplo*ment, the greater is the absolute e9cess of the agricultural population o)er the means for housing it, the greater, therefore, in the )illages is the local surplus population and the most pestilential pac+ing together of human beings8 'he pac+ing together of +nots of men in scattered little )illages and small countr* to"ns corresponds to the forcible draining of men from the surface of the land8 'he continuous superseding of the agricultural labourers, in spite of their diminishing number and the increasing mass of their products, gi)es birth to their pauperism8 'heir pauperism is ultimatel* a moti)e to their e)iction and the chief source of their miserable housing "hich brea+s do"n their last po"er of resistance8 and ma+es them more sla)es of the landed proprietors and the farmers8 177 'hus the minimum of "ages becomes a la" of Cature to them8 =n the other hand, the land, in spite of its constant @relati)e surplus population,A is at the same time underpopulated8 'his is seen, not onl* locall* at the points "here the efflu9 of men to to"ns, mines, railroad4ma+ing, Pc8, is most mar+ed8 >t is to be seen e)er*"here, in har)est4time as "ell as in spring and summer, at those freIuentl* recurring times "hen English agriculture, so careful and intensi)e, "ants e9tra hands8 'here are al"a*s too man* agricultural labourers for the ordinar*, and al"a*s too fe" for the e9ceptional or temporar* needs of the culti)ation of the soil8 178 @-ence "e find in the official documents contradictor* complaints from the same places of deficienc* and e9cess of labour simultaneousl*8 'he temporar* or local "ant of labour brings about no rise in "ages, but a forcing of the "omen and children into the fields, and e9ploitation at an age constantl* lo"ered8 (s soon as the e9ploitation of the "omen and children ta+es place on a larger scale, it becomes in turn a ne" means of ma+ing a surplus population of the male agricultural labourer and of +eeping do"n his "age8 >n the east of England thri)es a beautiful fruit of this )icious circle F the so4called gang4s*stem, to "hich > must briefl* return here8 172 'he gang s*stem obtains almost e9clusi)el* in the counties of <incoln, -untingdon, 5ambridge, Corfol+, Suffol+, and Cottingham, here and there in the neighbouring counties of Corthampton, /edford, and &utland8 <incolnshire "ill ser)e us as an e9ample8 ( large part of this count* is ne" land, marsh formerl*, or e)en, as in others of the eastern counties Dust named, "on latel* from the sea8 'he steam4engine has "or+ed "onders in the "a* of drainage8 Bhat "ere once fens and sandban+s, bear no" a lu9uriant sea of corn and the highest of rents8 'he same thing holds of the allu)ial lands "on b* human endea)our, as in the island of (9holme and other parishes on the ban+s of the 'rent8 >n proportion as the ne" farms arose, not onl* "ere no ne" cottages built: old ones "ere demolished, and the suppl* of labour had to come from open )illages, miles a"a*, b* long roads that "ound along the sides of the hills8 'here alone had the population formerl* found shelter from the incessant floods of the "inter4time8 'he labourers that d"ell on the farms of 774 1,777 acres (the* are called @confined labourersA! are solel* emplo*ed on such +inds of agricultural "or+ as is permanent, difficult, and carried on b* aid of horses8 For e)er* 177 acres there is, on an a)erage, scarcel* one cottage8 ( fen farmer, e8g8, ga)e e)idence before the 5ommission of >nIuir*:

:71

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@> farm :67 acres, all arable land8 > ha)e not one cottage on m* farm8 > ha)e onl* one labourer on m* farm no"8 > ha)e four horsemen lodging about8 Be get light "or+ done b* gangs8A 117 'he soil reIuires much light field labour, such as "eeding, hoeing, certain processes of manuring, remo)ing of stones, Pc8 'his is done b* the gangs, or organised bands that d"ell in the open )illages8 'he gang consists of 17 to 7 or 37 persons, "omen, *oung persons of both se9es (1:418 *ears of age, although the bo*s are for the most part eliminated at the age of 1:!, and children of both se9es (641: *ears of age!8 (t the head is the gang master, al"a*s an ordinar* agricultural labourer, generall* "hat is called a bad lot, a scapegrace, unstead*, drun+en, but "ith a dash of enterprise and savoir)faire8 -e is the recruiting4sergeant for the gang, "hich "or+s under him, not under the farmer8 -e generall* arranges "ith the latter for piece4"or+, and his income, "hich on the a)erage is not )er* much abo)e that of an ordinar* agricultural labourer, 111depends almost entirel* upon the de9terit* "ith "hich he manages to e9tract "ithin the shortest time the greatest possible amount of labour from his gang8 'he farmers ha)e disco)ered that "omen "or+ steadil* onl* under the direction of men, but that "omen and children, once set going, impetuousl* spend their life4force F as Fourier +ne" F "hile the adult male labourer is shre"d enough to economise his as much as he can8 'he gang4master goes from one farm to another, and thus emplo*s his gang from 6 to 8 months in the *ear8 Emplo*ment b* him is, therefore, much more lucrati)e and more certain for the labouring families, than emplo*ment b* the indi)idual farmer, "ho onl* emplo*s children occasionall*8 'his circumstance so completel* ri)ets his influence in the open )illages that children are generall* onl* to be hired through his instrumentalit*8 'he lending out of these indi)iduall*, independentl* of the gang, is his second trade8 'he @dra"bac+sA of the s*stem are the o)er"or+ of the children and *oung persons, the enormous marches that the* ma+e dail* to and from the farms, 3, 6, and sometimes 7 miles distant, finall*, the demoralisation of the gang8 (lthough the gang4master, "ho, in some districts is called @the dri)er,A is armed "ith a long stic+, he uses it but seldom, and complaints of brutal treatment are e9ceptional8 -e is a democratic emperor, or a +ind of #ied #iper of -amelin8 -e must therefore be popular "ith his subDects, and he binds them to himself b* the charms of the gips* life under his direction8 5oarse freedom, a nois* Dollit*, and obscenest impudence gi)e attractions to the gang8 Generall* the gangmaster pa*s up in a public house; then he returns home at the head of the procession reeling drun+, propped up right and left b* a stal"art )irago, "hile children and *oung persons bring up the rear, boisterous, and singing chaffing and ba"d* songs8 =n the return Dourne* "hat Fourier calls @phanerogamie,A is the order of the da*8 'he getting "ith child of girls of 1: and 1 b* their male companions of the same age, is common8 'he open )illages "hich suppl* the contingent of the gang, become Sodoms and Gomorrahs, 116 and ha)e t"ice as high a rate of illegitimate births as the rest of the +ingdom8 'he moral character of girls bred in these schools, "hen married "omen, "as sho"n abo)e8 'heir children, "hen opium does not gi)e them the finishing stro+e, are born recruits of the gang8 'he gang in its classical form Dust described, is called the public, common, or tramping gang8 For there are also pri)ate gangs8 'hese are made up in the same "a* as the common gang, but count fe"er members, and "or+, not under a gang4master, but under some old farm ser)ant, "hom the farmer does not +no" ho" to emplo* in an* better "a*8 'he gips* fun has )anished here, but according to all "itnesses, the pa*ment and treatment of the children is "orse8 'he gang s*stem, "hich during the last *ears has steadil* increased, 11: clearl* does not e9ist for the sa+e of the gang4master8 it e9ists for the enrichment of the large farmers, 11 and indirectl* of the landlords8113 For the farmer there is no more ingenious method of +eeping his labourers "ell

:76

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belo" the normal le)el, and *et of al"a*s ha)ing an e9tra hand read* for e9tra "or+, of e9tracting the greatest possible amount of labour "ith the least possible amount of mone* 116 and of ma+ing adult male labour @redundant8A From the e9position alread* made, it "ill be understood "h*, on the one hand, a greater or less lac+ of emplo*ment for the agricultural labourer is admitted, "hile on the other, the gang s*stem is at the same time declared @necessar*A on account of the "ant of adult male labour and its migration to the to"ns8 117 'he cleanl* "eeded land, and the uncleanl* human "eeds, of <incolnshire, are pole and counterpole of capitalistic production8118

F. .reland
>n concluding this section, "e must tra)el for a moment to >reland8 First, the main facts of the case8 'he population of >reland had, in 18 1, reached 8,666,66 ; in 1831, it had d"indled to 6,66:,283; in 1861, to 3,837,:72; in 1866, to 3[ millions, nearl* to its le)el in 18718 'he diminution began "ith the famine *ear, 18 6, so that >reland, in less than t"ent* *ears, lost more than 3J16 ths of its people8 112 >ts total emigration from $a*, 1831, to Lul*, 1863, numbered 1,321, 87: the emigration during the *ears 186141863 "as more than half4a4million8 'he number of inhabited houses fell, from 183141861, b* 36,2278 From 183141861, the number of holdings of 13 to :7 acres increased 61,777, that of holdings o)er :7 acres, 172,777, "hilst the total number of all farms fell 167,777, a fall, therefore, solel* due to the suppression of farms under 13 acres F i$e8, to their centralisation8
/able A <>;E4S'=5. -orses 5attle Sheep Near 'otal 'otal 'otal 0ecrease 0ecrease >ncrease 0ecrease >ncrease Cumber Cumber Cumber 1867 612,811 F :,676,:7 F F :,3 6,787 F F 1861 61 ,6:6 1866 676,82 186: 372,278 186 366,138 1863 3 7,867 3,372 :, 71,688 1: ,686 11,::8 :,63 ,827 616,728 F :,336,737 F :, 36,1:6 F 22,218 #igs 'otal 0ecrease >ncrease Cumber 1,671,776 F F F 36,686 F F

1:,277 1,176,7 6 162,7:7 F 1,13 ,:6 F F 1,767, 38 38,7:7 1,738, 87 86,866 8,278

66,216 :,1 ,6:1 117,632 F :,:78,67 1 7,286 17,867 :,666,62 F 118,76: :,:66,2 1 F 1 ,621 :, 2:, 1 F 6:1,167 :,688,7 6

F :61,871 1,622,82:

F 6 1, 1:

'he decrease of the population "as naturall* accompanied b* a decrease in the mass of products8 For our purpose, it suffices to consider the 3 *ears from 186141863 during "hich o)er half4a4 million emigrated, and the absolute number of people san+ b* more than 1 of a million8 From the abo)e table it results: F =orses Cattle heep Pi)s (bsolute 0ecrease (bsolute 0ecrease (bsolute >ncrease (bsolute >ncrease 71,2 116,267 1 6,666 68,8611167 <et us no" turn to agriculture, "hich *ields the means of subsistence for cattle and for men8 >n the follo"ing table is calculated the decrease or increase for each separate *ear, as compared "ith its immediate predecessor8 'he 5ereal 5rops include "heat, oats, barle*, r*e, beans, and peas; the Green 5rops, potatoes, turnips, marigolds, beet4root, cabbages, carrots, parsnips, )etches8 Pc8

:7:

5hapter 63

/able < >C5&E(SE =& 0E5&E(SE >C '-E (&E( %C0E& 5&=#S (C0 G&(SS >C (5&E(GE 5ereal 5rop Green 5rop Grass and 5lo)er Fla9 >ncrease (Acres5 12,671 6,733 6:,266 87,761 F 'otal 5ulti)ated <and 0ecrease (Acres5 81,:7: 1:8,8 1 26, :1 F 68,:28 F F F 17, 2: F F >ncrease (Acres5

Near

0ecrease 0ecrease >ncrease 0ecrease >ncrease 0ecrease (Acres5 (Acres5 (Acres5 (Acres5 (Acres5 (Acres5 1861 1866 186: 186 1863 1861463 13,771 76,7: 1 ,712 166, :7 76, 37 68,7 1 :6,27 7 ,783 12,:38 6,:17 F 178,12: F F F F 63,6 1 F F F F F F 7,262 F 6,66: 7,76 7, 86 68,277 86,8: F F F F 37,132 F

166,8371 ::7,:37

>n the *ear 1863, 167, 77 additional acres came under the heading @grass land,A chiefl* because the area under the heading of @bog and "aste unoccupied,A decreased b* 171,3 : acres8 >f "e compare 1863 "ith 186 , there is a decrease in cereals of 6 6,667 Irs8, of "hich 8,222 "ere "heat, 167,673 oats, 62,826 barle*, Pc8: the decrease in potatoes "as 6,:28 tons, although the area of their culti)ation increased in 18638 From the mo)ement of population and the agricultural produce of >reland, "e pass to the mo)ement in the purse of its landlords, larger farmers, and industrial capitalists8 >t is reflected in the rise and fall of the >ncome4ta98 >t ma* be remembered that Schedule 08 (profits "ith the e9ception of those of farmers!, includes also the so4called, @professionalA profits F i$e8, the incomes of la"*ers, doctors, Pc8; and the Schedules 58 and E8, in "hich no special details are gi)en, include the incomes of emplo*ees, officers, State sinecurists, State fundholders, Pc8

:7

5hapter 63

/able C

161

>C5&E(SE =& 0E5&E(SE >C '-E (&E( %C0E& 5%<'>;('>=C, #&=0%5' #E& (5&E, (C0 '='(< #&=0%5' =F 1863 5=$#(&E0 B>'- 186 #roduct (cres of 5ulti)ated <and #roduct per (cre >ncrease or 186 0ecrease, 3 1863 1:87 F 168: 786 1 82 F 1 88 F 178 :86 282 182 F F 78: F 187 186 F 783 78 F 'otal #roduct

186 Bheat =ats /arle* /ere &*e 676, 8:

1863 666,282

>ncrease or 0ecrease, 1863 186 F 2, 2 c"t8, 1:8:

186 873,786 Krs8

1863 866,78: Krs8 F

>ncrease or 0ecrease, 1863 8,222 Krs8 166,673 Krs8 62,826 Krs8 1,171 Krs8 F 6,:28 ts8 163,276 ts8 ,63: ts8 36,877 ts8 F 6 ,2 3 st8 F F

1,81 ,88 1,7 3,66 F 6 8 176,777 8,82 177,176 17,721 , 76 1,127

62,63 c"t8, 8 1681 F F c"t8, 1382 c"t8, 168 c"t8, 883 tons, 81

7,866,::6 7,632,767 F Krs8 Krs8 761,272 Krs8 13,167 Krs8 16,687 Krs8 7:6,717 Krs8 1:,282 Krs8 18,:1 Krs8 F F 3,68 Krs8

#otatoes 1,7:2,76 1,766,66 66,3:6 F 7 'urnips ::7,:33 :: ,616 1 ,:82 F :16

,:16,:88 :,863,227 F ts8 ts8 :, 67,632 :,:71,68: F ts8 ts8 1 7,68 ts8 627,:73 ts8 121,2:7 ts8 :37,636 ts8

:,1 : tons, 178: F tons, 1783 tons, 28:

$angold4 1 ,77: "ur1el 5abbages :1,861 Fla9 :71,62:

1:8: 688

::,666 631, ::

1,871 F

178

181

F 287

37,66 st8 (1 6386 F 7 lb8! : 86 F tons, 186 188 786

6 ,376 st8 :2,361 st8 F

-a*

1,672,36 1,678, 2 68,26 2 : 1

6,677,13: :,768,777 61,33 ts8 ts8 ts8

:73

5hapter 63

/able D '-E >C5=$E4'(O =C '-E S%/L=>CE0 >C5=$ES >C #=%C0S S'E&<>CG ('enth &eport of the 5ommissioners of >nland &e)enue, <ond8 18668! 1867 1861 1866 186: 186 1863 ;chedule A$ 1:,82:,86 1:,77:,33 1:,:28,2: 1:, 2 ,72 1:, 77,77 1:,871,616 &ent of <and 2 8 1 7 ;chedule <$ Farmers? 6,763,:87 6,77:,6 6,2:7,822 6,2:8,26: 6,2:7,87 6,2 6,776 #rofits8 ;chedule D$ >ndustrial, ,821,636 ,8:6,67: ,838,877 ,8 6, 27 ,3 6,1 7 ,837,122 Pc8, #rofits 'otal Schedules 66,266,88 66,228,:2 6:,327,37 6:,638,6: 6:,6:6,62 6:,2:7,: 7 ( to E 3 1 8 %nder Schedule 08, the a)erage annual increase of income from 183:4186 "as onl* 782:; "hilst, in the same period, in Great /ritain, it "as 8388 'he follo"ing table sho"s the distribution of the profits ("ith the e9ception of those of farmers! for the *ears 186 and 1863: F

:76

5hapter 63

/able E

466

S5-E0%<E 08 >C5=$E F&=$ #&=F>'S (=;E& ]6=! >C >&E<(C0 186 ] 'otal *earl* income of Nearl* income o)er ]67 and under ]177 =f the *earl* total income ,:68,617 di)ided among 17, 67 persons8 1863 ] ,662,272 di)ided among 18,781 persons8

6:8,766 di)ided 666,373 di)ided among 3,713 persons8 among ,77: persons8 1,272,766 di)ided among 11,:61 persons8 6,768,371 di)ided among 16,18 persons8

&emainder of the 6,137,818 di)ided 6, 18,8:: di)ided total *earl* income among 1,1:1 persons8 among 1,12 persons8 1,77:,276 di)ided 1,727,267 di)ided among 1,717 persons8 among 1,7 persons8 1,776,216 di)ided among 161 persons8 =f these :7,3:3 di)ided among 23 persons8 6 6,:77di)ided among 66 666,812 di)ided among : 1,:67,276 di)ided among 137 persons8 38 , 38 di)ided among 6 persons8 7:6, 8 di)ided among 68 67 ,368 di)ided among :

England, a countr* "ith full* de)eloped capitalist production, and pre4eminentl* industrial, "ould ha)e bled to death "ith such a drain of population as >reland has suffered8 /ut >reland is at present onl* an agricultural district of England, mar+ed off b* a "ide channel from the countr* to "hich it *ields corn, "ool, cattle, industrial and militar* recruits8 'he depopulation of >reland has thro"n much of the land out of culti)ation, has greatl* diminished the produce of the soil,16: and, in spite of the greater area de)oted to cattle breeding, has brought about, in some of its branches, an absolute diminution, in others, an ad)ance scarcel* "orth* of mention, and constantl* interrupted b* retrogressions8 Ce)ertheless, "ith the fall in numbers of the population, rents and farmers? profits rose, although the latter not as steadil* as the former8 'he reason of this is easil* comprehensible8 =n the one hand, "ith the thro"ing of small holdings into large ones, and the change of arable into pasture land, a larger part of the "hole produce "as transformed into surplus4produce8 'he surplus4produce increased, although the total produce, of "hich it formed a fraction, decreased8 =n the other hand, the mone* )alue of this surplus4produce increased *et more rapidl* than its mass, in conseIuence of the rise in the English mar+et price of meat, "ool, Pc8, during the last 67, and especiall* during the last 17, *ears8

:77

5hapter 63

'he scattered means of production that ser)e the producers themsel)es as means of emplo*ment and of subsistence, "ithout e9panding their o"n )alue b* the incorporation of the labour of others, are no more capital than a product consumed b* its o"n producer is a commodit*8 >f, "ith the mass of the population, that of the means of production emplo*ed in agriculture also diminished, the mass of the capital emplo*ed in agriculture increased, because a part of the means of production that "ere formerl* scattered, "as concentrated and turned into capital8 'he total capital of >reland outside agriculture, emplo*ed in industr* and trade, accumulated during the last t"o decades slo"l*, and "ith great and constantl* recurring fluctuations; so much the more rapidl* did the concentration of its indi)idual constituents de)elop8 (nd, ho"e)er small its absolute increase, in proportion to the d"indling population it had increased largel*8 -ere, then, under our o"n e*es and on a large scale, a process is re)ealed, than "hich nothing more e9cellent could be "ished for b* orthodo9 econom* for the support of its dogma: that miser* springs from absolute surplus population, and that eIuilibrium is re4established b* depopulation8 'his is a far more important e9periment than "as the plague in the middle of the 1 th centur* so belauded of $althusians8 Cote further: >f onl* the nao)etR of the schoolmaster could appl*, to the conditions of production and population of the nineteenth centur*, the standard of the 1 th, this nao)etR, into the bargain, o)erloo+ed the fact that "hilst, after the plague and the decimation that accompanied it, follo"ed on this side of the 5hannel, in England, enfranchisement and enrichment of the agricultural population, on that side, in France, follo"ed greater ser)itude and more miser*816 'he >rish famine of 18 6 +illed more than 1,777,777 people, but it +illed poor de)ils onl*8 'o the "ealth of the countr* it did not the slightest damage8 'he e9odus of the ne9t 67 *ears, an e9odus still constantl* increasing, did not, as, e$ $+ the 'hirt* Nears? Bar, decimate, along "ith the human beings, their means of production8 >rish genius disco)ered an altogether ne" "a* of spiriting a poor people thousands of miles a"a* from the scene of its miser*8 'he e9iles transplanted to the %nited States, send home sums of mone* e)er* *ear as tra)elling e9penses for those left behind8 E)er* troop that emigrates one *ear, dra"s another after it the ne9t8 'hus, instead of costing >reland an*thing, emigration forms one of the most lucrati)e branches of its e9port trade8 Finall*, it is a s*stematic process, "hich does not simpl* ma+e a passing gap in the population, but suc+s out of it e)er* *ear more people than are replaced b* the births, so that the absolute le)el of the population falls *ear b* *ear8 163 Bhat "ere the conseIuences for the >rish labourers left behind and freed from the surplus populationE 'hat the relati)e surplus population is toda* as great as before 18 6; that "ages are Dust as lo", that the oppression of the labourers has increased, that miser* is forcing the countr* to"ards a ne" crisis8 'he facts are simple8 'he re)olution in agriculture has +ept pace "ith emigration8 'he production of relati)e surplus population has more than +ept pace "ith the absolute depopulation8 ( glance at table 58 sho"s that the change of arable to pasture land must "or+ *et more acutel* in >reland than in England8 >n England the culti)ation of green crops increases "ith the breeding of cattle; in >reland, it decreases8 Bhilst a large number of acres, that "ere formerl* tilled, lie idle or are turned permanentl* into grass4land, a great part of the "aste land and peat bogs that "ere unused formerl*, become of ser)ice for the e9tension of cattle4 breeding8 'he smaller and medium farmers F > rec+on among these all "ho do not culti)ate more than 177 acres F still ma+e up about 8J17ths of the "hole number8 166 'he* are one after the other, and "ith a degree of force un+no"n before, crushed b* the competition of an agriculture managed b* capital, and therefore the* continuall* furnish ne" recruits to the class of "age labourers8 'he one great industr* of >reland, linen4manufacture, reIuires relati)el* fe" adult men and onl* emplo*s altogether, in spite of its e9pansion since the price of cotton rose in 186141866,

:78

5hapter 63

a comparati)el* insignificant part of the population8 <i+e all other great modern industries, it constantl* produces, b* incessant fluctuations, a relati)e surplus population "ithin its o"n sphere, e)en "ith an absolute increase in the mass of human beings absorbed b* it8 'he miser* of the agricultural population forms the pedestal for gigantic shirt4factories, "hose armies of labourers are, for the most part, scattered o)er the countr*8 -ere, "e encounter again the s*stem described abo)e of domestic industr*, "hich in underpa*ment and o)er"or+, possesses its o"n s*stematic means for creating supernumerar* labourers8 Finall*, although the depopulation has not such destructi)e conseIuences as "ould result in a countr* "ith full* de)eloped capitalistic production, it does not go on "ithout constant reaction upon the home4mar+et8 'he gap "hich emigration causes here, limits not onl* the local demand for labour, but also the incomes of small shop+eepers, artisans, tradespeople generall*8 -ence the diminution in incomes bet"een ]67 and ]177 in 'able E8 ( clear statement of the condition of the agricultural labourers in >reland is to be found in the &eports of the >rish #oor <a" >nspectors (1877!8 167=fficials of a go)ernment "hich is maintained onl* b* ba*onets and b* a state of siege, no" open, no" disguised, the* ha)e to obser)e all the precautions of language that their colleagues in England disdain8 >n spite of this, ho"e)er, the* do not let their go)ernment cradle itself in illusions8 (ccording to them the rate of "ages in the countr*, still )er* lo", has "ithin the last 67 *ears risen 37467 per cent8, and stands no", on the a)erage, at 6s8 to 2s8 per "ee+8 /ut behind this apparent rise, is hidden an actual fall in "ages, for it does not correspond at all to the rise in price of the necessar* means of subsistence that has ta+en place in the meantime8 For proof, the follo"ing e9tract from the official accounts of an >rish "or+house8 (;E&(GE BEE.<N 5=S' #E& -E(0 Near ended #ro)isions 5lothing8 '='(<8 and Cecessaries8 62th Sept8, 18 28 1s8 : 1J d8 :d8 1s8 6 1J d8 62th Sept8, 18628 6s8 7 1J d8 6d8 :s8 1 1J d8 'he price of the necessar* means of subsistence is therefore full* t"ice, and that of clothing e9actl* t"ice, as much as the* "ere 67 *ears before8 E)en apart from this disproportion, the mere comparison of the rate of "ages e9pressed in gold "ould gi)e a result far from accurate8 /efore the famine, the great mass of agricultural "ages "ere paid in +ind, onl* the smallest part in mone*; toda*, pa*ment in mone* is the rule8 From this it follo"s that, "hate)er the amount of the real "age, its mone* rate must rise8 @#re)ious to the famine, the labourer enDo*ed his cabin 888 "ith a rood, or half4acre or acre of land, and facilities for 888 a crop of potatoes8 -e "as able to rear his pig and +eep fo"l8888 /ut the* no" ha)e to bu* bread, and the* ha)e no refuse upon "hich the* can feed a pig or fo"l, and the* ha)e conseIuentl* no benefit from the sale of a pig, fo"l, or eggs8A168 >n fact, formerl*, the agricultural labourers "ere but the smallest of the small farmers, and formed for the most part a +ind of rear4guard of the medium and large farms on "hich the* found emplo*ment8 =nl* since the catastrophe of 18 6 ha)e the* begun to form a fraction of the class of purel* "age labourers, a special class, connected "ith its "age4masters onl* b* monetar* relations8 Be +no" "hat "ere the conditions of their d"ellings in 18 68 Since then the* ha)e gro"n *et "orse8 ( part of the agricultural labourers, "hich, ho"e)er, gro"s less da* b* da*, d"ells still on

:72

5hapter 63

the holdings of the farmers in o)er4cro"ded huts, "hose hideousness far surpasses the "orst that the English agricultural labourers offered us in this "a*8 (nd this holds generall* "ith the e9ception of certain tracts of %lster; in the south, in the counties of 5or+, <imeric+, .il+enn*, Pc8; in the east, in Bic+lo", Be9ford, Pc8; in the centre of >reland, in .ing?s and Kueen?s 5ount*,, 0ublin, Pc8; in the "est, in Sligo, &oscommon, $a*o, Gal"a*, Pc8 @'he agricultural labourers? huts,A an inspector cries out, @are a disgrace to the 5hristianit* and to the ci)ilisation of this countr*8A 162 >n order to increase the attractions of these holes for the labourers, the pieces of land belonging thereto from time immemorial, are s*stematicall* confiscated8 @'he mere sense that the* e9ist subDect to this species of ban, on the part of the landlords and their agents, has 888 gi)en birth in the minds of the labourers to corresponding sentiments of antagonism and dissatisfaction to"ards those b* "hom the* are thus led to regard themsel)es as being treated as 888 a proscribed race8A 1:7 'he first act of the agricultural re)olution "as to s"eep a"a* the huts situated on the field of labour8 'his "as done on the largest scale, and as if in obedience to a command from on high8 'hus man* labourers "ere compelled to see+ shelter in )illages and to"ns8 'here the* "ere thro"n li+e refuse into garrets, holes, cellars and comers, in the "orst bac+ slums8 'housands of >rish families, "ho according to the testimon* of the English, eaten up as these are "ith national preDudice, are notable for their rare attachment to the domestic hearth, for their gaiet* and the purit* of their home4life, found themsel)es suddenl* transplanted into hotbeds of )ice8 'he men are no" obliged to see+ "or+ of the neighbouring farmers and are onl* hired b* the da*, and therefore under the most precarious form of "age8 -ence @the* sometimes ha)e long distances to go to and from "or+, often get "et, and suffer much hardship, not unfreIuentl* ending in sic+ness, disease and "ant8A 1:1 @ 'he to"ns ha)e had to recei)e from *ear to *ear "hat "as deemed to be the surplus labour of the rural di)ision;A1:6 and then people still "onder @there is still a surplus of labour in the to"ns and )illages, and either a scarcit* or a threatened scarcit* in some of the countr* di)isions8A1:: 'he truth is that this "ant onl* becomes perceptible @in har)est4time, or during spring, or at such times as agricultural operations are carried on "ith acti)it*; at other periods of the *ear man* hands are idle;A1: that @from the digging out of the main crop of potatoes in =ctober until the earl* spring follo"ing 888 there is no emplo*ment for them;A 1:3 and further, that during the acti)e times the* @are subDect to bro+en da*s and to all +inds of interruptions8A1:6 'hese results of the agricultural re)olution F i$e$+ the change of arable into pasture land, the use of machiner*, the most rigorous econom* of labour, Pc8, are still further aggra)ated b* the model landlords, "ho, instead of spending their rents in other countries, condescend to li)e in >reland on their demesnes8 >n order that the la" of suppl* and demand ma* not be bro+en, these gentlemen dra" their @labour4suppl* 888 chiefl* from their small tenants, "ho are obliged to attend "hen reIuired to do the landlord?s "or+, at rates of "ages, in man* instances, considerabl* under the current rates paid to ordinar* labourers, and "ithout regard to the incon)enience or loss to the tenant of being obliged to neglect his o"n business at critical periods of so"ing or reaping8A 1:7

:87

5hapter 63

'he uncertaint* and irregularit* of emplo*ment, the constant return and long duration of gluts of labour, all these s*mptoms of a relati)e surplus population, figure therefore in the reports of the #oor <a" administration, as so man* hardships of the agricultural proletariat8 >t "ill be remembered that "e met, in the English agricultural proletariat, "ith a similar spectacle8 /ut the difference is that in England, an industrial countr*, the industrial reser)e recruits itself from the countr* districts, "hilst in >reland, an agricultural countr*, the agricultural reser)e recruits itself from the to"ns, the cities of refuge of the e9pelled agricultural, labourers8 >n the former, the supernumeraries of agriculture are transformed into factor* operati)es; in the latter, those forced into the to"ns, "hilst at the same time the* press on the "ages in to"ns, remain agricultural labourers, and are constantl* sent bac+ to the countr* districts in search of "or+8 'he official inspectors sum up the material condition of the agricultural labourer as follo"s: @'hough li)ing "ith the strictest frugalit*, his o"n "ages are barel* sufficient to pro)ide food for an ordinar* famil* and pa* his rentA and he depends upon other sources for the means of clothing himself, his "ife, and children8888 'he atmosphere of these cabins, combined "ith the8 other pri)ations the* are subDected to, has made this class particularl* susceptible to lo" fe)er and pulmonar* consumption8A 1:8 (fter this, it is no "onder that, according to the unanimous testimon* of the inspectors, a sombre discontent runs through the ran+s of this class, that the* long for the return of the past, loathe the present, despair of the future, gi)e themsel)es up @to the e)il influence of agitators,A and ha)e onl* one fi9ed idea, to emigrate to (merica8 'his is the land of 5oc+aigne, into "hich the great $althusian panacea, depopulation, has transformed green Erin8 Bhat a happ* life the >rish factor* operati)e leads one e9ample "ill sho": @=n m* recent )isit to the Corth of >reland,A sa*s the English Factor* >nspector, &obert /a+er, @> met "ith the follo"ing e)idence of effort in an >rish s+illed "or+man to afford education to his children; and > gi)e his e)idence )erbatim, as > too+ it from his mouth8 'hat he "as a s+illed factor* hand, ma* be understood "hen > sa* that he "as emplo*ed on goods for the $anchester mar+et8 WLohnson8 F > am a beetler and "or+ from 6 in the morning till 11 at night, from $onda* to Frida*8 Saturda* "e lea)e off at 6 p8 m8, and get three hours of it (for meals and rest!8 > ha)e fi)e children in all8 For this "or+ > get 17s8 6d8 a "ee+,; m* "ife "or+s here also, and gets 3s8 a "ee+8 'he oldest girl "ho is 16, minds the house8 She is also coo+, and all the ser)ant "e ha)e8 She gets the *oung ones read* for school8 ( girl going past the house "a+es me at half past fi)e in the morning8 $* "ife gets up and goes along "ith me8 Be get nothing (to eat! before "e come to "or+8 'he child of 16 ta+es dare of the little children all the da*, and "e get nothing till brea+fast at eight8 (t eight "e go home8 Be get tea once a "ee+; at other times "e get stirabout, sometimes of oat4meal, sometimes of >ndian meal, as "e are able to get it8 >n the "inter "e get a little sugar and "ater to our >ndian meal8 >n the summer "e get a fe" potatoes, planting a small patch oursel)es;8 and "hen the* are done "e get bac+ to stirabout8 Sometimes "e get a little mil+ as it ma* be8 So "e go on from da* to da*, Sunda* and "ee+ da*, al"a*s the same the *ear round8 > am al"a*s )er* much tired "hen > ha)e done at night8 Be ma* see a bit of flesh meat sometimes, but )er* seldom8 'hree of our children attend school, for "hom "e pa* 1d8 a "ee+ a head8 =ur rent is 2d8 a "ee+8 #eat for firing costs 1s8 6d8 a fortnight at the )er* lo"est8?A 1:2 Such are >rish "ages, such is >rish lifeQ

:81

5hapter 63

>n fact the miser* of >reland is again the topic of the da* in England8 (t the end of 1866 and the beginning of 1867, one of the >rish land magnates, <ord 0ufferin, set about its solution in /he /imes$ @Bie menschlich )on solch grossem -errnQA From 'able E8 "e sa" that, during 186 , of ] ,:68,617 of total profits, three surplus )alue ma+ers poc+eted onl* ]666,812; that in 1863, ho"e)er, out of ] ,662,272 total profits, the same three )irtuosi of @abstinenceA poc+eted ]67 ,368; in 186 , 66 surplus )alue ma+ers reached to ]6 6,:77; in 1863, 68 surplus )alue ma+ers reached to ]7:6, 8; in 186 , 161 surplus )alue ma+ers, ]1,776,216; in 1863, 137 surplus )alue ma+ers, ]1,:67,276; in 186 , 1,1:1 surplus )alue ma+ers ]6,137,818, nearl* half of the total annual profit; in 1863, 1,12 surplus )alue ma+ers, ]6, 18,8::, more than half of the total annual profit8 /ut the lion?s share, "hich an inconcei)abl* small number of land magnates in England, Scotland and >reland s"allo" up of the *earl* national rental, is so monstrous that the "isdom of the English State does not thin+ fit to afford the same statistical materials about the distribution of rents as about the distribution of profits8 <ord 0ufferin is one of those land magnates8 'hat rent4rolls and profits can e)er be @e9cessi)e,A or that their plethora is in an* "a* connected "ith plethora of the people?s miser* is, of course, an idea as @disreputableA as @unsound8A -e +eeps to facts8 'he fact is that, as the >rish population diminishes, the >rish rent4rolls s"ell; that depopulation benefits the landlords, therefore also benefits the soil, and, therefore, the people, that mere accessor* of the soil8 -e declares, therefore, that >reland is still o)er4populated, and the stream of emigration still flo"s too la1il*8 'o be perfectl* happ*, >reland must get rid of at least one4third of a million of labouring men8 <et no man imagine that this lord, poetic into the bargain, is a ph*sician of the school of Sangrado, "ho as often as he did not find his patient better, ordered phlebotom* and again phlebotom*, until the patient lost his sic+ness at the same time as his blood8 <ord 0ufferin demands a ne" blood4letting of one4third of a million onl*, instead of about t"o millions; in fact, "ithout the getting rid of8 these, the millennium in Erin is not to be8 'he proof is easil* gi)en8 C%$/E& (C0 EO'EC' =F F(&$S >C >&E<(C0 >C 186 1 7 Co8 (cres (1! Farms not 8,63: 63,:2 o)er 1 acre8 (6! Farms o)er 1, 86,7:7 688,216 not o)er 3 acres8 (:! Farms o)er 3, 176,:68 1,8:6,:17 not o)er 13 acres8 ( ! Farms o)er 13, 1:6,378 :,731,: : not o)er :7 acres8 (3! Farms o)er :7, 71,261 6,276,67 not o)er 37 acres8 (6! Farms o)er 37, 3 ,6 7 :,28:,887 not o)er 177 acres8 (7! Farms o)er :1,267 8,667,877 177 acres8 (8! '='(< (&E(8 F 66,:12,26 5entralisation has from 1831 to 1861 destro*ed principall* farms of the first three categories, under 1 and not o)er 13 acres8 'hese abo)e all must disappear8 'his gi)es :77,738 @supernumerar*A farmers, and rec+oning the families the lo" a)erage of persons, 1,668,6:6

:86

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persons8 =n the e9tra)agant supposition that, after the agricultural re)olution is complete one4 fourth of these are again absorbable, there remain for emigration 261,17 persons8 5ategories , 3, 6, of o)er 13 and not o)er 177 acres, are, as "as +no"n long since in England, too small for capitalistic culti)ation of corn, and for sheep4breeding are almost )anishing Iuantities8 =n the same supposition as before, therefore, there are further 788,761 persons to emigrate; total, 1,772,3:68 (nd as l?appRtit )ient en mangeant, &entroll?s e*es "ill soon disco)er that >reland, "ith :[ millions, is still al"a*s miserable, and miserable because she is o)erpopulated8 'herefore her depopulation must go *et further, that thus she ma* fulfil her true destin*, that of an English sheep4"al+ and cattle4pasture8A 1 1 <i+e all good things in this bad "orld, this profitable method has its dra"bac+s8 Bith the accumulation of rents in >reland, the accumulation of the >rish in (merica +eeps pace8 'he >rishman, banished b* sheep and o9, re4appears on the other side of the ocean as a Fenian, and face to face "ith the old Iueen of the seas rises, threatening and more threatening, the *oung giant &epublic: Acerba fata Romanos a unt ;celus&ue fraternae necis$ G( cruel fate torments the &omans, and the crime of fratricideH

Part 8: Primiti%e Accumulation

(ha)ter 26* "he Secret of Primiti4e Acc%m%$ation
Be ha)e seen ho" mone* is changed into capital; ho" through capital surplus )alue is made, and from surplus )alue more capital8 /ut the accumulation of capital presupposes surplus )alue; surplus )alue presupposes capitalistic production; capitalistic production presupposes the pre4 e9istence of considerable masses of capital and of labour po"er in the hands of producers of commodities8 'he "hole mo)ement, therefore, seems to turn in a )icious circle, out of "hich "e can onl* get b* supposing a primiti)e accumulation (pre)ious accumulation of (dam Smith! preceding capitalistic accumulation; an accumulation not the result of the capitalistic mode of production, but its starting point8 'his primiti)e accumulation pla*s in #olitical Econom* about the same part as original sin in theolog*8 (dam bit the apple, and thereupon sin fell on the human race8 >ts origin is supposed to be e9plained "hen it is told as an anecdote of the past8 >n times long gone b* there "ere t"o sorts of people; one, the diligent, intelligent, and, abo)e all, frugal elite; the other, la1* rascals, spending their substance, and more, in riotous li)ing8 'he legend of theological original sin tells us certainl* ho" man came to be condemned to eat his bread in the s"eat of his bro"; but the histor* of economic original sin re)eals to us that there are people to "hom this is b* no means essential8 Ce)er mindQ 'hus it came to pass that the former sort accumulated "ealth, and the latter sort had at last nothing to sell e9cept their o"n s+ins8 (nd from this original sin dates the po)ert* of the great maDorit* that, despite all its labour, has up to no" nothing to sell but itself, and the "ealth of the fe" that increases constantl* although the* ha)e long ceased to "or+8 Such insipid childishness is e)er* da* preached to us in the defence of propert*8 $8 'hiers, e$ 8, had the assurance to repeat it "ith all the solemnit* of a statesman to the French people, once so spirituel8 /ut as soon as the Iuestion of propert* crops up, it becomes a sacred dut* to proclaim the intellectual food of the infant as the one thing fit for all ages and for all stages of de)elopment8 >n actual histor* it is notorious that conIuest, ensla)ement, robber*, murder, briefl* force, pla* the great part8 >n the tender annals of #olitical Econom*, the id*llic reigns from time immemorial8 &ight and @labourA "ere from all time the sole means of enrichment, the present *ear of course al"a*s e9cepted8 (s a matter of fact, the methods of primiti)e accumulation are an*thing but id*llic8 >n themsel)es mone* and commodities are no more capital than are the means of production and of subsistence8 'he* "ant transforming into capital8 /ut this transformation itself can onl* ta+e place under certain circumstances that centre in this, )i18, that t"o )er* different +inds of commodit*4possessors must come face to face and into contact; on the one hand, the o"ners of mone*, means of production, means of subsistence, "ho are eager to increase the sum of )alues the* possess, b* bu*ing other people?s labour po"er; on the other hand, free labourers, the sellers of their o"n labour po"er, and therefore the sellers of labour8 Free labourers, in the double sense that neither the* themsel)es form part and parcel of the means of production, as in the case of sla)es, bondsmen, Pc8, nor do the means of production belong to them, as in the case of peasant4 proprietors; the* are, therefore, free from, unencumbered b*, an* means of production of their

:8

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o"n8 Bith this polari1ation of the mar+et for commodities, the fundamental conditions of capitalist production are gi)en8 'he capitalist s*stem presupposes the complete separation of the labourers from all propert* in the means b* "hich the* can reali1e their labour8 (s soon as capitalist production is once on its o"n legs, it not onl* maintains this separation, but reproduces it on a continuall* e9tending scale8 'he process, therefore, that clears the "a* for the capitalist s*stem, can be none other than the process "hich ta+es a"a* from the labourer the possession of his means of production; a process that transforms, on the one hand, the social means of subsistence and of production into capital, on the other, the immediate producers into "age labourers8 'he so4called primiti)e accumulation, therefore, is nothing else than the historical process of di)orcing the producer from the means of production8 >t appears as primiti)e, because it forms the prehistoric stage of capital and of the mode of production corresponding "ith it8 'he economic structure of capitalist societ* has gro"n out of the economic structure of feudal societ*8 'he dissolution of the latter set free the elements of the former8 'he immediate producer, the labourer, could onl* dispose of his o"n person after he had ceased to be attached to the soil and ceased to be the sla)e, serf, or bondsman of another8 'o become a free seller of labour po"er, "ho carries his commodit* "here)er he finds a mar+et, he must further ha)e escaped from the regime of the guilds, their rules for apprentices and Dourne*men, and the impediments of their labour regulations8 -ence, the historical mo)ement "hich changes the producers into "age4"or+ers, appears, on the one hand, as their emancipation from serfdom and from the fetters of the guilds, and this side alone e9ists for our bourgeois historians8 /ut, on the other hand, these ne" freedmen became sellers of themsel)es onl* after the* had been robbed of all their o"n means of production, and of all the guarantees of e9istence afforded b* the old feudal arrangements8 (nd the histor* of this, their e9propriation, is "ritten in the annals of man+ind in letters of blood and fire8 'he industrial capitalists, these ne" potentates, had on their part not onl* to displace the guild masters of handicrafts, but also the feudal lords, the possessors of the sources of "ealth8 >n this respect, their conIuest of social po"er appears as the fruit of a )ictorious struggle both against feudal lordship and its re)olting prerogati)es, and against the guilds and the fetters the* laid on the free de)elopment of production and the free e9ploitation of man b* man8 'he che)aliers d?industrie, ho"e)er, onl* succeeded in supplanting the che)aliers of the s"ord b* ma+ing use of e)ents of "hich the* themsel)es "ere "holl* innocent8 'he* ha)e risen b* means as )ile as those b* "hich the &oman freedman once on a time made himself the master of his patronus8 'he starting point of the de)elopment that ga)e rise to the "age labourer as "ell as to the capitalist, "as the ser)itude of the labourer8 'he ad)ance consisted in a change of form of this ser)itude, in the transformation of feudal e9ploitation into capitalist e9ploitation8 'o understand its march, "e need not go bac+ )er* far8 (lthough "e come across the first beginnings of capitalist production as earl* as the 1 th or 13th centur*, sporadicall*, in certain to"ns of the $editerranean, the capitalistic era dates from the 16th centur*8 Bhere)er it appears, the abolition of serfdom has been long effected, and the highest de)elopment of the middle ages, the e9istence of so)ereign to"ns, has been long on the "ane8 >n the histor* of primiti)e accumulation, all re)olutions are epoch4ma+ing that act as le)ers for the capital class in course of formation; but, abo)e all, those moments "hen great masses of men are suddenl* and forcibl* torn from their means of subsistence, and hurled as free and @unattachedA proletarians on the labour4mar+et8 'he e9propriation of the agricultural producer, of the peasant, from the soil, is the basis of the "hole process8 'he histor* of this e9propriation, in different countries, assumes different aspects, and runs through its )arious phases in different

:83

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orders of succession, and at different periods8 >n England alone, "hich "e ta+e as our e9ample, has it the classic form8 1

(ha)ter 27* Ex)ro)riation of the A#ric%$t%ra$ Po)%$ation From the /and

>n England, serfdom had practicall* disappeared in the last part of the 1 th centur*8 'he immense maDorit* of the population1 consisted then, and to a still larger e9tent, in the 13th centur*, of free peasant proprietors, "hate)er "as the feudal title under "hich their right of propert* "as hidden8 >n the larger seignorial domains, the old bailiff, himself a serf, "as displaced b* the free farmer8 'he "age labourers of agriculture consisted partl* of peasants, "ho utilised their leisure time b* "or+ing on the large estates, partl* of an independent special class of "age labourers, relati)el* and absolutel* fe" in numbers8 'he latter also "ere practicall* at the same time peasant farmers, since, besides their "ages, the* had allotted to them arable land to the e9tent of or more acres, together "ith their cottages8 /esides the*, "ith the rest of the peasants, enDo*ed the usufruct of the common land, "hich ga)e pasture to their cattle, furnished them "ith timber, fire4"ood, turf, Pc86 >n all countries of Europe, feudal production is characterised b* di)ision of the soil amongst the greatest possible number of subfeudatories8 'he might of the feudal lord, li+e that of the so)ereign, depended not on the length of his rent roll, but on the number of his subDects, and the latter depended on the number of peasant proprietors8 : (lthough, therefore, the English land, after the Corman 5onIuest, "as distributed in gigantic baronies, one of "hich often included some 277 of the old (nglo4Sa9on lordships, it "as bestre"n "ith small peasant properties, onl* here and there interspersed "ith great seignorial domains8 Such conditions, together "ith the prosperit* of the to"ns so characteristic of the 13th centur*, allo"ed of that "ealth of the people "hich 5hancellor Fortescue so eloIuentl* paints in his @<audes legum (ngliae;A but it e9cluded the possibilit* of capitalistic "ealth8 'he prelude of the re)olution that laid the foundation of the capitalist mode of production, "as pla*ed in the last third of the 13th, and the first decade of the 16th centur*8 ( mass of free proletarians "as hurled on the labour mar+et b* the brea+ing4up of the bands of feudal retainers, "ho, as Sir Lames Steuart "ell sa*s, @e)er*"here uselessl* filled house and castle8A (lthough the ro*al po"er, itself a product of bourgeois de)elopment, in its strife after absolute so)ereignt* forcibl* hastened on the dissolution of these bands of retainers, it "as b* no means the sole cause of it8 >n insolent conflict "ith +ing and parliament, the great feudal lords created an incomparabl* larger proletariat b* the forcible dri)ing of the peasantr* from the land, to "hich the latter had the same feudal right as the lord himself, and b* the usurpation of the common lands8 'he rapid rise of the Flemish "ool manufactures, and the corresponding rise in the price of "ool in England, ga)e the direct impulse to these e)ictions8 'he old nobilit* had been de)oured b* the great feudal "ars8 'he ne" nobilit* "as the child of its time, for "hich mone* "as the po"er of all po"ers8 'ransformation of arable land into sheep4"al+s "as, therefore, its cr*8 -arrison, in his @0escription of England, prefi9ed to -olinshed?s 5hronicles,A describes ho" the e9propriation of small peasants is ruining the countr*8 @Bhat care our great encroachersEA 'he d"ellings of the peasants and the cottages of the labourers "ere ra1ed to the ground or doomed to deca*8 @>f,A sa*s -arrison, @the old records of euerie manour be sought888 it "ill soon appear that in some manour se)enteene, eighteene, or t"entie houses are shrun+888 that England "as neuer less furnished "ith people than at the present888 =f cities and to"nes either utterl* decaied or more than a Iuarter or half diminished, though some one be a little increased here or there; of to"nes pulled do"ne for sheepe4"al+s, and no more but the lordships no" standing in them888 > could saie some"hat8A 'he

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complaints of these old chroniclers are al"a*s e9aggerated, but the* reflect faithfull* the impression made on contemporaries b* the re)olution in the conditions of production8 ( comparison of the "ritings of 5hancellor Fortescue and 'homas $ore re)eals the gulf bet"een the 13th and 16th centur*8 (s 'hornton rightl* has it, the English "or+ing class "as precipitated "ithout an* transition from its golden into its iron age8 <egislation "as terrified at this re)olution8 >t did not *et stand on that height of ci)ili1ation "here the @"ealth of the nationA (i8e8, the formation of capital, and the rec+less e9ploitation and impo)erishing of the mass of the people! figure as the ultima /hule of all state4craft8 >n his histor* of -enr* ;>>8, /acon sa*s: @>nclosures at that time (1 82! began to be more freIuent, "hereb* arable land ("hich could not be manured "ithout people and families! "as turned into pasture, "hich "as easil* rid b* a fe" herdsmen; and tenancies for *ears, li)es, and at "ill ("hereupon much of the *eomanr* li)ed! "ere turned into demesnes8 'his bred a deca* of people, and (b* conseIuence! a deca* of to"ns, churches, tithes, and the li+e888 >n remed*ing of this incon)enience the +ing?s "isdom "as admirable, and the parliament?s at that time888 the* too+ a course to ta+e a"a* depopulating enclosures, and depopulating pasturage8A (n (ct of -enr* ;>>8, 1 82, cap8 12, forbad the destruction of all @houses of husbandr*A to "hich at least 67 acres of land belonged8 /* an (ct, 63 -enr* ;>>>8, the same la" "as rene"ed8 >t recites, among other things, that man* farms and large floc+s of cattle, especiall* of sheep, are concentrated in the hands of a fe" men, "hereb* the rent of land has much risen and tillage has fallen off, churches and houses ha)e been pulled do"n, and mar)ellous numbers of people ha)e been depri)ed of the means "here"ith to maintain themsel)es and their families8 'he (ct, therefore, ordains the rebuilding of the deca*ed farmsteads, and fi9es a proportion bet"een corn land and pasture land, Pc8 (n (ct of 13:: recites that some o"ners possess 6 ,777 sheep, and limits the number to be o"ned to 6,7778 'he cr* of the people and the legislation directed, for 137 *ears after -enr* ;>>8, against the e9propriation of the small farmers and peasants, "ere ali+e fruitless8 'he secret of their inefficienc* /acon, "ithout +no"ing it, re)eals to us8 @'he de)ice of .ing -enr* ;>>8,A sa*s /acon, in his @Essa*s, 5i)il and $oral,A Essa* 62, @"as profound and admirable, in ma+ing farms and houses of husbandr* of a standard; that is, maintained "ith such a proportion of land unto them as ma* breed a subDect to li)e in con)enient plent*, and no ser)ile condition, and to +eep the plough in the hands of the o"ners and not mere hirelings8A3 Bhat the capitalist s*stem demanded "as, on the other hand, a degraded and almost ser)ile condition of the mass of the people, the transformation of them into mercenaries, and of their means of labour into capital8 0uring this transformation period, legislation also stro)e to retain the acres of land b* the cottage of the agricultural "age labourer, and forbad him to ta+e lodgers into his cottage8 >n the reign of Lames >8, 1667, &oger 5roc+er of Front $ill, "as condemned for ha)ing built a cottage on the manor of Front $ill "ithout acres of land attached to the same in perpetuit*8 (s late as 5harles >8?s reign, 16:8, a ro*al commission "as appointed to enforce the carr*ing out of the old la"s, especiall* that referring to the acres of land8 E)en in 5rom"ell?s time, the building of a house "ithin miles of <ondon "as forbidden unless it "as endo"ed "ith acres of land8 (s late as the first half of the 18th centur* complaint is made if the cottage of the agricultural labourer has not an adDunct of one or t"o acres of land8 Co"ada*s he is luc+* if it is furnished "ith a little garden, or if he ma* rent, far a"a* from his cottage, a fe" roods8 @<andlords and farmers,A sa*s 0r8 -unter, @"or+ here hand in hand8 ( fe" acres to the cottage "ould ma+e the labourers too independent8A6 'he process of forcible e9propriation of the people recei)ed in the 16th centur* a ne" and frightful impulse from the &eformation, and from the conseIuent colossal spoliation of the church propert*8 'he 5atholic church "as, at the time of the &eformation, feudal proprietor of a great part of the English land8 'he suppression of the monasteries, Pc8, hurled their inmates into

:88

5hapter 67

the proletariat8 'he estates of the church "ere to a large e9tent gi)en a"a* to rapacious ro*al fa)ourites, or sold at a nominal price to speculating farmers and citi1ens, "ho dro)e out, en masse+ the hereditar* sub4tenants and thre" their holdings into one8 'he legall* guaranteed propert* of the poorer fol+ in a part of the church?s tithes "as tacitl* confiscated8 7 @#auper ubiIue Dacet,A cried Kueen Eli1abeth, after a Dourne* through England8 >n the :rd *ear of her reign the nation "as obliged to recognise pauperism officiall* b* the introduction of a poor4rate8 @'he authors of this la" seem to ha)e been ashamed to state the grounds of it, for Gcontrar* to traditional usageH it has no preamble "hate)er8A 8 /* the 16th of 5harles >8, ch8 , it "as declared perpetual, and in fact onl* in 18: did it ta+e a ne" and harsher form8 2 'hese immediate results of the &eformation "ere not its most lasting ones8 'he propert* of the church formed the religious bul"ar+ of the traditional conditions of landed propert*8 Bith its fall these "ere no longer tenable817 E)en in the last decade of the 17th centur*, the *eomanr*, the class of independent peasants, "ere more numerous than the class of farmers8 'he* had formed the bac+bone of 5rom"ell?s strength, and, e)en according to the confession of $acaula*, stood in fa)ourable contrast to the drun+en sIuires and to their ser)ants, the countr* clerg*, "ho had to marr* their masters? cast4off mistresses8 (bout 1737, the *eomanr* had disappeared, 11 and so had, in the last decade of the 18th centur*, the last trace of the common land of the agricultural labourer8 Be lea)e on one side here the purel* economic causes of the agricultural re)olution8 Be deal onl* "ith the forcible means emplo*ed8 (fter the restoration of the Stuarts, the landed proprietors carried, b* legal means, an act of usurpation, effected e)er*"here on the 5ontinent "ithout an* legal formalit*8 'he* abolished the feudal tenure of land, i$e$, the* got rid of all its obligations to the State, @indemnifiedA the State b* ta9es on the peasantr* and the rest of the mass of the people, )indicated for themsel)es the rights of modern pri)ate propert* in estates to "hich the* had onl* a feudal title, and, finall*, passed those la"s of settlement, "hich, mutatis mutandis, had the same effect on the English agricultural labourer, as the edict of the 'artar /oris Godunof on the &ussian peasantr*8 'he @glorious &e)olutionA brought into po"er, along "ith Billiam of =range, the landlord and capitalist appropriators of surplus )alue8 16 'he* inaugurated the ne" era b* practising on a colossal scale thefts of state lands, thefts that had been hitherto managed more modestl*8 'hese estates "ere gi)en a"a*, sold at a ridiculous figure, or e)en anne9ed to pri)ate estates b* direct sei1ure81: (ll this happened "ithout the slightest obser)ation of legal etiIuette8 'he 5ro"n lands thus fraudulentl* appropriated, together "ith the robber* of the 5hurch estates, as far as these had not been lost again during the republican re)olution, form the basis of the toda* princel* domains of the English oligarch*81 'he bourgeois capitalists fa)oured the operation "ith the )ie", among others, to promoting free trade in land, to e9tending the domain of modern agriculture on the large farm4s*stem, and to increasing their suppl* of the free agricultural proletarians read* to hand8 /esides, the ne" landed aristocrac* "as the natural all* of the ne" ban+ocrac*, of the ne"l*4hatched haute finance+ and of the large manufacturers, then depending on protecti)e duties8 'he English bourgeoisie acted for its o"n interest Iuite as "isel* as did the S"edish bourgeoisie "ho, re)ersing the process, hand in hand "ith their economic allies, the peasantr*, helped the +ings in the forcible resumption of the 5ro"n lands from the oligarch*8 'his happened since 167 under 5harles O8 and 5harles O>8 5ommunal propert* F al"a*s distinct from the State propert* Dust dealt "ith F "as an old 'eutonic institution "hich li)ed on under co)er of feudalism8 Be ha)e seen ho" the forcible usurpation of this, generall* accompanied b* the turning of arable into pasture land, begins at the end of the 13th and e9tends into the 16th centur*8 /ut, at that time, the process "as carried on b*

:82

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means of indi)idual acts of )iolence against "hich legislation, for a hundred and fift* *ears, fought in )ain8 'he ad)ance made b* the 18th centur* sho"s itself in this, that the la" itself becomes no" the instrument of the theft of the people?s land, although the large farmers ma+e use of their little independent methods as "ell8 13 'he parliamentar* form of the robber* is that of (cts for enclosures of 5ommons, in other "ords, decrees b* "hich the landlords grant themsel)es the people?s land as pri)ate propert*, decrees of e9propriation of the people8 Sir F8 $8 Eden refutes his o"n craft* special pleading, in "hich he tries to represent communal propert* as the pri)ate propert* of the great landlords "ho ha)e ta+en the place of the feudal lords, "hen he, himself, demands a @general (ct of #arliament for the enclosure of 5ommonsA (admitting thereb* that a parliamentar* coup dC?tat is necessar* for its transformation into pri)ate propert*!, and moreo)er calls on the legislature for the indemnification for the e9propriated poor8 16 Bhilst the place of the independent *eoman "as ta+en b* tenants at "ill, small farmers on *earl* leases, a ser)ile rabble dependent on the pleasure of the landlords, the s*stematic robber* of the 5ommunal lands helped especiall*, ne9t to the theft of the State domains, to s"ell those large farms, that "ere called in the 18th centur* capital farms 17 or merchant farms,18 and to @set freeA the agricultural population as proletarians for manufacturing industr*8 'he 18th centur*, ho"e)er, did not *et recognise as full* as the 12th, the identit* bet"een national "ealth and the po)ert* of the people8 -ence the most )igorous polemic, in the economic literature of that time, on the @enclosure of commons8A From the mass of materials that lie before me, > gi)e a fe" e9tracts that "ill thro" a strong light on the circumstances of the time8 @>n se)eral parishes of -ertfordshire,A "rites one indignant person, @6 farms, numbering on the a)erage 374137 acres, ha)e been melted up into three farms8A 12 @>n Corthamptonshire and <eicestershire the enclosure of common lands has ta+en place on a )er* large scale, and most of the ne" lordships, resulting from the enclosure, ha)e been turned into pasturage, in conseIuence of "hich man* lordships ha)e not no" 37 acres ploughed *earl*, in "hich 1,377 "ere ploughed formerl*8 'he ruins of former d"elling4houses, barns, stables, Pc8,A are the sole traces of the former inhabitants8 @(n hundred houses and families ha)e in some open4field )illages d"indled to eight or ten8888 'he landholders in most parishes that ha)e been enclosed onl* 13 or 67 *ears, are )er* fe" in comparison of the numbers "ho occupied them in their open4field state8 >t is no uncommon thing for or 3 "ealth* gra1iers to engross a large enclosed lordship "hich "as before in the hands of 67 or :7 farmers, and as man* smaller tenants and proprietors8 (ll these are hereb* thro"n out of their li)ings "ith their families and man* other families "ho "ere chiefl* emplo*ed and supported b* them8A67 >t "as not onl* the land that la* "aste, but often land culti)ated either in common or held under a definite rent paid to the communit*, that "as anne9ed b* the neighbouring landlords under prete9t of enclosure8 @> ha)e here in )ie" enclosures of open fields and lands alread* impro)ed8 >t is ac+no"ledged b* e)en the "riters in defence of enclosures that these diminished )illages increase the monopolies of farms, raise the prices of pro)isions, and produce depopulation 888 and e)en the enclosure of "aste lands (as no" carried on! bears hard on the poor, b* depri)ing them of a part of their subsistence, and onl* goes to"ards increasing farms alread* too large8A 61 @Bhen,A sa*s 0r8 #rice, @this land gets into the hands of a fe" great farmers, the conseIuence must be that the little farmersA (earlier designated b* him @a multitude of little proprietors and tenants, "ho maintain themsel)es and families b* the produce of the ground the* occup* b* sheep +ept on a common, b* poultr*, hogs, Pc8, and "ho therefore ha)e little occasion to purchase an* of the means of subsistenceA! @"ill be con)erted into a bod* of men "ho earn their subsistence b* "or+ing for others, and "ho "ill be under a necessit* of going to mar+et for all the* "ant8888 'here "ill, perhaps, be more labour, because there "ill be more compulsion to it8888 'o"ns and manufactures "ill increase, because more "ill be dri)en to them in Iuest of places and emplo*ment8 'his is the "a* in "hich the engrossing of

:27

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farms naturall* operates8 (nd this is the "a* in "hich, for man* *ears, it has been actuall* operating in this +ingdom8A66 -e sums up the effect of the enclosures thus: @%pon the "hole, the circumstances of the lo"er ran+s of men are altered in almost e)er* respect for the "orse8 From little occupiers of land, the* are reduced to the state of da*4labourers and hirelings; and, at the same time, their subsistence in that state has become more difficult8A 6: >n fact, usurpation of the common lands and the re)olution in agriculture accompan*ing this, told so acutel* on the agricultural labourers that, e)en according to Eden, bet"een 1763 and 1787, their "ages began to fall belo" the minimum, and to be supplemented b* official poor4la" relief8 'heir "ages, he sa*s, @"ere not more than enough for the absolute necessaries of life8A <et us hear for a moment a defender of enclosures and an opponent of 0r8 #rice8 @Cot is it a conseIuence that there must be depopulation, because men are not seen "asting their labour in the open field8888 >f, b* con)erting the little farmers into a bod* of men "ho must "or+ for others, more labour is produced, it is an ad)antage "hich the nationA (to "hich, of course, the @con)ertedA ones do not belong! @should "ish for 888 the produce being greater "hen their Doint labours are emplo*ed on one farm, there "ill be a surplus for manufactures, and b* this means manufactures, one of the mines of the nation, "ill increase, in proportion to the Iuantit* of corn produced8A6 'he stoical peace of mind "ith "hich the political economist regards the most shameless )iolation of the @sacred rights of propert*A and the grossest acts of )iolence to persons, as soon as the* are necessar* to la* the foundations of the capitalistic mode of production, is sho"n b* Sir F8 $8 Eden, philanthropist and tor*, to boot8 'he "hole series of thefts, outrages, and popular miser*, that accompanied the forcible e9propriation of the people, from the last third of the 13th to the end of the 18th centur*, lead him merel* to the comfortable conclusion: @'he due proportion bet"een arable land and pasture had to be established8 0uring the "hole of the 1 th and the greater part of the 13th centur*, there "as one acre of pasture to 6, :, and e)en of arable land8 (bout the middle of the 16th centur* the proportion "as changed of 6 acres of pasture to 6, later on, of 6 acres of pasture to one of arable, until at last the Dust proportion of : acres of pasture to one of arable land "as attained8A >n the 12th centur*, the )er* memor* of the conne9ion bet"een the agricultural labourer and the communal propert* had, of course, )anished8 'o sa* nothing of more recent times, ha)e the agricultural population recei)ed a farthing of compensation for the :,311,777 acres of common land "hich bet"een 1871 and 18:1 "ere stolen from them and b* parliamentar* de)ices presented to the landlords b* the landlordsE 'he last process of "holesale e9propriation of the agricultural population from the soil is, finall*, the so4called clearing of estates, i$e$, the s"eeping men off them8 (ll the English methods hitherto considered culminated in @clearing8A (s "e sa" in the picture of modern conditions gi)en in a former chapter, "here there are no more independent peasants to get rid of, the @clearingA of cottages begins; so that the agricultural labourers do not find on the soil culti)ated b* them e)en the spot necessar* for their o"n housing8 /ut "hat @clearing of estatesA reall* and properl* signifies, "e learn onl* in the promised land of modern romance, the -ighlands of Scotland8 'here the process is distinguished b* its s*stematic character, b* the magnitude of the scale on "hich it is carried out at one blo" (in >reland landlords ha)e gone to the length of s"eeping a"a* se)eral )illages at once; in Scotland areas as large as German principalities are dealt "ith!, finall* b* the peculiar form of propert*, under "hich the embe11led lands "ere held8 'he -ighland 5elts "ere organised in clans, each of "hich "as the o"ner of the land on "hich it "as settled8 'he representati)e of the clan, its chief or @great man,A "as onl* the titular o"ner of this propert*, Dust as the Kueen of England is the titular o"ner of all the national soil8 Bhen the

:21

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English go)ernment succeeded in suppressing the intestine "ars of these @great men,A and their constant incursions into the <o"land plains, the chiefs of the clans b* no means ga)e up their time4honoured trade as robbers; the* onl* changed its form8 =n their o"n authorit* the* transformed their nominal right into a right of pri)ate propert*, and as this brought them into collision "ith their clansmen, resol)ed to dri)e them out b* open force8 @( +ing of England might as "ell claim to dri)e his subDects into the sea,A sa*s #rofessor Ce"man8 63 'his re)olution, "hich began in Scotland after the last rising of the follo"ers of the #retender, can be follo"ed through its first phases in the "ritings of Sir Lames Steuart 66 and Lames (nderson867 >n the 18th centur* the hunted4out Gaels "ere forbidden to emigrate from the countr*, "ith a )ie" to dri)ing them b* force to Glasgo" and other manufacturing to"ns8 68 (s an e9ample of the method62 obtaining in the 12th centur*, the @clearingA made b* the 0uchess of Sutherland "ill suffice here8 'his person, "ell instructed in econom*, resol)ed, on entering upon her go)ernment, to effect a radical cure, and to turn the "hole countr*, "hose population had alread* been, b* earlier processes of the li+e +ind, reduced to 13,777, into a sheep4"al+8 From 181 to 1867 these 13,777 inhabitants, about :,777 families, "ere s*stematicall* hunted and rooted out8 (ll their )illages "ere destro*ed and burnt, all their fields turned into pasturage8 /ritish soldiers enforced this e)iction, and came to blo"s "ith the inhabitants8 =ne old "oman "as burnt to death in the flames of the hut, "hich she refused to lea)e8 'hus this fine lad* appropriated 72 ,777 acres of land that had from time immemorial belonged to the clan8 She assigned to the e9pelled inhabitants about 6,777 acres on the sea4shore F 6 acres per famil*8 'he 6,777 acres had until this time lain "aste, and brought in no income to their o"ners8 'he 0uchess, in the nobilit* of her heart, actuall* "ent so far as to let these at an a)erage rent of 6s8 6d8 per acre to the clansmen, "ho for centuries had shed their blood for her famil*8 'he "hole of the stolen clanland she di)ided into 62 great sheep farms, each inhabited b* a single famil*, for the most part imported English farm4ser)ants8 >n the *ear 18:3 the 13,777 Gaels "ere alread* replaced b* 1:1,777 sheep8 'he remnant of the aborigines flung on the sea4shore tried to li)e b* catching fish8 'he* became amphibious and li)ed, as an English author sa*s, half on land and half on "ater, and "ithal onl* half on both8 :7 /ut the bra)e Gaels must e9piate *et more bitterl* their idolatr*, romantic and of the mountains, for the @great menA of the clan8 'he smell of their fish rose to the noses of the great men8 'he* scented some profit in it, and let the sea4shore to the great fishmongers of <ondon8 For the second time the Gaels "ere hunted out8:1 /ut, finall*, part of the sheep4"al+s are turned into deer preser)es8 E)er* one +no"s that there are no real forests in England8 'he deer in the par+s of the great are demurel* domestic cattle, fat as <ondon aldermen8 Scotland is therefore the last refuge of the @noble passion8A @>n the -ighlands,A sa*s Somers in 18 8, @ne" forests are springing up li+e mushrooms8 -ere, on one side of Gaic+, *ou ha)e the ne" forest of Glenfeshie; and there on the other *ou ha)e the ne" forest of (rd)eri+ie8 >n the same line *ou ha)e the /lac+ $ount, an immense "aste also recentl* erected8 From east to "est F from the neighbourhood of (berdeen to the crags of =ban F *ou ha)e no" a continuous line of forests; "hile in other parts of the -ighlands there are the ne" forests of <och (rchaig, Glengarr*, Glenmoriston, Pc8 Sheep "ere introduced into glens "hich had been the seats of communities of small farmers; and the latter "ere dri)en to see+ subsistence on coarser and more sterile trac+s of soil8 Co" deer are supplanting sheep; and these are once more dispossessing the small tenants, "ho "ill necessaril* be dri)en do"n upon still coarser land and to more grinding penur*8 0eer4forests :6 and the people cannot co4e9ist8 =ne or other of the t"o must *ield8 <et the forests be increased in number and e9tent during the ne9t Iuarter of a centur*, as the* ha)e been in the last, and the Gaels "ill perish from their nati)e soil888 'his mo)ement among the -ighland proprietors is "ith some a matter of ambition888 "ith some lo)e of sport888 "hile others, of a more practical cast, follo" the trade in deer "ith an e*e solel* to profit8

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For it is a fact, that a mountain range laid out in forest is, in man* cases, more profitable to the proprietor than "hen let as a sheep4"al+8 888 'he huntsman "ho "ants a deer4forest limits his offers b* no other calculation than the e9tent of his purse8888 Sufferings ha)e been inflicted in the -ighlands scarcel* less se)ere than those occasioned b* the polic* of the Corman +ings8 0eer ha)e recei)ed e9tended ranges, "hile men ha)e been hunted "ithin a narro"er and still narro"er circle8888 =ne after one the liberties of the people ha)e been clo)en do"n8888 (nd the oppressions are dail* on the increase8888 'he clearance and dispersion of the people is pursued b* the proprietors as a settled principle, as an agricultural necessit*, Dust as trees and brush"ood are cleared from the "astes of (merica or (ustralia; and the operation goes on in a Iuiet, business4 li+e "a*, Pc8A:: 'he spoliation of the church?s propert*, the fraudulent alienation of the State domains, the robber* of the common lands, the usurpation of feudal and clan propert*, and its transformation into modern pri)ate propert* under circumstances of rec+less terrorism, "ere Dust so man* id*llic methods of primiti)e accumulation8 'he* conIuered the field for capitalistic agriculture, made the soil part and parcel of capital, and created for the to"n industries the necessar* suppl* of a @freeA and outla"ed proletariat8

(ha)ter 28* .$ood+ /e#is$ation A#ainst the Ex)ro)riated, from the End of the 1!th (ent%r+: Forcin# 7own of 5a#es 0+ Acts of Par$iament
'he proletariat created b* the brea+ing up of the bands of feudal retainers and b* the forcible e9propriation of the people from the soil, this @freeA proletariat could not possibl* be absorbed b* the nascent manufactures as fast as it "as thro"n upon the "orld8 =n the other hand, these men, suddenl* dragged from their "onted mode of life, could not as suddenl* adapt themsel)es to the discipline of their ne" condition8 'he* "ere turned en masse into beggars, robbers, )agabonds, partl* from inclination, in most cases from stress of circumstances8 -ence at the end of the 13th and during the "hole of the 16th centur*, throughout Bestern Europe a blood* legislation against )agabondage8 'he fathers of the present "or+ing class "ere chastised for their enforced transformation into )agabonds and paupers8 <egislation treated them as @)oluntar*A criminals, and assumed that it depended on their o"n good "ill to go on "or+ing under the old conditions that no longer e9isted8 >n England this legislation began under -enr* ;>>8 =enry !///. 1'3-: /eggars old and unable to "or+ recei)e a beggar?s licence8 =n the other hand, "hipping and imprisonment for sturd* )agabonds8 'he* are to be tied to the cart4tail and "hipped until the blood streams from their bodies, then to s"ear an oath to go bac+ to their birthplace or to "here the* ha)e li)ed the last three *ears and to @put themsel)es to labour8A Bhat grim iron*Q >n 67 -enr* ;>>>8 the former statute is repeated, but strengthened "ith ne" clauses8 For the second arrest for )agabondage the "hipping is to be repeated and half the ear sliced off; but for the third relapse the offender is to be e9ecuted as a hardened criminal and enem* of the common "eal8 *d.ard !/.: ( statute of the first *ear of his reign, 13 7, ordains that if an*one refuses to "or+, he shall be condemned as a sla)e to the person "ho has denounced him as an idler8 'he master shall feed his sla)e on bread and "ater, "ea+ broth and such refuse meat as he thin+s fit8 -e has the right to force him to do an* "or+, no matter ho" disgusting, "ith "hip and chains8 >f the sla)e is absent a fortnight, he is condemned to sla)er* for life and is to be branded on forehead or bac+ "ith the letter S; if he runs a"a* thrice, he is to be e9ecuted as a felon8 'he master can sell him, beIueath him, let him out on hire as a sla)e, Dust as an* other personal chattel or cattle8 >f the sla)es attempt an*thing against the masters, the* are also to be e9ecuted8 Lustices of the peace, on information, are to hunt the rascals do"n8 >f it happens that a )agabond has been idling about for three da*s, he is to be ta+en to his birthplace, branded "ith a red4hot iron "ith the letter ; on the breast and be set to "or+, in chains, in the streets or at some other labour8 >f the )agabond gi)es a false birthplace, he is then to become the sla)e for life of this place, of its inhabitants, or its corporation, and to be branded "ith an S8 (ll persons ha)e the right to ta+e a"a* the children of the )agabonds and to +eep them as apprentices, the *oung men until the 6 th *ear, the girls until the 67th8 >f the* run a"a*, the* are to become up to this age the sla)es of their masters, "ho can put them in irons, "hip them, Pc8, if the* li+e8 E)er* master ma* put an iron ring round the nec+,

:2

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arms or legs of his sla)e, b* "hich to +no" him more easil* and to be more certain of him8 1 'he last part of this statute pro)ides, that certain poor people ma* be emplo*ed b* a place or b* persons, "ho are "illing to gi)e them food and drin+ and to find them "or+8 'his +ind of parish sla)es "as +ept up in England until far into the 12th centur* under the name of @roundsmen8A *li;abeth> 1'&2: %nlicensed beggars abo)e 1 *ears of age are to be se)erel* flogged and branded on the left ear unless some one "ill ta+e them into ser)ice for t"o *ears; in case of a repetition of the offence, if the* are o)er 18, the* are to be e9ecuted, unless some one "ill ta+e them into ser)ice for t"o *ears; but for the third offence the* are to be e9ecuted "ithout merc* as felons8 Similar statutes: 18 Eli1abeth, c8 1:, and another of 13278 6 ?ames 1: (n* one "andering about and begging is declared a rogue and a )agabond8 Lustices of the peace in pett* sessions are authorised to ha)e them publicl* "hipped and for the first offence to imprison them for 6 months, for the second for 6 *ears8 Bhilst in prison the* are to be "hipped as much and as often as the Dustices of the peace thin+ fit888 >ncorrigible and dangerous rogues are to be branded "ith an & on the left shoulder and set to hard labour, and if the* are caught begging again, to be e9ecuted "ithout merc*8 'hese statutes, legall* binding until the beginning of the 18th centur*, "ere onl* repealed b* 16 (nne, c8 6:8 Similar la"s in France, "here b* the middle of the 17th centur* a +ingdom of )agabonds (truands! "as established in #aris8 E)en at the beginning of <ouis O;>8?s reign (=rdinance of Lul* 1:th, 1777! e)er* man in good health from 16 to 67 *ears of age, if "ithout means of subsistence and not practising a trade, is to be sent to the galle*s8 =f the same nature are the statute of 5harles ;8 for the Cetherlands (=ctober, 13:7!, the first edict of the States and 'o"ns of -olland ($arch 17, 161 !, the @#la+aatA of the %nited #ro)inces (Lune 66, 16 2!, Pc8 'hus "ere the agricultural people, first forcibl* e9propriated from the soil, dri)en from their homes, turned into )agabonds, and then "hipped, branded, tortured b* la"s grotesIuel* terrible, into the discipline necessar* for the "age s*stem8 >t is not enough that the conditions of labour are concentrated in a mass, in the shape of capital, at the one pole of societ*, "hile at the other are grouped masses of men, "ho ha)e nothing to sell but their labour4po"er8 Ceither is it enough that the* are compelled to sell it )oluntaril*8 'he ad)ance of capitalist production de)elops a "or+ing class, "hich b* education, tradition, habit, loo+s upon the conditions of that mode of production as self4e)ident la"s of Cature8 'he organisation of the capitalist process of production, once full* de)eloped, brea+s do"n all resistance8 'he constant generation of a relati)e surplus4population +eeps the la" of suppl* and demand of labour, and therefore +eeps "ages, in a rut that corresponds "ith the "ants of capital8 'he dull compulsion of economic relations completes the subDection of the labourer to the capitalist8 0irect force, outside economic conditions, is of course still used, but onl* e9ceptionall*8 >n the ordinar* run of things, the labourer can be left to the @natural la"s of production,A i$e$, to his dependence on capital, a dependence springing from, and guaranteed in perpetuit* b*, the conditions of production themsel)es8 >t is other"ise during the historic genesis of capitalist production8 'he bourgeoisie, at its rise, "ants and uses the po"er of the state to @regulateA "ages, i$e$, to force them "ithin the limits suitable for surplus )alue ma+ing, to lengthen the "or+ing da* and to +eep the labourer himself in the normal degree of dependence8 'his is an essential element of the so4called primiti)e accumulation8 'he class of "age labourers, "hich arose in the latter half of the 1 th centur*, formed then and in the follo"ing centur* onl* a )er* small part of the population, "ell protected in its position b* the independent peasant proprietar* in the countr* and the guild4organisation in the to"n8 >n countr* and to"n master and "or+men stood close together sociall*8 'he subordination of labour to capital "as onl* formal F i$e$, the mode of production itself had as *et no specific capitalistic

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character8 ;ariable capital preponderated greatl* o)er constant8 'he demand for "age labour gre", therefore, rapidl* "ith e)er* accumulation of capital, "hilst the suppl* of "age labour follo"ed but slo"l*8 ( large part of the national product, changed later into a fund of capitalist accumulation, then still entered into the consumption4fund of the labourer8 <egislation on "age labour (from the first, aimed at the e9ploitation of the labourer and, as it ad)anced, al"a*s eIuall* hostile to him!, : is started in England b* the Statute of <abourers, of Ed"ard >>>8, 1: 28 'he ordinance of 1:37 in France, issued in the name of .ing Lohn, corresponds "ith it8 English and French legislation run parallel and are identical in purport8 So far as the labour4statutes aim at compulsor* e9tension of the "or+ing da*, > do not return to them, as this point "as treated earlier (5hap8 O8, Section 3!8 'he Statute of <abourers "as passed at the urgent instance of the -ouse of 5ommons8 ( 'or* sa*s nai)el*: @Formerl* the poor demanded such hi h "ages as to threaten industr* and "ealth8 Ce9t, their "ages are so lo1 as to threaten industr* and "ealth eIuall* and perhaps more, but in another "a*8A ( tariff of "ages "as fi9ed b* la" for to"n and countr*, for piece "or+ and da* "or+8 'he agricultural labourers "ere to hire themsel)es out b* the *ear, the to"n ones @in open mar+et8A >t "as forbidden, under pain of imprisonment, to pa* higher "ages than those fi9ed b* the statute, but the ta+ing of higher "ages "as more se)erel* punished than the gi)ing them8 GSo also in Sections 18 and 12 of the Statute of (pprentices of Eli1abeth, ten da*s? imprisonment is decreed for him that pa*s the higher "ages, but t"ent*4one da*s for him that recei)es them8H ( statute of 1:67 increased the penalties and authorised the masters to e9tort labour at the legal rate of "ages b* corporal punishment8 (ll combinations, contracts, oaths, Pc8, b* "hich masons and carpenters reciprocall* bound themsel)es, "ere declared null and )oid8 5oalition of the labourers is treated as a heinous crime from the 1 th centur* to 1863, the *ear of the repeal of the la"s against 'rades? %nions8 'he spirit of the Statute of <abourers of 1: 2 and of its offshoots comes out clearl* in the fact, that indeed a ma9imum of "ages is dictated b* the State, but on no account a minimum8 >n the 16th centur*, the condition of the labourers had, as "e +no", become much "orse8 'he mone* "age rose, but not in proportion to the depreciation of mone* and the corresponding rise in the prices of commodities8 Bages, therefore, in realit* fell8 Ce)ertheless, the la"s for +eeping them do"n remained in force, together "ith the ear4clipping and branding of those @"hom no one "as "illing to ta+e into ser)ice8A /* the Statute of (pprentices 3 Eli1abeth, c8 :, the Dustices of the peace "ere empo"ered to fi9 certain "ages and to modif* them according to the time of the *ear and the price of commodities8 Lames >8 e9tended these regulations of labour also to "ea)ers, spinners, and all possible categories of "or+ers8 3 George >>8 e9tended the la"s against coalitions of labourers to manufactures8 >n the manufacturing period par excellence, the capitalist mode of production had become sufficientl* strong to render legal regulation of "ages as impracticable as it "as unnecessar*; but the ruling classes "ere un"illing in case of necessit* to be "ithout the "eapons of the old arsenal8 Still, 8 George >>8 forbade a higher da*?s "age than 6s8 7[d8 for Dourne*men tailors in and around <ondon, e9cept in cases of general mourning; still, 1: George >>>8, c8 68, ga)e the regulation of the "ages of sil+4"ea)ers to the Dustices of the peace; still, in 1776, it reIuired t"o Dudgments of the higher courts to decide, "hether the mandates of Dustices of the peace as to "ages held good also for non4agricultural labourers; still, in 1722, an act of #arliament ordered that the "ages of the Scotch miners should continue to be regulated b* a statute of Eli1abeth and t"o Scotch acts of 1661 and 16718 -o" completel* in the meantime

:26

5hapter 68

circumstances had changed, is pro)ed b* an occurrence unheard4of before in the English <o"er -ouse8 >n that place, "here for more than 77 *ears la"s had been made for the ma9imum, be*ond "hich "ages absolutel* must not rise, Bhitbread in 1726 proposed a legal minimum "age for agricultural labourers8 #itt opposed this, but confessed that the @condition of the poor "as cruel8A Finall*, in 181:, the la"s for the regulation of "ages "ere repealed8 'he* "ere an absurd anomal*, since the capitalist regulated his factor* b* his pri)ate legislation, and could b* the poor4rates ma+e up the "age of the agricultural labourer to the indispensable minimum8 'he pro)isions of the labour statutes as to contracts bet"een master and "or+man, as to gi)ing notice and the li+e, "hich onl* allo" of a ci)il action against the contract4brea+ing master, but on the contrar* permit a criminal action against the contract4brea+ing "or+man, are to this hour (187:! in full force8 'he barbarous la"s against 'rades? %nions fell in 1863 before the threatening bearing of the proletariat8 0espite this, the* fell onl* in part8 5ertain beautiful fragments of the old statute )anished onl* in 18328 Finall*, the act of #arliament of Lune 62, 1871, made a pretence of remo)ing the last traces of this class of legislation b* legal recognition of 'rades? %nions8 /ut an act of #arliament of the same date (an act to amend the criminal la" relating to )iolence, threats, and molestation!, re4established, in point of fact, the former state of things in a ne" shape8 /* this #arliamentar* escamotage the means "hich the labourers could use in a stri+e or loc+4out "ere "ithdra"n from the la"s common to all citi1ens, and placed under e9ceptional penal legislation, the interpretation of "hich fell to the masters themsel)es in their capacit* as Dustices of the peace8 '"o *ears earlier, the same -ouse of 5ommons and the same $r8 Gladstone in the "ell4+no"n straightfor"ard fashion brought in a bill for the abolition of all e9ceptional penal legislation against the "or+ing class8 /ut this "as ne)er allo"ed to go be*ond the second reading, and the matter "as thus protracted until at last the @great <iberal part*,A b* an alliance "ith the 'ories, found courage to turn against the )er* proletariat that had carried it into po"er8 Cot content "ith this treacher*, the @great <iberal part*A allo"ed the English Dudges, e)er complaisant in the ser)ice of the ruling classes, to dig up again the earlier la"s against @conspirac*,A and to appl* them to coalitions of labourers8 Be see that onl* against its "ill and under the pressure of the masses did the English #arliament gi)e up the la"s against Stri+es and 'rades? %nions, after it had itself, for 377 *ears, held, "ith shameless egoism, the position of a permanent 'rades? %nion of the capitalists against the labourers8 0uring the )er* first storms of the re)olution, the French bourgeoisie dared to ta+e a"a* from the "or+ers the right of association but Dust acIuired8 /* a decree of Lune 1 , 1721, the* declared all coalition of the "or+ers as @an attempt against libert* and the declaration of the rights of man,A punishable b* a fine of 377 li)res, together "ith depri)ation of the rights of an acti)e citi1en for one *ear86 'his la" "hich, b* means of State compulsion, confined the struggle bet"een capital and labour "ithin limits comfortable for capital, has outli)ed re)olutions and changes of d*nasties8 E)en the &eign of 'error left it untouched8 >t "as but Iuite recentl* struc+ out of the #enal 5ode8 Cothing is more characteristic than the prete9t for this bourgeois coup dC?tat$ @Granting,A sa*s 5hapelier, the reporter of the Select 5ommittee on this la", @that "ages ought to be a little higher than the* are, 888 that the* ought to be high enough for him that recei)es them, to be free from that state of absolute dependence due to the "ant of the necessaries of life, and "hich is almost that of sla)er*,A *et the "or+ers must not be allo"ed to come to an* understanding about their o"n interests, nor to act in common and thereb* lessen their @absolute dependence, "hich is almost that of sla)er*;A because, forsooth, in doing this the* inDure @the freedom of their cide)ant masters, the present entrepreneurs,A and because a coalition against the despotism of the Iuondam masters of the corporations is F guess "hatQ F is a restoration of the corporations abolished b* the French constitution8 7

(ha)ter "went+19ine* Genesis of the (a)ita$ist Farmer

Co" that "e ha)e considered the forcible creation of a class of outla"ed proletarians, the blood* discipline that turned them into "age labourers, the disgraceful action of the State "hich emplo*ed the police to accelerate the accumulation of capital b* increasing the degree of e9ploitation of labour, the Iuestion remains: "hence came the capitalists originall*E For the e9propriation of the agricultural population creates, directl*, none but the greatest landed proprietors8 (s far, ho"e)er, as concerns the genesis of the farmer, "e can, so to sa*, put our hand on it, because it is a slo" process e)ol)ing through man* centuries8 'he serfs, as "ell as the free small proprietors, held land under )er* different tenures, and "ere therefore emancipated under )er* different economic conditions8 >n England the first form of the farmer is the bailiff, himself a serf8 -is position is similar to that of the old &oman villicus, onl* in a more limited sphere of action8 0uring the second half of the 1 th centur* he is replaced b* a farmer, "hom the landlord pro)ided "ith seed, cattle and implements8 -is condition is not )er* different from that of the peasant8 =nl* he e9ploits more "age labour8 Soon he becomes a meta*er, a half4farmer8 -e ad)ances one part of the agricultural stoc+, the landlord the other8 'he t"o di)ide the total product in proportions determined b* contract8 'his form Iuic+l* disappears in England, to gi)e the place to the farmer proper, "ho ma+es his o"n capital breed b* emplo*ing "age labourers, and pa*s a part of the surplus4product, in mone* or in +ind, to the landlord as rent8 So long, during the 13th centur*, as the independent peasant and the farm4labourer "or+ing for himself as "ell as for "ages, enriched themsel)es b* their o"n labour, the circumstances of the farmer, and his field of production, "ere eIuall* mediocre8 'he agricultural re)olution "hich commenced in the last third of the 13th centur*, and continued during almost the "hole of the 16th (e9cepting, ho"e)er, its last decade!, enriched him Dust as speedil* as it impo)erished the mass of the agricultural people81 'he usurpation of the common lands allo"ed him to augment greatl* his stoc+ of cattle, almost "ithout cost, "hilst the* *ielded him a richer suppl* of manure for the tillage of the soil8 'o this "as added in the 16th centur* a )er* important element8 (t that time the contracts for farms ran for a long time, often for 22 *ears8 'he progressi)e fall in the )alue of the precious metals, and therefore of mone*, brought the farmers golden fruit8 (part from all the other circumstances discussed abo)e, it lo"ered "ages8 ( portion of the latter "as no" added to the profits of the farm8 'he continuous rise in the price of corn, "ool, meat, in a "ord of all agricultural produce, s"elled the mone* capital of the farm "ithout an* action on his part, "hilst the rent he paid (being calculated on the old )alue of mone*! diminished in realit*8 6 'hus the* gre" rich at the e9pense both of their labourers and their landlords8 Co "onder, therefore, that England, at the end of the 16th centur*, had a class of capitalist farmers, rich, considering the circumstances of the time8:

(ha)ter '* 3eaction of the A#ric%$t%ra$ 3e4o$%tion on 8nd%str+: (reation of the ;ome1Mar6et for 8nd%stria$ (a)ita$
'he e9propriation and e9pulsion of the agricultural population, intermittent but rene"ed again and again, supplied, as "e sa", the to"n industries "ith a mass of proletarians entirel* connected "ith the corporate guilds and unfettered b* them; a fortunate circumstance that ma+es old (8 (nderson (not to be confounded "ith Lames (nderson!, in his @-istor* of 5ommerce,A belie)e in the direct inter)ention of #ro)idence8 Be must still pause a moment on this element of primiti)e accumulation8 'he thinning4out of the independent, self4supporting peasants not onl* brought about the cro"ding together of the industrial proletariat, in the "a* that Geoffre* Saint -ilaire e9plained the condensation of cosmical matter at one place, b* its rarefaction at another8 1 >n spite of the smaller number of its culti)ators, the soil brought forth as much or more produce, after as before, because the re)olution in the conditions of landed propert* "as accompanied b* impro)ed methods of culture, greater co4operation, concentration of the means of production, Pc8, and because not onl* "ere the agricultural "age labourers put on the strain more intensel* 6, but the field of production on "hich the* "or+ed for themsel)es became more and more contracted8 Bith the setting free of a part of the agricultural population, therefore, their former means of nourishment "ere also set free8 'he* "ere no" transformed into material elements of )ariable capital8 'he peasant, e9propriated and cast adrift, must bu* their )alue in the form of "ages, from his ne" master, the industrial capitalist8 'hat "hich holds good of the means of subsistence holds "ith the ra" materials of industr* dependent upon home agriculture8 'he* "ere transformed into an element of constant capital8 Suppose, e$ 8, a part of the Bestphalian peasants, "ho, at the time of Frederic+ >>, all span fla9, forcibl* e9propriated and hunted from the soil; and the other part that remained, turned into da* labourers of large farmers8 (t the same time arise large establishments for fla94spinning and "ea)ing, in "hich the men @set freeA no" "or+ for "ages8 'he fla9 loo+s e9actl* as before8 Cot a fibre of it is changed, but a ne" social soul has popped into its bod*8 >t forms no" a part of the constant capital of the master manufacturer8 Formerl* di)ided among a number of small producers, "ho culti)ated it themsel)es and "ith their families spun it in retail fashion, it is no" concentrated in the hand of one capitalist, "ho sets others to spin and "ea)e it for him8 'he e9tra labour e9pended in fla94spinning realised itself formerl* in e9tra income to numerous peasant families, or ma*be, in Frederic+ >>?s time, in ta9es pour le roi de #russe8 >t realises itself no" in profit for a fe" capitalists8 'he spindles and looms, formerl* scattered o)er the face of the countr*, are no" cro"ded together in a fe" great labour4 barrac+s, together "ith the labourers and the ra" material8 (nd spindles, looms, ra" material, are no" transformed from means of independent e9istence for the spinners and "ea)ers, into means for commanding them and suc+ing out of them unpaid labour8 : =ne does not percei)e, "hen loo+ing at the large manufactories and the large farms, that the* ha)e originated from the thro"ing into one of man* small centres of production, and ha)e been built up b* the e9propriation of man* small independent producers8 Ce)ertheless, the popular intuition "as not at fault8 >n the time of $irabeau, the lion of the &e)olution, the great manufactories "ere still called manufactures reunies, "or+shops thro"n into one, as "e spea+ of field thro"n into one8 Sa*s $irabeau:

:22

5hapter :7

@Be are onl* pa*ing attention to the grand manufactories, in "hich hundreds of men "or+ under a director and "hich are commonl* called manufactures r?unies8 'hose "here a )er* large number of labourers "or+, each separatel* and on his o"n account, are hardl* considered; the* are placed at an infinite distance from the others8 'his is a great error, as the latter alone ma+e a reall* important obDect of national prosperit*8888 'he large "or+shop (manufacture rRunie! "ill enrich prodigiousl* one or t"o entrepreneurs, but the labourers "ill onl* be Dourne*men, paid more or less, and "ill not ha)e an* share in the success of the underta+ing8 >n the discrete "or+shop (manufacture separRe!, on the contrar*, no one "ill become rich, but man* labourers "ill be comfortable; the sa)ing and the industrious "ill be able to amass a little capital, to put b* a little for a birth of a child, for an illness, for themsel)es or their belongings8 'he number of sa)ing and industrious labourers "ill increase, because the* "ill see in good conduct, in acti)it*, a means of essentiall* bettering their condition, and not of obtaining a small rise in "ages that can ne)er be of an* importance of the future, and "hose sole result is to place men in the position to li)e a little better, but onl* from da* to da*8888 'he large "or+shops, underta+ings of certain pri)ate persons "ho pa* labourers from da* to da* to "or+ for their gain, ma* be able to put these pri)ate indi)iduals at their ease, but the* "ill ne)er be an obDect "orth the attention of go)ernments8 0iscrete "or+shops, for the most part combined "ith culti)ation of small holdings, are the onl* free ones8A 'he e9propriation and e)iction of a part of the agricultural population not onl* set free for industrial capital, the labourers, their means of subsistence, and material for labour; it also created the home4mar+et8 >n fact, the e)ents that transformed the small peasants into "age labourers, and their means of subsistence and of labour into material elements of capital, created, at the same time, a home4 mar+et for the latter8 Formerl*, the peasant famil* produced the means of subsistence and the ra" materials, "hich the* themsel)es, for the most part, consumed8 'hese ra" materials and means of subsistence ha)e no" become commodities; the large farmer sells them, he finds his mar+et in manufactures8 Narn, linen, coarse "oollen stuffs F things "hose ra" materials had been "ithin the reach of e)er* peasant famil*, had been spun and "o)en b* it for its o"n use F "ere no" transformed into articles of manufacture, to "hich the countr* districts at once ser)ed for mar+ets8 'he man* scattered customers, "hom stra* artisans until no" had found in the numerous small producers "or+ing on their o"n account, concentrate themsel)es no" into one great mar+et pro)ided for b* industrial capital8 3 'hus, hand in hand "ith the e9propriation of the self4supporting peasants, "ith their separation from their means of production, goes the destruction of rural domestic industr*, the process of separation bet"een manufacture and agriculture8 (nd onl* the destruction of rural domestic industr* can gi)e the internal mar+et of a countr* that e9tension and consistence "hich the capitalist mode of production reIuires8 Still the manufacturing period, properl* so called, does not succeed in carr*ing out this transformation radicall* and completel*8 >t "ill be remembered that manufacture, properl* so called, conIuers but partiall* the domain of national production, and al"a*s rests on the handicrafts of the to"n and the domestic industr* of the rural districts as its ultimate basis8 >f it destro*s these in one form, in particular branches, at certain points, it calls them up again else"here, because it needs them for the preparation of ra" material up to a certain point8 >t produces, therefore, a ne" class of small )illagers "ho, "hile follo"ing the culti)ation of the soil as an accessor* calling, find their chief occupation in industrial labour, the products of "hich the* sell to the manufacturers directl*, or through the medium of merchants8 'his is one, though not the chief, cause of a phenomenon "hich, at first, pu11les the student of English histor*8 6 From the last third of the 13th

77

5hapter :7

centur* he finds continuall* complaints, onl* interrupted at certain inter)als, about the encroachment of capitalist farming in the countr* districts, and the progressi)e destruction of the peasantr*8 =n the other hand, he al"a*s finds this peasantr* turning up again, although in diminished number, and al"a*s under "orse conditions8 'he chief reason is: England is at one time chiefl* a culti)ator of corn, at another chiefl* a breeder of cattle, in alternate periods, and "ith these the e9tent, supplies, in machiner*, the lasting basis of capitalistic agriculture, e9propriates radicall* the enormous maDorit* of the agricultural population, and completes the separation bet"een agriculture and rural domestic industr*, "hose roots F spinning and "ea)ing F it tears up87 >t therefore also, for the first time, conIuers for industrial capital the entire home mar+et88

(ha)ter 1* "he Genesis of the 8nd%stria$ (a)ita$ist

'he genesis of the industrialZ capitalist did not proceed in such a gradual "a* as that of the farmer8 0oubtless man* small guild4masters, and *et more independent small artisans, or e)en "age labourers, transformed themsel)es into small capitalists, and (b* graduall* e9tending e9ploitation of "age labour and corresponding accumulation! into full4blo"n capitalists8 >n the infanc* of capitalist production, things often happened as in the infanc* of medie)al to"ns, "here the Iuestion, "hich of the escaped serfs should be master and "hich ser)ant, "as in great part decided b* the earlier or later date of their flight8 'he snail?s pace of this method corresponded in no "ise "ith the commercial reIuirements of the ne" "orld mar+et that the great disco)eries of the end of the 13th centur* created8 /ut the middle ages had handed do"n t"o distinct forms of capital, "hich mature in the most different economic social formations, and "hich before the era of the capitalist mode of production, are considered as capital Iuand mdme Gall the sameH F usurer?s capital and merchant?s capital8 @(t present, all the "ealth of societ* goes first into the possession of the capitalist 888 he pa*s the lando"ner his rent, the labourer his "ages, the ta9 and tithe gatherer their claims, and +eeps a large, indeed the largest, and a continuall* augmenting share, of the annual produce of labour for himself8 'he capitalist ma* no" be said to be the first o"ner of all the "ealth of the communit*, though no la" has conferred on him the right to this propert*888 this change has been effected b* the ta+ing of interest on capital 888 and it is not a little curious that all the la"4 gi)ers of Europe endea)oured to pre)ent this b* statutes, )i18, statutes against usur*8888 'he po"er of the capitalist o)er all the "ealth of the countr* is a complete change in the right of propert*, and b* "hat la", or series of la"s, "as it effectedEAii 'he author should ha)e remembered that re)olutions are not made b* la"s8 'he mone* capital formed b* means of usur* and commerce "as pre)ented from turning into industrial capital, in the countr* b* the feudal constitution, in the to"ns b* the guild organisation8iii 'hese fetters )anished "ith the dissolution of feudal societ*, "ith the e9propriation and partial e)iction of the countr* population8 'he ne" manufactures "ere established at sea4ports, or at inland points be*ond the control of the old municipalities and their guilds8 -ence in England an embittered struggle of the corporate to"ns against these ne" industrial nurseries8 'he disco)er* of gold and sil)er in (merica, the e9tirpation, ensla)ement and entombment in mines of the aboriginal population, the beginning of the conIuest and looting of the East >ndies, the turning of (frica into a "arren for the commercial hunting of blac+4s+ins, signalised the ros* da"n of the era of capitalist production8 'hese id*llic proceedings are the chief momenta of primiti)e accumulation8 =n their heels treads the commercial "ar of the European nations, "ith the globe for a theatre8 >t begins "ith the re)olt of the Cetherlands from Spain, assumes giant dimensions in England?s (nti4Lacobin Bar, and is still going on in the opium "ars against 5hina, Pc8
Z

>ndustrial here in contradistinction to agricultural8 >n the @categoricA sense the farmer is an industrial capitalist as much as the manufacturer8

76

5hapter :1

'he different momenta of primiti)e accumulation distribute themsel)es no", more or less in chronological order, particularl* o)er Spain, #ortugal, -olland, France, and England8 >n England at the end of the 17th centur*, the* arri)e at a s*stematical combination, embracing the colonies, the national debt, the modern mode of ta9ation, and the protectionist s*stem8 'hese methods depend in part on brute force, e$ $+ the colonial s*stem8 /ut, the* all emplo* the po"er of the State, the concentrated and organised force of societ*, to hasten, hot4house fashion, the process of transformation of the feudal mode of production into the capitalist mode, and to shorten the transition8 Force is the mid"ife of e)er* old societ* pregnant "ith a ne" one8 >t is itself an economic po"er8 =f the 5hristian colonial s*stem, B8 -o"itt, a man "ho ma+es a specialit* of 5hristianit*, sa*s: @'he barbarities and desperate outrages of the so4called 5hristian race, throughout e)er* region of the "orld, and upon e)er* people the* ha)e been able to subdue, are not to be paralleled b* those of an* other race, ho"e)er fierce, ho"e)er untaught, and ho"e)er rec+less of merc* and of shame, in an* age of the earth8A i) 'he histor* of the colonial administration of -olland F and -olland "as the head capitalistic nation of the 17th centur* F @is one of the most e9traordinar* relations of treacher*, briber*, massacre, and meannessA) Cothing is more characteristic than their s*stem of stealing men, to get sla)es for La)a8 'he men stealers "ere trained for this purpose8 'he thief, the interpreter, and the seller, "ere the chief agents in this trade, nati)e princes the chief sellers8 'he *oung people stolen, "ere thro"n into the secret dungeons of 5elebes, until the* "ere read* for sending to the sla)e4ships8 (n official report sa*s: @'his one to"n of $acassar, e$ $, is full of secret prisons, one more horrible than the other, crammed "ith unfortunates, )ictims of greed and t*rann* fettered in chains, forcibl* torn from their families8A 'o secure $alacca, the 0utch corrupted the #ortuguese go)ernor8 -e let them into the to"n in 16 18 'he* hurried at once to his house and assassinated him, to @abstainA from the pa*ment of ]61,873, the price of his treason8 Bhere)er the* set foot, de)astation and depopulation follo"ed8 /anDu"angi, a pro)ince of La)a, in 1737 numbered o)er 87,777 inhabitants, in 1811 onl* 18,7778 S"eet commerceQ 'he English East >ndia 5ompan*, as is "ell +no"n, obtained, besides the political rule in >ndia, the e9clusi)e monopol* of the tea4trade, as "ell as of the 5hinese trade in general, and of the transport of goods to and from Europe8 /ut the coasting trade of >ndia and bet"een the islands, as "ell as the internal trade of >ndia, "ere the monopol* of the higher emplo*Rs of the compan*8 'he monopolies of salt, opium, betel and other commodities, "ere ine9haustible mines of "ealth8 'he emplo*Rs themsel)es fi9ed the price and plundered at "ill the unhapp* -indus8 'he Go)ernor4General too+ part in this pri)ate traffic8 -is fa)ourites recei)ed contracts under conditions "hereb* the*, cle)erer than the alchemists, made gold out of nothing8 Great fortunes sprang up li+e mushrooms in a da*; primiti)e accumulation "ent on "ithout the ad)ance of a shilling8 'he trial of Barren -astings s"arms "ith such cases8 -ere is an instance8 ( contract for opium "as gi)en to a certain Sulli)an at the moment of his departure on an official mission to a part of >ndia far remo)ed from the opium district8 Sulli)an sold his contract to one /inn for ] 7,777; /inn sold it the same da* for ]67,777, and the ultimate purchaser "ho carried out the contract declared that after all he realised an enormous gain8 (ccording to one of the lists laid before #arliament, the 5ompan* and its emplo*Rs from 173741766 got ]6,777,777 from the >ndians as gifts8 /et"een 1762 and 1777, the English manufactured a famine b* bu*ing up all the rice and refusing to sell it again, e9cept at fabulous prices8 )i

7:

5hapter :1

'he treatment of the aborigines "as, naturall*, most frightful in plantation4colonies destined for e9port trade onl*, such as the Best >ndies, and in rich and "ell4populated countries, such as $e9ico and >ndia, that "ere gi)en o)er to plunder8 /ut e)en in the colonies properl* so called, the 5hristian character of primiti)e accumulation did not belie itself8 'hose sober )irtuosi of #rotestantism, the #uritans of Ce" England, in 177:, b* decrees of their assembl* set a premium of ] 7 on e)er* >ndian scalp and e)er* captured red4s+in: in 1767 a premium of ]177 on e)er* scalp; in 17 , after $assachusetts4/a* had proclaimed a certain tribe as rebels, the follo"ing prices: for a male scalp of 16 *ears and up"ards ]177 (ne" currenc*!, for a male prisoner ]173, for "omen and children prisoners ]37, for scalps of "omen and children ]378 Some decades later, the colonial s*stem too+ its re)enge on the descendants of the pious pilgrim fathers, "ho had gro"n seditious in the meantime8 (t English instigation and for English pa* the* "ere tomaha"+ed b* red4s+ins8 'he /ritish #arliament proclaimed bloodhounds and scalping as @means that God and Cature had gi)en into its hand8A 'he colonial s*stem ripened, li+e a hot4house, trade and na)igation8 'he @societies $onopoliaA of <uther "ere po"erful le)ers for concentration of capital8 'he colonies secured a mar+et for the budding manufactures, and, through the monopol* of the mar+et, an increased accumulation8 'he treasures captured outside Europe b* undisguised looting, ensla)ement, and murder, floated bac+ to the mother4countr* and "ere there turned into capital8 -olland, "hich first full* de)eloped the colonial s*stem, in 16 8 stood alread* in the acme of its commercial greatness8 >t "as @in almost e9clusi)e possession of the East >ndian trade and the commerce bet"een the south4east and north4"est of Europe8 >ts fisheries, marine, manufactures, surpassed those of an* other countr*8 'he total capital of the &epublic "as probabl* more important than that of all the rest of Europe put together8A GTlich forgets to add that b* 16 8, the people of -olland "ere more o)er4"or+ed, poorer and more brutall* oppressed than those of all the rest of Europe put together8 'oda* industrial supremac* implies commercial supremac*8 >n the period of manufacture properl* so called, it is, on the other hand, the commercial supremac* that gi)es industrial predominance8 -ence the preponderant rtle that the colonial s*stem pla*s at that time8 >t "as @the strange GodA "ho perched himself on the altar chee+ b* Do"l "ith the old Gods of Europe, and one fine da* "ith a sho)e and a +ic+ chuc+ed them all of a heap8 >t proclaimed surplus )alue ma+ing as the sole end and aim of humanit*8 'he s*stem of public credit, i$e$+ of national debts, "hose origin "e disco)er in Genoa and ;enice as earl* as the $iddle (ges, too+ possession of Europe generall* during the manufacturing period8 'he colonial s*stem "ith its maritime trade and commercial "ars ser)ed as a forcing4 house for it8 'hus it first too+ root in -olland8 Cational debts, i$e$, the alienation of the state F "hether despotic, constitutional or republican F mar+ed "ith its stamp the capitalistic era8 'he onl* part of the so4called national "ealth that actuall* enters into the collecti)e possessions of modern peoples is their national debt8 7 -ence, as a necessar* conseIuence, the modern doctrine that a nation becomes the richer the more deepl* it is in debt8 #ublic credit becomes the credo of capital8 (nd "ith the rise of national debt4ma+ing, "ant of faith in the national debt ta+es the place of the blasphem* against the -ol* Ghost, "hich ma* not be forgi)en8 'he public debt becomes one of the most po"erful le)ers of primiti)e accumulation8 (s "ith the stro+e of an enchanter?s "and, it endo"s barren mone* "ith the po"er of breeding and thus turns it into capital, "ithout the necessit* of its e9posing itself to the troubles and ris+s inseparable from its emplo*ment in industr* or e)en in usur*8 'he state creditors actuall* gi)e nothing a"a*, for the sum lent is transformed into public bonds, easil* negotiable, "hich go on functioning in their hands Dust as so much hard cash "ould8 /ut further, apart from the class of la1* annuitants

5hapter :1

thus created, and from the impro)ised "ealth of the financiers, middlemen bet"een the go)ernment and the nation F as also apart from the ta94farmers, merchants, pri)ate manufacturers, to "hom a good part of e)er* national loan renders the ser)ice of a capital fallen from hea)en F the national debt has gi)en rise to Doint4stoc+ companies, to dealings in negotiable effects of all +inds, and to agiotage, in a "ord to stoc+4e9change gambling and the modern ban+ocrac*8 (t their birth the great ban+s, decorated "ith national titles, "ere onl* associations of pri)ate speculators, "ho placed themsel)es b* the side of go)ernments, and, than+s to the pri)ileges the* recei)ed, "ere in a position to ad)ance mone* to the State8 -ence the accumulation of the national debt has no more infallible measure than the successi)e rise in the stoc+ of these ban+s, "hose full de)elopment dates from the founding of the /an+ of England in 162 8 'he /an+ of England began "ith lending its mone* to the Go)ernment at 8`; at the same time it "as empo"ered b* #arliament to coin mone* out of the same capital, b* lending it again to the public in the form of ban+notes8 >t "as allo"ed to use these notes for discounting bills, ma+ing ad)ances on commodities, and for bu*ing the precious metals8 >t "as not long ere this credit4mone*, made b* the ban+ itself, became8 the coin in "hich the /an+ of England made its loans to the State, and paid, on account of the State, the interest on the public debt8 >t "as not enough that the ban+ ga)e "ith one hand and too+ bac+ more "ith the other; it remained, e)en "hilst recei)ing, the eternal creditor of the nation do"n to the last shilling ad)anced8 Graduall* it became ine)itabl* the receptacle of the metallic hoard of the countr*, and the centre of gra)it* of all commercial credit8 Bhat effect "as produced on their contemporaries b* the sudden uprising of this brood of ban+ocrats, financiers, rentiers, bro+ers, stoc+4Dobbers, Pc8, is pro)ed b* the "ritings of that time, e$ $, b* /olingbro+e?s88 Bith the national debt arose an international credit s*stem, "hich often conceals one of the sources of primiti)e accumulation in this or that people8 'hus the )illainies of the ;enetian thie)ing s*stem formed one of the secret bases of the capital4"ealth of -olland to "hom ;enice in her decadence lent large sums of mone*8 So also "as it "ith -olland and England8 /* the beginning of the 18th centur* the 0utch manufactures "ere far outstripped8 -olland had ceased to be the nation preponderant in commerce and industr*8 =ne of its main lines of business, therefore, from 177141776, is the lending out of enormous amounts of capital, especiall* to its great ri)al England8 'he same thing is going on toda* bet"een England and the %nited States8 ( great deal of capital, "hich appears toda* in the %nited States "ithout an* certificate of birth, "as *esterda*, in England, the capitalised blood of children8 (s the national debt finds its support in the public re)enue, "hich must co)er the *earl* pa*ments for interest, Pc8, the modern s*stem of ta9ation "as the necessar* complement of the s*stem of national loans8 'he loans enable the go)ernment to meet e9traordinar* e9penses, "ithout the ta94pa*ers feeling it immediatel*, but the* necessitate, as a conseIuence, increased ta9es8 =n the other hand, the raising of ta9ation caused b* the accumulation of debts contracted one after another, compels the go)ernment al"a*s to ha)e recourse to ne" loans for ne" e9traordinar* e9penses8 $odern fiscalit*, "hose pi)ot is formed b* ta9es on the most necessar* means of subsistence (thereb* increasing their price!, thus contains "ithin itself the germ of automatic progression8 =)erta9ation is not an incident, but rather a principle8 >n -olland, therefore, "here this s*stem "as first inaugurated, the great patriot, 0eBitt, has in his @$a9imsA e9tolled it as the best s*stem for ma+ing the "age labourer submissi)e, frugal, industrious, and o)erburdened "ith labour8 'he destructi)e influence that it e9ercises on the condition of the "age labourer concerns us less ho"e)er, here, than the forcible e9propriation, resulting from it, of peasants, artisans, and in a "ord, all elements of the lo"er middle class8 =n this there are not t"o opinions, e)en among the bourgeois economists8 >ts e9propriating efficac* is still further heightened b* the s*stem of protection, "hich forms one of its integral parts8

73

5hapter :1

'he great part that the public debt, and the fiscal s*stem corresponding "ith it, has pla*ed in the capitalisation of "ealth and the e9propriation of the masses, has led man* "riters, li+e 5obbett, 0oubleda* and others, to see+ in this, incorrectl*, the fundamental cause of the miser* of the modern peoples8 'he s*stem of protection "as an artificial means of manufacturing manufacturers, of e9propriating independent labourers, of capitalising the national means of production and subsistence, of forcibl* abbre)iating the transition from the medie)al to the modern mode of production8 'he European states tore one another to pieces about the patent of this in)ention, and, once entered into the ser)ice of the surplus )alue ma+ers, did not merel* la* under contribution in the pursuit of this purpose their o"n people, indirectl* through protecti)e duties, directl* through e9port premiums8 'he* also forcibl* rooted out, in their dependent countries, all industr*, as, e$ $, England did8 "ith the >rish "oollen manufacture8 =n the continent of Europe, after 5olbert?s e9ample, the process "as much simplified8 'he primiti)e industrial capital, here, came in part directl* out of the state treasur*8 @Bh*,A cries $irabeau, @"h* go so far to see+ the cause of the manufacturing glor* of Sa9on* before the "arE 187,777,777 of debts contracted b* the so)ereignsQA2 5olonial s*stem, public debts, hea)* ta9es, protection, commercial "ars, Pc8, these children of the true manufacturing period, increase giganticall* during the infanc* of $odem >ndustr*8 'he birth of the latter is heralded b* a great slaughter of the innocents8 <i+e the ro*al na)*, the factories "ere recruited b* means of the press4gang8 /lasR as Sir F8 $8 Eden is as to the horrors of the e9propriation of the agricultural population from the soil, from the last third of the 13th centur* to his o"n time; "ith all the self4satisfaction "ith "hich he reDoices in this process, @essentialA for establishing capitalistic agriculture and @the due proportion bet"een arable and pasture landA F he does not sho", ho"e)er, the same economic insight in respect to the necessit* of child4stealing and child4sla)er* for the transformation of manufacturing e9ploitation into factor* e9ploitation, and the establishment of the @true relationA bet"een capital and labour4 po"er8 -e sa*s: @>t ma*, perhaps, be "orth* the attention of the public to consider, "hether an* manufacture, "hich, in order to be carried on successfull*, reIuires that cottages and "or+houses should be ransac+ed for poor children; that the* should be emplo*ed b* turns during the greater part of the night and robbed of that rest "hich, though indispensable to all, is most reIuired b* the *oung; and that numbers of both se9es, of different ages and dispositions, should be collected together in such a manner that the contagion of e9ample cannot but lead to profligac* and debaucher*; "ill add to the sum of indi)idual or national felicit*EA17 @>n the counties of 0erb*shire, Cottinghamshire, and more particularl* in <ancashire,A sa*s Fielden, @the ne"l*4in)ented machiner* "as used in large factories built on the sides of streams capable of turning the "ater4"heel8 'housands of hands "ere suddenl* reIuired in these places, remote from to"ns; and <ancashire, in particular, being, till then, comparati)el* thinl* populated and barren, a population "as all that she no" "anted8 'he small and nimble fingers of little children being b* )er* far the most in reIuest, the custom instantl* sprang up of procuring apprentices from the different parish "or+houses of <ondon, /irmingham, and else"here8 $an*, man* thousands of these little, hapless creatures "ere sent do"n into the north, being from the age of 7 to the age of 1: or 1 *ears old8 'he custom "as for the master to clothe his apprentices and to feed and lodge them in an @apprentice houseA near the factor*; o)erseers "ere appointed to see to the "or+s, "hose interest it "as to "or+ the children to the

76

5hapter :1

utmost, because their pa* "as in proportion to the Iuantit* of "or+ that the* could e9act8 5ruelt* "as, of course, the conseIuence8 888 >n man* of the manufacturing districts, but particularl*, > am afraid, in the guilt* count* to "hich > belong G<ancashireH, cruelties the most heart4rending "ere practised upon the unoffending and friendless creatures "ho "ere thus consigned to the charge of master4manufacturers; the* "ere harassed to the brin+ of death b* e9cess of labour 888 "ere flogged, fettered and tortured in the most e9Iuisite refinement of cruelt*; 888 the* "ere in man* cases star)ed to the bone "hile flogged to their "or+ and 888 e)en in some instances 888 "ere dri)en to commit suicide8888 'he beautiful and romantic )alle*s of 0erb*shire, Cottinghamshire and <ancashire, secluded from the public e*e, became the dismal solitudes of torture, and of man* a murder8 'he profits of manufacturers "ere enormous; but this onl* "hetted the appetite that it should ha)e satisfied, and therefore the manufacturers had recourse to an e9pedient that seemed to secure to them those profits "ithout an* possibilit* of limit; the* began the practice of "hat is termed @night4"or+ing,A that is, ha)ing tired one set of hands, b* "or+ing them throughout the da*, the* had another set read* to go on "or+ing throughout the night; the da*4set getting into the beds that the night4set had Dust Iuitted, and in their turn again, the night4set getting into the beds that the da*4set Iuitted in the morning8 >t is a common tradition in <ancashire, that the beds never et cold$A 11 Bith the de)elopment of capitalist production during the manufacturing period, the public opinion of Europe had lost the last remnant of shame and conscience8 'he nations bragged c*nicall* of e)er* infam* that ser)ed them as a means to capitalistic accumulation8 &ead, e$ $+ the nao)e (nnals of 5ommerce of the "orth* (8 (nderson8 -ere it is trumpeted forth as a triumph of English statecraft that at the #eace of %trecht, England e9torted from the Spaniards b* the (siento 'reat* the pri)ilege of being allo"ed to pl* the negro trade, until then onl* carried on bet"een (frica and the English Best >ndies, bet"een (frica and Spanish (merica as "ell8 England thereb* acIuired the right of suppl*ing Spanish (merica until 17 : "ith ,877 negroes *earl*8 'his thre", at the same time, an official cloa+ o)er /ritish smuggling8 <i)erpool "a9ed fat on the sla)e trade8 'his "as its method of primiti)e accumulation8 (nd, e)en to the present da*, <i)erpool @respectabilit*A is the #indar of the sla)e trade "hich F compare the "or+ of (i+in G1723H alread* Iuoted F @has coincided "ith that spirit of bold ad)enture "hich has characterised the trade of <i)erpool and rapidl* carried it to its present state of prosperit*; has occasioned )ast emplo*ment for shipping and sailors, and greatl* augmented the demand for the manufactures of the countr*A (p8 ::2!8 <i)erpool emplo*ed in the sla)e4trade, in 17:7, 13 ships; in 1731, 3:; in 1767, 7 ; in 1777, 26; and in 1726, 1:6816 Bhilst the cotton industr* introduced child4sla)er* in England, it ga)e in the %nited States a stimulus to the transformation of the earlier, more or less patriarchal sla)er*, into a s*stem of commercial e9ploitation8 >n fact, the )eiled sla)er* of the "age "or+ers in Europe needed, for its pedestal, sla)er* pure and simple in the ne" "orld8 'antae molis erat, to establish the @eternal la"s of CatureA of the capitalist mode of production, to complete the process of separation bet"een labourers and conditions of labour, to transform, at one pole, the social means of production and subsistence into capital, at the opposite pole, the mass of the population into "age labourers, into @free labouring poor,A that artificial product of modern societ*81: >f mone*, according to (ugier,1 @comes into the "orld "ith a congenital blood4stain on one chee+,A capital comes dripping from head to foot, from e)er* pore, "ith blood and dirt813

(ha)ter 2* ;istorica$ "endenc+ of (a)ita$ist Acc%m%$ation

Bhat does the primiti)e accumulation of capital, i$e8, its historical genesis, resol)e itself intoE >n so far as it is not immediate transformation of sla)es and serfs into "age labourers, and therefore a mere change of form, it onl* means the e9propriation of the immediate producers, i$e8, the dissolution of pri)ate propert* based on the labour of its o"ner8 #ri)ate propert*, as the antithesis to social, collecti)e propert*, e9ists onl* "here the means of labour and the e9ternal conditions of labour belong to pri)ate indi)iduals8 /ut according as these pri)ate indi)iduals are labourers or not labourers, pri)ate propert* has a different character8 'he numberless shades, that it at first sight presents, correspond to the intermediate stages l*ing bet"een these t"o e9tremes8 'he pri)ate propert* of the labourer in his means of production is the foundation of pett* industr*, "hether agricultural, manufacturing, or both; pett* industr*, again, is an essential condition for the de)elopment of social production and of the free indi)idualit* of the labourer himself8 =f course, this pett* mode of production e9ists also under sla)er*, serfdom, and other states of dependence8 /ut it flourishes, it lets loose its "hole energ*, it attains its adeIuate classical form, onl* "here the labourer is the pri)ate o"ner of his o"n means of labour set in action b* himself: the peasant of the land "hich he culti)ates, the artisan of the tool "hich he handles as a )irtuoso8 'his mode of production presupposes parcelling of the soil and scattering of the other means of production8 (s it e9cludes the concentration of these means of production, so also it e9cludes cooperation, di)ision of labour "ithin each separate process of production, the control o)er, and the producti)e application of the forces of Cature b* societ*, and the free de)elopment of the social producti)e po"ers8 >t is compatible onl* "ith a s*stem of production, and a societ*, mo)ing "ithin narro" and more or less primiti)e bounds8 'o perpetuate it "ould be, as #ecIueur rightl* sa*s, @to decree uni)ersal mediocrit*V8 (t a certain stage of de)elopment, it brings forth the material agencies for its o"n dissolution8 From that moment ne" forces and ne" passions spring up in the bosom of societ*; but the old social organi1ation fetters them and +eeps them do"n8 >t must be annihilated; it is annihilated8 >ts annihilation, the transformation of the indi)iduali1ed and scattered means of production into sociall* concentrated ones, of the pigm* propert* of the man* into the huge propert* of the fe", the e9propriation of the great mass of the people from the soil, from the means of subsistence, and from the means of labour, this fearful and painful e9propriation of the mass of the people forms the prelude to the histor* of capital8 >t comprises a series of forcible methods, of "hich "e ha)e passed in re)ie" onl* those that ha)e been epoch4ma+ing as methods of the primiti)e accumulation of capital8 'he e9propriation of the immediate producers "as accomplished "ith merciless ;andalism, and under the stimulus of passions the most infamous, the most sordid, the pettiest, the most meanl* odious8 Self4earned pri)ate propert*, that is based, so to sa*, on the fusing together of the isolated, independent labouring indi)idual "ith the conditions of his labour, is supplanted b* capitalistic pri)ate propert*, "hich rests on e9ploitation of the nominall* free labour of others, i$e8, on "age labour81 (s soon as this process of transformation has sufficientl* decomposed the old societ* from top to bottom, as soon as the labourers are turned into proletarians, their means of labour into capital, as soon as the capitalist mode of production stands on its o"n feet, then the further sociali1ation of labour and further transformation of the land and other means of production into sociall* e9ploited and, therefore, common means of production, as "ell as the further e9propriation of pri)ate proprietors, ta+es a ne" form8 'hat "hich is no" to be e9propriated is no longer the

labourer "or+ing for himself, but the capitalist e9ploiting man* labourers8 'his e9propriation is accomplished b* the action of the immanent la"s of capitalistic production itself, b* the centrali1ation of capital8 =ne capitalist al"a*s +ills man*8 -and in hand "ith this centrali1ation, or this e9propriation of man* capitalists b* fe", de)elop, on an e)er4e9tending scale, the cooperati)e form of the labour process, the conscious technical application of science, the methodical culti)ation of the soil, the transformation of the instruments of labour into instruments of labour onl* usable in common, the economi1ing of all means of production b* their use as means of production of combined, sociali1ed labour, the entanglement of all peoples in the net of the "orld mar+et, and "ith this, the international character of the capitalistic regime8 (long "ith the constantl* diminishing number of the magnates of capital, "ho usurp and monopoli1e all ad)antages of this process of transformation, gro"s the mass of miser*, oppression, sla)er*, degradation, e9ploitation; but "ith this too gro"s the re)olt of the "or+ing class, a class al"a*s increasing in numbers, and disciplined, united, organi1ed b* the )er* mechanism of the process of capitalist production itself8 'he monopol* of capital becomes a fetter upon the mode of production, "hich has sprung up and flourished along "ith, and under it8 5entrali1ation of the means of production and sociali1ation of labour at last reach a point "here the* become incompatible "ith their capitalist integument8 'his integument is burst asunder8 'he +nell of capitalist pri)ate propert* sounds8 'he e9propriators are e9propriated8 'he capitalist mode of appropriation, the result of the capitalist mode of production, produces capitalist pri)ate propert*8 'his is the first negation of indi)idual pri)ate propert*, as founded on the labour of the proprietor8 /ut capitalist production begets, "ith the ine9orabilit* of a la" of Cature, its o"n negation8 >t is the negation of negation8 'his does not re4establish pri)ate propert* for the producer, but gi)es him indi)idual propert* based on the acIuisition of the capitalist era: i$e8, on cooperation and the possession in common of the land and of the means of production8 'he transformation of scattered pri)ate propert*, arising from indi)idual labour, into capitalist pri)ate propert* is, naturall*, a process, incomparabl* more protracted, )iolent, and difficult, than the transformation of capitalistic pri)ate propert*, alread* practicall* resting on sociali1ed production, into sociali1ed propert*8 >n the former case, "e had the e9propriation of the mass of the people b* a fe" usurpers; in the latter, "e ha)e the e9propriation of a fe" usurpers b* the mass of the people8
6

(ha)ter

* "he Modern "heor+ of (o$onisation1

#olitical econom* confuses on principle t"o )er* different +inds of pri)ate propert*, of "hich one rests on the producers? o"n labour, the other on the emplo*ment of the labour of others8 >t forgets that the latter not onl* is the direct antithesis of the former, but absolutel* gro"s on its tomb onl*8 >n Bestern Europe, the home of #olitical Econom*, the process of primiti)e accumulation is more of less accomplished8 -ere the capitalist regime has either directl* conIuered the "hole domain of national production, or, "here economic conditions are less de)eloped, it, at least, indirectl* controls those strata of societ* "hich, though belonging to the antiIuated mode of production, continue to e9ist side b* side "ith it in gradual deca*8 'o this read*4made "orld of capital, the political economist applies the notions of la" and of propert* inherited from a pre4capitalistic "orld "ith all the more an9ious 1eal and all the greater unction, the more loudl* the facts cr* out in the face of his ideolog*8 >t is other"ise in the colonies8 'here the capitalist regime e)er*"here comes into collision "ith the resistance of the producer, "ho, as o"ner of his o"n conditions of labour, emplo*s that labour to enrich himself, instead of the capitalist8 'he contradiction of these t"o diametricall* opposed economic s*stems, manifest itself here practicall* in a struggle bet"een them8 Bhere the capitalist has at his bac+ the po"er of the mother4countr*, he tries to clear out of his "a* b* force the modes of production and appropriation based on the independent labour of the producer8 'he same interest, "hich compels the s*cophant of capital, the political economist, in the mother4countr*, to proclaim the theoretical identit* of the capitalist mode of production "ith its contrar*, that same interest compels him in the colonies to ma+e a clean breast of it, and to proclaim aloud the antagonism of the t"o modes of production8 'o this end, he pro)es ho" the de)elopment of the social producti)e po"er of labour, co4operation, di)ision of labour, use of machiner* on a large scale, Pc8, are impossible "ithout the e9propriation of the labourers, and the corresponding transformation of their means of production into capital8 >n the interest of the so4called national "ealth, he see+s for artificial means to ensure the po)ert* of the people8 -ere his apologetic armor crumbles off, bit b* bit, li+e rotten touch"ood8 >t is the great merit of E8G8 Ba+efield to ha)e disco)ered, not an*thing ne" about the 5olonies 6, but to ha)e disco)ered in the 5olonies the truth as to the conditions of capitalist production in the mother countr*8 (s the s*stem of protection at its origin: attempted to manufacture capitalists artificiall* in the mother4countr*, so Ba+efield?s coloni1ation theor*, "hich England tried for a time to enforce b* (cts of #arliament, attempted to effect the manufacture of "age4"or+ers in the 5olonies8 'his he calls @s*stematic coloni1ation8A First of all, Ba+efield disco)ered that in the 5olonies, propert* in mone*, means of subsistence, machines, and other means of production, does not as *et stamp a man as a capitalist if there be "anting the correlati)e F the "age4"or+er, the other man "ho is compelled to sell himself of his o"n free "ill8 -e disco)ered that capital is not a thing, but a social relation bet"een persons, established b* the instrumentalit* of things8 $r8 #eel, he moans, too+ "ith him from England to S"an &i)er, Best (ustralia, means of subsistence and of production to the amount of ]37,7778 $r8 #eel had the foresight to bring "ith him, besides, :77 persons of the "or+ing class, men, "omen, and children8 =nce arri)ed at his destination, @$r8 #eel "as left "ithout a ser)ant to ma+e his bed or fetch him "ater from the ri)er8A 3 %nhapp* $r8 #eel "ho pro)ided for e)er*thing e9cept the e9port of English modes of production to S"an &i)erQ

17

5hapter ::

For the understanding of the follo"ing disco)eries of Ba+efield, t"o preliminar* remar+s: Be +no" that the means of production and subsistence, "hile the* remain the propert* of the immediate producer, are not capital8 'he* become capital onl* under circumstances in "hich the* ser)e at the same time as means of e9ploitation and subDection of the labourer8 /ut this capitalist soul of theirs is so intimatel* "edded, in the head of the political economist, to their material substance, that he christens them capital under all circumstances, e)en "hen the* are its e9act opposite8 'hus is it "ith Ba+efield8 Further: the splitting up of the means of production into the indi)idual propert* of man* independent labourers, "or+ing on their o"n account, he calls eIual di)ision of capital8 >t is "ith the political economist as "ith the feudal Durist8 'he latter stuc+ on to pure monetar* relations the labels supplied b* feudal la"8 @>f,A sa*s Ba+efield, @all members of the societ* are supposed to possess eIual portions of capital888 no man "ould ha)e a moti)e for accumulating more capital than he could use "ith his o"n hands8 'his is to some e9tent the case in ne" (merican settlements, "here a passion for o"ning land pre)ents the e9istence of a class of labourers for hire8A 6 So long, therefore, as the labourer can accumulate for himself F and this he can do so long as he remains possessor of his means of production F capitalist accumulation and the capitalistic mode of production are impossible8 'he class of "age labourers, essential to these, is "anting8 -o", then, in old Europe, "as the e9propriation of the labourer from his conditions of labour, i8e8, the co4e9istence of capital and "age labour, brought aboutE /* a social contract of a Iuite original +ind8 @$an+ind ha)e adopted a888 simple contri)ance for promoting the accumulation of capital,A "hich, of course, since the time of (dam, floated in their imagination, floated in their imagination as the sole and final end of their e9istence: @the* ha)e di)ided themsel)es into o"ners of capital and o"ners of labour8888 'he di)ision "as the result of concert and combination8A 7 >n one "ord: the mass of man+ind e9propriated itself in honour of the @accumulation of capital8A Co", one "ould thin+ that this instinct of self4den*ing fanaticism "ould gi)e itself full fling especiall* in the 5olonies, "here alone e9ist the men and conditions that could turn a social contract from a dream to a realit*8 /ut "h*, then, should @s*stematic coloni1ationA be called in to replace its opposite, spontaneous, unregulated coloni1ationE /ut 4 but 4 @>n the Corthern States of the (merican %nion; it ma* be doubted "hether so man* as a tenth of the people "ould fall under the description of hired labourers8888 >n England888 the labouring class compose the bul+ of the people8A8 Ca*, the impulse to self4e9propriation on the part of labouring humanit* for the glor* of capital, e9ists so little that sla)er*, according to Ba+efield himself, is the sole natural basis of 5olonial "ealth8 -is s*stematic coloni1ation is a mere pis aller, since he unfortunatel* has to do "ith free men, not "ith sla)es8 @'he first Spanish settlers in Saint 0omingo did not obtain labourers from Spain8 /ut, "ithout labourers, their capital must ha)e perished, or at least, must soon ha)e been diminished to that small amount "hich each indi)idual could emplo* "ith his o"n hands8 'his has actuall* occurred in the last 5olon* founded b* England F the S"an &i)er Settlement F "here a great mass of capital, of seeds, implements, and cattle, has perished for "ant of labourers to use it, and "here no settler has preser)ed much more capital than he can emplo* "ith his o"n hands8A 2 Be ha)e seen that the e9propriation of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalist mode of production8 'he essence of a free colon*, on the contrar*, consists in this F that the bul+ of the soil is still public propert*, and e)er* settler on it therefore can turn part of it into his pri)ate propert* and indi)idual means of production, "ithout hindering the later settlers in the same operation817 'his is the secret both of the prosperit* of the colonies and of their in)eterate )ice F opposition to the establishment of capital8 @Bhere land is )er* cheap and all men are free, "here e)er* one "ho so pleases can easil* obtain a piece of land for himself, not onl* is labour )er* dear, as respects the labourer?s share of the produce, but the difficult* is to obtain combined labour at an* price8A11

11

5hapter ::

(s in the colonies the separation of the labourer from the conditions of labour and their root, the soil, does not e9ist, or onl* sporadicall*, or on too limited a scale, so neither does the separation of agriculture from industr* e9ist, nor the destruction of the household industr* of the peasantr*8 Bhence then is to come the internal mar+et for capitalE @Co part of the population of (merica is e9clusi)el* agricultural, e9cepting sla)es and their emplo*ers "ho combine capital and labour in particular "or+s8 Free (mericans, "ho culti)ate the soil, follo" man* other occupations8 Some portion of the furniture and tools "hich the* use is commonl* made b* themsel)es8 'he* freIuentl* build their o"n houses, and carr* to mar+et, at "hate)er distance, the produce of their o"n industr*8 'he* are spinners and "ea)ers; the* ma+e soap and candles, as "ell as, in man* cases, shoes and clothes for their o"n use8 >n (merica the culti)ation of land is often the secondar* pursuit of a blac+smith, a miller or a shop+eeper8A 16 Bith such Iueer people as these, "here is the @field of abstinenceA for the capitalistsE 'he great beaut* of capitalist production consists in this F that it not onl* constantl* reproduces the "age4"or+er as "age4"or+er, but produces al"a*s, in production to the accumulation of capital, a relati)e surplus4population of "age4"or+ers8 'hus the la" of suppl* and demand of labour is +ept in the right rut, the oscillation of "ages is penned "ithin limits satisfactor* to capitalist e9ploitation, and lastl*, the social dependence of the labourer on the capitalist, that indispensable reIuisite, is secured; an unmista+able relation of dependence, "hich the smug political economist, at home, in the mother4countr*, can transmogrif* into one of free contract bet"een bu*er and seller, bet"een eIuall* independent o"ners of commodities, the o"ner of the commodit* capital and the o"ner of the commodit* labour8 /ut in the colonies, this prett* fanc* is torn asunder8 'he absolute population here increases much more Iuic+l* than in the mother4 countr*, because man* labourers enter this "orld as read*4made adults, and *et the labour4mar+et is al"a*s understoc+ed8 'he la" of suppl* and demand of labour falls to pieces8 =n the one hand, the old "orld constantl* thro"s in capital, thirsting after e9ploitation and @abstinenceA; on the other, the regular reproduction of the "age labourer as "age labourer comes into collision "ith impediments the most impertinent and in part in)incible8 Bhat becomes of the production of "age labourers into independent producers, "ho "or+ for themsel)es instead of for capital, and enrich themsel)es instead of the capitalist gentr*, reacts in its turn )er* per)ersel* on the conditions of the labour4mar+et8 Cot onl* does the degree of e9ploitation of the "age labourer remain indecentl* lo"8 'he "age labourer loses into the bargain, along "ith the relation of dependence, also the sentiment of dependence on the abstemious capitalist8 -ence all the incon)eniences that our E8 G8 Ba+efield pictures so doughtil*, so eloIuentl*, so patheticall*8 'he suppl* of "age labour, he complains, is neither constant, nor regular, nor sufficient8 @'he suppl* of labour is al"a*s not onl* small but uncertain8A 1: @'hough the produce di)ided bet"een the capitalist and the labourer be large, the labourer ta+es so great a share that he soon becomes a capitalist8888 Fe", e)en those "hose li)es are unusuall* long, can accumulate great masses of "ealth8A1 'he labourers most distinctl* decline to allo" the capitalist to abstain from the pa*ment of the greater part of their labour8 >t a)ails him nothing, if he is so cunning as to import from Europe, "ith his o"n capital, his o"n "age4"or+ers8 'he* soon @cease888 to be labourers for hire; the*888 become independent lando"ners, if not competitors "ith their former masters in the labour4mar+et8A13 'hin+ of the horrorQ 'he e9cellent capitalist has imported bodil* from Europe, "ith his o"n good mone*, his o"n competitorsQ 'he end of the "orld has comeQ Co "onder Ba+efield laments the absence of all dependence and of all sentiment of dependence on the part of the "age4"or+ers in the colonies8 =n account of the high "ages, sa*s his disciple, $eri)ale, there is in the colonies @the urgent desire for cheaper and more subser)ient labourers F for a class to "hom the capitalist might dictate terms, instead of being dictated to b* them8888 >n ancient ci)ili1ed countries the labourer, though free, is b* a la" of Cature dependent on capitalists; in colonies this dependence must be created b* artificial means8A 16

16

5hapter ::

Bhat is no", according to Ba+efield, the conseIuence of this unfortunate state of things in the coloniesE ( @barbarising tendenc* of dispersionA of producers and national "ealth8 17 'he parcelling4out of the means of production among innumerable o"ners, "or+ing on their o"n account, annihilates, along "ith the centrali1ation of capital, all the foundation of combined labour8 E)er* long4"inded underta+ing, e9tending o)er se)eral *ears and demanding outla* of fi9ed capital, is pre)ented from being carried out8 >n Europe, capital in)ests "ithout hesitating a moment, for the "or+ing class constitutes its li)ing appurtenance, al"a*s in e9cess, al"a*s at disposal8 /ut in the coloniesQ Ba+efield tells and e9tremel* doleful anecdote8 -e "as tal+ing "ith some capitalists of 5anada and the state of Ce" Nor+, "here the immigrant "a)e often becomes stagnant and deposits a sediment of @supernumerar*A labourers8 @=ur capital,A sa*s one of the characters in the melodrama, V"as read* for man* operations "hich reIuire a considerable period of time for their completion; but "e could not begin such operations "ith labour "hich, "e +ne", "ould soon lea)e us8 >f "e had been sure of retaining the labour of such emigrants, "e should ha)e been glad to ha)e engaged it at once, and for a high price: and "e should ha)e engaged it, e)en though "e had been sure it "ould lea)e us, pro)ided "e had been sure of a fresh suppl* "hene)er "e might need it8A18 (fter Ba+efield has constructed the English capitalist agriculture and its @combinedA labour "ith the scattered culti)ation of (merican peasants, he un"ittingl* gi)es us a glimpse at the re)erse of the medal8 -e depicts the mass of the (merican people as "ell4to4do, independent, enterprising, and comparati)el* cultured, "hilst @the English agricultural labourer is miserable "retch, a pauper8888 >n "hat countr*, e9cept Corth (merica and some ne" colonies, do the "ages of free labour emplo*ed in agriculture much e9ceed a bare subsistence for the labourerE 888 %ndoubtedl* , farm4horses in England, being a )aluable propert*, are better fed than English peasants8A 12 /ut, ne)er mind, national "ealth is, once again, b* its )er* nature, identical "ith miser* of the people8 -o", then, to heal the anti4capitalistic cancer of the coloniesE >f men "ere "illing, at a blo", to turn all the soil from public into pri)ate propert*, the* "ould destro* certainl* the root of the e)il, but also F the colonies8 'he tric+ is ho" to +ill t"o birds "ith one stone8 <et the Go)ernment put upon the )irgin soil an artificial price, independent of the la" of suppl* and demand, a price that compels the immigrant to "or+ a long time for "ages before he can earn enough mone* to bu* land, and turn himself into an independent peasant8 67 'he fund resulting from the sale of land at a price relati)el* prohibitor* for the "age4"or+ers, this fund of mone* e9torted from the "ages of labour b* )iolation of the sacred la" of suppl* and demand, the Go)ernment is to emplo*, on the other hand, in proportion as it gro"s; to import ha)e4nothings from Europe into the colonies, and thus +eep the "age labour mar+et full for the capitalists8 %nder these circumstances, tout sera pour le mieu9 dans le meilleur des mondes possibles8 'his is the great secret of @s*stematic coloni1ation8A /* this plan, Ba+efield cries in triumph, @the suppl* of labour must be constant and regular, because, first, as no labourer "ould be able to procure land until he had "or+ed for mone*, all immigrant labourers, "or+ing for a time for "ages and in combination, "ould produce capital for the emplo*ment of more labourers; secondl*, because e)er* labourer "ho left off "or+ing for "ages and became a lando"ner "ould, b* purchasing land, pro)ide a fund for bringing fresh labour to the colon*8A 61'he price of the soil imposed b* the State must, of course, be a @sufficient priceA F i$e8, so high @as to pre)ent the labourers from becoming independent lando"ners until others had follo"ed to ta+e their place8A 66 'his @sufficient price for the landA is nothing but a euphemistic circumlocution for the ransom "hich the labourer pa*s to the capitalist for lea)e to retire from the "age labour mar+et to the land8 First, he must create for the capitalist @capital,A "ith "hich the latter ma* be able to e9ploit more labourers; then he must place, at his o"n e9pense, a locum tenens GplaceholderH on the labour mar+et, "hom the Go)ernment for"ards across the sea for the benefit of his old master, the capitalist8

1:

5hapter ::

>t is )er* characteristic that the English Go)ernment for *ears practised this method of @primiti)e accumulationA prescribed b* $r8 Ba+efield e9pressl* for the use of the colonies8 'he fiasco "as, of course, as complete as that of Sir &obert #eel?s /an+ (ct8 'he stream of emigration "as onl* di)erted from the English colonies to the %ntied States8 $ean"hile, the ad)ance of capitalistic production in Europe, accompanied b* increasing Go)ernment pressure, has rendered Ba+efield?s recipe superfluous8 =n the one hand, the enormous and ceaseless stream of men, *ear after *ear dri)en upon (merica, lea)es behind a stationar* sediment in the east of the %nited States, the "a)e of immigration from Europe thro"ing men on the labour4mar+et there more rapidl* than the "a)e of emigration "est"ards can "ash them a"a*8 =n the other hand, the (merican 5i)il Bar brought in its train a colossal national debt, and, "ith it, pressure of ta9es, the rise of the )ilest financial aristocrac*, the sIuandering of a huge part of the public land on speculati)e companies for the e9ploitation of rail"a*s, mines, Pc8, in brief, the most rapid centrali1ation of capital8 'he great republic has, therefore, ceased to be the promised land for emigrant labourers8 5apitalistic production ad)ances there "ith giant strides, e)en though the lo"ering of "ages and the dependence of the "age4"or+er are *et far from being brought do"n to the normal European le)el8 'he shameless la)ishing of unculti)ated colonial land on aristocrats and capitalists b* the Go)ernment, so loudl* denounced e)en b* Ba+efield, has produced, especiall* in (ustralia6:, in conDunction "ith the stream of men that the gold diggings attract, and "ith the competition that the importation of English4commodities causes e)en to the smallest artisan, an ample @relati)e surplus labouring population,A so that almost e)er* mail brings the Lob?s ne"s of a @glut of the (ustralia labour4mar+et,A and the prostitution in some places flourishes as "antonl* as in the <ondon -a*mar+et8 -o"e)er, "e are not concerned here "ith the conditions of the colonies8 'he onl* thing that interests us is the secret disco)ered in the ne" "orld b* the #olitical Econom* of the old "orld, and proclaimed on the housetops: that the capitalist mode of production and accumulation, and therefore capitalist pri)ate propert*, ha)e for their fundamental condition the annihilation of self4 earned pri)ate propert*; in other "ords, the e9propriation of the labourer8

*nd of 6oo< /

'his is the more necessar*, as e)en the section of Ferdinand <assalle?s "or+ against Schul1e40elit1sch, in "hich he professes to gi)e @the intellectual IuintessenceA of m* e9planations on these subDects, contains important mista+es8 >f Ferdinand <assalle has borro"ed almost literall* from m* "ritings, and "ithout an* ac+no"ledgement, all the general theoretical propositions in his economic "or+s, e8g8, those on the historical character of capital, on the conne9ion bet"een the conditions of production and the mode of production, Pc8, Pc8, e)en to the terminolog* created b* me, this ma* perhaps be due to purposes of propaganda8 > am here, of course, not spea+ing of his detailed "or+ing out and application of these propositions, "ith "hich > ha)e nothing to do8 1 Geschichtliche 0arstellung des -andels, der Ge"erbe und des (c+erbaus, Pc88 )on Gusta) )on GTlich8 3 )ols8, Lena8 18:74 38 6 See m* "or+ @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A p8 :28 : 'he meal*4mouthed babblers of German )ulgar econom* fell foul of the st*le of m* boo+8 Co one can feel the literar* shortcomings in @0as .apitalA more strongl* than > m*self8 Net > "ill for the benefit and the enDo*ment of these gentlemen and their public Iuote in this conne9ion one English and one &ussian notice8 'he Saturda* &e)ie" al"a*s hostile to m* )ie"s, said in its notice of the first edition: @'he presentation of the subDect in)ests the driest economic Iuestions "ith a certain peculiar charm8A 'he @St8 #etersburg LournalA (San+t4#eterburgs+ie ;iedomosti!, in its issue of (pril 8 (67!, 1876, sa*s: @'he presentation of the subDect, "ith the e9ception of one or t"o e9ceptionall* special parts, is distinguished b* its comprehensibilit* b* the general reader, its clearness, and, in spite of the scientific intricac* of the subDect, b* an unusual li)eliness8 >n this respect the author in no "a* resembles 888 the maDorit* of German scholars "ho 888 "rite their boo+s in a language so dr* and obscure that the heads of ordinar* mortals are crac+ed b* it8A &e1epte F translated as @&eceipt,A "hich in the 12th 5entur*, meant @recipeA and /en Fo"+es, for e9ample translates this as @recipe8A G$>( footnoteH8 1 @<e 5apital,A par .arl $ar98 'raduction de $8 L8 &o*, entierement re)isRe par lUauteur8 #aris8 <achMtre8 'his translation, especiall* in the latter part of the boo+, contains considerable alterations in and additions to the te9t of the second German edition8 6 (t the Iuarterl* meeting of the $anchester 5hamber of commerce, held this afternoon a "arm discussion too+ place on the subDect of Free 'rade8 ( resolution "as mo)ed to the effect that @ha)ing "aited in )ain 7 *ears for other nations to follo" the Free 'rade e9ample of England, this 5hamber thin+s the time has no" arri)ed to reconsider that position8 'he resolution "as reDected b* a maDorit* of one onl*, the figures being 61 for, and 66 against8 F E)ening Standard, Co)8 1, 18868 i >n the English edition of 1887 this addition "as made b* Engels himself8 F Ed8 6 >n the present edition the* are put into sIuare brac+ets and mar+ed "ith the initials : $ar9 "as not mista+en in the title of the boo+ but in the page8 -e put do"n :6 instead of :78 (See pp8 367461 of the present edition8! F Ed8 1 .arl $ar9, @,ur .riti+ der #olitischen =e+onomie8A /erlin, 1832, p8 :8 6 @0esire implies "ant, it is the appetite of the mind, and as natural as hunger to the bod*888 'he greatest number (of things! ha)e their )alue from suppl*ing the "ants of the mind8A Cicholas /arbon: @( 0iscourse 5oncerning 5oining the Ce" $one* <ighter8 >n (ns"er to $r8 <oc+e?s 5onsiderations, Pc8A, <ondon, 1626, pp8 6, :8 : @'hings ha)e an intrinsic+ )ertueA (this is /arbon?s special term for )alue in use! @"hich in all places ha)e the same )ertue; as the loadstone to attract ironA (l8c8, p8 6!8 'he propert* "hich the magnet possesses of attracting iron, became of use onl* after b* means of that propert* the polarit* of the magnet had been disco)ered8 @'he natural "orth of an*thing consists in its fitness to suppl* the necessities, or ser)e the con)eniencies of human life8A (Lohn <oc+e, @Some 5onsiderations on the 5onseIuences of the <o"ering of >nterest, 1621,A in Bor+s Edit8 <ond8, 1777, ;ol8 >>8, p8 688! >n English "riters of the 17th centur* "e freIuentl* find @"orthA in the sense of )alue in use, and @)alueA in the sense of e9change )alue8 'his is Iuite in accordance "ith the spirit of a language that li+es to use a 'eutonic "ord for the actual thing, and a &omance "ord for its refle9ion8 3 >n bourgeois societies the economic fictio :uris pre)ails, that e)er* one, as a bu*er, possesses an enc*clopedic +no"ledge of commodities8 6 @<a )aleur consiste dans le rapport d?Rchange Iui se trou)e entre telle chose et telle autre entre telle mesure d?une production et telle mesure d?une autre8A G@;alue consists in the e9change relation bet"een one thing and another, bet"een a gi)en amount of one product and a gi)en amount of anotherAH (<e 'rosne: @0e l?>ntRrdt Social8A #h*siocrates, Ed8 0aire8 #aris, 18 68 p8 8828!

@Cothing can ha)e an intrinsic+ )alue8A (C8 /arbon, t8 c8, p8 6!; or as /utler sa*s F @'he )alue of a thing is Dust as much as it "ill bring8A 8 C8 /arbon, l8c8, p8 3: and 78 2 @'he )alue of them (the necessaries of life!, "hen the* are e9changed the one for another, is regulated b* the Iuantit* of labour necessaril* reIuired, and commonl* ta+en in producing them8A (@Some 'houghts on the >nterest of $one* in General, and #articularl* in the #ublic+ Funds, P8A <ond8, p8 :6! 'his remar+able anon*mous "or+ "ritten in the last centur*, bears no date8 >t is clear, ho"e)er, from internal e)idence that it appeared in the reign of George >>, about 17:2 or 17 78 17 @'outes les productions d?un mdme genre ne forment proprement Iu?une masse, dont le pri9 se dRtermine en gRnRral et sans Rgard au9 circonstances particulinres8A G@#roperl* spea+ing, all products of the same +ind form a single mass, and their price is determined in general and "ithout regard to particular circumstancesAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 82:8! 11 .8 $ar98 l8c8, p86 16 > am inserting the parenthesis because its omission has often gi)en rise to the misunderstanding that e)er* product that is consumed b* some one other than its producer is considered in $ar9 a commodit*8 GEngels, th German EditionH 1: 'utti i fenomeni dell?uni)erso, sieno essi prodotti della mano dell?uomo, o))ero delle uni)ersali leggi della fisica, non ci danno idea di attuale crea1ione, ma unicamente di una modifica1ione della materia8 (ccostare e separare sono gli unici elementi che l?ingegno umano ritro)a anali11ando l?idea della riprodu1ione: e tanto e riprodu1ione di )alore ()alue in use, although ;erri in this passage of his contro)ers* "ith the #h*siocrats is not himself Iuite certain of the +ind of )alue he is spea+ing of! e di ricche11e se la terra, l?aria e l?acIua ne? campi si trasmutino in grano, come se colla mano dell?uomo il glutine di un insetto si trasmuti in )elluto o))ero alcuni pe11etti di metalio si organi11ino a formare una ripeti1ione8A G@(ll the phenomena of the uni)erse, "hether produced b* the hand of man or through the uni)ersal la"s of ph*sics, are not actual ne" creations, but merel* a modification of matter8 Loining together and separating are the onl* elements "hich the human mind al"a*s finds on anal*sing the concept of reproduction and it is Dust the same "ith the reproduction of )alueA ()alue in use, although ;erri in this passage of his contro)ers* "ith the #h*siocrats is not himself Iuite certain of the +ind of )alue he is spea+ing of! @and of "ealth, "hen earth, air and "ater in the fields are transformed into corn, or "hen the hand of man transforms the secretions of an insect into sil+, or some pieces of metal are arranged to ma+e the mechanism of a "atch8AH F #ietro ;erri, @$edita1ioni sulla Economia #oliticaA Gfirst printed in 177:H in 5ustodi?s edition of the >talian Economists, #arte $oderna, t8 O;8, p8 668 1 5omp8 -egel, @#hilosophie des &echts8A /erlin, 18 78 p8 6378 13 'he reader must note that "e are not spea+ing here of the "ages or )alue that the labourer gets for a gi)en labour time, but of the )alue of the commodit* in "hich that labour time is materialised8 Bages is a categor* that, as *et, has no e9istence at the present stage of our in)estigation8 16 >n order to pro)e that labour alone is that all4sufficient and real measure, b* "hich at all times the )alue of all commodities can be estimated and compared, (dam Smith sa*s, @EIual Iuantities of labour must at all times and in all places ha)e the same )alue for the labourer8 >n his normal state of health, strength, and acti)it*, and "ith the a)erage degree of s+ill that he ma* possess, he must al"a*s gi)e up the same portion of his rest his freedom, and his happiness8A (@Bealth of Cations,A b8 >8 ch8 ;8! =n the one hand (dam Smith here (but not e)er*"here! confuses the determination of )alue b* means of the Iuantit* of labour e9pended in the production of commodities, "ith the determination of the )alues of commodities b* means of the )alue of labour, and see+s in conseIuence to pro)e that eIual Iuantities of labour ha)e al"a*s the same )alue8 =n the other hand he has a presentiment, that labour, so far as it manifests itself in the )alue of commodities, counts onl* as e9penditure of labour po"er, but he treats this e9penditure as the mere sacrifice of rest, freedom, and happiness, not as at the same time the normal acti)it* of li)ing beings8 /ut then, he has the modern "age4labourer in his e*e8 $uch more aptl*, the anon*mous predecessor of (dam Smith, Iuoted abo)e in note 2, this chapter, sa*s @one man has emplo*ed himself a "ee+ in pro)iding this necessar* of life 888 and he that gi)es him some other in e9change cannot ma+e a better estimate of "hat is a proper eIui)alent, than b* computing "hat cost him Dust as much labour and time "hich in effect is no more than e9changing one man?s labour in one thing for a time certain, for another man?s labour in another thing for the same time8A (l8c8, p8 :28! G'he English language has the ad)antage of possessing different "ords for the t"o aspects of labour here considered8 'he labour "hich creates use )alue, and counts Iualitati)el*, is Bor+, as distinguished from <abour, that "hich creates ;alue and counts Iuantitati)el*, is <abour as distinguished from Bor+ 4 EngelsH

17

'he fe" economists, amongst "hom is S8 /aile*, "ho ha)e occupied themsel)es "ith the anal*sis of the form of )alue, ha)e been unable to arri)e at an* result, first, because the* confuse the form of )alue "ith )alue itself; and second, because, under the coarse influence of the practical bourgeois, the* e9clusi)el* gi)e their attention to the Iuantitati)e aspect of the Iuestion8 @'he command of Iuantit* 888 constitutes )alue8A (@$one* and its ;icissitudes8A <ondon, 18:7, p8 118 /* S8 /aile*8! 18 'he celebrated Fran+lin, one of the first economists, after Bm8 #ett*, "ho sa" through the nature of )alue, sa*s: @'rade in general being nothing else but the e9change of labour for labour, the )alue of all things is 888 most Dustl* measured b* labour8A (@'he "or+s of /8 Fran+lin, Pc8,A edited b* Spar+s8 /oston, 18:6, ;ol8 >>8, p8 6678! Fran+lin is unconscious that b* estimating the )alue of e)er*thing in labour, he ma+es abstraction from an* difference in the sorts of labour e9changed, and thus reduces them all to eIual human labour8 /ut although ignorant of this, *et he sa*s it8 -e spea+s first of @the one labour,A then of @the other labour,A and finall* of @labour,A "ithout further Iualification, as the substance of the )alue of e)er*thing8 12 >n a sort of "a*, it is "ith man as "ith commodities8 Since he comes into the "orld neither "ith a loo+ing glass in his hand, nor as a Fichtian philosopher, to "hom @> am >A is sufficient, man first sees and recognises himself in other men8 #eter onl* establishes his o"n identit* as a man b* first comparing himself "ith #aul as being of li+e +ind8 (nd thereb* #aul, Dust as he stands in his #auline personalit*, becomes to #eter the t*pe of the genus homo8 67 ;alue is here, as occasionall* in the preceding pages, used in sense of )alue determined as to Iuantit*, or of magnitude of )alue8 61 'his incongruit* bet"een the magnitude of )alue and its relati)e e9pression has, "ith customar* ingenuit*, been e9ploited b* )ulgar economists8 For e9ample F @=nce admit that ( falls, because /, "ith "hich it is e9changed, rises, "hile no less labour is besto"ed in the meantime on (, and *our general principle of )alue falls to the ground888 >f he G&icardoH allo"ed that "hen ( rises in )alue relati)el* to /, / falls in )alue relati)el* to (, he cut a"a* the ground on "hich he rested his grand proposition, that the )alue of a commodit* is e)er determined b* the labour embodied in it, for if a change in the cost of ( alters not onl* its o"n )alue in relation to /, for "hich it is e9changed, but also the )alue of / relati)el* to that of (, though no change has ta+en place in the Iuantit* of labour to produce /, then not onl* the doctrine falls to the ground "hich asserts that the Iuantit* of labour besto"ed on an article regulates its )alue, but also that "hich affirms the cost of an article to regulate its )alue? (L8 /roadhurst: @#olitical Econom*,A <ondon, 18 6, pp8 11 and 1 8! $r8 /roadhurst might Dust as "ell sa*: consider the fractions 17J67, 17J37, 17J177, Pc8, the number 17 remains unchanged, and *et its proportional magnitude, its magnitude relati)el* to the numbers 67, 37, 177 Pc8, continuall* diminishes8 'herefore the great principle that the magnitude of a "hole number, such as 17, is @regulatedA b* the number of times unit* is contained in it, falls to the ground8 G'he author e9plains in section of this chapter, pp8 87481, note 6 (note :: of this document!, "hat he understands b* @;ulgar Econom*8A F EngelsH 66 Such e9pressions of relations in general, called b* -egel refle9 categories, form a )er* curious class8 For instance, one man is +ing onl* because other men stand in the relation of subDects to him8 'he*, on the contrar*, imagine that the* are subDects because he is +ing8 6: F8 <8 (8 Ferrier, sous4inspecteur des douanes, @0u gou)ernement considRrR dans ses rapports a)ec le commerce,A #aris, 1873; and 5harles Ganilh, @0es S*stnmes d?Economie #olitiIue, F 6nd ed8, #aris, 18618 6 >n -omer, for instance, the )alue of an article is e9pressed in a series of different things >>8 ;>>8 764 738 63 For this reason, "e can spea+ of the coat )alue of the linen "hen its )alue is e9pressed in coats, or of its corn )alue "hen e9pressed in corn, and so on8 E)er* such e9pression tells us, that "hat appears in the use )alues, cost, corn, Pc8, is the )alue of the linen8 @'he )alue of an* commodit* denoting its relation in e9change, "e ma* spea+ of it as 888 corn )alue, cloth )alue, according to the commodit* "ith "hich it is compared; and hence there are a thousand different +inds of )alue, as man* +inds of )alue as there are commodities in e9istence, and all are eIuall* real and eIuall* nominal8A (@( 5ritical 0issertation on the Cature, $easures and 5auses of ;alue: chiefl* in reference to the "ritings of $r8 &icardo and his follo"ers8A /* the author of @Essa*s on the Formation, Pc8, of =pinions8A <ondon, 1863, p8 :28! S8 /aile*, the author of this anon*mous "or+, a "or+ "hich in its da* created much stir in England, fancied that, b* thus pointing out the )arious relati)e e9pressions of one and the same )alue, he had pro)ed the impossibilit* of an* determination of the concept of )alue8 -o"e)er narro" his o"n )ie"s ma* ha)e been, *et, that he laid his finger on some serious defects in the &icardian 'heor*, is pro)ed b* the animosit* "ith "hich he "as attac+ed b* &icardo?s follo"ers8 See the Bestminster &e)ie" for e9ample8 66 >t is b* no means self4e)ident that this character of direct and uni)ersal e9changeabilit* is, so to spea+, a polar one, and as intimatel* connected "ith its opposite pole, the absence of direct e9changeabilit*, as the positi)e pole of the magnet is "ith its negati)e counterpart8 >t ma* therefore be imagined that all commodities can simultaneousl* ha)e

this character impressed upon them, Dust as it can be imagined that all 5atholics can be popes together8 >t is, of course, highl* desirable in the e*es of the petit bourgeois, for "hom the production of commodities is the nec plus ultra of human freedom and indi)idual independence, that the incon)eniences resulting from this character of commodities not being directl* e9changeable, should be remo)ed8 #roudhon?s socialism is a "or+ing out of this #hilistine %topia, a form of socialism "hich, as > ha)e else"here sho"n, does not possess e)en the merit of originalit*8 <ong before his time, the tas+ "as attempted "ith much better success b* Gra*, /ra*, and others8 /ut, for all that, "isdom of this +ind flourishes e)en no" in certain circles under the name of @science8A Ce)er has an* school pla*ed more tric+s "ith the "ord science, than that of #roudhon, for @"o /egriffe fehlen, 0a stellt 1ur rechten ,eit ein Bort sich ein8A G@Bhere thoughts are absent, Bords are brought in as con)enient replacements,A Goethe?s, Faust, See #roudhon?s #hilosoph* of #o)ert*H 66a >n the German edition, there is the follo"ing footnote here: @=ne ma* recall that 5hina and the tables began to dance "hen the rest of the "orld appeared to be standing still F pour encourager les autres Gto encourage the othersH8A 'he defeat of the 18 84 2 re)olutions "as follo"ed b* a period of dismal political reaction in Europe8 (t that time, spiritualism, especiall* table4turning, became the rage among the European aristocrac*8 >n 183746 , 5hina "as s"ept b* an anti4feudal liberation mo)ement in the form of a large4scale peasant "ar, the 'aiping &e)olt8 F Cote b* editors of $E5B8 67 (mong the ancient Germans the unit for measuring land "as "hat could be har)ested in a da*, and "as called 'ag"er+, 'ag"anne (Durnale, or terra Durnalis, or diornalis!, $annsmaad, Pc8 (See G8 <8 )on $aurer, @Einleitung 1ur Geschichte der $ar+, Pc8 ;erfassung,A $unchen, 183 , p8 162 sI8! 68 Bhen, therefore, Galiani sa*s: ;alue is a relation bet"een persons F @<a &icche11a e una ragione tra due persone,A F he ought to ha)e added: a relation bet"een persons e9pressed as a relation bet"een things8 (Galiani: 0ella $oneta, p8 661, ;8 >>>8 of 5ustodi?s collection of @Scrittori 5lassici >taliani di Economia #olitica8A #arte $oderna, $ilano 187:8! 62 Bhat are "e to thin+ of a la" that asserts itself onl* b* periodical re)olutionsE >t is Dust nothing but a la" of Cature, founded on the "ant of +no"ledge of those "hose action is the subDect of it8A (Friedrich Engels: @ %mrisse 1u einer .riti+ der Cationalu+onomie,A in the @0eutsch4Fran1usische LahrbTcher,A edited b* (rnold &uge and .arl $ar98 #aris8 18 8! :7 E)en &icardo has his stories X la &obinson8 @-e ma+es the primiti)e hunter and the primiti)e fisher straight"a*, as o"ners of commodities, e9change fish and game in the proportion in "hich labour time is incorporated in these e9change )alues8 =n this occasion he commits the anachronism of ma+ing these men appl* to the calculation, so far as their implements ha)e to be ta+en into account, the annuit* tables in current use on the <ondon E9change in the *ear 18178 'he parallelograms of $r8 ="en appear to be the onl* form of societ*, besides the bourgeois form, "ith "hich he "as acIuainted8A (.arl $ar9: @,ur .riti+, Pc88A pp8 :8, :2! :1 ( ridiculous presumption has latterl* got abroad that common propert* in its primiti)e form is specificall* a Sla)onian, or e)en e9clusi)el* &ussian form8 >t is the primiti)e form that "e can pro)e to ha)e e9isted amongst &omans, 'eutons, and 5elts, and e)en to this da* "e find numerous e9amples, ruins though the* be, in >ndia8 ( more e9hausti)e stud* of (siatic, and especiall* of >ndian forms of common propert*, "ould sho" ho" from the different forms of primiti)e common propert*, different forms of its dissolution ha)e been de)eloped8 'hus, for instance, the )arious original t*pes of &oman and 'eutonic pri)ate propert* are deducible from different forms of >ndian common propert*8A (.arl $ar9, @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A p8 178! :6 'he insufficienc* of &icardo?s anal*sis of the magnitude of )alue, and his anal*sis is b* far the best, "ill appear from the :rd and th boo+s of this "or+8 (s regards )alue in general, it is the "ea+ point of the classical school of #olitical Econom* that it no"here e9pressl* and "ith full consciousness, distinguishes bet"een labour, as it appears in the )alue of a product, and the same labour, as it appears in the use )alue of that product8 =f course the distinction is practicall* made, since this school treats labour, at one time under its Iuantitati)e aspect, at another under its Iualitati)e aspect8 /ut it has not the least idea, that "hen the difference bet"een )arious +inds of labour is treated as purel* Iuantitati)e, their Iualitati)e unit* or eIualit*, and therefore their reduction to abstract human labour, is implied8 For instance, &icardo declares that he agrees "ith 0estutt de 'rac* in this proposition: @(s it is certain that our ph*sical and moral faculties are alone our original riches, the emplo*ment of those faculties, labour of some +ind, is our onl* original treasure, and it is al"a*s from this emplo*ment that all those things are created "hich "e call riches888 >t is certain, too, that all those things onl* represent the labour "hich has created them, and if the* ha)e a )alue, or e)en t"o distinct )alues, the* can onl* deri)e them from that (the )alue! of the labour from "hich the* emanate8A (&icardo, @'he #rinciples of #ol8 Econ8,A : Ed8 <ond8 1861, p8 :: 8! Be "ould here onl* point out, that &icardo puts his o"n more profound interpretation upon the "ords of 0estutt8 Bhat the latter reall* sa*s is, that on

the one hand all things "hich constitute "ealth represent the labour that creates them, but that on the other hand, the* acIuire their @t"o different )aluesA (use )alue and e9change )alue! from @the )alue of labour8A -e thus falls into the commonplace error of the )ulgar economists, "ho assume the )alue of one commodit* (in this case labour! in order to determine the )alues of the rest8 /ut &icardo reads him as if he had said, that labour (not the )alue of labour! is embodied both in use )alue and e9change )alue8 Ce)ertheless, &icardo himself pa*s so little attention to the t"ofold character of the labour "hich has a t"ofold embodiment, that he de)otes the "hole of his chapter on @;alue and &iches, 'heir 0istincti)e #roperties,A to a laborious e9amination of the tri)ialities of a L8/8 Sa*8 (nd at the finish he is Iuite astonished to find that 0estutt on the one hand agrees "ith him as to labour being the source of )alue, and on the other hand "ith L8 /8 Sa* as to the notion of )alue8 :: >t is one of the chief failings of classical econom* that it has ne)er succeeded, b* means of its anal*sis of commodities, and, in particular, of their )alue, in disco)ering that form under "hich )alue becomes e9change )alue8 E)en (dam Smith and &icardo, the best representati)es of the school, treat the form of )alue as a thing of no importance, as ha)ing no connection "ith the inherent nature of commodities8 'he reason for this is not solel* because their attention is entirel* absorbed in the anal*sis of the magnitude of )alue8 >t lies deeper8 'he )alue form of the product of labour is not onl* the most abstract, but is also the most uni)ersal form, ta+en b* the product in bourgeois production and stamps that production as a particular species of social production, and thereb* gi)es it its special historical character8 >f then "e treat this mode of production as one eternall* fi9ed b* Cature for e)er* state of societ*, "e necessaril* o)erloo+ that "hich is the differentia specifica of the )alue form, and conseIuentl* of the commodit* form, and of its further de)elopments, mone* form, capital form, Pc8 Be conseIuentl* find that economists, "ho are thoroughl* agreed as to labour time being the measure of the magnitude of )alue, ha)e the most strange and contradictor* ideas of mone*, the perfected form of the general eIui)alent8 'his is seen in a stri+ing manner "hen the* treat of ban+ing, "here the commonplace definitions of mone* "ill no longer hold "ater8 'his led to the rise of a restored mercantile s*stem (Ganilh, Pc8!, "hich sees in )alue nothing but a social form, or rather the unsubstantial ghost of that form8 =nce for all > ma* here state, that b* classical #olitical Econom*, > understand that econom* "hich, since the time of B8 #ett*, has in)estigated the real relations of production in bourgeois societ* in contradistinction to )ulgar econom*, "hich deals "ith appearances onl*, ruminates "ithout ceasing on the materials long since pro)ided b* scientific econom*, and there see+s plausible e9planations of the most obtrusi)e phenomena, for bourgeois dail* use, but for the rest, confines itself to s*stematising in a pedantic "a*, and proclaiming for e)erlasting truths, the trite ideas held b* the self4complacent bourgeoisie "ith regard to their o"n "orld, to them the best of all possible "orlds8 : @<es Rconomistes ont une singulinre maninre de procRder8 >l n?* a pour eu9 Iue deu9 sortes d?institutions, celles de l?art et celles de la nature8 <es institutions de la fRodalitR sont des institutions artificielles celles de la bourgeoisie sont des institutions naturelles8 >ls ressemblent en ceci au9 thRologiens, Iui eu9 aussi Rtablissent deu9 sortes de religions8 'oute religion Iui n?est pas la leur, est une in)ention des hommes tandis Iue leur propre religion est une Rmanation de 0ieu 4(insi il * a eu de l?histoire, mais il n?* en a plus8A G@Economists ha)e a singular method of procedure8 'here are onl* t"o +inds of institutions for them, artificial and natural8 'he institutions of feudalism are artificial institutions, those of the bourgeoisie are natural institutions8 >n this the* resemble the theologians, "ho li+e"ise establish t"o +inds of religion8 E)er* religion "hich is not theirs is an in)ention of men, "hile their o"n is an emanation from God8 888 'hus there has been histor*, but there is no longer an*AH (.arl $ar98 $isnre de la #hilosophie8 &Rponse a la #hilosophie de la $isnre par $8 #roudhon, 18 7, p8 11:8! 'rul* comical is $8 /astiat, "ho imagines that the ancient Gree+s and &omans li)ed b* plunder alone8 /ut "hen people plunder for centuries, there must al"a*s be something at hand for them to sei1e; the obDects of plunder must be continuall* reproduced8 >t "ould thus appear that e)en Gree+s and &omans had some process of production, conseIuentl*, an econom*, "hich Dust as much constituted the material basis of their "orld, as bourgeois econom* constitutes that of our modern "orld8 =r perhaps /astiat means, that a mode of production based on sla)er* is based on a s*stem of plunder8 >n that case he treads on dangerous ground8 >f a giant thin+er li+e (ristotle erred in his appreciation of sla)e labour, "h* should a d"arf economist li+e /astiat be right in his appreciation of "age labourE > sei1e this opportunit* of shortl* ans"ering an obDection ta+en b* a German paper in (merica, to m* "or+, @,ur .riti+ der #ol8 =e+onomie, 18328A >n the estimation of that paper, m* )ie" that each special mode of production and the social relations corresponding to it, in short, that the economic structure of societ*, is the real basis on "hich the Duridical and political superstructure is raised and to "hich definite social forms of thought correspond; that the mode of production determines the character of the social, political, and intellectual life generall*, all this is )er* true for our o"n times, in "hich material interests preponderate, but not for the middle ages, in "hich 5atholicism, nor for (thens and &ome, "here politics, reigned supreme8 >n the first place it stri+es one as an odd thing for an* one to suppose that these "ell4"orn phrases about the middle ages and the ancient "orld are un+no"n to an*one else8 'his much, ho"e)er, is clear, that the middle ages could not li)e on 5atholicism, nor the

ancient "orld on politics8 =n the contrar*, it is the mode in "hich the* gained a li)elihood that e9plains "h* here politics, and there 5atholicism, pla*ed the chief part8 For the rest, it reIuires but a slight acIuaintance "ith the histor* of the &oman republic, for e9ample, to be a"are that its secret histor* is the histor* of its landed propert*8 =n the other hand, 0on Kui9ote long ago paid the penalt* for "rongl* imagining that +night errantr* "as compatible "ith all economic forms of societ*8 :3 @=bser)ations on certain )erbal disputes in #ol8 Econ8, particularl* relating to )alue and to demand and suppl*A <ond8, 1861, p8 168 :6 S8 /aile*, l8c8, p8 1638 :7 'he author of @=bser)ationsA and S8 /aile* accuse &icardo of con)erting e9change )alue from something relati)e into something absolute8 'he opposite is the fact8 -e has e9plained the apparent relation bet"een obDects, such as diamonds and pearls, in "hich relation the* appear as e9change )alues, and disclosed the true relation hidden behind the appearances, namel*, their relation to each other as mere e9pressions of human labour8 >f the follo"ers of &icardo ans"er /aile* some"hat rudel*, and b* no means con)incingl*, the reason is to be sought in this, that the* "ere unable to find in &icardo?s o"n "or+s an* +e* to the hidden relations e9isting bet"een )alue and its form, e9change )alue8
1

>n the 16th centur*, so reno"ned for its piet*, the* included amongst commodities some )er* delicate things8 'hus a French poet of the period enumerates amongst the goods to be found in the mar+et of <andit, not onl* clothing shoes, leather, agricultural implements, Pc8, but also @femmes folles de leur corps8A 6 #roudhon begins b* ta+ing his ideal of Lustice, of @Dustice Rternelle,A from the Duridical relations that correspond to the production of commodities: thereb*, it ma* be noted, he pro)es, to the consolation of all good citi1ens, that the production of commodities is a form of production as e)erlasting as Dustice8 'hen he turns round and see+s to reform the actual production of commodities, and the actual legal s*stem corresponding thereto, in accordance "ith this ideal8 Bhat opinion should "e ha)e of a chemist, "ho, instead of stud*ing the actual la"s of the molecular changes in the composition and decomposition of matter, and on that foundation sol)ing definite problems, claimed to regulate the composition and decomposition of matter b* means of the @eternal ideas,A of @naturalitRA and @affinitRAE 0o "e reall* +no" an* more about @usur*,A "hen "e sa* it contradicts @Dustice Rternelle,A RIuitR Rternelle @mutualitR Rternelle,A and other )RritRs Rternelles than the fathers of the church did "hen the* said it "as incompatible "ith @grMce Rternelle,A @foi Rternelle,A and @la )olontR Rternelle de 0ieuAE : For t"o4fold is the use of e)er* obDect8888 'he one is peculiar to the obDect as such, the other is not, as a sandal "hich ma* be "orn, and is also e9changeable8 /oth are uses of the sandal, for e)en he "ho e9changes the sandal for the mone* or food he is in "ant of, ma+es use of the sandal as a sandal8 /ut not in its natural "a*8 For it has not been made for the sa+e of being e9changed8A ((ristoteles, @0e &ep8A l8 i8 c8 28! From this "e ma* form an estimate of the shre"dness of the petit4bourgeois socialism8 "hich, "hile perpetuating the production of commodities, aims at abolishing the @antagonismA bet"een mone* and commodities, and conseIuentl*, since mone* e9ists onl* b* )irtue of this antagonism, at abolishing mone* itself8 Be might Dust as "ell tr* to retain 5atholicism "ithout the #ope8 For more on this point see m* "or+, @,ur .riti+ der #ol8 =e+on8,A p8 61, sI8 3 So long as, instead of t"o distinct use4)alues being e9changed, a chaotic mass of articles are offered as the eIui)alent of a single article, "hich is often the case "ith sa)ages, e)en the direct barter of products is in its first infanc*8 6 .arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 1:38 @> metalli 888 naturalmente moneta8A G@'he metals 888 are b* their nature mone*8AH (Galiani, @0ella monetaA in 5ustodi?s 5ollection: #arte $oderna t8 iii8! 7 For further details on this subDect see in m* "or+ cited abo)e, the chapter on @'he precious metals8A 8 @>l danaro n la merce uni)ersaleV(;erri, l8c8, p8 16!8 2 @Sil)er and gold themsel)es ("hich "e ma* call b* the general name of bullion! are 888 commodities 888 rising and falling in 888 )alue 888 /ullion, then, ma* be rec+oned to be of higher )alue "here the smaller "eight "ill purchase the greater Iuantit* of the product or manufacture of the countre*,A Pc8 (@( 0iscourse of the General Cotions of $one*, 'rade, and E9changes, as 'he* Stand in &elation each to other8A /* a $erchant8 <ond8, 1623, p8 78! @Sil)er and gold, coined or uncoined, though the* are used for a measure of all other things, are no less a commodit* than "ine, oil, tobacco, cloth, or stuffs8A (@( 0iscourse concerning 'rade, and that in particular of the East >ndies,A Pc8 <ondon, 1682, p8 68! @'he stoc+ and riches of the +ingdom cannot properl* be confined to mone*, nor ought gold and sil)er to be e9cluded from being merchandise8A (V'he East4>ndia 'rade a $ost #rofitable 'rade8A <ondon, 1677, p8 8!

17

<?oro e l?argento hanno )alore come metalli anteriore all?esser moneta8A G@Gold and sil)er ha)e )alue as metals before the* are mone*AH (Galiani, l8c8! <oc+e sa*s, @'he uni)ersal consent of man+ind ga)e to sil)er, on account of its Iualities "hich made it suitable for mone*, an imaginar* )alue8A <a", on the other hand8 @-o" could different nations gi)e an imaginar* )alue to an* single thing888 or ho" could this imaginar* )alue ha)e maintained itselfEA /ut the follo"ing sho"s ho" little he himself understood about the matter: @Sil)er "as e9changed in proportion to the )alue in use it possessed, conseIuentl* in proportion to its real )alue8 /* its adoption as mone* it recei)ed an additional )alue (une )aleur additionnelle!8A (Lean <a": @5onsidRrations sur le numRraire et le commerceA in E8 0aire?s Edit8 of @Economistes Financiers du O;>>> sincle,A p8 778! 11 @<?(rgent en (des denrRes! est le signe8A G@$one* is their (the commodities?! s*mbolAH (;8 de Forbonnais: @ElRments du 5ommerce, Cou)8 Edit8 <e*de, 1766,A t8 >>8, p8 1 :8! @5omme signe il est attirR par les denrRes 8A G@(s a s*mbol it is attracted b* the commoditiesAH (l8c8, p8 1338! @<?argent est un signe d?une chose et la reprRsente8A G@$one* is a s*mbol of a thing and represents it?H ($ontesIuieu: @Esprit des <ois,A (=eu)res, <ond8 1767, t8 >>, p8 68! @<?argent n?est pas simple signe, car il est lui4mdme richesse, il ne reprRsente pas les )aleurs, il les RIui)aut8A G@$one* is not a mere s*mbol, for it is itself "ealth; it does not represent the )alues, it is their eIui)alentsAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 2178! @'he notion of )alue contemplates the )aluable article as a mere s*mbol 4 the article counts not for "hat it is, but for "hat it is "orth8A (-egel, l8c8, p8 1778! <a"*ers started long before economists the idea that mone* is a mere s*mbol, and that the )alue of the precious metals is purel* imaginar*8 'his the* did in the s*cophantic ser)ice of the cro"ned heads, supporting the right of the latter to debase the coinage, during the "hole of the middle ages, b* the traditions of the &oman Empire and the conceptions of mone* to be found in the #andects8 @Ku?aucun puisse ni doi)e faire doute,A G@<et no one call into Iuestion,AH sa*s an apt scholar of theirs #hilip of ;alois, in a decree of 1: 6, @Iue X nous et X notre maDestR ro*ale n?appartiennent seulement 888 le mestier, le fait, l?Rtat, la pro)ision et toute l?ordonnance des monnaies, de donner tel cours, et pour tel pri9 comme il nous plait et bon nous semble8A G@that the trade, the composition, the suppl* and the po"er of issuing ordinances on the currenc* 888 belongs e9clusi)el* to us and to our ro*al maDest*, to fi9 such a rate and at such price as it shall please us and seem good to usAH >t "as a ma9im of the &oman <a" that the )alue of mone* "as fi9ed b* decree of the emperor8 >t "as e9pressl* forbidden to treat mone* as a commodit*8 @#ecunias )ero nulli emere fas erit, nam in usu publico constitutas oportet non esse mercem8A G@-o"e)er, it shall not be la"ful to an*one to bu* mone*, for, as it "as created for public use, it is not permissible for it to be a commodit*AH Some good "or+ on this Iuestion has been done b* G8 F8 #agnini: @Saggio sopra il giusto pregio delle cose, 1731V; 5ustodi @#arte $oderna,A t8 >>8 >n the second part of his "or+ #agnini directs his polemics especiall* against the la"*ers8 16 @>f a man can bring to <ondon an ounce of Sil)er out of the Earth in #eru, in the same time that he can produce a bushel of 5orn, then the one is the natural price of the other; no", if b* reason of ne" or more easier mines a man can procure t"o ounces of sil)er as easil* as he formerl* did one, the corn "ill be as cheap at ten shillings the bushel as it "as before at fi)e shillings, caeteris paribus8A Billiam #ett*8 @( 'reatise of 'a9es and 5ontributions8A <ond8, 1667, p8 :68 1: 'he learned #rofessor &oscher, after first informing us that @the false definitions of mone* ma* be di)ided into t"o main groups: those "hich ma+e it more, and those "hich ma+e it less, than a commodit*,A gi)es us a long and )er* mi9ed catalogue of "or+s on the nature of mone*, from "hich it appears that he has not the remotest idea of the real histor* of the theor*; and then he moralises thus: @For the rest, it is not to be denied that most of the later economists do not bear sufficientl* in mind the peculiarities4that distinguish mone* from other commoditiesA (it is then, after all, either more or less than a commodit*Q!888 @So far, the semi4mercantilist reaction of Ganilh is not altogether "ithout foundation8A (Bilhelm &oscher: @0ie Grundlagen der Cationaloe+onomie,A :rd Edn8 1838, pp8 67746178! $oreQ lessQ not sufficientl*Q so farQ not altogetherQ Bhat clearness and precision of ideas and languageQ (nd such eclectic professorial t"addle is modestl* baptised b* $r8 &oscher, @the anatomico4ph*siological methodA of #olitical Econom*Q =ne disco)er* ho"e)er, he must ha)e credit for, namel*, that mone* is @a pleasant commodit*8A 1 'he Iuestion v Bh* does not mone* directl* represent labour4time, so that a piece of paper ma* represent, for instance, 9 hours? labour, is at bottom the same as the Iuestion "h*, gi)en the production of commodities, must products ta+e the form of commoditiesE 'his is e)ident, since their ta+ing the form of commodities implies their differentiation into commodities and mone*8 =r, "h* cannot pri)ate labour v labour for the account of pri)ate indi)iduals v be treated as its opposite, immediate social labourE > ha)e else"here e9amined thoroughl* the %topian idea of @labour4mone*A in a societ* founded on the production of commodities (l8 c8, p8 61, seI8!8 =n this point > "ill onl* sa* further, that ="en?s @labour4mone*,A for instance, is no more @mone*A than a tic+et for the theatre8 ="en pre4supposes directl* associated labour, a form of production that is entirel* in consistent "ith the production of commodities8 'he certificate of labour is merel* e)idence of the part ta+en b* the indi)idual in the common labour,

and of his right to a certain portion of the common produce destined for consumption8 /ut it ne)er enters into ="en?s head to pre4suppose the production of commodities, and at the same time, b* Duggling "ith mone*, to tr* to e)ade the necessar* conditions of that production8 6 Sa)ages and half4ci)ilised races use the tongue differentl*8 5aptain #arr* sa*s of the inhabitants on the "est coast of /affin?s /a*: @>n this case (he refers to barter! the* lic+ed it (the thing represented to them! t"ice to their tongues, after "hich the* seemed to consider the bargain satisfactoril* concluded8A >n the same "a*, the Eastern EsIuimau9 lic+ed the articles the* recei)ed in e9change8 >f the tongue is thus used in the Corth as the organ of appropriation, no "onder that, in the South, the stomach ser)es as the organ of accumulated propert*, and that a .affir estimates the "ealth of a man b* the si1e of his bell*8 'hat the .affirs +no" "hat the* are about is sho"n b* the follo"ing: at the same time that the official /ritish -ealth &eport of 186 disclosed the deficienc* of fat4forming food among a large part of the "or+ing4class, a certain 0r8 -ar)e* (not, ho"e)er, the celebrated disco)erer of the circulation of the blood!, made a good thing b* ad)ertising recipes for reducing the superfluous fat of the bourgeoisie and aristocrac*8 : See .arl $ar9: @,ur .riti+, Pc8A @'heorien )on der $asseinheit des Geldes,A p8 3:, seI8 @Bhere)er gold and sil)er ha)e b* la" been made to perform the function of mone* or of a measure of )alue side b* side, it has al"a*s been tried, but in )ain, to treat them as one and the same material8 'o assume that there is an in)ariable ratio bet"een the Iuantities of gold and sil)er in "hich a gi)en Iuantit* of labour4time is incorporated, is to assume in fact, that gold and sil)er are of one and the same material, and that a gi)en mass of the less )aluable metal, sil)er, is a constant fraction of a gi)en mass of gold8 From the reign of Ed"ard >>>8 to the time of George >>8, 'he histor* of mone* in England consists of one long series of perturbations caused b* the clashing of the legall* fi9ed ratio bet"een 'he )alues of gold and sil)er, "ith the fluctuations in their real )alues8 (t one time gold "as too high, at another, sil)er8 'he metal that for the time being "as estimated belo" its )alue, "as "ithdra"n from circulation, mated and e9ported8 'he ratio bet"een the t"o metals "as then again altered b* la", but the ne" nominal ratio soon came into conflict again "ith the real one8 >n our o"n times, the slight and transient fall in the )alue of gold compared "ith sil)er, "hich "as a conseIuence of 'he >ndo45hinese demand for sil)er, produced on a far more e9tended scale in France the same phenomena, e9port of sil)er, and its e9pulsion from circulation b* gold8 0uring the *ears 1833, 1836 and 1837, the e9cess in France of gold4imports o)er gold4e9ports amounted to ] 1,387,777, "hile the e9cess of sil)er4e9ports o)er sil)er4imports "as ]1 ,77 ,7778 >n fact, in those countries in "hich both metals are legall* measures of )alue, and therefore both legal tender so that e)er*one has the option of pa*ing in either metal, the metal 'hat rise in )alue is at a premium, and, li+e e)er* other commodit*, measures its price in the o)er4estimated metal "hich alone ser)e in realit* as 'he standard of )alue8 'he result of all e9perience and histor* "ith regard to this eIuation is simpl* that, "here t"o commodities perform b* la" the functions of a measure of )alue, in practice one alone maintains that position8A (.arl $ar9, l8c8, pp8 36, 3:8! 3 'he peculiar circumstance, that "hile the ounce of gold ser)es in England as the unit of the standard of mone*, the pound sterling does not form an aliIuot part of it, has been e9plained as follo"s: @=ur coinage "as originall* adapted to the emplo*ment of sil)er onl*, hence, an ounce of sil)er can al"a*s be di)ided into a certain adeIuate number of pieces of coin, but as gold "as introduced at a later period into a coinage adapted onl* to sil)er, an ounce of gold cannot be coined into an aliIuot number of pieces8A $aclaren, @( S+etch of the -istor* of the 5urrenc*8A <ondon, 1838, p8 168 6 Bith English "riters the confusion bet"een measure of )alue and standard of price (standard of )alue! is indescribable8 'heir functions, as "ell as their names, are constantl* interchanged8 7 $oreo)er, it has not general historical )alidit*8 8 >t is thus that the pound sterling in English denotes less than one4third of its original "eight; the pound Scot, before the union, onl* 14:6th; the French li)re, 147 th; the Spanish mara)edi, less than 141,777th; and the #ortuguese rei a still smaller fraction8 2 @<e monete le Iuali oggi sono ideal, sono le piS antiche d?ogni na1ione, e tutte furono un tempo real, e perche erano reali con esse si conta)aA G@'he coins "hich toda* are ideal are the oldest coins of e)er* nation, and all of them "ere once real, and precisel* because the* "ere real the* "ere used for calculationAH (Galiani: 0ella moneta, l8c8, p8 13:8! 17 0a)id %rIuhart remar+s in his @Familiar BordsA on the monstrosit* (Q! that no"4a4da*s a pound (sterling!, "hich is the unit of the English standard of mone*, is eIual to about a Iuarter of an ounce of gold8 @'his is falsif*ing a measure, not establishing a standard8A -e sees in this @false denominationA of the "eight of gold, as in e)er*thing else8 the falsif*ing hand of ci)ilisation8 11 Bhen (nacharsis "as as+ed for "hat purposes the Gree+s used mone*, he replied, @For rec+oning8A ((shen8 0eipn8 18 i)8 2 )8 68 ed8 Sch"eighauser, 18768!

16

@="ing to the fact that mone*, "hen ser)ing as the standard of price, appears under the same rec+oning names as do the prices of commodities, and that therefore the sum of ]: 17s8 17 1J6d8 ma* signif* on the one hand an ounce "eight of gold, and on the other, the )alue of a ton of iron, this rec+oning name of mone* has been called its mint4 price8 -ence there sprang up the e9traordinar* notion, that the )alue of gold is estimated in its o"n material, and that, in contradistinction to all other commodities, its price is fi9ed b* the State8 >t "as erroneousl* thought that the gi)ing of rec+oning names to definite "eights of gold, is the same thing as fi9ing the )alue of those "eights8A (.arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 368! 1: See @'heorien )on der $asseinheit des GeldesA in @,ur .riti+ der #ol =e+on8 Pc8,A p8 3:, seI8 'he fantastic notions about raising or lo"ering the mint4price of mone* b* transferring to greater or smaller "eights of gold or sil)er, the names alread* legall* appropriated to fi9ed "eights of those metals; such notions, at least in those cases in "hich the* aim, not at clums* financial operations against creditors, both public and pri)ate but at economic Iuac+ remedies, ha)e been so e9hausti)el* treated b* Bm8 #ett* in his @KuantulumcunIue concerning mone*: 'o the <ord $arIuis of -alifa9, 1686,A that e)en his immediate follo"ers, Sir 0udle* Corth and Lohn <oc+e, not to mention later ones, could onl* dilute him8 @>f the "ealth of a nationA he remar+s, @could be decupled b* a proclamation, it "ere strange that such proclamations ha)e not long since been made b* our Go)ernors8A (l8c8, p8 :68! 1 @=u bien, il faut consentir X dire Iu?une )aleur d?un million en argent )aut plus Iu?une )aleur Rgale en marchandises8A G@=r indeed it must be admitted that a million in mone* is "orth more than an eIual )alue in commoditiesAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 212!, "hich amounts to sa*ing @Iu?une )aleur )aut plus Iu?une )aleur Rgale8A G@that one )alue is "orth more than another )alue "hich is eIual to it8AH 13 Lerome had to "restle hard, not onl* in his *outh "ith the bodil* flesh, as is sho"n b* his fight in the desert "ith the handsome "omen of his imagination, but also in his old age "ith the spiritual flesh8 @> thought,A he sa*s, @> "as in the spirit before the Ludge of the %ni)erse8A @Bho art thouEA as+ed a )oice8 @> am a 5hristian8A @'hou liest,A thundered bac+ the great Ludge, @thou art nought but a 5iceronian8A
16

@ ... ? , ?, , 8A G@(s -eraclitus sa*s, all things are e9changed for fire and fire for all things, as "ares are e9changed for gold and gold for "ares8AH (F8 <assalle: @0ie #hilosophie -era+leitos des 0un+eln8A /erlin, 1838, ;ol8 >, p8 6668! <assalle in his note on this passage, p8 66 , n8 :8, erroneousl* ma+es gold a mere s*mbol of )alue8 1w7 Hote by the .nstitute of Marxism)Leninism in the Russian edition 8 v >n his letter of Co)ember 68, 1878, to C8 F8 0anielson (Ci+olai4on! $ar9 proposed that this sentence be corrected to read as follo"s: @(nd, as a matter of fact, the )alue of each single *ard is but the materialised form of a part of the social labour e9pended on the "hole number of *ards8A (n analogous correction "as made in a cop* of the second German edition of the first )olume of @5apitalA belonging to $ar9; ho"e)er, not in his hand"riting8 18 @'oute )ente est achat8A G@E)er* sale is a purchase8AH (0r8 Kuesna*: @0ialogues sur le 5ommerce et les 'ra)au9 des (rtisans8A #h*siocrates ed8 0aire >8 #artie, #aris, 18 6, p8 177!, or as Kuesna* in his @$a9imes gRnRralesA puts it, @;endre est acheter8A G@'o sell is to bu*8AH 12 @<e pri9 d?une marchandise ne pou)ant dtre pa*R Iue par le pri9 d?une autre marchandiseA ($ercier de la &i)inre: @<?=rdre naturel et essentiel des sociRtRs politiIues8A G@'he price of one commodit* can onl* be paid b* the price of another commodit*AH #h*siocrates, ed8 0aire >>8 #artie, p8 33 8! 67 @#our a)oir cet argent, il faut a)oir )endu,A G@>n order to ha)e this mone*, one must ha)e made a sale,AH l8c8, p8 3 :8 61 (s before remar+ed, the actual producer of gold or sil)er forms an e9ception8 -e e9changes his product directl* for another commodit*, "ithout ha)ing first sold it8 66 @Si l?argent reprRsente, dans nos mains, les choses Iue nous pou)ons dRsirer d?acheter, il * reprRsente aussi les choses Iue nous a)ons )endues pour cet argent8A G@>f mone* represents, in our hands, the things "e can "ish to bu*, it also represents the things "e ha)e sold to obtain that mone*AH ($ercier de la &i)inre, l8c8, p8 3868! 6: @>l * a donc 888 Iuatre termes et trois contractants, dont l?un inter)ient deu9 foisA G@'here are therefore 888 four terms and three contracting parties, one of "hom inter)enes t"iceAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 2728! 6 Self4e)ident as this ma* be, it is ne)ertheless for the most part unobser)ed b* political economists, and especiall* b* the @Free4trader ;ulgaris8A

63

See m* obser)ations on Lames $ill in @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A pp8 7 4768 Bith regard to this subDect, "e ma* notice t"o methods characteristic of apologetic econom*8 'he first is the identification of the circulation of commodities "ith the direct barter of products, b* simple abstraction from their points of difference; the second is, the attempt to e9plain a"a* the contradictions of capitalist production, b* reducing the relations bet"een the persons engaged in that mode of production, to the simple relations arising out of the circulation of commodities8 'he production and circulation of commodities are ho"e)er, phenomena that occur to a greater or less e9tent in modes of production the most di)erse8 >f "e are acIuainted "ith nothing but the abstract categories of circulation, "hich are common to all these modes of production, "e cannot possibl* +no" an*thing of the specific points of difference of those modes, nor pronounce an* Dudgment upon them8 >n no science is such a big fuss made "ith commonplace truisms as in #olitical Econom*8 For instance, L8 /8 Sa* sets himself up as a Dudge of crises, because, forsooth, he +no"s that a commodit* is a product8 66 /ranslatorCs note8 v 'his "ord is here used in its original signification of the course or trac+ pursued b* mone* as it changes from hand to hand, a course "hich essentiall* differs from circulation8 67 E)en "hen the commodit* is sold o)er and o)er again, a phenomenon that at present has no e9istence for us, it falls, "hen definitel* sold for the last time, out of the sphere of circulation into that of consumption, "here it ser)es either as means of subsistence or means of production8 68 @>l (l?argent! n?a d?autre mou)ement Iue celui Iui lui est imprimR par les productions8A G@>tA (mone*! @has no other motion than that imparted to it b* the productsAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 8838! 62 @5e sont les productions Iui le (l?argent! mettent en mou)ement et le font circuler 888 <a cRlRritR de son mou)ement (c8 de l?argent! supplRe X sa IuantitR8 <orsIu?il en est besoin il ne fait Iue glisser d?une main dans l?autre sans s?arrdter un instant8A G@>t is products "hich set itA (mone*! @in motion and ma+e it circulate 888 'he )elocit* of itsA (mone*?s! @motion supplements its Iuantit*8 Bhen necessar*, it does nothing but slide from hand to hand, "ithout stopping for a momentAH (<e 'rosne, l8c88 pp8 213, 2168! :7 @$one* being 888 the common measure of bu*ing and selling, e)er*bod* "ho hath an*thing to sell, and cannot procure chapmen for it, is presentl* apt to thin+, that "ant of mone* in the8 +ingdom, or countr*, is the cause "h* his goods do not go off; and so, "ant of mone* is the common cr*; "hich is a great mista+e888 Bhat do these people "ant, "ho cr* out for mone*E 888 'he farmer complains 888 he thin+s that "ere more mone* in the countr*; he should ha)e a price for his goods8 'hen it seems mone* is not his "ant, but a price for his corn and cattel, "hich he "ould sell, but cannot888 Bh* cannot he get a priceE 888 (1! Either there is too much corn and cattel in the countr*, so that most "ho come to mar+et ha)e need of selling, as he hash, and fe" of bu*ing; or (6! 'here "ants the usual )ent abroad b* transportation888, or (:! 'he consumption fails, as "hen men, b* reason of po)ert*, do not spend so much in their houses as formerl* the* did; "herefore it is not the increase of specific mone*, "hich "ould at all ad)ance the farmer?s goods, but the remo)al of an* of these three causes, "hich do trul* +eep do"n the mar+et888 'he merchant and shop+eeper "ant mone* in the same manner, that is, the* "ant a )ent for the goods the* deal in, b* reason that the mar+ets failA 888 G( nationH @ne)er thri)es better, than "hen riches are tost from hand to hand8A (Sir 0udle* Corth: @0iscourses upon 'rade,A <ond8 1621, pp8 11413, passim8! -errensch"and?s fanciful notions amount merel* to this, that the antagonism, "hich has its origin in the nature of commodities, and is reproduced in their circulation, can be remo)ed b* increasing the circulating medium8 /ut if, on the one hand, it is a popular delusion to ascribe stagnation in production and circulation to insufficienc* of the circulating medium, it b* no means follo"s, on the other hand, that an actual paucit* of the medium in conseIuence, e$ 8, of bungling legislati)e interference "ith the regulation of currenc*, ma* not gi)e rise to such stagnation8 :1 @'here is a certain measure and proportion of mone* reIuisite to dri)e the trade of a nation, more or less than "hich "ould preDudice the same8 lust as there is a certain proportion of farthings necessar* in a small retail trade, to change sil)er mone*, and to e)en such rec+onings as cannot be adDusted "ith the smallest sil)er pieces8888 Co", as the proportion of the number of farthings reIuisite in commerce is to be ta+en from the number of people, the freIuenc* of their e9changes: as also, and principall*, from the )alue of the smallest sil)er pieces of mone*; so in li+e manner, the proportion of mone* Ggold and sil)er specieH reIuisite in our trade, is to be li+e"ise ta+en from the freIuenc* of commutations, and from the bigness of the pa*ments8A (Billiam #ett*, @( 'reatise of 'a9es and 5ontributions8A <ond8 1667, p8 178! 'he 'heor* of -ume "as defended against the attac+s of L8 Steuart and others, b* (8 Noung, in his @#olitical (rithmetic,A <ond; 177 , in "hich "or+ there is a special chapter entitled @#rices depend on Iuantit* of mone*, at p8 116, sII8 > ha)e stated in @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A p8 1 2: @-e ((dam Smith! passes o)er "ithout remar+ the Iuestion as to the Iuantit* of coin in circulation, and treats mone* Iuite "rongl* as a mere commodit*8A 'his statement applies onl* in so far as (dam Smith, e9 officio, treats of mone*8 Co" and then, ho"e)er, as in his criticism of the earlier s*stems of #olitical Econom*, he ta+es the right )ie"8 @'he Iuantit* of coin in e)er* countr* is regulated b* the )alue of the commodities "hich are to be circulated b* >t8888 'he )alue of the goods annuall* bought

and sold in an* countr* reIuires a certain Iuantit* of mone* to circulate and distribute them to their proper consumers, and can gi)e emplo*ment to no more8 'he channel of circulation necessaril* dra"s to itself a sum sufficient to fill it, and ne)er admits an* more8A (@Bealth of Cations8A /+8 >;8, ch8 18! >n li+e manner, e9 officio, he opens his "or+ "ith an apotheosis on the di)ision of labour8 (fter"ards, in the last boo+ "hich treats of the sources of public re)enue, he occasionall* repeats the denunciations of the di)ision of labour made b* his teacher, (8 Ferguson8 :6 @'he prices of things "ill certainl* rise in e)er* nation, as the gold and sil)er increase amongst the people, and conseIuentl*, "here the gold and sil)er decrease in an* nation, the prices of all things must fall proportionatel* to such decrease of mone*8A (Lacob ;anderlint: @$one* (ns"ers all 'hings8A <ond8 17: , p8 38! ( careful comparison of thus boo+ "ith -ume?s @Essa*s,A pro)es to m* mind "ithout doubt that -ume "as acIuainted "ith and made use of ;anderlint?s "or+, "hich is certainl* an important one8 'he opinion that prices are determined b* the Iuantit* of the circulating medium, "as also held b* /arbon and other much earlier "riters8 @Co incon)enience,A sa*s ;anderlint, @can arise b* an unrestrained trade, but )er* great ad)antage; since, if the cash of the nation be decreased b* it, "hich prohibitions are designed to pre)ent, those nations that get the cash "ill certainl* find e)er*thing ad)ance in price, as the cash increases amongst them8 (nd 888 our manufactures, and e)er*thing else, "ill soon become so moderate as to turn the balance of trade in our fa)our, and thereb* fetch the mone* bac+ again8A (l8c88 pp8 :, 8! :: 'hat the price of each single +ind of commodit* forms a pan of the sum of the prices of all the commodities in circulation, is a self4e)ident proposition8 /ut ho" use4)alues "hich are incommensurable "ith regard to each other, are to be e9changed, en masse for the total sum of gold and sil)er in a countr*, is Iuite incomprehensible8 >f "e start from the notion that all commodities together form one single commodit*, of "hich each is but an aliIuot part, "e get the follo"ing beautiful result: 'he total commodit* Y 9 c"t8 of gold; commodit* ( Y an aliIuot part of the total commodit* Y the same aliIuot part of 9 c"t8 of gold8 'his is stated in all seriousness b* $ontesIuieu: @ Si l?on compare la masse de l?or et de l?argent Iui est dans le monde a)ec la somme des marchandises Iui s?* )end il est certain Iue chaIue denrRe ou marchandise, en particulier, pourra dtre comparRe X une certaine portion de la masse entinre8 Supposons Iu?il n?* ait Iu?une seule denrRe ou marchandise dans le monde, ou Iu?il n?* ait Iu?une seule Iui s?achnte, et Iu?elle se di)ise comme l?argent: 5ette partie de cette marchandise rRpondra X une partie de la masse de l?argent; la moitiR du total de l?une X la moitiR du total de l?autre, Pc8888 <?Rtablissement du pri9 des choses dRpend touDours fondamentalement de la raison du total des choses au total des signes8A G@>f one compares the amount of gold and sil)er in the "orld "ith the sum of the commodities a)ailable, it is certain that each product or commodit*, ta+en in isolation, could be compared "ith a certain portion of the total amount of mone*8 <et us suppose that there is onl* one product, or commodit*, in the "orld, or onl* one that can be purchased, and that it can be di)ided in the same "a* as mone*: a certain part of this commodit* "ould then correspond to a part of the total amount of mone*; half the total of the one "ould correspond to half the total of the other P8 888 the determination of the prices of things al"a*s depends, fundamentall*, on the relation bet"een the total amount of things and the total amount of their monetar* s*mbolsAH ($ontesIuieu, l8c8 t8 >>>, pp8 16, 1:8! (s to the further de)elopment of this theor* b* &icardo and his disciples, Lames $ill, <ord =)erstone, and others, see @,ur .riti+, Pc8,A pp8 1 741 6, and p8 137, sII8 Lohn Stuart $ill, "ith his usual eclectic logic, understands ho" to hold at the same time the )ie" of his father, Lames $ill, and the opposite )ie"8 =n a comparison of the te9t of his compendium, @#rinciples of #ol8 Econ8,A "ith his preface to the first edition, in "hich preface he announces himself as the (dam Smith of his da* v "e do not +no" "hether to admire more the simplicit* of the man, or that of the public, "ho too+ him, in good faith, for the (dam Smith he announced himself to be, although he bears about as much resemblance to (dam Smith as sa* General Billiams, of .ars, to the 0u+e of Bellington8 'he original researches of $r8 L8 S8 $ill "hich are neither e9tensi)e nor profound, in the domain of #olitical Econom*, "ill be found mustered in ran+ and file in his little "or+, @Some %nsettled Kuestions of #olitical Econom*,A "hich appeared in 18 8 <oc+e asserts point blan+ the conne9ion bet"een the absence of )alue in gold and sil)er, and the determination of their )alues b* Iuantit* alone8 @$an+ind ha)ing consented to put an imaginar* )alue upon gold and sil)er 888 the intrinsic )alue, regarded in these metals, is nothing but the Iuantit*8V (@Some 5onsiderations,A 'c8, 1621, Bor+s Ed8 1777, ;ol8 >>8, p8 138! : >t lies of course, entirel* be*ond m* purpose to ta+e into consideration such details as the s eigniorage on minting8 > "ill, ho"e)er, cite for the benefit of the romantic s*cophant, (dam $uller, "ho admires the @generous liberalit*A "ith "hich the English Go)ernment coins gratuitousl*, the follo"ing opinion of Sir 0udle* Corth: @Sil)er and gold, li+e other commodities, ha)e their ebbings and flo"ings8 %pon the arri)al of Iuantities from Spain 888 it is carried into the 'o"er, and coined8 Cot long after there "ill come a demand for bullion to be e9ported again8 >f there is none, but all happens to be in coin, "hat thenE $elt it do"n again; there?s no loss in it, for the coining costs the o"ner nothing8 'hus the nation has been abused, and made to pa* for the t"isting of stra" for asses to eat8 >f the merchant "ere made to pa* the price of the coinage, he "ould not ha)e sent his sil)er to the 'o"er

"ithout consideration, and coined mone* "ould al"a*s +eep a )alue abo)e uncoined sil)er8A (Corth, l8c8, p8 188! Corth "as himself one of the foremost merchants in the reign of 5harles >>8 :3 @>f sil)er ne)er e9ceed "hat is "anted for the smaller pa*ments it cannot be collected in sufficient Iuantities for the larger pa*ments 888 the use of gold in the main pa*ments necessaril* implies also .ts use in the retail trade: those "ho ha)e gold coin offering them for small purchases, and recei)ing "ith the commodit* purchased a balance of sil)er in return; b* "hich means the surplus of sil)er that "ould other"ise encumber the retail dealer, is dra"n off and dispersed into general circulation8 /ut if there is as much sil)er as "ill transact the small pa*ments independent of gold, the retail trader must then recei)e sil)er for small purchases ; and it must of necessit* accumulate in his hands8A (0a)id /uchanan; @>nIuir* into the 'a9ation and 5ommercial #olic* of Great /ritain8A Edinburgh, 18 , pp8 6 8, 6 28! :6 'he mandarin Ban4mao4in, the 5hinese 5hancellor of the E9cheIuer, too+ it into his head one da* to la* before the Son of -ea)en a proposal that secretl* aimed at con)erting the assi nats of the empire into con)ertible ban+4notes8 'he assignats 5ommittee, in its report of (pril, 183 , gi)es him a se)ere snubbing8 Bhether he also recei)ed the traditional drubbing "ith bamboos is not stated8 'he concluding part of the report is as follo"s: v @'he 5ommittee has carefull* e9amined his proposal and finds that it is entirel* in fa)our of the merchants, and that no ad)antage "ill result to the cro"n8A (@(rbeiten der .aiserlich &ussischen Gesandtschaft 1u #e+ing Tber 5hina8A (us dem &ussischen )on 0r8 .8 (bel und F8 (8 $ec+lenburg8 Erster /and8 /erlin, 1838, p8 7 sI8! >n his e)idence before the 5ommittee of the -ouse of <ords on the /an+ (cts, a go)ernor of the /an+ of England sa*s, "ith regard to the abrasion of gold coins during currenc*: @E)er* *ear a fresh class of so)ereigns becomes too light8 'he class "hich one *ear passes "ith full "eight, loses enough b* "ear and tear to dra" the scales ne9t *ear against it8A (-ouse of <ords? 5ommittee, 18 8, n8 628! :7 'he follo"ing passage from Fullarton sho"s the "ant of clearness on the pan of e)en the best "riters on mone*, in their comprehension of its )arious functions: @'hat, as far as concerns our domestic e9changes, all the monetar* functions "hich are usuall* performed b* gold and sil)er coins, ma* be performed as effectuall* b* a circulation of incon)ertible notes pa*ing no )alue but that factitious and con)entional )alue the* deri)e from the la" is a fact "hich admits, > concei)e, of no denial8 ;alue of this description ma* be made to ans"er all the purposes of intrinsic )alue, and supersede e)en the necessit* for a standard, pro)ided onl* the Iuantit* of issues be +ept under due limitation8A (Fullerton: @&egulation of 5urrencies,A <ondon, 18 3, p8 618! /ecause the commodit* that ser)es as mone* is capable of being replaced in circulation b* mere s*mbols of )alue, therefore its functions as a measure of )alue and a standard of prices are declared to be superfluousQ :8 From the fact that gold and sil)er, so far as the* are coins, or e9clusi)el* ser)e as the medium of circulation, become mere to+ens of themsel)es, Cicholas /arbon deduces the right of Go)ernments @to raise mone*,A that is, to gi)e to the "eight of sil)er that is called a shilling the name of a greater "eight, such as a cro"n; and so to pa* creditors shillings, instead of cro"ns8 @$one* does "ear and gro" lighter b* often telling o)er888 >t is the denomination and currenc* of the mone* that men regard in bargaining, and not the Iuantit* of sil)er888?'is the public authorit* upon the metal that ma+es it mone*8A (C8 /arbon, l8c8, pp8 62, :7, 638! :2 @%ne richesse en argent n?est Iue 888 richesse en productions, con)erties en argent8A G@$onetar* "ealth is nothing but 888 "ealth in products, transformed into mone*AH ($ercier de la &i)inre, l8c8! @%ne )aleur en productions n?a fait Iue changer de forme8A G@( )alue in the form of products, "hich has merel* changed its form8AH (>d8, p8 868! 7 @?'is b* this practice? the* +eep all their goods and manufactures at such lo" rates8A (;anderlint, l8c8, pp8 23, 268! 1 @$one* 888 is a pledge8A (Lohn /ellers: @Essa*s about the #oor, $anufactures, 'rade, #lantations, and >mmoralit*,A <ond8, 1622, p8 1:8! 6 ( purchase8 in a @categoricalA sense, implies that gold and sil)er are alread* the con)erted form of commodities, or the product of a sale8 : -enr* >>>8, most 5hristian +ing of France, robbed cloisters of their relics, and turned them into mone*8 >t is "ell +no"n "hat part the despoiling of the 0elphic 'emple, b* the #hocians, pla*ed in the histor* of Greece8 'emples "ith the ancients ser)ed as the d"ellings of the gods of commodities8 'he* "ere @sacred ban+s8A Bith the #hoenicians, a trading people par e9cellence, mone* "as the transmuted shape of e)er*thing8 >t "as, therefore, Iuite in order that the )irgins, "ho, at the feast of the Goddess of <o)e, ga)e themsel)es up to strangers, should offer to the goddess the piece of mone* the* recei)ed8 :a @Gold, *ello", glittering, precious goldQ 'hus much of this, "ill ma+e blac+ "hite, foul, fair; Brong, right; base, noble; old, *oung; co"ard, )aliant8

888 Bhat this, *ou godsE Bh*, this Bill lug *our priests and ser)ants from *our sides; #luc+ stout men?s pillo"s from belo" their heads; 'his *ello" sla)e Bill +nit and brea+ religions; bless the accurs?d; $a+e the hoar lepros* ador?d; place thie)es, (nd gi)e them title, +nee and approbation; Bith senators on the bench, this is it; 'hat ma+es the "appen?d "ido" "ed again: 888 5ome damned earth, 'hough common "hore of man+ind8V (Sha+espeare: 'imon of (thens8! :b (Sophocles, (ntigone8! 'he desire of a)arice to dra" #luto himself out of the bo"els of the earth8A ('he 0eipnosophistst, ;>, 6:, (thenaeus! 3 @(ccrescere Iuanto pix si puy il numero de?)enditori d?ogni merce, diminuere Iuanto pix si puo il numero dei compratori, Iuest! sono i cardini sui Iuali si raggirano tutte le opera1ioni di economia politica8A G@'hese are the pi)ots around "hich all the measures of political econom* turn: the ma9imum possible increase in the number of sellers of each commodit*, and the ma9imum possible decrease in the number of bu*ersAH (;erri, l8c8, p8 368! 6 @'here is reIuired for carr*ing on the trade of the nation a determinate sum of specific+ mone* "hich )aries, and is sometimes more, sometimes less, as the circumstances "e are in reIuire8888 'his ebbing and flo"ing of mone* supplies and accommodates itself, "ithout an* aid of #oliticians8888 'he buc+ets "or+ alternatel*; "hen mone* is scarce, bullion is coined; "hen bullion is scarce, mone* is melted8A (Sir 08 Corth, l8c8, #ostscript, p8 :8! Lohn Stuart $ill, "ho for a long time "as an official of the East >ndia 5ompan*, confirms the fact that in >ndia sil)er ornaments still continue to perform directl* the functions of a hoard8 'he sil)er ornaments are brought out and coined "hen there is a high rate of interest, and go bac+ again "hen the rate of interest falls8 (L8 S8 $ill?s E)idence @&eports on /an+ (cts,A 1837, 678 8! (ccording to a #arliamentar* document of 186 on the gold and sil)er import and e9port of >ndia, the import of gold and sil)er in 186: e9ceeded the e9port b* ]12,:67,76 8 0uring the 8 *ears immediatel* preceding 186 , the e9cess of imports o)er e9ports of the precious metals amounted to ]172,636,2178 0uring this centur* far more than ]677,777,777 has been coined in >ndia8 7 'he follo"ing sho"s the debtor and creditor relations e9isting bet"een English traders at the beginning of the 18th centur*8 @Such a spirit of crudit* reigns here in England among the men of trade, that is not to be met "ith in an* other societ* of men, nor in an* other +ingdom of the "orld8A (@(n Essa* on 5redit and the /an+rupt (ct,A <ond8, 8 >t "ill be seen from the follo"ing Iuotation from m* boo+ "hich appeared in 1832, "h* > ta+e no notice in the te9t of an opposite form: @5ontrari"ise, in the process in $v5, the mone* can be alienated as a real means of purchase, and in that "a*, the price of the commodit* can be realised before the use4)alue of the mone* is realised and the commodit* actuall* deli)ered8 'his occurs constantl* under the e)er*4da* form of prepa*ments8 (nd it is under this form, that the English go)ernment purchases opium from the r*ots of >ndia8888 >n these cases, ho"e)er, the mone* al"a*s acts as a means of purchase8888 =f course capital also is ad)anced in the shape of mone*8888 'his point of )ie", ho"e)er, does not fall "ithin the hori1on of simple circulation8A (@,ur .riti+, 'c8,A pp8 112, 1678! 2 'he monetar* crisis referred to in the te9t, being a phase of e)er* crisis, must be clearl* distinguished from that particular form of crisis, "hich also is called a monetar* crisis, but "hich ma* be produced b* itself as an independent phenomenon in such a "a* as to react onl* indirectl* on industr* and commerce8 'he pi)ot of these crises is to be found in mone*ed capital, and their sphere of direct action is therefore the sphere of that capital, )i18, ban+ing, the stoc+ e9change, and finance8 37 @'he sudden re)ersion from a s*stem of credit to a s*stem of hard cash heaps theoretical fright on top of the practical panic; and the dealers b* "hose agenc* circulation is affected, shudder before the impenetrable m*ster* in "hich their o"n economic relations are in)ol)edA (.arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 1668! @'he poor stand still, because the rich ha)e no mone* to emplo* them, though the* ha)e the same land and hands to pro)ide )ictuals and clothes, as e)er the* had; 888"hich is the true riches of a nation, and not the mone*8A Lohn /ellers, Proposals for Raisin a Colle e of .ndustry, <ondon, 1626, p:8

31

he follo"ing sho"s ho" such times are e9ploited b* the @amis du commerce8A @=n one occasion (18:2! an old grasping ban+er (in the cit*! in his pri)ate room raised the lid of the des+ he sat o)er, and displa*ed to a friend rolls of ban+4notes, sa*ing "ith intense glee there "ere ]677,777 of them, the* "ere held to ma+e mone* tight, and "ould all be let out after three o?cloc+ on the same da*8A (@'he 'heor* of E9changes8 'he /an+ 5harter (ct of 18 8A <ond8 186 , p8 81!8 'he -bserver, a semi4official go)ernment organ, contained the follo"ing paragraph on 6 th (pril, 186 : @Some )er* curious rumours are current of the means "hich ha)e been resorted to in order to create a scarcit* of ban+notes8888 Kuestionable as it "ould seem, to suppose that an* tric+ of the +ind "ould be adopted, the report has been so uni)ersal that it reall* deser)es mention8A 36 @'he amount of purchases or contracts entered upon during the course of an* gi)en da*, "ill not affect the Iuantit* of mone* afloat on that particular da*, but, in the )ast maDorit* of cases, "ill resol)e themsel)es into multifarious drafts upon the Iuantit* of mone* "hich ma* be afloat at subseIuent dates more or less distant8888 'he bills granted or credits opened, to4da*, need ha)e no resemblance "hate)er, either in Iuantit*, amount or duration, to those granted or entered upon to4morro" or ne9t da*, na*, man* of toda*?s bills, and credits, "hen due, fall in "ith a mass of liabilities "hose origins tra)erse a range of antecedent dates altogether indefinite, bills at 16, 6, : months or 1 often aggregating together to s"ell the common liabilities of one particular da*8888A (@'he 5urrenc* 'heor* &e)ie"ed; in a <etter to the Scottish #eople8A /* a /an+er in England8 Edinburgh, 18 3, pp8 62, :7 passim8! 3: (s an e9ample of ho" little read* mone* is reIuired in true commercial operations, > gi)e belo" a statement b* one of the largest <ondon houses of its *earl* receipts and pa*ments8 >ts transactions during the *ear 1836, e9tending to man* millions of pounds sterling, are here reduced to the scale of one million8

Receipts$Payments8/an+ers? and $erchants?]3::,326/ills pa*able after date]:76,67 5heIues on /an+ers, Pc8 pa*able on demand:37,7135heIues on <ondon /an+ers66:,6765ountr* Cotes2,667/an+ of England Cotes66,7 :/an+ of England Cotes68,33 Gold2, 67Gold68,782Sil)er and 5opper1, 8 Sil)er and 5opper1, 86 #ost =ffice =rders2:: 'otal ]1,777,777'otal ]1,777,777@&eport from the Select 5ommittee on the /an+ (cts, Lul*, 1838,A p8 l99i88
3

@'he course of trade being thus turned, from e9changing of goods for goods, or deli)ering and ta+ing, to selling and pa*ing, all the bargains 888 are no" stated upon the foot of a #rice in mone*8A (@(n Essa* upon #ublic+ 5redit8A :rd Ed8 <ond8, 1717, p8 88! 33 @<?argent 888 est de)enu le bourreau de toutes choses8A Finance is the @alambic, Iui a fait R)aporer une IuantitR effro*able de biens et de denrRes pour faire ce fatal prRcis8A @<?argent dRclare la guerre X tout le genre humain 8A G@$one* 888 has become the e9ecutioner of all things8A Finance is the @alembic that e)aporates a frightful Iuantit* of goods and commodities in order to obtain this fatal e9tract8A @$one* G888H declares "ar G888H on the "hole human raceAH (/oisguillebert: @0issertation sur la nature des richesses, de l?argent et des tributs8A Edit8 0aire8 Economistes financiers8 #aris, 18 :, t8 i8, pp8 1:, 12, 178! 36 @=n Bhitsuntide, 186 ,A sa*s $r8 5raig before the 5ommons? 5ommittee of 1866, @there "as such an immense demand for notes upon the ban+s of Edinburgh, that b* 11 o?cloc+ the* had not a note left in their custod*8 'he* sent round to all the different ban+s to borro", but could not get them, and man* of the transactions "ere adDusted b* slips of paper onl*; *et b* three o?cloc+ the "hole of the notes "ere returned into the ban+s from "hich the* had issuedQ >t "as a mere transfer from hand to hand8 @(lthough the a)erage effecti)e circulation of ban+4notes in Scotland is less than three millions sterling, *et on certain pa* da*s in the *ear, e)er* single note in the possession of the ban+ers, amounting in the "hole to about ]7,777,777, is called into acti)it*8 =n these occasions the notes ha)e a single and specific function to perform, and so soon as the* ha)e performed it, the* -o" bac+ into the )arious ban+s from "hich the* issued8 (See Lohn Fullarton, @&egulation of 5urrencies8A <ond8 18 3, p8 86, note8! >n e9planation it should be stated, that in Scotland, at the date of Fullarton?s "or+, notes and not cheIues "ere used to "ithdra" deposits8 37 Hote by the .nstitute of Marxism)Leninism in the Russian edition0 (pparentl* a slip of the pen8 Bhen "riting faverse the author e)identl* meant direct8 38 'o the Iuestion, @>f there "ere occasion to raise 7 millions p8 a8, "hether the same 6 millions (gold! 888 "ould suffice for such re)olutions and circulations thereof, as trade reIuires,A #ett* replies in his usual masterl* manner, @> ans"er *es: for the e9pense being 7 millions, if the re)olutions "ere in such short circles, )i18, "ee+l*, as happens among poor artisans and labourers, "ho recei)e and pa* e)er* Saturda*, then 7J36 parts of 1 million of mone* "ould ans"er these ends, but if the circles be Iuarterl*, according to our custom of pa*ing rent, and gathering ta9es, then 17 millions "ere reIuisite8 Bherefore, supposing pa*ments in general to be of a mi9ed circle bet"een one "ee+ and 1:, then add 17 millions to 7J36, the half of "hich "ill be 3[, so as if "e ha)e 3[ millions "e ha)e enough8A

(Billiam #ett*: @#olitical (natom* of >reland8A 1676, Edit8: <ond8 1621, pp8 1:, 1 8! 32 -ence the absurdit* of e)er* la" prescribing that the ban+s of a countr* shall form reser)es of that precious metal alone "hich circulates at home8 'he @pleasant difficultiesA thus self4created b* the /an+ of England, are "ell +no"n8 =n the subDect of the great epochs in the histor* of the changes in the relati)e )alue of gold and sil)er, see .arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 1:6 sI8 Sir &obert #eel, b* his /an+ (ct of 18 , sought to tide o)er the difficult*, b* allo"ing the /an+ of England to issue notes against sil)er bullion, on condition that the reser)e of sil)er should ne)er e9ceed more than one4fourth of the reser)e of gold8 'he )alue of sil)er being for that purpose estimated at its price in the <ondon mar+et8 Added in the Bth =erman edition$ I Be find oursel)es once more in a period of serious change in the relati)e )alues of gold and sil)er8 (bout 63 *ears ago the ratio e9pressing the relati)e )alue of gold and sil)er "as 1341J6:1; no" it is appro9imatel* 66:1, and sil)er is still constantl* falling as against gold8 'his is essentiall* the result of a re)olution in the mode of production of both metals8 Formerl* gold "as obtained almost e9clusi)el* b* "ashing it out from gold4 bearing allu)ial deposits, products of the "eathering of auriferous roc+s8 Co" this method has become inadeIuate and has been forced into the bac+ground b* the processing of the Iuart1 lodes themsel)es, a "a* of e9traction "hich formerl* "as onl* of secondar* importance, although "ell +no"n to the ancients (0iodorus, >>>, 1641 ! (0iodor?s )8 Sicilien @-istorische /ibliothe+,A boo+ >>>, 1641 8 Stuttgart 1868, pp8 6384661!8 $oreo)er, not onl* "ere ne" huge sil)er deposits disco)ered in Corth (merica, in the Bestern part of the &oc+* $ountains, but these and the $e9ican sil)er mines "ere reall* opened up b* the la*ing of rail"a*s, "hich made possible the shipment of modern machiner* and fuel and in conseIuence the mining of sil)er on a )er* large scale at a lo" cost8 -o"e)er there is a great difference in the "a* the t"o metals occur in the Iuart1 lodes8 'he gold is mostl* nati)e, but disseminated throughout the Iuart1 in minute Iuantities8 'he "hole mass of the )ein must therefore be crushed and the gold either "ashed out or e9tracted b* means of mercur*8 =ften 1,777,777 grammes of Iuart1 barel* *ield 14: and )er* seldom :7467 grammes of gold8 Sil)er is seldom found nati)e, ho"e)er it occurs in special Iuart1 that is separated from the lode "ith comparati)e ease and contains mostl* 7427` sil)er; or it is contained, in smaller Iuantities, in copper, lead and other ores "hich in themsel)es are "orth"hile "or+ing8 From this alone it is apparent that the labour e9pended on the production of gold is rather in creasing "hile that e9pended on sil)er production has decidedl* decreased, "hich Iuite naturall* e9plains the drop in the )alue of the latter8 'his fall in )alue "ould e9press itself in a still greater fall in price if the price of sil)er "ere not pegged e)en to4da* b* artificial means8 /ut (merica?s rich sil)er deposits ha)e so far barel* been tapped, and thus the prospects are that the )alue of this metal "ill +eep on dropping for rather a long time to come8 ( still greater contributing factor here is the relati)e decrease in the reIuirement of sil)er for articles of general use and for lu9uries, that is its replacement b* plated goods, aluminium, etc8 =ne ma* thus gauge the utopianism of the bimetallist idea that compulsor* international Iuotation "ill raise sil)er again to the old )alue ratio of 1:1341J68 >t is more li+el* that sil)er "ill forfeit its mone* function more and more in the mar+ets of the "orld8 v ! E$H 67 'he opponents, themsel)es, of the mercantile s*stem, a s*stem "hich considered the settlement of surplus trade balances in gold and sil)er as the aim of international trade, entirel* misconcei)ed the functions of mone* of the "orld8 > ha)e sho"n b* the e9ample of &icardo in "hat "a* their false conception of the la"s that regulate the Iuantit* of the circulating medium, is reflected in their eIuall* false conception of the international mo)ement of the precious metals (l8c8, pp8 137 sI8!8 -is erroneous dogma: @(n unfa)ourable balance of trade ne)er arises but from a redundant currenc*8888 'he e9portation of the coin is caused b* its cheapness, and is not the effect, but the cause of an unfa)ourable balance,A alread* occurs in /arbon: @'he /alance of 'rade, if there be one, is not the cause of sending a"a* the mone* out of a nation; but that proceeds from the difference of the )alue of bullion in e)er* countr*8A (C8 /arbon; l8c8, pp8 32, 678! $ac5ulloch in @'he <iterature of #olitical Econom*, a classified catalogue, <ond8 18 3,A praises /arbon for this anticipation, but prudentl* passes o)er the nai)e forms, in "hich /arbon clothes the absurd supposition on "hich the @currenc* principleA is based8 'he absence of real criticism and e)en of honest*, in that catalogue culminates in the sections de)oted to the histor* of the theor* of mone*; the reason is that $ac5ulloch in this part of the "or+ is flattering <ord =)erstone "hom he calls @facile princeps argentanorum8A 61 For instance, in subsidies, mone* loans for carr*ing on "ars or for enabling ban+s to resume cash pa*ments, Pc8, it is the mone*4form, and no other, of )alue that ma* be "anted8 66 @> "ould desire, indeed, no more con)incing e)idence of the competenc* of the machiner* of the hoards in specie4 pa*ing countries to perform e)er* necessar* office of international adDustment, "ithout an* sensible aid from the general circulation, than the facilit* "ith "hich France, "hen but Dust reco)ering from the shoc+ of a destructi)e foreign in)asion, completed "ithin the space of 67 months the pa*ment of her forced contribution of nearl* 67 millions to the allied po"ers, and a considerable proportion of the sum in specie, "ithout an* perceptible contraction

or derangement of her domestic currenc*, or e)en an* alarming fluctuation of her e9changes8A (Fullerton, l8c8, p8 1 18! GAdded in the Bth =erman edition$ I Be ha)e a still more stri+ing e9ample in the facilit* "ith "hich the same France "as able in 187147: to pa* off "ithin :7 months a forced contribution more than ten times as great, a considerable part of it li+e"ise in specie8 I !$ E$H 6: @<?argent se partage entre les nations relati)ement au besoin Iu?elles en ont 888 Rtant touDours attirR par les productions8A G@$one* is shared among the nations in accordance "ith their need for it 888 as it is al"a*s attracted b* the productsAH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 2168! @'he mines "hich are continuall* gi)ing gold and sil)er, do gi)e sufficient to suppl* such a needful balance to e)er* nation8A (L8 ;anderlint, l8c8, p8 78! 6 @E9changes rise and fall e)er* "ee+, and at some particular times in the *ear run high against a nation, and at other times run as high on the contrar*8A (C8 /arbon, l8c8, p8 :2! 63 'hese )arious functions are liable to come into dangerous conflict "ith one another "hene)er gold and sil)er ha)e also to ser)e as a fund for the con)ersion of ban+4notes8 66 @Bhat mone* is more than of absolute necessit* for a -ome 'rade, is dead stoc+ 888 and brings no profit to that countr* it?s +ept in, but as it is transported in trade, as "ell as imported8A (Lohn /ellers, @Essa*s,A p8 1:8! @Bhat if "e ha)e too much coinE Be ma* melt do"n the hea)iest and turn it into the splendour of plate, )essels or utensils of gold or sil)er, or send it out as a commodit*, "here the same is "anted or desired; or let it out at interest, "here interest is high8A (B8 #ett*: @KuantulumcunIue,A p8 :28! @$one* is but the fat of the /od* #olitic+, "hereof too much cloth as often hinder its agilit*, as too little ma+es it sic+ 888 as fat lubricates the motion of the muscles, feeds in "ant of )ictuals, fills up the une)en ca)ities, and beautifies the bod*; so cloth mone* in the state Iuic+en its action, feeds from abroad in time of dearth at home, e)ens accounts 888 and beautifies the "hole; altho more especiall* the particular persons that ha)e it in plent*8A (B8 #ett*, @#olitical (natom* of >reland,A p8 1 8! 1 'he contrast bet"een the po"er, based on the personal relations of dominion and ser)itude, that is conferred b* landed propert*, and the impersonal po"er that is gi)en b* mone*, is "ell e9pressed b* the t"o French pro)erbs, @Culle terre sans seigneur,A and @<?argent n?a pas de martre,A F @Co land "ithout its lord,A and @$one* has no master8A 6 @()ec de l?argent on achnte des marchandises et a)ec des marchandises on achnte de l?argent8A G@Bith mone* one bu*s commodities, and "ith commodities one bu*s mone*AH ($ercier de la &i)inre: @<?ordre naturel et essentiel des sociRtRs politiIues,A p8 3 :8! : @Bhen a thing is bought in order to be sold again, the sum emplo*ed is called mone* ad)anced; "hen it is bought not to be sold, it ma* be said to be e9pended8A v (Lames Steuart: @Bor+s,A Pc8 Edited b* Gen8 Sir Lames Steuart, his son8 <ond8, 1873, ;8 >8, p8 67 8! @=n n?Rchange pas de l?argent contre de l?argent,A G@=ne does not e9change mone* for mone*,AH sa*s $ercier de la &i)inre to the $ercantilists (l8c8, p8 868! >n a "or+, "hich, e9 professo treats of @tradeA and @speculation,A occurs the follo"ing: @(ll trade consists in the e9change of things of different +inds; and the ad)antageA (to the merchantE! @arises out of this difference8 'o e9change a pound of bread against a pound of bread 888 "ould be attended "ith no ad)antage; 888 -ence trade is ad)antageousl* contrasted "ith gambling, "hich consists in a mere e9change of mone* for mone*8A ('h8 5orbet, @(n >nIuir* into the 5auses and $odes of the Bealth of >ndi)iduals; or the #rinciples of 'rade and Speculation E9plained8A <ondon, 18 1, p8 38! (lthough 5orbet does not see that $4$, the e9change or mone* for mone*, is the characteristic form of circulation, not onl* of merchants? capital but of all capital, *et at least he ac+no"ledges that this form is common to gambling and to one species of trade, )i18, speculation: but then comes $ac5ulloch and ma+es out, that to bu* in order to sell, is to speculate, and thus the difference bet"een Speculation and 'rade )anishes8 @E)er* transaction in "hich an indi)idual bu*s produce in order to sell it again, is, in fact, a speculation8A ($ac5ulloch: @( 0ictionar* #ractical, Pc8, of 5ommerce8A <ond8, 18 7, p8 17728! Bith much more nai)etR, #into, the #indar of the (msterdam Stoc+ E9change, remar+s, @<e commerce est un Deu: (ta+en from <oc+e! et ce n?est pas a)ec des gueu9 Iu?on peut gagner8 Si l?on gagnait longtemps en tout a)ec tous, il faudrait rendre de bon accord les plus grandes parties du profit pour recommencer le Deu8A G@'rade is a game, and nothing can be "on from beggars8 >f one "on e)er*thing from e)er*bod* all the time, it "ould be necessar* to gi)e bac+ the greater part of the profit )oluntaril*, in order to begin the game againAH (#into: @'raitR de la 5irculation et du 5rRdit8A (msterdam, 17718 p8 6:1,! 3 @5apital is di)isible 888 into the original capital and the profit, the increment to the capital 888 although in practice this profit is immediatel* turned into capital, and set in motion "ith the original8A (F8 Engels, @%mrisse 1u einer .riti+ der Cationalu+onomie, in: 0eutsch4Fran1usische LahrbTcher, herausgegeben )on (rnold &uge und .arl $ar98A #aris, 18 , p8 228!

(ristotle opposes =economic to 5hrematistic8 -e starts from the former8 So far as it is the art of gaining a li)elihood, it is limited to procuring those articles that are necessar* to e9istence, and useful either to a household or the state8 @'rue "ealth (o aleIinos ploutos! consists of such )alues in use; for the Iuantit* of possessions of this +ind, capable of ma+ing life pleasant, is not unlimited8 'here is, ho"e)er, a second mode of acIuiring things, to "hich "e ma* b* preference and "ith correctness gi)e the name of 5hrematistic, and in this case there appear to be no limits to riches and possessions8 'rade (e +apeli+e is literall* retail trade, and (ristotle ta+es this +ind because in it )alues in use predominate! does not in its nature belong to 5hrematistic, for here the e9change has reference onl* to "hat is necessar* to themsel)es (the bu*er or seller!8A 'herefore, as he goes on to sho", the original form of trade "as barter, but "ith the e9tension of the latter, there arose the necessit* for mone*8 =n the disco)er* of mone*, barter of necessit* de)eloped into +apeli+e, into trading in commodities, and this again, in opposition to its original tendenc*, gre" into 5hrematistic, into the art of ma+ing mone*8 Co" 5hrematistic is distinguishable from =economic in this "a*, that @in the case of 5hrematistic circulation is the source of riches poieti+e crematon 888 dia chrematon diaboles8 (nd it appears to re)ol)e about mone*, for mone* is the beginning and end of this +ind of e9change (to nomisma stoiceion tes allages estin!8 'herefore also riches, such as 5hrematistic stri)es for, are unlimited8 Lust as e)er* art that is not a means to an end, but an end in itself, has no limit to its aims, because it see+s constantl* to approach nearer and nearer to that end, "hile those arts that pursue means to an end, are not boundless, since the goal itself imposes a limit upon them, so "ith 5hrematistic, there are no bounds to its aims, these aims being absolute "ealth8 =economic not 5hrematistic has a limit 888 the obDect of the former is something different from mone*, of the latter the augmentation of mone*8888 /* confounding these t"o forms, "hich o)erlap each other, some people ha)e been led to loo+ upon the preser)ation and increase of mone* ad infinitum as the end and aim of =economic8A ((ristoteles, De Rep$ edit8 /e++er, lib8 l8c8 8, 28 passim8! 7 @5ommodities (here used in the sense of use4)alues! are not the terminating obDect of the trading capitalist, mone* is his terminating obDect8A ('h8 5halmers, -n Pol$ Econ$ 'c$, 6nd Ed8, Glasgo", 18:6, pp8 163, 1668! 8 @>l mercante non conta Iuasi per niente il lucro fatto, ma mira sempre al futuro8A G@'he merchant counts the mone* he has made as almost nothing; he al"a*s loo+s to the future8AH ((8 Geno)esi, <e1ioni di Economia 5i)ile (1763!, 5ustodi?s edit8 of >talian Economists8 #arte $oderna t8 )iii, p8 1:28! 2 @'he ine9tinguishable passion for gain, the auri sacra fames, "ill al"a*s lead capitalists8A ($ac5ulloch: @'he #rinciples of #olit8 Econ8A <ondon, 18:7, p8 1728! 'his )ie", of course, does not pre)ent the same $ac5ulloch and others of his +idne*, "hen in theoretical difficulties, such, for e9ample, as the Iuestion of o)er4production, from transforming the same capitalist into a moral citi1en, "hose sole concern is for use4)alues, and "ho e)en de)elops an insatiable hunger for boots, hats, eggs, calico, and other e9tremel* familiar sorts of use4)alues8 17 So1ein is a characteristic Gree+ e9pression for hoarding8 So in English to sa)e has the same t"o meanings: sauver and ?par ner8 11 @Kuesto infinito che le cose non hanno in progresso, hanno in giro8A G@'hat infinit* "hich things do not possess, the* possess in circulation8AH (Galiani8! 16 @5e n?est pas la matinre Iui fait le capital, mais la )aleur de ces matinres8A G@>t is not matter "hich ma+es capital, but the )alue of that matter8AH (L8 /8 Sa*: @'raitR d?Econ8 #olit8A :nme Rd8 #aris, 1817, t8 >>8, p8 628! 1: @5urrenc* (Q! emplo*ed in producing articles888 is capital8A ($acleod: @'he 'heor* and #ractice of /an+ing8A <ondon, 1833, )8 1, ch8 i, p8 338! @5apital is commodities8A (Lames $ill: @Elements of #ol8 Econ8A <ond8, 1861, p8 7 8! 1 5apital: @portion fructifiante de la richesse accumulRe888 )aleur permanente, multipliante8A (Sismondi: @Cou)eau9 #rincipes d?Econ8 #olit8,A t8 i8, p8 88, 828! 1 @<?Rchange est une transaction admirable dans laIuelle les deu9 contractants gagnent 4 touDours (Q!A G@E9change is a transaction in "hich the t"o contracting parties al"a*s gain, both of them (Q!AH (0estutt de 'rac*: @'raitR de la ;olontR et de ses effets8A #aris, 1866, p8 688! 'his "or+ appeared after"ards as @'raitR d?Econ8 #olit8A 6 @$ercier de la &i)inre,A l8 c8, p8 3 8 : @Kue l?une de ces deu9 )aleurs soit argent, ou Iu?elles soient toutes deu9 marchandises usuelles, rien de plus indiffRrent en soi8A G@Bhether one of those t"o )alues is mone*, or the* are both ordinar* commodities, is in itself a matter of complete indifference8AH (@$ercier de la &i)inre,A l8c8, p8 3 :8! @5e ne sont pas les contractants Iui prononcent sur la )aleur; elle est dRcidRe a)ant la con)ention8A G@>t is not the parties to a contract "ho decide on the )alue; that has been decided before the contract8AH (<e 'rosne, p8 2768!
6

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@0o)e n egualitX non n lucro8A (Galiani, @0ella $oneta in 5ustodi, #arte $oderna,A t8 i)8, p8 6 8! @<?Rchange de)ient dRsa)antageu9 pour l?une des parties, lorsIue IuelIue chose Rtrangnre )ient diminuer ou e9agRrer le pri9; alors l?RgalitR est blessRe, mais la lRsion procnde de cette cause et non de l?Rchange8A G@'he e9change becomes unfa)ourable for one of the parties "hen some e9ternal circumstance comes to lessen or increase the price; then eIualit* is infringed, but this infringement arises from that cause and not from the e9change itself8AH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 27 8! 7 @<?Rchange est de sa nature un contrat d?RgalitR Iui se fait de )aleur pour )aleur Rgale8 >l n?est donc pas un mo*en de s?enrichir, puisIue l?on donne autant Iue l?on rezoit8A G@E9change is b* its nature a contract "hich rests on eIualit*, i8e8, it ta+es place bet"een t"o eIual )alues, and it is not a means of self4enrichment, since as much is gi)en as is recei)ed8AH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 27:8! 8 5ondillac: @<e 5ommerce et le Gou)ernementA (1776!8 Edit8 0aire et $olinari in the @$Rlanges d?Econ8 #olit8A #aris, 18 7, pp8 667, 6218 2 <e 'rosne, therefore, ans"ers his friend 5ondillac "ith Dustice as follo"s: @0ans une 888 sociRtR formRe il n?* a pas de surabondant en aucun genre8A G@>n a de)eloped societ* absolutel* nothing is superfluous8AH (t the same time, in a bantering "a*, he remar+s: @>f both the persons "ho e9change recei)e more to an eIual amount, and part "ith less to an eIual amount, the* both get the same8A >t is because 5ondillac has not the remotest idea of the nature of e9change4 )alue that he has been chosen b* -err #rofessor Bilhelm &oscher as a proper person to ans"er for the soundness of his o"n childish notions8 See &oscher?s @0ie Grundlagen der Cationalu+onomie, 0ritte (uflage,A 18388 17 S8 #8 Ce"man: @Elements of #olit8 Econ8A (ndo)er and Ce" Nor+, 18:3, p8 1738 11 @/* the augmentation of the nominal )alue of the produce888 sellers not enriched888 since "hat the* gain as sellers, the* precisel* e9pend in the Iualit* of bu*ers8A (@'he Essential #rinciples of the Bealth of Cations8A Pc8, <ondon, 1727, p8 668! 16 @Si l?on est forcR de donner pour 18 li)res une IuantitR de telle production Iui en )alait 6 , lorsIu?on emplo*era ce mdme argent X acheter, on aura Rgalement pour 18 l8 ce Iue l?on pa*ait 6 8A G@>f one is compelled to sell a Iuantit* of a certain product for 18 li)res "hen it has a )alue of 6 li)res, "hen one emplo*s the same amount of mone* in bu*ing, one "ill recei)e for 18 li)res the same Iuantit* of the product as 6 li)res "ould ha)e bought other"ise8AH (<e 'rosne, >8 c8, p8 8278! 1: @5haIue )endeur ne peut donc par)enir X renchRrir habituellement ses marchandises, Iu?en se soumettant aussi X pa*er habituellement plus cher les marchandises des autres )endeurs; et par la mdme raison, chaIue consommateur ne peut pa*er habituellement moins cher ce Iu?il achnte, Iu?en se soumettant aussi X une diminution semblable sur le pri9 des choses Iu?il )end8A G@( seller can normall* onl* succeed in raising the prices of his commodities if he agrees to pa*, b* and large, more for the commodities of the other sellers; and for the same reason a consumer can normall* onl* pa* less for his purchases if he submits to a similar reduction in the prices of the things he sells8AH ($ercier de la &i)inre, l8c8, p8 3338! 1 'orrens8 @(n Essa* on the #roduction of Bealth8A <ondon, 1861, p8 : 28 13 'he idea of profits being paid b* the consumers, is, assuredl*, )er* absurd8 Bho are the consumersEA (G8 &amsa*: @(n Essa* on the 0istribution of Bealth8A Edinburgh, 18:6, p8 18:8! 16 @Bhen a man is in "ant of a demand, does $r8 $althus recommend him to pa* some other person to ta+e off his goodsEA is a Iuestion put b* an angr* disciple of &icardo to $althus, "ho, li+e his disciple, #arson 5halmers, economicall* glorifies this class of simple bu*ers or consumers8 (See @(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand and the Cecessit* of 5onsumption, latel* ad)ocated b* $r8 $althus,A Pc8 <ond8, 1861, p8 338! 17 0estutt de 'rac*, although, or perhaps because, he "as a member of the >nstitute, held the opposite )ie"8 -e sa*s, industrial capitalists ma+e profits because @the* all sell for more than it has cost to produce8 (nd to "hom do the* sellE >n the first instance to one another8A (>8 c8, p8 6:28! 18 @<?Rchange Iui se fait de deu9 )aleurs Rgales n?augmente ni ne diminue la masse des )aleurs subsistantes dans la sociRtR8 <?Rchange de deu9 )aleurs inRgales 888 ne change rien non plus X la somme des )aleurs sociales, bien Iu?il aDoute X la fortune de l?un ce Iu?il tte de la fortune de l?autre8A G@'he e9change of t"o eIual )alues neither increases nor diminishes the amount of the )alues a)ailable in societ*8 Cor does the e9change of t"o uneIual )alues 888 change an*thing in the sum of social )alues, although it adds to the "ealth of one person "hat ir remo)es fomr the "ealth of another8AH (L8 /8 Sa*, l8c8, t8 >>, pp8 :, 8! Sa*, not in the least troubled as to the conseIuences of this statement, borro"s it, almost "ord for "ord, from the #h*siocrats8 'he follo"ing e9ample "ill sho" ho" $onsieur Sa* turned to account the "ritings of the #h*siocrats, in his da* Iuite forgotten, for the purpose of e9panding the @)alueA of his

o"n8 -is most celebrated sa*ing, @=n n?achnte des produits Iu?a)ec des produitsA G@#roducts can onl* be bought "ith products8AH(l8c8, t8 >>8 p8 18! runs as follo"s in the original ph*siocratic "or+: @<es productions ne se paient Iu?a)ec des productions8A G@#roducts can onl* be paid for "ith products8AH (<e 'rosne, l8c8, p8 8228! 12 @E9change confers no )alue at all upon products8A (F8 Ba*land: @'he Elements of #olitical Econom*8A /oston, 18 :, p8 1628! 67 %nder the rule of in)ariable eIui)alents commerce "ould be impossible8 (G8 =pd*+e: @( 'reatise on #olit8 Econom*8A Ce" Nor+, 1831, pp8 664628! @'he difference bet"een real )alue and e9change4)alue is based upon this fact, namel*, that the )alue of a thing is different from the so4called eIui)alent gi)en for it in trade, i8e8, that this eIui)alent is no eIui)alent8A (F8 Engels, l8c8, p8 26!8 61 /enDamin Fran+lin: Bor+s, ;ol8 >>, edit8 Spar+s in @#ositions to be e9amined concerning Cational Bealth,A p8 :768 66 (ristotle, >8 c8, c8 178 6: @#rofit, in the usual condition of the mar+et, is not made b* e9changing8 -ad it not e9isted before, neither could it after that transaction8A (&amsa*, l8c8, p8 18 8! 6 From the foregoing in)estigation, the reader "ill see that this statement onl* means that the formation of capital must be possible e)en though the price and )alue of a commodit* be the same; for its formation cannot be attributed to an* de)iation of the one from the other8 >f prices actuall* differ from )alues, "e must, first of all, reduce the former to the latter, in other "ords, treat the difference as accidental in order that the phenomena ma* be obser)ed in their purit*, and our obser)ations not interfered "ith b* disturbing circumstances that ha)e nothing to do "ith the process in Iuestion8 Be +no", moreo)er, that this reduction is no mere scientific process8 'he continual oscillations in prices, their rising and falling, compensate each other, and reduce themsel)es to an a)erage price, "hich is their hidden regulator8 >t forms the guiding star of the merchant or the manufacturer in e)er* underta+ing that reIuires time8 -e +no"s that "hen a long period of time is ta+en, commodities are sold neither o)er nor under, but at their a)erage price8 >f therefore he thought about the matter at all, he "ould formulate the problem of the formation of capital as follo"s: -o" can "e account for the origin of capital on the supposition that prices are regulated b* the a)erage price, i8 e8, ultimatel* b* the )alue of the commoditiesE > sa* @ultimatel*,A because a)erage prices do not directl* coincide "ith the )alues of commodities, as (dam Smith, &icardo, and others belie)e8 63 @-ic &hodus, hic saltusQA F <atin, usuall* translated: @&hodes is here, here is "here *ou DumpQA =riginates from the traditional <atin translation of the punch line from (esop?s fable 'he /oastful (thlete "hich has been the subDect of some mistranslations8 >n Gree+, the ma9im reads: @{|b} ~ |b\, {|b} cj{ ab |~jA 'he stor* is that an athlete boasts that "hen in &hodes, he performed a stupendous Dump, and that there "ere "itnesses "ho could bac+ up his stor*8 ( b*stander then remar+ed, W(lrightQ <et?s sa* this is &hodes, demonstrate the Dump here and no"8? 'he fable sho"s that people must be +no"n b* their deeds, not b* their o"n claims for themsel)es8 >n the conte9t in "hich -egel used it in the Philosophy of Ri ht, this could be ta+en to mean that the philosoph* of right must ha)e to do "ith the actuality of modern societ*, not the theories and ideals that societies create for themsel)es, nor, as -egel goes on to sa*, to @teach the "orld "hat it ought to be8A 'he epigram is gi)en b* -egel first in Gree+, then in <atin (in the form @ *ic &hodus, hic saltusA!, and he then sa*s: @Bith little change, the abo)e sa*ing "ould read (in German!: @ *ier ist die &ose, hier tan1eA: @-ere is the rose, dance hereA 'his is ta+en to be an allusion to the Wrose in the cross? of the &osicrucians ("ho claimed to possess esoteric +no"ledge "ith "hich the* could transform social life!, impl*ing that the material for understanding and changing societ* is gi)en in societ* itself, not in some other4"orldl* theor*, punning first on the Gree+ ( Rhodos Y &hodes, rhodon Y rose!, then on the <atin (saltus Y Dump GnounH, salta Y dance Gimperati)eH!8 G$>( Editors8H 1 @>n the form of mone* 888 capital is producti)e of no profit8A (&icardo: @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ8,A p8 6678! 6 >n enc*clopaedias of classical antiIuities "e find such nonsense as this v that in the ancient "orld capital "as full* de)eloped, @e9cept that the free labourer and a s*stem of credit "as "anting8A $ommsen also, in his @-istor* of &ome,A commits, in this respect, one blunder after another8 : -ence legislation in )arious countries fi9es a ma9imum for labour4contracts8 Bhere)er free labour is the rule, the la"s regulate the mode of terminating this contract8 >n some States, particularl* in $e9ico (before the (merican 5i)il Bar, also in the territories ta+en from $e9ico, and also, as a matter of fact, in the 0anubian pro)inces till the re)olution effected b* .usa!, sla)er* is hidden under the form of peona e8 /* means of ad)ances, repa*able in

labour, "hich are handed do"n from generation to generation, not onl* the indi)idual labourer, but his famil*, become, de facto, the propert* of other persons and their families8 Luare1 abolished peona e8 'he so4called Emperor $a9imilian re4established it b* a decree, "hich, in the -ouse of &epresentati)es at Bashington, "as aptl* denounced as a decree for the re4introduction of sla)er* into $e9ico8 @> ma* ma+e o)er to another the use, for a limited time, of m* particular bodil* and mental aptitudes and capabilities; because in conseIuence of this restriction, the* are impressed "ith a character of alienation "ith regard to me as a "hole8 /ut b* the alienation of all m* labour4time and the "hole of m* "or+, > should be con)erting the substance itself, in other "ords, m* general acti)it* and realit*, m* person, into the propert* of another8A (-egel, @#hilosophie des &echts8A /erlin, 18 7, p8 17 , 678! 'he capitalist epoch is therefore characterised b* this, that labour4po"er ta+es in the e*es of the labourer himself the form of a commodit* "hich is his propert*; his labour conseIuentl* becomes "age4labour8 =n the other hand, it is onl* from this moment that the produce of labour uni)ersall* becomes a commodit*8 3 @'he )alue or "orth of a man, is as of all other things his price v that is to sa*, so much as "ould be gi)en for the use of his po"er8A ('h8 -obbes: @<e)iathanA in Bor+s, Ed8 $oles"orth8 <ond8 18:24 , )8 iii8 p8 768! 6 -ence the &oman ;illicus, as o)erloo+er of the agricultural sla)es, recei)ed @more meagre fare than "or+ing sla)es, because his "or+ "as lighter8A ('h8 $ommsen, &um8 Geschichte, 1836, p8 8178! 7 5ompare B8 'h8 'hornton: @=)er4population and its &emed*,A <ond8, 18 68 8 #ett*8 2 @>ts (labour?s! natural price 888 consists in such a Iuantit* of necessaries and comforts of life, as, from the nature of the climate, and the habits of the countr*, are necessar* to support the labourer, and to enable him to rear such a famil* as ma* preser)e, in the mar+et, an undiminished suppl* of labour8A (&8 'orrens: @(n Essa* on the E9ternal 5orn 'rade8A <ond8 1813, p8 668! 'he "ord labour is here "rongl* used for labour4po"er8 17 &ossi: @5ours d?Econ8 #olit8,A /ru9elles, 18 6, p8 :778 11 Sismondi: @Cou)8 #rinc8 etc8,A t8 >, p8 1168 16 @(ll labour is paid after it has ceased8A (@(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand,A Pc8, p8 17 8! <e crRdit commercial a dS commencer au moment ox l?ou)rier, premier artisan de la production, a pu, au mo*en de ses Rconomies, attendre le salaire de son tra)ail DusIu?X la fin de la semaine, de la Iuin1aine, du mois, du trimestre, Pc8A G@'he s*stem of commercial credit had to start at the moment "hen the labourer, the prime creator of products, could, than+s to his sa)ings, "ait for his "ages until the end of the "ee+8AH (5h8 Ganilh: @0es S*stnmes d?Econ8 #olit8A 6Rme Rdit8 #aris, 1861, t8 >>, p8 1378! 1: @<?ou)rier prdte son industrie,A but adds Storch sl*l*: he @ris+s nothingA e9cept @de perdre son salaire 888 l?ou)rier ne transmet rien de matRriel8A G@'he labourer lends his industr* 888 the lossof his "ages 888 the labourer does not hand o)er an*thing of a material nature8AH (Storch: @5ours d?Econ8 #olit8A #Rtersbourg, 1813, t8 >>8, p8 :78! 1 =ne e9ample8 >n <ondon there are t"o sorts of ba+ers, the @full priced,A "ho sell bread at its full )alue, and the @undersellers,A "ho sell it under its )alue8 'he latter class comprises more than three4fourths of the total number of ba+ers8 (p8 999ii in the &eport of -8 S8 'remenheere, commissioner to e9amine into @the grie)ances complained of b* the Dourne*men ba+ers,A Pc8, <ond8 18668! 'he undersellers, almost "ithout e9ception, sell bread adulterated "ith alum, soap, pearl ashes, chal+, 0erb*shire stone4dust, and such li+e agreeable nourishing and "holesome ingredients8 (See the abo)e cited /lue boo+, as also the report of @the committee of 1833 on the adulteration of bread,A and 0r8 -assall?s @(dulterations 0etected,A 6nd Ed8 <ond8 18618! Sir Lohn Gordon stated before the committee of 1833, that @in conseIuence of these adulterations, the poor man, "ho li)es on t"o pounds of bread a da*, does not no" get one fourth part of nourishing matter, let alone the deleterious effects on his health8A 'remenheere states (l8c8, p8 9l)iii!, as the reason, "h* a )er* large part of the "or+ing4class, although "ell a"are of this adulteration, ne)ertheless accept the alum, stone4dust, Pc8, as part of their purchase: that it is for them @a matter of necessit* to ta+e from their ba+er or from the chandler?s shop, such bread as the* choose to suppl*8A (s the* are not paid their "ages before the end of the "ee+, the* in their turn are unable @to pa* for the bread consumed b* their families, during the "ee+, before the end of the "ee+,A and 'remenheere adds on the e)idence of "itnesses, @it is notorious that bread composed of those mi9tures, is made e9pressl* for sale in this manner8A >n man* English and still more Scotch agricultural districts, "ages are paid fortnightl* and e)en monthl*; "ith such long inter)als bet"een the pa*ments, the agricultural labourer is obliged to bu* on credit8888 -e must pa* higher prices, and is in fact tied to the shop "hich gi)es him credit8 'hus at -orningham in Bilts, for e9ample, "here the "ages are monthl*, the same flour that he could bu* else"here at ls 17d per stone, costs him 6s d per stone8 (@Si9th &eportA on @#ublic -ealthA b* @'he $edical =fficer of the #ri)* 5ouncil, Pc8, 186 ,A p866 8! @'he bloc+ printers of #aisle* and .ilmarnoc+ enforced, b* a stri+e, fortnightl*, instead of monthl* pa*ment of "ages8A (@&eports of the >nspectors of Factories for :1st =ct8, 183:,A p8 : 8! (s a further

prett* result of the credit gi)en b* the "or+men to the capitalist, "e ma* refer to the method current in man* English coal mines, "here the labourer is not paid till the end of the month, and in the meantime, recei)es sums on account from the capitalist, often in goods for "hich the miner is obliged to pa* more than the mar+et price ('ruc+4s*stem!8 @>t is a common practice "ith the coal masters to pa* once a month, and ad)ance cash to their "or+men at the end of each intermediate "ee+8 'he cash is gi)en in the shopA (i8e8, the 'omm* shop "hich belongs to the master!; @the men ta+e it on one side and la* it out on the other8A (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, >>>8 &eport,A <ond8 186 , p8 :8, n8 1268! 1 @'he earth?s spontaneous productions being in small Iuantit*, and Iuite independent of man, appear, as it "ere, to be furnished b* Cature, in the same "a* as a small sum is gi)en to a *oung man, in order to put him in a "a* of industr*, and of ma+ing his fortune8A (Lames Steuart: @#rinciples of #olit8 Econ8A edit8 0ublin, 1777, )8 >, p81168! 6 @&eason is Dust as cunning as she is po"erful8 -er cunning consists principall* in her mediating acti)it*, "hich, b* causing obDects to act and re4act on each other in accordance "ith their o"n nature, in this "a*, "ithout an* direct interference in the process, carries out reason?s intentions8A (-egel: @En1*+lopdie, Erster 'heil, 0ie <ogi+,A /erlin, 18 7, p8 :868! : >n his other"ise miserable "or+ (@'hRorie de l?Econ8 #olit8A #aris, 1813!, Ganilh enumerates in a stri+ing manner in opposition to the @#h*siocratsA the long series of pre)ious processes necessar* before agriculture properl* so called can commence8 'urgot in his @&Rfle9ions sur la Formation et la 0istribution des &ichessesA (1766! brings "ell into prominence the importance of domesticated animals to earl* ci)ilisation8 3 'he least important commodities of all for the technological comparison of different epochs of production are articles of lu9ur*, in the strict meaning of the term8 -o"e)er little our "ritten histories up to this time notice the de)elopment of material production, "hich is the basis of all social life, and therefore of all real histor*, *et prehistoric times ha)e been classified in accordance "ith the results, not of so4called historical, but of materialistic in)estigations8 'hese periods ha)e been di)ided, to correspond "ith the materials from "hich their implements and "eapons "ere made, )i18, into the stone, the bron1e, and the iron ages8 6 >t appears parado9ical to assert, that uncaught fish, for instance, are a means of production in the fishing industr*8 /ut hitherto no one has disco)ered the art of catching fish in "aters that contain none8 7 'his method of determining, from the standpoint of the labour4process alone, "hat is producti)e labour, is b* no means directl* applicable to the case of the capitalist process of production8 8 Storch calls true ra" materials @matinres,A and accessor* material @matRriau98A 5herbulie1 describes accessories as @matinres instrumentales8A 2 /* a "onderful feat of logical acumen, 5olonel 'orrens has disco)ered, in this stone of the sa)age the origin of capital8 @>n the first stone "hich he Gthe sa)ageH flings at the "ild animal he pursues, in the first stic+ that he sei1es to stri+e do"n the fruit "hich hangs abo)e his reach, "e see the appropriation of one article for the purpose of aiding in the acIuisition of another, and thus disco)er the origin of capital8A (&8 'orrens: @(n Essa* on the #roduction of Bealth,A Pc8, pp8 774718! 17 @#roducts are appropriated before the* are con)erted into capital; this con)ersion does not secure them from such appropriation8A (5heibulie1: @&ichesse ou #au)retR,A edit8 #aris, 18 1, p8 3 8! @'he #roletarian, b* selling his labour for a definite Iuantit* of the necessaries of life, renounces all claim to a share in the product8 'he mode of appropriation of the products remains the same as before; it is in no "a* altered b* the bargain "e ha)e mentioned8 'he product belongs e9clusi)el* to the capitalist, "ho supplied the ra" material and the necessaries of life; and this is a rigorous conseIuence of the la" of appropriation, a la" "hose fundamental principle "as the )er* opposite, namel*, that e)er* labourer has an e9clusi)e right to the o"nership of "hat he produces8A (l8c8, p8 388! @Bhen the labourers recei)e "ages for their labour 888 the capitalist is then the o"ner not of the capital onl*A (he means the means of production! @but of the labour also8 >f "hat is paid as "ages is included, as it commonl* is, in the term capital, it is absurd to tal+ of labour separatel* from capital8 'he "ord capital as thus emplo*ed includes labour and capital both8A (Lames $ill: @Elements of #ol8 Econ8,A Pc8, Ed8 1861, pp8 77, 718! 11 (s has been stated in a pre)ious note, the English language has t"o different e9pressions for these t"o different aspects of labour: in the Simple <abour4process, the process of producing %se4;alues, it is Aor"J in the process of creation of ;alue, it is Labour+ ta+ing the term in its strictl* economic sense8 v !$ E$ 16 'hese figures are Iuite arbitrar*8

1:

'his is the fundamental proposition on "hich is based the doctrine of the #h*siocrats as to the unproducti)eness of all labour that is not agriculture: it is irrefutable for the orthodo9 economist8 @5ette fazon d?imputer X une seule chose la )aleur de plusieurs autresA (par e9emple au lin la consommation du tisserand!, @d?appliIuer, pour ainsi dire, couche sur couche, plusieurs )aleurs sur une seule, fait Iue celle4ci grossit d?autant8888 <e terme d?addition peint trRs bien la maniere dont se forme le pri9 des ou)rages de main d?oeu)re; ce pri9 n?est Iu?un total de plusieurs )aleurs consommRes et additionnRes ensemble; or, additionner n?est pas multiplier8A G@'his method of adding to one particular obDect the )alue of a number of others,A for e9ample, adding the li)ing costs of the "ea)er to the fla9!, @of as it "ere heaping up )arious )alues in la*ers on top of one single )alue, has the result that this )alue gro"s to the same e9tent 888 'he e9pression Waddition?gi)es a )er* clear picture of the "a* in "hich the price of a manufactured product is formed; this price is onl* the sum of a number of )alues "hich ha)e been consumed, and it is arri)ed at b* adding them together; ho"e)er, addition is not the same as multiplication8AH (@$ercier de la &i)inre,A l8c8, p8 3228! 1 'hus from 18 4 7 he "ithdre" part of his capital from producti)e emplo*ment, in order to thro" it a"a* in rail"a* speculations; and so also, during the (merican 5i)il Bar, he closed his factor*, and turned his "or+4people into the streets, in order to gamble on the <i)erpool cotton e9change8 13 @E9tol th*self, put on finer* and adorn th*self 888 but "hoe)er ta+es more or better than he gi)es, that is usur*, and is not ser)ice, but "rong done to his neighbour, as "hen one steals and robs8 (ll is not ser)ice and benefit to a neighbour that is called ser)ice and benefit8 For an adulteress and adulterer do one another great ser)ice and pleasure8 ( horseman does an incendiar* a great ser)ice, b* helping him to rob on the high"a*, and pillage land and houses8 'he papists do ours a great ser)ice, in that the* don?t dro"n, burn, murder all of them, or let them all rot in prison; but let some li)e, and onl* dri)e them out, or ta+e from them "hat the* ha)e8 'he de)il himself does his ser)ants inestimable ser)ice8888 'o sum up, the "orld is full of great, e9cellent, and dail* ser)ice and benefit8A ($artin <uther: @(n die #farrherrn "ider den Bucher 1u predigen,A Bittenberg, 13 78! 16 >n @,ur .riti+ der #ol8 =e+8,A p8 1 , > ma+e the follo"ing remar+ on this point v @>t is not difficult to understand "hat Wser)ice? the categor* Wser)ice? must render to a class of economists li+e L8 /8 Sa* and F8 /astiat8A 17 'his is one of the circumstances that ma+es production b* sla)e labour such a costl* process8 'he labourer here is, to use a stri+ing e9pression of the ancients, distinguishable onl* as instrumentum )ocale, from an animal as instrumentum semi4)ocale, and from an implement as instrumentum mutum8 /ut he himself ta+es care to let both beast and implement feel that he is none of them, but is a man8 -e con)inces himself "ith immense satisfaction, that he is a different being, b* treating the one unmercifull* and damaging the other con amore8 -ence the principle, uni)ersall* applied in this method of production, onl* to emplo* the rudest and hea)iest implements and such as are difficult to damage o"ing to their sheer clumsiness8 >n the sla)e4states bordering on the Gulf of $e9ico, do"n to the date of the ci)il "ar, ploughs constructed on old 5hinese models, "hich turned up the soil li+e a hog or a mole, instead of ma+ing furro"s, "ere alone to be found8 5onf8 L8 E8 5airnes8 @'he Sla)e #o"er,A <ondon, 1866, p8 6 sII8 >n his @Sea /oard Sla)e States,A =lmsted tells us: @> am here sho"n tools that no man in his senses, "ith us, "ould allo" a labourcr, for "hom he "as pa*ing "ages, to be encumbered "ith; and the e9cessi)e "eight and clumsiness of "hich, > "ould Dudge, "ould ma+e "or+ at least ten per cent greater than "ith those ordinaril* used "ith us8 (nd > am assured that, in the careless and clums* "a* the* must be used b* the sla)es, an*thing lighter or less rude could not be furnished them "ith good econom*, and that such tools as "e constantl* gi)e our labourers and find our profit in gi)ing them, "ould not last out a da* in a ;irginia cornfield F much lighter and more free from stones though it be than ours8 So, too, "hen > as+ "h* mules are so uni)ersall* substituted for horses on the farm, the first reason gi)en, and confessedl* the most conclusi)e one, is that horses cannot bear the treatment that the* al"a*s must get from negroes; horses are al"a*s soon foundered or crippled b* them, "hile mules "ill bear cudgelling, or lose a meal or t"o no" and then, and not be materiall* inDured, and the* do not ta+e cold or get sic+, if neglected or o)er"or+ed8 /ut > do not need to go further than to the "indo" of the room in "hich > am "riting, to see at almost an* time, treatment of cattle that "ould ensure the immediate discharge of the dri)er b* almost an* farmer o"ning them in the Corth8A 18 'he distinction bet"een s+illed and uns+illed labour rests in part on pure illusion, or, to sa* the least, on distinctions that ha)e long since ceased to be real, and that sur)i)e onl* b* )irtue of a traditional con)ention; in part on the helpless condition of some groups of the "or+ing4class, a condition that pre)ents them from e9acting eIuall* "ith the rest the )alue of their labour4po"er8 (ccidental circumstances here pla* so great a part, that these t"o forms of labour sometimes change places8 Bhere, for instance, the ph*siIue of the "or+ing4class has deteriorated, and is, relati)el* spea+ing, e9hausted, "hich in the case in all countries "ith a "ell de)eloped capitalist production, the lo"er forms of labour, "hich demand great e9penditure of muscle, are in general considered as s+illed, compared "ith much more delicate forms of labour; the latter sin+ do"n to the le)el of uns+illed labour8 'a+e as an e9ample the labour of a bric+la*er, "hich in England occupies a much higher le)el than that of a damas+4"ea)er8 (gain, although the labour

of a fustian cutter demands great bodil* e9ertion, and is at the same time unhealth*, *et it counts onl* as uns+illed labour8 (nd then, "e must not forget, that the so4called s+illed labour does not occup* a large space in the field of national labour8 <aing estimates that in England (and Bales! the li)elihood of 11,:77,777 people depends on uns+illed labour8 >f from the total population of 18,777,777 li)ing at the time "hen he "rote, "e deduct 1,777,777 for the @genteel population,A and 1,377,777 for paupers, )agrants, criminals, prostitutes, Pc8, and ,637,777 "ho compose the middle4class, there remain the abo)e mentioned 11,777,7778 /ut in his middle4class he includes people that li)e on the interest of small in)estments, officials, men of letters, artists, schoolmasters and the li+e, and in order to s"ell the number he also includes in these ,637,777 the better paid portion of the factor* operati)esQ 'he bric+la*ers, too, figure amongst them8 (S8 <aing: @Cational 0istress,A Pc8, <ondon, 18 !8 @'he great class "ho ha)e nothing to gi)e for food but ordinar* labour, are the great bul+ of the people8A (Lames $ill, in art8: @5olon*,A Supplement to the Enc*clop8 /rit8, 18:18! 12 @Bhere reference is made to labour as a measure of )alue, it necessaril* implies labour of one particular +ind 888 the proportion "hich the other +inds bear to it being easil* ascertained8A (@=utlines of #ol8 Econ8,A <ond8, 18:6, pp8 66 and 6:8! 1 @<abour gi)es a ne" creation for one e9tinguished8A @(n Essa* on the #olit8 Econ8 of Cations,A <ondon, 1861, p8 1:8! 6 'he subDect of repairs of the implements of labour does not concern us here8 ( machine that is undergoing repair, no longer pla*s the part of an instrument, but that of a subDect of labour8 Bor+ is no longer done "ith it, but upon it8 >t is Iuite permissible for our purpose to assume, that the labour e9pended on the repairs of instruments is included in the labour necessar* for their original production8 /ut in the te9t "e deal "ith that "ear and tear, "hich no doctor can cure, and "hich little b* little brings about death, "ith @that +ind of "ear "hich cannot be repaired from time to time, and "hich, in the case of a +nife, "ould ultimatel* reduce it to a state in "hich the cutler "ould sa* of it, it is not "orth a ne" blade8A Be ha)e she"n in the te9t, that a machine ta+es part in e)er* labour4process as an integral machine, but that into the simultaneous process of creating )alue it enters onl* bit b* bit8 -o" great then is the confusion of ideas e9hibited in the follo"ing e9tractQ @$r8 &icardo sa*s a portion of the labour of the engineer in ma+ing Gstoc+ingH machinesA is contained for e9ample in the )alue of a pair of stoc+ings8 @Net the total labour, that produced each single pair of stoc+ings 888 includes the "hole labour of the engineer, not a portion; for one machine ma+es man* pairs, and none of those pairs could ha)e been done "ithout an* part of the machine8A @=bs8 on 5ertain ;erbal 0isputes in #ol8 Econ8, #articularl* &elating to ;alue,A p8 3 8 'he author, an uncommonl* self4satisfied "iseacre, is right in his confusion and therefore in his contention, to this e9tent onl*, that neither &icardo nor an* other economist, before or since him, has accuratel* distinguished the t"o aspects of labour, and still less, therefore, the part pla*ed b* it under each of these aspects in the formation of )alue8 : From this "e ma* Dudge of the absurdit* of L8 /8 Sa*, "ho pretends to account for surplus )alue (>nterest, #rofit, &ent!, b* the @ser)ices productifsA "hich the means of production, soil, instruments, and ra" material, render in the labour4process b* means of their use4)alues8 $r8 Bm8 &oscher "ho seldom loses an occasion of registering, in blac+ and "hite, ingenious apologetic fancies, records the follo"ing specimen: 4 @L8 /8 Sa* ('raitR, t8 1, ch8 ! )er* trul* remar+s: the )alue produced b* an oil mill, after deduction of all costs, is something ne", something Iuite different from the labour b* "hich the oil mill itself "as erected8A (l8c8, p8 86, note8! ;er* true, $r8 #rofessorQ the oil produced b* the oil mill is indeed something )er* different from the labour e9pended in constructing the millQ /* )alue, $r8 &oscher understands such stuff as @oil,A because oil has )alue, not"ithstanding that @CatureA produces petroleum, though relati)el* @in small Iuantities,A a fact to "hich he seems to refer in his further obser)ation: @>t (Cature! produces scarcel* an* e9change4)alue8A $r8 &oscher?s @CatureA and the e9change4)alue it produces are rather li+e the foolish )irgin "ho admitted indeed that she had had a child, but @it "as such a little one8A 'his @sa)ant sRrieu9A in continuation remar+s: @&icardo?s school is in the habit of including capital as accumulated labour under the head of labour8 'his is uns+ilful "or+, because, indeed, the o"ner of capital, after all, does something more than the merel* creating and preser)ing of the same: namel*, the abstention from the enDo*ment of it, for "hich he demands, e$ $, interest8A (l8c8! -o" )er* @s+ilfulA is this @anatomico4ph*siological methodA of #olitical Econom*, "hich, @indeed,A con)erts a mere desire @after allA into a source of )alue8 @=f all the instruments of the farmers? trade, the labour of man 888 is that on "hich he is most to rel* for the repa*ment of his capital8 'he other t"o 888 the "or+ing stoc+ of the cattle and the 888 carts, ploughs, spades, and so forth, "ithout a gi)en portion of the first, are nothing at all8A (Edmund /ur+e: @'houghts and 0etails on Scarcit*, originall* presented to the &ight -on8 B8 #itt, in the month of Co)ember 1723,A Edit8 <ondon, 1877, p8 178! 3 >n /he /imes of 66th Co)ember, 1866, a manufacturer, "hose mill emplo*ed 877 hands, and consumed, on the a)erage, 137 bales of East >ndian, or 1:7 bales of (merican cotton, complains, in doleful manner, of the standing

e9penses of his factor* "hen not "or+ing8 -e estimates them at ]6,777 a *ear8 (mong them are a number of items that do not concern us here, such as rent, rates, and ta9es, insurance, salaries of the manager, boo+4+eeper, engineer, and others8 'hen he rec+ons ]137 for coal used to heat the mill occasionall*, and run the engine no" and then8 /esides this, he includes the "ages of the people emplo*ed at odd times to +eep the machiner* in "or+ing order8 <astl*, he puts do"n ]1,677 for depreciation of machiner*, because @the "eather and the natural principle of deca* do not suspend their operations because the steam4engine ceases to re)ol)e8A -e sa*s, emphaticall*, he does not estimate his depreciation at more than the small sum of ]1,677, because his machiner* is alread* nearl* "orn out8 6 @#roducti)e consumption 888 "here the consumption of a commodit* is a part of the process of production8 888 >n these instances there is no consumption of )alue8A (S8 #8 Ce"man, l8c8, p8 6268! 7 >n an (merican compendium that has gone through, perhaps, 67 editions, this passage occurs: @>t matters not in "hat form capital re4appears;A then after a length* enumeration of all the possible ingredients of production "hose )alue re4appears in the product, the passage concludes thus: @'he )arious +inds of food, clothing, and shelter, necessar* for the e9istence and comfort of the human being, are also changed8 'he* are consumed from time to time, and their )alue re4appears in that ne" )igour imparted to his bod* and mind, forming fresh capital, to be emplo*ed again in the "or+ of production8A (F8 Ba*land, l8c8, pp8 :1, :68! Bithout noticing an* other oddities, it suffices to obser)e, that "hat re4appears in the fresh )igour, is not the bread?s price, but its bloodforming substances8 Bhat, on the other hand, re4appears in the )alue of that )igour, is not the means of subsistence, but their )alue8 'he same necessaries of life, at half the price, "ould form Dust as much muscle and bone, Dust as much )igour, but not )igour of the same )alue8 'his confusion of @)alueA and @)igourA coupled "ith our author?s pharisaical indefiniteness, mar+ an attempt, futile for all that, to thrash out an e9planation of surplus )alue from a mere re4appearance of pre4e9isting )alues8 8 @'outes les productions d?un mdme v genre ne forment proprement Iu?une masse, dont le pri9 se dRtermine en gRnRral et sans Rgard au9 circonstances particulinres8A (<e 'rosne, 18 c8, p8 82:8! G@#roperl* spea+ing, all products of the same +ind form a single mass, and their price is determined in general and "ithout regard to particular circumstances8AH 1 @>f "e rec+on the )alue of the fi9ed capital emplo*ed as a part of the ad)ances, "e must rec+on the remaining )alue of such capital at the end of the *ear as a part of the annual returns8A ($althus, @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ8A 6nd8 ed8, <ond8, 18:6, p8 6628! 6 Bhat <ucretius sa*s is self4e)ident; @nil posse creari de nihilo,A out of nothing, nothing can be created8 5reation of )alue is transformation of labour4po"er into labour8 <abour4po"er itself is energ* transferred to a human organism b* means of nourishing matter8 : >n the same "a* that the English use the terms @rate of profit,A @rate of interest8A Be shall see, in /oo+ >>>, that the rate of profit is no m*ster*, so soon as "e +no" the la"s of surplus )alue8 >f "e re)erse the process, "e cannot comprehend either the one or the other8 Hote added in the 7rd =erman edition$ v 'he author resorts here to the economic language in current use8 >t "ill be remembered that on p8 186 (present edition, p8 17 ! it "as sho"n that in realit* the labourer @ad)ancesA to the capitalist and not the capitalist to the labourer8 v !$ E$ 3 >n this "or+, "e ha)e, up to no", emplo*ed the term @necessar* labour4time,A to designate the time necessar* under gi)en social conditions for the production of an* commodit*8 -encefor"ard "e use it to designate also the time necessar* for the production of the particular commodit* labour4po"er8 'he use of one and the same technical term in different senses is incon)enient, but in no science can it be altogether a)oided8 5ompare, for instance, the higher "ith the lo"er branches of mathematics8 6 -err Bilhelm 'huc*dides &oscher has found a mare?s nest8 -e has made the important disco)er* that if, on the one hand, the formation of surplus )alue, or surplus4produce, and the conseIuent accumulation of capital, is no"4a4da*s due to the thrift of the capitalist, on the other hand, in the lo"est stages of ci)ilisation it is the strong "ho compel the "ea+ to economise8 (l8c8, p8 788! 'o economise "hatE <abourE =r superfluous "ealth that does not e9istE Bhat is it that ma+es such men as &oscher account for the origin of surplus )alue, b* a mere rechauffR of the more of less plausible e9cuses b* the capitalist, for his appropriation of surplus )alueE >t is, besides their real ignorance, their apologetic dread of a scientific anal*sis of )alue and surplus )alue, and of obtaining a result, possibl* not altogether palatable to the po"ers that be8 7 (lthough the rate of surplus )alue is an e9act e9pression for the degree of e9ploitation of labour4po"er, it is, in no sense, an e9pression for the absolute amount of e9ploitation8 For e9ample, if the necessar* labour 3 hours and the surplus labour Y 3 hours, the degree of e9ploitation is 177`8 'he amount of e9ploitation is here measured b* 3 hours8 >f, on the other hand, the necessar* labour Y 6 hours and the surplus labour Y 6 hours, the degree of e9ploitation

remains, as before, 177`, "hile the actual amount of e9ploitation has increased 67`, namel* from fi)e hours to si98 8 'he abo)e data, "hich ma* be relied upon, "ere gi)en me b* a $anchester spinner8 >n England the horse4po"er of an engine "as formerl* calculated from the diameter of its c*linder, no" the actual horse4po"er sho"n b* the indicator is ta+en8 2 'he calculations gi)en in the te9t are intended merel* as illustrations8 Be ha)e in fact8 assumed that prices Y )alues8 Be shall, ho"e)er, see, in /oo+ >ll8, that e)en in the case of a)erage prices the assumption cannot be made in this )er* simple manner8 17 Senior, l8c8, pp8 16, 1:8 Be let pass such e9traordinar* notions as are of no importance for our purpose; for instance, the assertion, that manufacturers rec+on as part of their profit, gross or net, the amount reIuired to ma+e good "ear and tear of machiner*, or in other "ords, to replace a part of the capital8 So, too, "e pass o)er an* Iuestion as to the accurac* of his figures8 <eonard -orner has sho"n in @( <etter to $r8 Senior,A Pc8, <ondon, 18:7, that the* are "orth no more than so4called @(nal*sis8A <eonard -orner "as one of the Factor* >nIuir* 5ommissioners in 18::, and >nspector, or rather 5ensor of Factories till 18328 -e rendered und*ing ser)ice to the English "or+ing4class8 -e carried on a life4long contest, not onl* "ith the embittered manufacturers, but also "ith the 5abinet, to "hom the number of )otes gi)en b* the masters in the <o"er -ouse, "as a matter of far greater importance than the number of hours "or+ed b* the @handsA in the mills8 (part from efforts in principle, Senior?s statement is confused8 Bhat he reall* intended to sa* "as this: 'he manufacturer emplo*s the "or+man for 11[ hours or for 6: half4hours dail*8 (s the "or+ing da*, so, too, the "or+ing *ear, ma* be concei)ed to consist of 11[ hours or 6: half4hours, but each multiplied b* the number of "or+ing da*s in the *ear8 =n this supposition, the 6: half4hours *ield an annual product of ]113,777; one half4hour *ields 1J6: h ]113,777; 67 half4hours *ield 67J6: h ]113,777 Y ]177,777, i8e8, the* replace no more than the capital ad)anced8 'here remain : half4hours, "hich *ield 1J6: h ]113,777 Y ]3,777 or the gross profit8 =f these : half4hours, one *ields 1J6: h ]113,777 Y ]3,777; i8e8, it ma+es up for the "ear and tear of the machiner*; the remaining 6 half4 hours, i8e8, the last hour, *ield 6J6: h ]113,777 Y ]17,777 or the net profit8 >n the te9t Senior con)erts the last 6J6: of the product into portions of the "or+ing da* itself8 11 >f, on the one hand, Senior pro)ed that the net profit of the manufacturer, the e9istence of he English cotton industr*, and England?s command of the mar+ets of the "orld, depend on @the last "or+ing4hour,A on the other hand, 0r8 (ndre" %re sho"ed, that if children and *oung persons under 18 *ears of age, instead of being +ept the full 16 hours in the "arm and pure moral atmosphere of the factor*, are turned out an hour sooner into the heartless and fri)olous outer "orld, the* "ill be depri)ed, b* idleness and )ice, of all hope of sal)ation for their souls8 Since 18 8, the factor* inspectors ha)e ne)er tired of t"itting the masters "ith this @last,A this @fatal hour8A 'hus $r8 -o)ell in his report of the 61st $a*, 1833: @-ad the follo"ing ingenious calculation (he Iuotes Senior! been correct, e)er* cotton factor* in the %nited .ingdom "ould ha)e been "or+ing at a loss since the *ear 18378A (&eports of the >nsp8 of Fact8, for the half4*ear, ending :7th (pril, 1833, pp8 12, 678! >n the *ear 18 8, after the passing of the 17 hours? bill, the masters of some fla9 spinning mills, scattered, fe" and far bet"een, o)er the countr* on the borders of 0orset and Somerset, foisted a petition against the bill on to the shoulders of a fe" of their "or+4people8 =ne of the clauses of this petition is as follo"s: @Nour petitioners, as parents, concei)e that an additional hour of leisure "ill tend more to demoralise the children than other"ise, belie)ing that idleness is the parent of )ice8A =n this the factor* report of :1st =ct8, 18 8, sa*s: 'he atmosphere of the fla9 mills, in "hich the children of these )irtuous and tender parents "or+, is so loaded "ith dust and fibre from the ra" material, that it is e9ceptionall* unpleasant to stand e)en 17 minutes in the spinning rooms: for *ou are unable to do so "ithout the most painful sensation, o"ing to the e*es, the ears, the nostrils, and mouth, being immediatel* filled b* the clouds of fla9 dust from "hich there is no escape8 'he labour itself, o"ing to the fe)erish haste of the machiner*, demands unceasing application of s+ill and mo)ement, under the control of a "atchfulness that ne)er tires, and it seems some"hat hard, to let parents appl* the term @idlingA to their o"n children, "ho, after allo"ing for meal4times, are fettered for 17 "hole hours to such an occupation, in such an atmosphere8888 'hese children "or+ longer than the labourers in the neighbouring )illages8888 Such cruel tal+ about @idleness and )iceA ought to be branded as the purest cant, and the most shameless h*pocris*8888 'hat portion of the public, "ho, about 16 *ears ago, "ere struc+ b* the assurance "ith "hich, under the sanction of high authorit*, it "as publicl* and most earnestl* proclaimed, that the "hole net profit of the manufacturer flo"s from the labour of the last hour, and that, therefore, the reduction of the "or+ing da* b* one hour, "ould destro* his net profit, that portion of the public, "e sa*, "ill hardl* belie)e its o"n e*es, "hen it no" finds, that the original disco)er* of the )irtues of @the last hourA has since been so far impro)ed, as to include morals as "ell as profit; so that, if the duration of the labour of children, is reduced to a full 17 hours, their morals, together "ith the net profits of their emplo*ers, "ill )anish, both being dependent on this last, this fatal hour8 (See &epts8, >nsp8 of Fact8, for :1st =ct8, 18 8, p8 1718! 'he

same report then gi)es some e9amples of the moralit* and )irtue of these same pure4minded manufacturers, of the tric+s, the artifices, the caDoling, the threats, and the falsifications, the* made use of, in order, first, to compel a fe" defenceless "or+men to sign petitions of such a +ind, and then to impose them upon #arliament as the petitions of a "hole branch of industr*, or a "hole countr*8 >t is highl* characteristic of the present status of so4called economic science, that neither Senior himself, "ho, at a later period, to his honour be it said, energeticall* supported the factor* legislation, nor his opponents, from first to last, ha)e e)er been able to e9plain the false conclusions of the @original disco)er*8A 'he* appeal to actual e9perience, but the "h* and "herefore remains a m*ster*8 16 Ce)ertheless, the learned professor "as not "ithout some benefit from his Dourne* to $anchester8 >n the @<etters on the Factor* (ct,A he ma+es the "hole net gains including @profitA and @interestsA and e)en @something more,A depend upon a single unpaid hour?s "or+ of the labourer8 =ne *ear pre)iousl*, in his @=utlines of #olitical Econom*,A "ritten for the instruction of =9ford students and culti)ated #hilistines, he had also @disco)ered, in opposition to &icardo?s determination of )alue b* labour, that profit is deri)ed from the labour of the capitalist, and interest from his asceticism, in other "ords, from his abstinence8A 'he dodge "as an old one, but the "ord @abstinenceA "as ne"8 -err &oscher translates it rightl* b* @Enthaltung8A Some of his countr*men, the /ro"ns, Lones, and &obinsons, of German*, not so "ell )ersed in <atin as he, ha)e, mon+4li+e, rendered it b* @EntsagungA (renunciation!8 1: @'o an indi)idual "ith a capital of ]67,777, "hose profits "ere ]6,777 per annum, it "ould be a matter Iuite indifferent "hether his capital "ould emplo* a 177 or 1,777 men, "hether the commodit* produced sold for ]17,777 or ]67,777, pro)ided, in all cases, his profit "ere not diminished belo" ]6,7778 >s not the real interest of the nation similarE #ro)ided its net real income, its rent and profits, be the same, it is of no importance "hether the nation consists of 17 or of 16 millions of inhabitants8A (&ic8 l8c8,8p8 168! <ong before &icardo, (rthur Noung, a fanatical upholder of surplus4produce, for the rest, a rambling, uncritical "riter, "hose reputation is in the in)erse ratio of his merit, sa*s, @=f "hat use, in a modem +ingdom, "ould be a "hole pro)ince thus di)ided Gin the old &oman manner, b* small independent peasantsH, ho"e)er "ell culti)ated, e9cept for the mere purpose of breeding men, "hich ta+en singl* is a most useless purposeEA ((rthur Noung: @#olitical (rithmetic, Pc8A <ondon, 177 , p8 78! ;er* curious is @the strong inclination888 to represent net "ealth as beneficial to the labouring class888 though it is e)identl* not on account of being net8A ('h 8 -op+ins, @=n &ent of <and, Pc8A <ondon, 1868, p8 1668!
1

@( da*?s labour is )ague, it ma* be long or short8A (@(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce, 5ontaining =bser)ations on 'a9es, Pc8A <ondon8 1777, p8 7:8! 6 'his Iuestion is far more important than the celebrated Iuestion of Sir &obert #eel to the /irmingham 5hamber of 5ommerce: Bhat is a poundE ( Iuestion that could onl* ha)e been proposed, because #eel "as as much in the dar+ as to the nature of mone* as the @little shilling menA of /irmingham8 : @>t is the aim of the capitalist to obtain "ith his e9pended capital the greatest possible Iuantit* of labour (d?obtenir du capital dRpense la plus forte somme de tra)ail possible!8A L8 G8 5ourcelle4Seneuil8 @'raitR thRoriIue et pratiIue des entreprises industrielles8A 6nd ed8 #aris, 1837, p8 6:8 @(n hour?s labour lost in a da* is a prodigious inDur* to a commercial State8888 'here is a )er* great consumption of lu9uries among the labouring poor of this +ingdom: particularl* among the manufacturing populace, b* "hich the* also consume their time, the most fatal of consumptions8A @(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce, Pc8,A p8 7, and 13 3 @Si le manou)rier libre prend un instant de repos, l?Rconomie sordide Iui le suit des *eu9 a)ec inIuiRtude, prRtend Iu?il la )ole8A G>f the free labourer allo"s himself an instant of rest, the base and pett* management, "hich follo"s him "ith "ar* e*es, claims he is stealing from it8H C8 <inguet, @'hRorie des <ois 5i)iles8 Pc8A <ondon, 1767, t8 >>8, p8 668 6 0uring the great stri+e of the <ondon builders, 1867461, for the reduction of the "or+ing da* to 2 hours, their 5ommittee published a manifesto that contained, to some e9tent, the plea of our "or+er8 'he manifesto alludes, not "ithout iron*, to the fact, that the greatest profit4monger amongst the building masters, a certain Sir $8 #eto, "as in the odour of sanctit* ('his same #eto, after 1867, came to an end a la Strousberg8! 7 @'hose "ho labour 888 in realit* feed both the pensioners 888 Gcalled the richH and themsel)es8A (Edmund /ur+e, l8c8, p8 68! 8 Ciebuhr in his @&oman -istor*A sa*s )er* nai)el*: @>t is e)ident that "or+s li+e the Etruscan, "hich in their ruins astound us, pre4suppose in little (Q! states lords and )assals8A Sismondi sa*s far more to the purpose that @/russels laceA pre4supposes "age4lords and "age4sla)es8

@=ne cannot see these unfortunates (in the gold mines bet"een Eg*pt, Ethiopia, and (rabia! "ho cannot e)en ha)e their bodies clean, or their na+edness clothed, "ithout pit*ing their miserable lot8 'here is no indulgence, no forbearance for the sic+, the feeble, the aged, for "oman?s "ea+ness8 (ll must, forced b* blo"s, "or+ on until death puts an end to their sufferings and their distress8A (@0iod8 Sic8 /ibl8 -ist8,A lib8 6, c8 1:8! 17 'hat "hich follo"s refers to the situation in the &umanian pro)inces before the change effected since the 5rimean "ar8 11 'his holds li+e"ise for German*, and especiall* for #russia east of the Elbe8 >n the 13th centur* the German peasant "as nearl* e)er*"here a man, "ho, "hilst subDect to certain rents paid in produce and labour "as other"ise at least practicall* free8 'he German colonists in /randenburg, #omerania, Silesia, and Eastern #russia, "ere e)en legall* ac+no"ledged as free men8 'he )ictor* of the nobilit* in the peasants? "ar put an end to that8 Cot onl* "ere the conIuered South German peasants again ensla)ed8 From the middle of the 16th centur* the peasants of Eastern #russia, /randenburg, #omerania, and Silesia, and soon after the free peasants of Schles"ig4-olstein "ere degraded to the condition of serfs8 ($aurer, Fronhufe i)8 )ol8, v $eit1en, @0er /oden des preussischen StaatsA v -anssen, @<eibeigenschaft in Schles"ig4-olstein8A v !$ E$5 16 Further details are to be found in E8 &egnault?s @-istoire politiIue et sociale des #rincipautRs 0anubiennes,A #aris, 18338 1: @>n general and "ithin certain limits, e9ceeding the medium si1e of their +ind, is e)idence of the prosperit* of organic beings8 (s to man, his bodil* height lessens if his due gro"th is interfered "ith, either b* ph*sical or local conditions8 >n all European countries in "hich the conscription holds, since its introduction, the medium height of adult men, and generall* their fitness for militar* ser)ice, has diminished8 /efore the re)olution (1782!, the minimum for the infantr* in France "as 163 centimetres; in 1818 (la" of $arch 17th!, 137; b* the la" of $arch 61, 18:6, 136 cm8; on the a)erage in France more than half are reDected on account of deficient height or bodil* "ea+ness8 'he militar* standard in Sa9on* "as in 1787, 178 cm8 >t is no" 1338 >n #russia it is 1378 (ccording to the statement of 0r8 $e*er in the /a)arian Ga1ette, $a* 2th, 1866, the result of an a)erage of 2 *ears is, that in #russia out of 1,777 conscripts 716 "ere unfit for militar* ser)ice, :17 because of deficienc* in height, and :22 because of bodil* defects8888 /erlin in 1838 could not pro)ide its contingent of recruits, it "as 136 men short8A L8 )on <iebig: @0ie 5hemie in ihrer (n"endung auf (gri+ultur und #h*siologie8 1866,A 7th Ed8, )ol8 1, pp8 117, 1188 1 'he histor* of the Factor* (ct of 1837 "ill be found in the course of this chapter8 13 > onl* touch here and there on the period from the beginning of modern industr* in England to 18 38 For this period > refer the reader to @0ie <age der arbeitenden .lasse in England,A G5ondition of the Bor+ing 5lass in EnglandH )on Friedrich Engels, <eip1ig, 18 38 -o" completel* Engels understood the nature of the capitalist mode of production is sho"n b* the Factor* &eports, &eports on $ines, Pc8, that ha)e appeared since 18 3, and ho" "onderfull* he painted the circumstances in detail is seen on the most superficial comparison of his "or+ "ith the official reports of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, published 18 to 67 *ears later (186:41867!8 'hese deal especiall* "ith the branches of industr* in "hich the Factor* (cts had not, up to 1866, been introduced, in fact are not *et introduced8 -ere, then, little or no alteration had been enforced, b* authorit*, in the conditions painted b* Engels8 > borro" m* e9amples chiefl* from the Free4trade period after 18 8, that age of paradise, of "hich the commercial tra)ellers for the great firm of Free4trade, blatant as ignorant, tell such fabulous tales8 For the rest England figures here in the foreground because she is the classic representati)e of capitalist production, and she alone has a continuous set of official statistics of the things "e are considering8 16 @Suggestions, Pc8 b* $r8 <8 -orner, >nspector of Factories,A in Factories &egulation (cts8 =rdered b* the -ouse of 5ommons to be printed, 2th (ugust, 1832, pp8 , 38 17 &eports of the >nspector of Factories for the half *ear8 =ctober, 1836, p8 :38 18 &eports, Pc8, :7th (pril, 1838, p8 28 12 &eports, Pc8, l8c8, p8 178 67 &eports Pc8, l8c8, p8 638 61 &eports Pc8, for the half *ear ending :7th (pril, 18618 See (ppendi9 Co8 6; &eports, Pc8, :1st =ctober, 1866, pp8 7, 36, 3:8 'he )iolations of the (cts became more numerous during the last half *ear 186:8 5f &eports, Pc8, ending :1st =ctober, 186:, p8 78 66 &eports, Pc8, =ctober :1st, 1867, p8 6:8 Bith "hat fanaticism, according to the e)idence of manufacturers gi)en in courts of la", their hands set themsel)es against e)er* interruption in factor* labour, the follo"ing curious circumstance sho"s8 >n the beginning of Lune, 18:6, information reached the magistrates of 0e"sbur* (Nor+shire!

that the o"ners of 8 large mills in the neighbourhood of /atle* had )iolated the Factor* (cts8 Some of these gentlemen "ere accused of ha)ing +ept at "or+ 3 bo*s bet"een 16 and 13 *ears of age, from 6 a8m8 on Frida* to p8m8 on the follo"ing Saturda*, not allo"ing them an* respite e9cept for meals and one hour for sleep at midnight8 (nd these children had to do this ceaseless labour of :7 hours in the @shodd*hole,A as the hole is called, in "hich the "oollen rags are pulled in pieces, and "here a dense atmosphere of dust, shreds, Pc8, forces e)en the adult "or+man to co)er his mouth continuall* "ith hand+erchiefs for the protection of his lungsQ 'he accused gentlemen affirm in lieu of ta+ing an oath v as Iua+ers the* "ere too scrupulousl* religious to ta+e an oath v that the* had, in their great compassion for the unhapp* children, allo"ed them four hours for sleep, but the obstinate children absolutel* "ould not go to bed8 'he Iua+er gentlemen "ere mulcted in ]678 0r*den anticipated these gentr*: Fo9 full fraught in seeming sanctit*, 'hat feared an oath, but li+e the de)il "ould lie, 'hat loo+?d li+e <ent, and had the hol* leer, (nd durst not sinQ before he said his pra*erQA 6: &ep8, :1st =ct8, 1836, p8 : 8 6 l8c8, p8 :38 63 l8c8, p8 88 66 l8c8, p8 88 67 l8c8, p8 88 68 l8c8, p8 88 62 &eport of the >nsp8 Pc8, :7th (pril 1867, p8 368 :7 'his is the official e9pression both in the factories and in the reports8 :1 @'he cupidit* of mill4o"ners "hose cruelties in the pursuit of gain ha)e hardl* been e9ceeded b* those perpetrated b* the Spaniards on the conIuest of (merica in the pursuit of gold8A Lohn Bade, @-istor* of the $iddle and Bor+ing 5lasses,A :rd Ed8 <ondon, 18:3, p8 11 8 'he theoretical part of this boo+, a +ind of hand4boo+ of #olitical Econom*, is, considering the time of its publication, original in some parts, e$ $+ on commercial crises8 'he historical part is, to a great e9tent, a shameless plagiarism of Sir F8 $8 Eden?s @'he State of the #oor,A <ondon, 17278 :6 Daily /ele raph+ 4Kth Lanuar*, 18678 :: 5f8 F8 Engels @<age, etc8A pp8 6 24318 : 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8 First report8, etc8, 186:8 E)idence8 pp8 16, 12, 188 :3 #ublic -ealth, :rd report, etc8, pp8 176, 17 , 1738 :6 5hild8 Empl8 5omm8 >8 &eport, p8 6 8 :7 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, p8 66, and 9i8 :8 l8c8, p8 9l)iii8 :2 l8c8, p8 li)8 7 'his is not to be ta+en in the same sense as our surplus labour time8 'hese gentlemen consider 17[ hours of labour as the normal "or+ing da*, "hich includes of course the normal surplus labour8 (fter this begins @o)ertimeA "hich is paid a little better8 >t "ill be seen later that the labour e9pended during the so4called normal da* is paid belo" its )alue, so that the o)ertime is simpl* a capitalist tric+ in order to e9tort more surplus labour, "hich it "ould still be, e)en if the labour4po"er e9pended during the normal "or+ing da* "ere properl* paid8 1 l8c8, E)idence, pp8 16:, 16 , 163, 1 7, and 3 8 6 (lum finel* po"dered, or mi9ed "ith salt, is a normal article of commerce bearing the significant name of @ba+ers? stuff8A : Soot is a "ell4+no"n and )er* energetic form of carbon, and forms a manure that capitalistic chimne*4s"eeps sell to English farmers8 Co" in 1866 the /ritish Dur*man had in a la"4suit to decide "hether soot, "ith "hich, un+no"n to the bu*er, 27` of dust and sand are mi9ed, is genuine soot in the commercial sense or adulterated soot in the legal sense8 'he @amis du commerceA Gfriends of commerceH decided it to be genuine commercial soot, and non4suited the plaintiff farmer, "ho had in addition to pa* the costs of the suit8 'he French chemist, 5he)allier, in his treatise on the @sophisticationsA of commodities, enumerates for man* of the 677 or more articles "hich he passes in re)ie", 17, 67, :7 different methods of adulteration8 -e adds that he does not +no" all the methods and does not mention all that he +no"s8 -e gi)es 6 +inds of adulteration of sugar, 2 of oli)e oil,

17 of butter, 16 of salt, 12 of mil+, 67 of bread, 6: of brand*, 6 of meal, 68 of chocolate, :7 of "ine, :6 of coffee, etc8 E)en God (lmight* does not escape this fate8 See &ouard de 5ard, @=n the Falsifications of the materials of the Sacrament8A (@0e la falsification des substances sacramentelles,A #aris, 18368! 3 @&eport, Pc8, relati)e to the grie)ances complained of b* the Dourne*men ba+ers, Pc8, <ondon, 1866,A and @Second &eport, Pc8, <ondon, 186:8A 6 l8c8, First &eport, Pc8, p8 )i8 7 l8c8, p8 >99i8 8 George &ead, @'he -istor* of /a+ing,A <ondon, 18 8, p8 168 2 &eport (First! Pc8 E)idence of the @full4pricedA ba+er 5heeseman, p8 1788 37 George &ead, l8c8 (t the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the factors (agents! that cro"ded into e)er* possible trade "ere still denounced as @public nuisances8A 'hus the Grand Lur* at the Iuarter session of the Lustices of the #eace for the 5ount* of Somerset, addressed a presentment to the <o"er -ouse "hich, among other things, states, @that these factors of /lac+"ell -all are a #ublic Cuisance and #reDudice to the 5lothing 'rade, and ought to be put do"n as a Cuisance8A @'he 5ase of our English Bool8, Pc8,A <ondon, 1683, pp8 6, 78 31 First &eport, Pc8 36 &eport of 5ommittee on the /a+ing 'rade in >reland for 18618 3: l8c8 3 #ublic meeting of agricultural labourers at <ass"ade, near Edinburgh, Lanuar* 3th, 18668 (See Aor"manCs Advocate, Lanuar* 1:th, 18668! 'he formation since the close of 1863 of a 'rades? %nion among the agricultural labourers at first in Scotland is a historic e)ent8 >n one of the most oppressed agricultural districts of England, /uc+inghamshire, the labourers, in $arch, 1867, made a great stri+e for the raising of their "ee+l* "age from 2417 shillings to 16 shillings8 (>t "ill be seen from the preceding passage that the mo)ement of the English agricultural proletariat, entirel* crushed since the suppression of its )iolent manifestations after 18:7, and especiall* since the introduction of the ne" #oor <a"s, begins again in the si9ties, until it becomes finall* epoch4ma+ing in 18768 > return to this in the 6nd )olume, as "ell as to the /lue boo+s that ha)e appeared since 1867 on the position of the English land labourers8 (ddendum to the :rd ea8! 33 ReynoldsC He1spaper, Lanuar*, 18668 v E)er* "ee+ this same paper has, under the sensational headings, @Fearful and fatal accidents,A @(ppalling tragedies,A Pc8, a "hole list of fresh rail"a* catastrophes8 =n these an emplo*ee on the Corth Staffordshire line comments: @E)er*one +no"s the conseIuences that ma* occur if the dri)er and fireman of a locomoti)e engine are not continuall* on the loo+4out8 -o" can that be e9pected from a man "ho has been at such "or+ for 62 or :7 hours, e9posed to the "eather, and "ithout rest8 'he follo"ing is an e9ample "hich is of )er* freIuent occurrence: v =ne fireman commenced "or+ on the $onda* morning at a )er* earl* hour8 Bhen he had finished "hat is called a da*?s "or+, he had been on dut* 1 hours 37 minutes8 /efore he had time to get his tea, he "as again called on for dut*8888 'he ne9t time he finished he had been on dut* 1 hours 63 minutes, ma+ing a total of 62 hours 13 minutes "ithout intermission8 'he rest of the "ee+?s "or+ "as made up as follo"s: v Bednesda*8 13 hours: 'hursda*, 13 hours :3 minutes; Frida*, 1 [ hours; Saturda*, 1 hours 17 minutes, ma+ing a total for the "ee+ of 88 hours :7 minutes8 Co", sir, fanc* his astonishment on being paid 6 1J da*s for the "hole8 'hin+ing it "as a mista+e, he applied to the time4+eeper,888 and inIuired "hat the* considered a da*?s "or+, and "as told 1: hours for a goods man (i$e8, 78 hours!8888 -e then as+ed for "hat he had made o)er and abo)e the 78 hours per "ee+, but "as refused8 -o"e)er, he "as at last told the* "ould gi)e him another Iuarter, i$e8, 17d8,A l8c8, th Februar*8 18668 36 5f F8 Engels, l8c8, pp8 63:, 63 8 37 0r8 <etheb*, 5onsulting #h*sician of the /oard of -ealth, declared: @'he minimum of air for each adult ought to be in a sleeping room :77, and in a d"elling room 377 cubic feet8A 0r8 &ichardson, Senior #h*sician to one of the <ondon -ospitals: @Bith needle"omen of all +inds, including milliners, dressma+ers, and ordinar* seamstresses, there are three miseries v o)er4"or+, deficient air, and either deficient food or deficient digestion8888 Ceedle"or+, in the main, 888 is infinitel* better adapted to "omen than to men8 /ut the mischiefs of the trade, in the metropolis especiall*, are that it is monopolised b* some t"ent*4si9 capitalists, "ho, under the ad)antages that spring from capital, can bring in capital to force econom* out of labour8 'his po"er tells throughout the "hole class8 >f a dressma+er can get a little circle of customers, such is the competition that, in her home, she must "or+ to the death to hold together, and this same o)er4"or+ she must of necessit* inflict on an* "ho ma* assist her8 >f she fail, or do not tr* independentl*, she must Doin an establishment, "here her labour is not less, but "here her mone* is safe8 #laced thus, she becomes a mere sla)e, tossed about "ith the )ariations of societ*8 Co" at home, in one room, star)ing, or

near to it, then engaged 13, 16, a*e, e)en 18 hours out of the 6 , in an air that is scarcel* tolerable, and on food "hich, e)en if it be good, cannot be digested in the absence of pure air8 =n these )ictims, consumption, "hich is purel* a disease of bad air, feeds8A 0r8 &ichardson: @Bor+ and =)er4"or+,A in @Social Science &e)ie",A 18th Lul*, 186:8 38 Mornin ;tar, 6:rd Lune, 186:8 v /he /imes made use of the circumstance to defend the (merican sla)e4o"ners against /right, Pc8 @;er* man* of us thin+,A sa*s a leader of Lul* 6nd, 186:, @that, "hile "e "or+ our o"n *oung "omen to death, using the scourge of star)ation, instead of the crac+ of the "hip, as the instrument of compulsion, "e ha)e scarcel* a right to hound on fire and slaughter against families "ho "ere born sla)e4o"ners, and "ho, at least, feed their sla)es "ell, and "or+ them lightl*8A >n the same manner, the ;tandard+ a 'or* organ, fell foul of the &e)8 Ce"man -all: @-e e9communicated the sla)e4o"ners, but pra*s "ith the fine fol+ "ho, "ithout remorse, ma+e the omnibus dri)ers and conductors of <ondon, Pc8, "or+ 16 hours a4da* for the "ages of a dog8A Finall*, spa+e the oracle, 'homas 5arl*le, of "hom > "rote, in 1837, @,um 'eufel ist der Genius, der .ultus ist geblieben8A G@>n the cult of genius 888 'he cult remains,A paraphrasing SchillerH >n a short parable, he reduces the one great e)ent of contemporar* histor*, the (merican 5i)il Bar, to this le)el, that the #eter of the Corth "ants to brea+ the head of the #aul of the South "ith all his might, because the #eter of the Corth hires his labour b* the da*, and the #aul of the South hires his b* the life8 (MacmillanCs Ma aFine$ >lias (mericana in nuce8 (ugust, 186:8! 'hus, the bubble of 'or* s*mpath* for the urban "or+ers v b* no means for the rural v has burst at last8 'he sum of all is v sla)er*Q 32 0r8 &ichardson, l8c8 67 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8 'hird &eport8 <ondon, 186 , pp8 i)8, )8, )i8 61 @/oth in Staffordshire and in South Bales *oung girls and "omen are emplo*ed on the pit ban+s and on the co+e heaps, not onl* b* da* but also b* night8 'his practice has been often noticed in &eports presented to #arliament, as being attended "ith great and notorious e)ils8 'hese females emplo*ed "ith the men, hardl* distinguished from them in their dress, and begrimed "ith dirt and smo+e, are e9posed to the deterioration of character, arising from the loss of self4respect, "hich can hardl* fail to follo" from their unfeminine occupation8A (l8 c8, 12 , p8 99)i8 5f8 Fourth &eport (1863!, 61, p8 9iii8! >t is the same in glass4"or+s8 66 ( steel manufacturer "ho emplo*s children in night4labour remar+ed: @>t seems but natural that bo*s "ho "or+ at night cannot sleep and get proper rest b* da*, but "ill be running about8A (l8c8, Fourth &eport, 6:, p8 9iii8! =n the importance of sunlight for the maintenance and gro"th of the bod*, a ph*sician "rites: @<ight also acts upon the tissues of the bod* directl* in hardening them and supporting their elasticit*8 'he muscles of animals, "hen the* are depri)ed of a proper amount of light, become soft and inelastic, the ner)ous po"er loses its tone from defecti)e stimulation, and the elaboration of all gro"th seems to be per)erted8888 >n the case of children, constant access to plent* of light during the da*, and to the direct ra*s of the sun for a part of it, is most essential to health8 <ight assists in the elaboration of good plastic blood, and hardens the fibre after it has been laid do"n8 >t also acts as a stimulus upon the organs of sight, and b* this means brings about more acti)it* in the )arious cerebral functions8A 0r8 B8 Strange, Senior #h*sician of the Borcester General -ospital, from "hose "or+ on @-ealthA (186 ! this passage is ta+en, "rites in a letter to $r8 Bhite, one of the commissioners: @> ha)e had opportunities formerl*, "hen in <ancashire, of obser)ing the effects of night"or+ upon children, and > ha)e no hesitation in sa*ing, contrar* to "hat some emplo*ers "ere fond of asserting, those children "ho "ere subDected to it soon suffered in their health8A (l8c8, 68 8, p8 338! 'hat such a Iuestion should furnish the material of serious contro)ers*, sho"s plainl* ho" capitalist production acts on the brain4functions of capitalists and their retainers8 6: l8c8, 37, p8 9ii8 6 l8c88 Fourth &eport (1863!8 388 p8 9ii8 63 l8c8 66 l8c8, p8 9iii8 'he degree of culture of these @labour4po"ersA must naturall* be such as appears in the follo"ing dialogues "ith one of the commissioners: Leremiah -a*nes, age 16 v @Four times four is 8; fours are 168 ( +ing is him that has all the mone* and gold8 Be ha)e a +ing (told it is a Kueen!, the* call her the #rincess (le9andra8 'old that she married the Kueen?s son8 'he Kueen?s son is the #rincess (le9andra8 ( #rincess is a man8A Billiam 'urner, age 16 v @0on?t li)e in England8 'hin+ it is a countr*, but didn?t +no" before8A Lohn $orris, age 1 v @-a)e heard sa* that God made the "orld, and that all the people "as dro"nded but one, heard sa* that one "as a little bird8A Billiam Smith age 13 v @God made man, man made "oman8A Ed"ard 'a*lor, age 13 v @0o not +no" of <ondon8A -enr* $atthe"man, age 17 v @-ad been to chapel, but missed a good man* times latel*8 =ne name that the* preached about "as Lesus 5hrist, but > cannot sa* an* others, and > cannot tell an*thing about him8 -e "as not +illed, but died li+e other people8 -e "as not the same as other people in some "a*s, because he "as religious in some "a*s and others isn?t8A (l8c8, p8 9)8! @'he de)il is a good person8 > don?t +no" "here he li)es8A @5hrist "as a "ic+ed man8A

@'his girl spelt God as dog, and did not +no" the name of the Iueen8A (@5h8 Emplo*ment 5omm8 ;8 &eport, 1866A p8 33, n8 6788! 'he same s*stem obtains in the glass and paper "or+s as in the metallurgical, alread* cited8 >n the paper factories, "here the paper is made b* machiner*, night4"or+ is the rule for all processes, e9cept rag4sorting8 >n some cases night4"or+, b* rela*s, is carried on incessantl* through the "hole "ee+, usuall* from Sunda* night until midnight of the follo"ing Saturda*8 'hose "ho are on da*4"or+ "or+ 3 da*s of 16, and 1 da* of 18 hours; those on night4"or+ 3 nights of 16, and > of 6 hours in each "ee+8 >n other cases each set "or+s 6 hours consecuti)el* on alternate da*s, one set "or+ing 6 hours on $onda*, and 18 on Saturda* to ma+e up the 6 hours8 >n other cases an intermediate s*stem pre)ails, b* "hich all emplo*ed on the paper4ma+ing machiner* "or+ 13 or 16 hours e)er* da* in the "ee+8 'his s*stem, sa*s 5ommissioner <ord, @seems to combine all the e)ils of both the 16 hours? and the 6 hours? rela*s8A 5hildren under 1:, *oung persons under 18, and "omen, "or+ under this night s*stem8 Sometimes under the 16 hours? s*stem the* are obliged, on account of the non4appearance of those that ought to relie)e them, to "or+ a double turn of 6 hours8 'he e)idence pro)es that bo*s and girls )er* often "or+ o)ertime, "hich, not unfreIuentl*, e9tends to 6 or e)en :6 hours of uninterrupted toil8 >n the continuous and un)ar*ing process of gla1ing are found girls of 16 "ho "or+ the "hole month 1 hours a da*, @"ithout an* regular relief or cessation be*ond 6 or, at most, : brea+s of half an hour each for meals8A >n some mills, "here regular night4"or+ has been entirel* gi)en up, o)er4"or+ goes on to a terrible e9tent, @and that often in the dirtiest, and in the hottest, and in the most monotonous of the )arious processes8A (@5h8 Emplo*ment 5omm8 &eport >;8, 1863,A p8 999)iii, and 999i98! 67 Fourth &eport, Pc88 1863, 72, p8 9)i8 68 l8c8, 878 p8 9)i8 62 l8c8, 868 p8 9)ii8 77 >n our reflecting and reasoning age a man is not "orth much "ho cannot gi)e a good reason for e)er*thing, no matter ho" bad or ho" cra1*8 E)er*thing in the "orld that has been done "rong has been done "rong for the )er* best of reasons8 (-egel, l8c8, p8 6 2 ! 71 l8c8, 83, p8 9)ii8 'o similar tender scruples of the glass manufacturers that regular meal4times for the children are impossible because as a conseIuence a certain Iuantit* of heat, radiated b* the furnaces, "ould be @a pure lossA or @"asted,A 5ommissioner Bhite ma+es ans"er8 -is ans"er is unli+e that of %re, Senior, Pc8, and their pun* German plagiarists X la &oscher "ho are touched b* the @abstinence,A @self4denial,A @sa)ing,A of the capitalists in the e9penditure of their gold, and b* their 'imur4'amerlanish prodigalit* of human lifeQ @( certain amount of heat be*ond "hat is usual at present might also be going to "aste, if meal4times "ere secured in these cases, but it seems li+el* not eIual in mone*4)alue to the "aste of animal po"er no" going on in glass4houses throughout the +ingdom from gro"ing bo*s not ha)ing enough Iuiet time to eat their meals at ease, "ith a little rest after"ards for digestion8A (l8c8, p8 9i)8! (nd this in the *ear of progress 1863Q Bithout considering the e9penditure of strength in lifting and carr*ing, such a child, in the sheds "here bottle and flint glass are made, "al+s during the performance of his "or+ 13467 miles in e)er* 6 hoursQ (nd the "or+ often lasts 1 or 13 hoursQ >n man* of these glass "or+s, as in the $osco" spinning mills, the s*stem of 6 hours? rela*s is in force8 @0uring the "or+ing part of the "ee+ si9 hours is the utmost unbro+en period e)er attained at an* one time for rest, and out of this has to come the time spent in coming and going to and from "or+, "ashing, dressing, and meals, lea)ing a )er* short period indeed for rest, and none for fresh air and pla*, unless at the e9pense of the sleep necessar* for *oung bo*s, especiall* at such hot and fatiguing "or+8888 E)en the short sleep is ob)iousl* liable to be bro+en b* a bo* ha)ing to "a+e himself if it is night, or b* the noise, if it is da*8A $r8 Bhite gi)es cases "here a bo* "or+ed :6 consecuti)e hours; others "here bo*s of 16 drudged on until 6 in the morning, and then slept in the "or+s till 3 a8m8 (: hoursQ! onl* to resume their "or+8 @'he amount of "or+,A sa* 'remenheere and 'ufnell, "ho drafted the general report, @done b* bo*s, *ouths, girls, and "omen, in the course of their dail* or nightl* spell of labour, is certainl* e9traordinar*8A (l8c8, 9liii8 and 9li)8! $ean"hile, late b* night, self4den*ing $r8 Glass45apital, primed "ith port4"ine, reels out of his club home"ard droning out idioticall*8 @/ritons ne)er, ne)er shall be sla)esQA 76 >n England e)en no" occasionall* in rural districts a labourer is condemned to imprisonment for desecrating the Sabbath, b* "or+ing in his front garden8 'he same labourer is punished for breach of contract if he remains a"a* from his metal, paper, or glass "or+s on the Sunda*, e)en if it be from a religious "him8 'he orthodo9 #arliament "ill hear nothing of Sabbath4brea+ing if it occurs in the process of e9panding capital8 ( memorial ((ugust 186:!, in "hich the <ondon da*4labourers in fish and poultr* shops as+ed for the abolition of Sunda* labour, states that their "or+ lasts for the first 6 da*s of the "ee+ on an a)erage 13 hours a4da*, and on Sunda* 8417 hours8 From this same memorial "e learn also that the delicate gourmands among the aristocratic h*pocrite of E9eter -all, especiall* encourage this @Sunda* labour8A 'hese @hol* ones,A so 1ealous in cute curanda Gin attending to their bodil* pleasuresH, sho" their 5hristianit* b* the humilit* "ith "hich the* bear the o)er"or+, the pri)ations, and the hunger

of others8 -bse&uium ventris istis (the labourers5 perniciosius est GGlutton* is more ruinous to their stomachs F paraphrase of -oraceH8 7: @Be ha)e gi)en in our pre)ious reports the statements of se)eral e9perienced manufacturers to the effect that o)er4 hours 888 certainl* tend prematurel* to e9haust the "or+ing po"er of the men8A (l8c8, 6 8 p8 9iii8! 7 5airnes, @'he Sla)e #o"er,A pp8 1178 1118 73 Lohn Bard: @'he /orough of Sto+e4upon4'rent,A <ondon, 18 :, p8 68 76 Ferrand?s Speech in the -ouse of 5ommons, 67th (pril, 186:8 77 'hose "ere the )er* "ords used b* the cotton manufacturers8A l8c8 78 l8c8 $r8 ;illiers, despite the best of intentions on his part, "as @legall*A obliged to refuse the reIuests of the manufacturers8 'hese gentlemen, ho"e)er, attained their end through the obliging nature of the local poor la" boards8 $r8 (8 &edgra)e, >nspector of Factories, asserts that this time the s*stem under "hich orphans and pauper children "ere treated @legall*A as apprentices @"as not accompanied "ith the old abusesA (on these @abusesA see Engels, l8c8!, although in one case there certainl* "as @abuse of this s*stem in respect to a number of girls and *oung "omen brought from the agricultural districts of Scotland into <ancashire and 5heshire8A %nder this s*stem the manufacturer entered into a contract "ith the "or+house authorities for a certain period8 -e fed, clothed and lodged the children, and ga)e them a small allo"ance of mone*8 ( remar+ of $r8 &edgra)e to be Iuoted directl* seems strange, especiall* if "e consider that e)en among the *ears of prosperit* of the English cotton trade, the *ear 1867 stands unparalleled, and that, besides, "ages "ere e9ceptionall* high8 For this e9traordinar* demand for "or+ had to contend "ith the depopulation of >reland, "ith une9ampled emigration from the English and Scotch agricultural districts to (ustralia and (merica, "ith an actual diminution of the population in some of the English agricultural districts, in conseIuence partl* of an actual brea+do"n of the )ital force of the labourers, partl* of the alread* effected dispersion of the disposable population through the dealers in human flesh8 0espite all this $r8 &edgra)e sa*s: @'his +ind of labour, ho"e)er, "ould onl* be sought after "hen none other could be procured, for it is a high4priced labour8 'he ordinar* "ages of a bo* of 1: "ould be about s8 per "ee+, but to lodge, to clothe, to feed, and to pro)ide medical attendance and proper superintendence for 37 or 177 of these bo*s, and to set aside some remuneration for them, could not be accomplished for s8 a4head per "ee+8A (&eport of the >nspector of Factories for :7th (pril, 1867, p8 678! $r8 &edgra)e forgets to tell us ho" the labourer himself can do all this for his children out of their s8 a4"ee+ "ages, "hen the manufacturer cannot do it for the 37 or 177 children lodged, boarded, superintended all together8 'o guard against false conclusions from the te9t, > ought here to remar+ that the English cotton industr*, since it "as placed under the Factor* (ct of 1837 "ith its regulations of labour4time, Pc8, must be regarded as the model industr* of England8 'he English cotton operati)e is in e)er* respect better off than his 5ontinental companion in miser*8 @'he #russian factor* operati)e labours at least ten hours per "ee+ more than his English competitor, and if emplo*ed at his o"n loom in his o"n house, his labour is not restricted to e)en those additional hours8 (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ctober, 1833, p8 17:8! &edgra)e, the Factor* >nspector mentioned abo)e, after the >ndustrial E9hibition in 1831, tra)elled on the 5ontinent, especiall* in France and German*, for the purpose of inIuiring into the conditions of the factories8 =f the #russian operati)e he sa*s: @-e recei)es a remuneration sufficient to procure the simple fare, and to suppl* the slender comforts to "hich he has been accustomed 888 he li)es upon his coarse fare, and "or+s hard, "herein his position is subordinate to that of the English operati)e8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8A :1st =ct8, 1833, p8 838! 72 'he o)er4"or+ed @die off "ith strange rapidit*; but the places of those "ho perish are instantl* filled, and a freIuent change of persons ma+es no alteration in the scene8A (@England and (merica8A <ondon, 18::, )ol8 >, p8 338 /* E8 G8 Ba+efield8! 87 See @#ublic -ealth8 Si9th &eport of the $edical =fficer of the #ri)* 5ouncil, 186:8A #ublished in <ondon 186 8 'his report deals especiall* "ith the agricultural labourers8 @Sutherland 888 is commonl* represented as a highl* impro)ed count* 888 but 888 recent inIuir* has disco)ered that e)en there, in districts once famous for fine men and gallant soldiers, the inhabitants ha)e degenerated into a meagre and stunted race8 >n the healthiest situations, on hill sides fronting the sea, the faces of their famished children are as pale as the* could be in the foul atmosphere of a <ondon alle*8A (B8 'h8 'hornton8 @=)erpopulation and its &emed*8A l8c8, pp8 7 , 738! 'he* resemble in fact the :7,777 @gallant -ighlandersA "hom Glasgo" pigs together in its "*nds and closes, "ith prostitutes and thie)es8 81 @/ut though the health of a population is so important a fact of the national capital, "e are afraid it must be said that the class of emplo*ers of labour ha)e not been the most for"ard to guard and cherish this treasure8888 'he consideration of the health of the operati)es "as forced upon the mill4o"ners8A ( /imes, Co)ember 3th, 18618! @'he men of the Best &iding became the clothiers of man+ind 888 the health of the "or+people "as sacrificed, and the race in a fe" generations must ha)e degenerated8 /ut a reaction set in8 <ord Shaftesbur*?s /ill limited the hours of

children?s labour,A Pc8 (@&eport of the &egistrar4General,A for =ctober 18618! 86 Be, therefore, find, e8g8, that in the beginning of 186:, 66 firms o"ning e9tensi)e potteries in Staffordshire, amongst others, Losiah Bedg"ood, P Sons, petition in a memorial for @some legislati)e enactment8A 5ompetition "ith other capitalists permits them no )oluntar* limitation of "or+ing4time for children, Pc8 @$uch as "e deplore the e)ils before mentioned, it "ould not be possible to pre)ent them b* an* scheme of agreement bet"een the manufacturers8 888 'a+ing all these points into consideration, "e ha)e come to the con)iction that some legislati)e enactment is "anted8A (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5omm8A &ep8 >, 186:, p8 :668! $ost recentl* a much more stri+ing e9ample offers8 'he rise in the price of cotton during a period of fe)erish acti)it*, had induced the manufacturers in /lac+burn to shorten, b* mutual consent, the "or+ing4time in their mills during a certain fi9ed period8 'his period terminated about the end of Co)ember, 18718 $ean"hile, the "ealthier manufacturers, "ho combined spinning "ith "ea)ing, used the diminution of production resulting from this agreement, to e9tend their o"n business and thus to ma+e great profits at the e9pense of the small emplo*ers8 'he latter thereupon turned in their e9tremit* to the operati)es, urged them earnestl* to agitate for the 2 hours? s*stem, and promised contributions in mone* to this end8 8: 'he labour Statutes, the li+e of "hich "ere enacted at the same time in France, the Cetherlands, and else"here, "ere first formall* repealed in England in 181:, long after the changes in methods of production had rendered them obsolete8 8 @Co child under 16 *ears of age shall be emplo*ed in an* manufacturing establishment more than 17 hours in one da*8A General Statutes of $assachusetts, 6:, ch8 168 ('he )arious Statutes "ere passed bet"een 18:6 and 18388! @<abour performed during a period of 17 hours on an* da* in all cotton, "oollen, sil+, paper, glass, and fla9 factories, or in manufactories of iron and brass, shall be considered a legal da*?s labour8 (nd be it enacted, that hereafter no minor engaged in an* factor* shall be holden or reIuired to "or+ more than 17 hours in an* da*,or 67 hours in an* "ee+; and that hereafter no minor shall be admitted as a "or+er under the age of 17 *ears in an* factor* "ithin this State8A State of Ce" Lerse*8 (n (ct to limit the hours of labour, Pc8, 1 and 68 (<a" of 18th $arch, 18318! @Co minor "ho has attained the age of 16 *ears, and is under the age of 13 *ears, shall be emplo*ed in an* manufacturing establishment more than 11 hours in an* one da*, nor before 3 o?cloc+ in the morning, nor after 78:7 in the e)ening8A (@&e)ised Statutes of the State of &hode >sland,A Pc8, ch8 1:2, 6:, 1st Lul*, 18378! 83 @Sophisms of Free 'rade8A 7th Ed8 <ondon, 1837, p8 673, 2th Ed8, p8 63:8 'his same 'or*, moreo)er, admits that @(cts of #arliament regulating "ages, but against the labourer and in fa)our of the master, lasted for the long period of 6 *ears8 #opulation gre"8 'hese la"s "ere then found, and reall* became, unnecessar* and burdensome8A (l8c8, p8 6768! 86 >n reference to this statute, L8 Bade "ith truth remar+s: @From the statement abo)e (i8e8, "ith regard to the statute! it appears that in 1 26 the diet "as considered eIui)alent to one4third of the income of an artificer and one4half the income of a labourer, "hich indicates a greater degree of independence among the "or+ing4classes than pre)ails at present; for the board, both of labourers and artificers, "ould no" be rec+oned at a much higher proportion of their "ages8A (L8 Bade, @-istor* of the $iddle and Bor+ing 5lasses,A pp8 6 , 63, and 3778! 'he opinion that this difference is due to the difference in the price4relations bet"een food and clothing then and no" is refuted b* the most cursor* glance at @5hronicon #reciosum, Pc8A /* /ishop Fleet"ood8 1st Ed8, <ondon, 1777; 6nd Ed8, <ondon, 17 38 87 B8 #ett*8 @#olitical (natom* of >reland, ;erbum Sapienti,A 1676, Ed8 1621, p8 178 88 @( 0iscourse on the necessit* of encouraging $echanic+ >ndustr*,A <ondon, 1627, p8 1:8 $acaula*, "ho has falsified English histor* in the interests of the Bhigs and the bourgeoisie, declares as follo"s: @'he practice of setting children prematurel* to "or+ 888 pre)ailed in the 17th centur* to an e9tent "hich, "hen compared "ith the e9tent of the manufacturing s*stem, seems almost incredible8 (t Cor"ich, the chief seat of the clothing trade, a little creature of si9 *ears old "as thought fit for labour8 Se)eral "riters of that time, and among them some "ho "ere considered as eminentl* bene)olent, mention "ith e9ultation the fact that in that single cit*, bo*s and girls of )er* tender age create "ealth e9ceeding "hat "as necessar* for their o"n subsistence b* t"el)e thousand pounds a *ear8 'he more carefull* "e e9amine the histor* of the past, the more reason shall "e find to dissent from those "ho imagine that our age has been fruitful of ne" social e)ils8888 'hat "hich is ne" is the intelligence and the humanit* "hich remedies them8A (@-istor* of England,A )ol8 18, p8 178! $acaula* might ha)e reported further that @e9tremel* "ell4disposedA amis du commerce in the 17th centur*, narrate "ith @e9ultationA ho" in a poorhouse in -olland a child of four "as emplo*ed, and that this e9ample of @vertu mise en prati&ueA Gapplied )irtueH passes muster in all the humanitarian "or+s, E la $acaula*, to the time of (dam Smith8 >t is true that "ith the substitution of manufacture for handicrafts, traces of the e9ploitation of children begin to appear8 'his e9ploitation e9isted al"a*s to a certain e9tent among peasants, and "as the more de)eloped, the hea)ier the *o+e pressing on the husbandman8 'he tendenc* of capital is there unmista+abl*; but the facts themsel)es are still as isolated as the phenomena of t"o4headed children8 -ence the* "ere noted @"ith

e9ultationA as especiall* "orth* of remar+ and as "onders b* the far4seeing @ amis du commerce,A and recommended as models for their o"n time and for posterit*8 'his same Scotch s*cophant and fine tal+er, $acaula*, sa*s: @Be hear to4da* onl* of retrogression and see onl* progress8A Bhat e*es, and especiall* "hat earsQ 82 (mong the accusers of the "or+people, the most angr* is the anon*mous author Iuoted in the te9t of @(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce, containing =bser)ations on 'a9es, Pc8,A <ondon, 17778 -e had alread* dealt "ith this subDect in his earlier "or+: @5onsiderations on 'a9es8A <ondon, 17638 (nd the same side follo"s #olonius (rthur Noung, the unutterable statistical prattler8 (mong the defenders of the "or+ing4classes the foremost are: Lacob ;anderlint, in: @$one* (ns"ers all 'hings8A <ondon, 17: , the &e)8 Cathaniel Forster, 08 08, in @(n EnIuir* into the 5auses of the #resent -igh #rice of #ro)isions,A <ondon, 1767; 0r8 #rice, and especiall* #ostleth"a*t, as "ell in the supplement to his @%ni)ersal 0ictionar* of 'rade and 5ommerce,A as in his @Great /ritain?s 5ommercial >nterest e9plained and impro)ed8A 6nd Edition, 17338 'he facts themsel)es are confirmed b* man* other "riters of the time, among others b* Losiah 'uc+er8 27 #ostleth"a*t, l8c8, @First #reliminar* 0iscourse,A p8 1 8 21 @(n Essa*,A Pc8 -e himself relates on p8 26 "herein the @happinessA of the English agricultural labourer alread* in 1777 consisted8 @'heir po"ers are al"a*s upon the stretch, the* cannot li)e cheaper than the* do, nor "or+ harder8A 26 #rotestantism, b* changing almost all the traditional holida*s into "or+da*s, pla*s an important part in the genesis of capital8 2: @(n Essa*,A c8, pp8 13, 1, 26, 27, 33, 37, 628 v Lacob ;anderlint, as earl* as 17: , declared that the secret of the out4cr* of the capitalists as to the la1iness of the "or+ing people "as simpl* that the* claimed for the same "ages 6 da*s? labour instead of 8 2 l8c8, p8 6 68 23 l8c8 @'he French,A he sa*s, @laugh at our enthusiastic ideas of libert*8A l8c8, p8 788 26 @'he* especiall* obDected to "or+ be*ond the 16 hours per da*, because the la" "hich fi9ed those hours, is the onl* good "hich remains to them of the legislation of the &epublic8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8A, :1 st =ctober, 1836, p8 878! 'he French '"el)e -ours? /ill of September 3th, 1837, a bourgeois edition of the decree of the #ro)isional Go)ernment of $arch 6nd, 18 8, holds in all "or+shops "ithout e9ceptions8 /efore this la" the "or+ing da* in France "as "ithout definite limit8 >t lasted in the factories 1 , 13, or more hours8 See @0es classes ou)rinres en France, pendant l?annRe 18 88 #ar $8 /lanIui8A $8 /lanIui the economist, not the &e)olutionist, had been entrusted b* the Go)ernment "ith an inIuir* into the condition of the "or+ing4class8 27 /elgium is the model bourgeois state in regard to the regulation of the "or+ing da*8 <ord -o"ard of Belden, English #lenipotentiar* at /russels, reports to the Foreign =ffice $a* 16th, 1866: @$8 &ogier, the minister, informed me that children?s labour is limited neither b* a general la" nor b* an* local regulations; that the Go)ernment, during the last three *ears, intended in e)er* session to propose a bill on the subDect, but al"a*s found an insuperable obstacle in the Dealous opposition to an* legislation in contradiction "ith the principle of perfect freedom of labour8A 28 >t is certainl* much to be regretted that an* class of persons should toil 16 hours a da*, "hich, including the time for their meals and for going to and returning from their "or+, amounts, in fact, to 1 of the 6 hours8888 Bithout entering into the Iuestion of health, no one "ill hesitate, > thin+, to admit that, in a moral point of vie1, so entire an absorption of the time of the "or+ing4classes, "ithout intermission, from the earl* age of 1:, and in trades not subDect to restriction, much *ounger, must be e9tremel* preDudicial, and is an e)il greatl* to be deplored8888 For the sa+e, therefore, of public morals8 of bringing up an orderl* population, and of gi)ing the great bod* of the people a reasonable enDo*ment of life, it is much to be desired that in all trades some portion of e)er* "or+ing da* should be reser)ed for rest and leisure8A (<eonard -orner in @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st 0ec8, 18 18A! 22 See @Ludgment of $r8 L8 -8 =t"a*, /elfast8 -ilar* Sessions, 5ount* (ntrim, 18678A 177 >t is )er* characteristic of the regime of <ouis #hilippe, the bourgeois +ing, that the one Factor* (ct passed during his reign, that of $arch 66nd, 18 1, "as ne)er put in force8 (nd this la" onl* dealt "ith child4labour8 >t fi9ed 8 hours a da* for children bet"een 8 and 16, 16 hours for children bet"een 16 and 16, Pc8, "ith man* e9ceptions "hich allo" night4"or+ e)en for children 8 *ears old8 'he super)ision and enforcement of this la" are, in a countr* "here e)er* mouse is under police administration, left to the good4"ill of the amis du commerce8 =nl* since 183:, in one single department v the 0epartement du Cord v has a paid go)ernment inspector been appointed8 Cot less characteristic of the de)elopment of French societ*, generall*, is the fact, that <ouis #hilippe?s la" stood solitar* among the all4 embracing mass of French la"s, till the &e)olution of 18 88 171 &eport of >nsp8 of Fact8A :7th (pril, 1867, p8 378

176 17:

@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ctober, 18 2, p8 6 @&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ctober, 18 8, p8 288 17 <eonard -orner uses the e9pression @nefarious practicesA in his official reports8 (@&eport of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ctober, 1832, p8 78! 173 @&ept8,A Pc8, :7th Sept8, 18 , p8 138 176 'he (ct allo"s children to be emplo*ed for 17 hours if the* do not "or+ da* after da*, but onl* on alternate da*s8 >n the main, this clause remained inoperati)e8 177 @(s a reduction in their hours of "or+ "ould cause a larger number (of children! to be emplo*ed, it "as thought that the additional suppl* of children from 8 to 2 *ears of age "ould meet the increased demandA (l8c8, p8 1: !8 178 &ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ct8, 18 8, p8 168 172 @> found that men "ho had been getting 17s8 a "ee+, had had 1s8 ta+en off for a reduction in the rate of 17 per cent, and 1s8 6d8 off the remaining 2s8 for the reduction in time, together 6s8 6d88 and not"ithstanding this, man* of them said the* "ould rather "or+ 17 hours8A l8c8 117 @W'hough > signed it Gthe petitionH, > said at the time > "as putting m* hand to a "rong thing8? W'hen "h* did *ou put *our hand to itE? W/ecause > should ha)e been turned off if > had refused8? Bhence it "ould appear that this petitioner felt himself Woppressed,? but not e9actl* b* the Factor* (ct8A l8c8, p8 1768 111 p8 17, l8c8 >n $r8 -orner?s district 17,677 adult male labourers "ere thus e9amined in 181 factories8 'heir e)idence is to be found in the appendi9 to the Factor* &eports for the half4*ear ending =ctober 18 88 'hese e9aminations furnish )aluable material in other conne9ions also8 116 l8c8 See the e)idence collected b* <eonard -orner himself, Cos8 62, 77, 71, 76, 26, 2:, and that collected b* Sub4 lnspector (8, Cos8 31, 36, 38, 32, 66, 77, of the (ppendi98 =ne manufacturer, too, tells the plain truth8 See Co8 1 , and Co8 663, l8c8 11: &eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 18 8, pp8 1::, 1: 8 11 &eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18 8, p8 78 113 &eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 18 8, p8 1:78 116 &eports, Pc8, l8c8, p8 1 68 117 &eports Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1837, pp8 3, 68 118 'he nature of capital remains the same in its de)eloped as in its unde)eloped form8 >n the code "hich the influence of the sla)e4o"ners, shortl* before the outbrea+ of the (merican 5i)il Bar, imposed on the territor* of Ce" $e9ico, it is said that the labourer, in as much as the capitalist has bought his labour4po"er, @is his (the capitalist?s! mone*8A 'he same )ie" "as current among the &oman patricians8 'he mone* the* had ad)anced to the plebeian debtor had been transformed )ia the means of subsistence into the flesh and blood of the debtor8 'his @flesh and bloodA "ere, therefore, @their mone*8A -ence, the Sh*loc+4la" of the 'en 'ables8 <inguet?s h*pothesis that the patrician creditors from time to time prepared, be*ond the 'iber, banIuets of debtors? flesh, ma* remain as undecided as that of 0aumer on the 5hristian Eucharist8 112 &eports, Pc88 for :7th (pril, 18 8, p8 688 167 'hus, among others, #hilanthropist (sh"orth to <eonard -orner, in a disgusting Kua+er letter8 (&eports, Pc8, (pril, 18 2, p8 8! 161 l8c8, p8 1 78 166 &eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18 2, pp8 61, 668 5f li+e e9amples ibid8, pp8 8 38 16: /* >8 and >>8 Bill8 >;8, ch8 6 , s8 17, +no"n as Sir Lohn Bobhouse?s Factor* (ct, it "as forbidden to an* o"ner of a cotton4spinning or "ea)ing mill, or the father, son, or brother of such o"ner, to act as Lustice of the #eace in an* inIuiries that concerned the Factor* (ct8 16 l8c8 163 &eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18 2, p8 S8 166 &eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 18 2, p8 68 167 &eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18 2, p8 618 168 &eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 18 8, p8 238

162

See &eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18 2, p8 6, and the detailed e9planation of the @shifting s*stem,A b* Factor* >nspectors -o"ell and Saunders, in @&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 18 88A See also the petition to the Kueen from the clerg* of (shton and )icinit*, in the spring of 18 2, against the shift s*stem8A 1:7 5f8 for e9ample, @'he Factor* Kuestion and the 'en -ours? /ill8A, /* &8 -8 Greg, 18:78 1:1 F8 Engels: W'he English 'en -ours? /ill8A (>n the @ Heue Rheinische Leitun $ Politisch)oe"onomische Revue$ A Edited b* .8 $ar98 (pril number, 1837, p8 1:8! 'he same @highA 5ourt of Lustice disco)ered, during the (merican 5i)il Bar, a )erbal ambiguit* "hich e9actl* re)ersed the meaning of the la" against the arming of pirate ships8 1:6 &ep8, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 18378 1:: >n "inter, from 7 a8m8 to 7 p8m8 ma* be substituted8 1: @'he present la" (of 1837! "as a compromise "hereb* the emplo*ed surrendered the benefit of the 'en -ours? (ct for the ad)antage of one uniform period for the commencement and termination of the labour of those "hose labour is restricted8A (&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 1836, p8 1 8! 1:3 &espons, Pc8, for Sept8, 18 , p8 1:8 1:6 l8c8 1:7 l8c8 1:8 @&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 18 6,A p8 678 1:2 &eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 1861, p8 668 1 7 l8c8,p8 678 =n the "hole the "or+ing population, subDect to the Factor* (ct, has greatl* impro)ed ph*sicall*8 (ll medical testimon* agrees on this point, and personal obser)ation at different times has con)inced me of it8 Ce)ertheless, and e9clusi)e of the terrible death4rate of children in the first *ears of their life, the official reports of 0r8 Greenho" sho" the unfa)ourable health condition of the manufacturing districts as compared "ith @agricultural districts of normal health8A (s e)idence, ta+e the follo"ing table from his 1861 report: v
Pecenta)e of Adult Males *n)a)ed in Manufactures1 82 686:78: 182:1871 82:686:78 v7eath@rate from Pulmonary Affections per 1-->--- Males3287783 7611621388761766:73,ame of 7istrictBigan/lac+burn-alifa9/radford$accles4 field<ee+Sto+e4 upon4'rentBoolstantonEight health* agricultural districts7eath@rate from Pulmonary Affections per 1-->--- 3emales6 7: 36 67:87 773663767: 7Pecenta)e of Adult 3emales *n)a)ed in Manufactures1887: 82678 :78766871786128:1:82vAind of 3emale +ccupation5otton0o8Borsted0o8Sil+0o8Earthen"are0o8v
1 1

>t is "ell +no"n "ith "hat reluctance the English @Free4traders,A ga)e up the protecti)e dut* on the sil+ manufacture8 >nstead of the protection against French importation, the absence of protection to English factor* children no" ser)es their turn8 1 6 0uring 1832 and 1867, the 1enith *ears of the English cotton industr*, some manufacturers tried, b* the deco* bait of higher "ages for o)er4time, to reconcile the adult male operati)es to an e9tension of the "or+ing da*8 'he hand4 mule spinners and self4actor mincers put an end to the e9periment b* a petition to their emplo*ers in "hich the* sa*, @#lainl* spea+ing, our li)es are to us a burthen; and, "hile "e are confined to the mills nearly t1o days a 1ee" more than the other operati)es of the countr*, "e feel li+e helots in the land, and that "e are perpetuating a s*stem inDurious to oursel)es and future generations8888 'his, therefore, is to gi)e *ou most respectful notice that "hen "e commence "or+ again after the 5hristmas and Ce" Near?s holida*s, "e shall "or+ 67 hours per "ee+, and no more, or from si9 to si9, "ith one hour and a half out8A (&eports, Prc8, for :7th (pril, 1867, p8 :78! 1 : =n the means that the "ording of this (ct afforded for its )iolation of the #arliamentar* &eturn @Factories &egulation (ctA (6th (ugust, 1832!, and in it <eonard -orner?s @Suggestions for amending the Factor* (cts to enable

the >nspectors to pre)ent illegal "or+ing, no" becoming )er* pre)alent8A 1 5hildren of the age of 8 *ears and up"ards, ha)e, indeed, been emplo*ed from 6 a8m8 to 2 p8m8 during the last half *ear in m* district8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1837, p8 :28! 1 3 @'he #rint"or+s? (ct is admitted to be a failure both "ith reference to its educational and protecti)e pro)isions8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1866, p8 368! 1 6 'hus, e$ 8, E8 #otter in a letter to the /imes of $arch 6 th, 186:8 'he /imes reminded him of the maoufacturers? re)olt against the 'en -ours? /ill8 1 7 'hus, among others, $r8 B8 Ce"march, collaborator and editor of 'oo+e?s @-istor* of #rices8A >s it a scientific ad)ance to ma+e co"ardl* concessions to public opinionE 1 8 'he (ct passed in 1867, determined that, in regard to d*e and bleach"or+s, the "or+ing da* should be fi9ed on (ugust 1st, 1861, pro)isionall* at 16 hours, and definitel* on (ugust 1st, 1866, at 17 hours, i$e8, at 17[ hours for ordinar* da*s, and 7[ for Saturda*8 Co", "hen the fatal *ear, 1866, came, the old farce "as repeated8 /esides, the manufacturers petitioned #arliament to allo" the emplo*ment of *oung persons and "omen for 16 hours during one *ear longer8 @>n the e9isting condition of the trade (the time of the cotton famine!, it "as greatl* to the ad)antage of the operati)es to "or+ 16 hours per da*, and ma+e "ages "hen the* could8A ( bill to this effect had been brought in, @and it "as mainl* due to the action of the operati)e bleachers in Scotland that the bill "as abandoned8A (&eports, P:c8, for :1st =ctober, 1866, pp8 1 4138! 'hus defeated b* the )er* "or+people, in "hose name it pretended to spea+, 5apital disco)ered, "ith the help of la"*er spectacles, that the (ct of 1867, dra"n up, li+e all the (cts of #arliament for the @protection of labour,A in eIui)ocal phrases, ga)e them a prete9t to e9clude from its "or+ing the calenderers and finishers8 English Durisprudence, e)er the faithful ser)ant of capital, sanctioned in the 5ourt of 5ommon #leas this piece of pettifogging8 @'he operati)es ha)e been greatl* disappointed 888 the* ha)e complained of o)er4"or+, and it is greatl* to be regretted that the clear intention of the legislature should ha)e failed b* reason of a fault* definition8A (l8c8, p8 188! 1 2 'he @open4air bleachersA had e)aded the la" of 1867, b* means of the lie that no "omen "or+ed at it in the night8 'he lie "as e9posed b* the Factor* >nspectors, and at the same time #arliament "as, b* petitions from the operati)es, bereft of its notions as to the cool meado"4fragrance, in "hich bleaching in the open4air "as reported to ta+e place8 >n this aerial bleaching, dr*ing4rooms "ere used at temperatures of from 27p to 177p Fahrenheit, in "hich the "or+ "as done for the most part b* girls8 @5oolingA is the technical e9pression for their occasional escape from the dr*ing4 rooms into the fresh air8 @Fifteen girls in sto)es8 -eat from 87p to 27p for linens, and 177p and up"ards for cambrics8 '"el)e girls ironing and doing4up in a small room about 17 feet sIuare, in the centre of "hich is a close sto)e8 'he girls stand round the sto)e, "hich thro"s out a terrific heat, and dries the cambrics rapidl* for the ironers8 'he hours of "or+ for these hands are unlimited8 >f bus*, the* "or+ till 2 or 16 at night for successi)e nights8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1866, p8 368! ( medical man states: @Co special hours are allo"ed for cooling, but if the temperature gets too high, or the "or+ers? hands get soiled from perspiration, the* are allo"ed to go out for a fe" minutes8888 $* e9perience, "hich is considerable, in treating the diseases of sto)e "or+ers, compels me to e9press the opinion that their sanitar* condition is b* no means so high as that of the operati)es in a spinning factor* (and 5apital, in its memorials to #arliament, had painted them as floridl* health* after the manner of &ubens8! 'he diseases most obser)able amongst them are phthisis, bronchitis, irregularit* of uterine functions, h*steria in its most aggra)ated forms, and rheumatism8 (ll of these, > belie)e, are either directl* or indirectl* induced b* the impure, o)erheated air of the apartments in "hich the hands are emplo*ed and the "ant of sufficient comfortable clothing to protect them from the cold, damp atmosphere, in "inter, "hen going to their homes8A (l8c8, pp8 364378! 'he Factor* >nspectors remar+ed on the supplementar* la" of 1867, torn from these open4air bleachers: @'he (ct has not onl* failed to afford that protection to the "or+ers "hich it appears to offer, but contains a clause 888 apparentl* so "orded that, unless persons are detected "or+ing after 8 o?cloc+ at night the* appear to come under no protecti)e pro)isions at all, and if the* do so "or+ the mode of proof is so doubtful that a con)iction can scarcel* follo"8A (l8c8, p8 368! @'o all intents and purposes, therefore, as an (ct for an* bene)olent or educational purpose, it is a failure; since it can scarcel* be called bene)olent to permit, "hich is tantamount to compelling, "omen and children to "or+ 1 hours a da* "ith or "ithout meals, as the case ma* be, and perhaps for longer hours than these, "ithout limit as to age, "ithout reference to se9, and "ithout regard to the social habits of the families of the neighbourhood, in "hich such "or+s (bleaching and d*eing! are situated8A (&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 186:, p8 78! 137 Hote to the 6nd Ed$ Since 1866, "hen > "rote the abo)e passages, a reaction has again set in8 131 @'he conduct of each of these classes (capitalists and "or+men! has been the result of the relati)e situation in "hich the* ha)e been placed8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 18 8, p8 11:8!

136

@'he emplo*ments, placed under restriction, "ere connected "ith the manufacture of te9tile fabrics b* the aid of steam or "ater4po"er8 'here "ere t"o conditions to "hich an emplo*ment must be subDect to cause it to be inspected, )i18, the use of steam or "aterpo"er, and the manufacture of certain specified fibre8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 186 , p8 88! 13: =n the condition of so4called domestic industries, speciall* )aluable materials are to be found in the latest reports of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8 13 @'he (cts of last Session (186 ! 888 embrace a di)ersit* of occupations, the customs in "hich differ greatl*, and the use of mechanical po"er to gi)e motion to machiner* is no longer one of the elements necessar*8 as formerl*, to constitute, in legal phrase, a WFactor*8?A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctaber, 186 , p8 88! 133 /elgium, the paradise of 5ontinental <iberalism, sho"s no trace of this mo)ement8 E)en in the coal and metal mines labourers of both se9es, and all ages, are consumed, in perfect @freedomA at an* period and through an* length of time8 =f e)er* 1,777 persons emplo*ed there, 7:: are men, 88 "omen8 1:3 bo*s, and girls under 16; in the blast furnaces, Pc8, of e)er* 1,777, 668 are men, 1 2 "omen, 28 bo*s, and 83 girls under 168 (dd to this the lo" "ages for the enormous e9ploitation of mature and immature labour4po"er8 'he a)erage dail* pa* for a man is 6s8 8d88 for a "oman, 1s8 8d88 for a bo*8 1s8 6[d8 (s a result, /elgium had in 186:, as compared "ith 1837, nearl* doubled both the amount and the )alue of its e9ports of coal, iron, Pc8 136 &obert ="en, soon after 1817, not onl* maintained the necessit* of a limitation of the "or+ing da* in theor*, but actuall* introduced the 17 hours? da* into his factor* at Ce" <anar+8 'his "as laughed at as a communistic %topia; so "ere his @5ombination of children?s education "ith producti)e labour and the 5o4operati)e Societies of Bor+ingmenA, first called into being b* him8 'o4da*, the first %topia is a Factor* (ct, the second figures as an official phrase in all Factor* (cts, the third is alread* being used as a cloa+ for reactionar* humbug8 137 %re: @French translation, #hilosophie des $anufactures8A #aris, 18:6, ;ol8 >>, pp8 :2, 7, 67, 77, Pc8 138 >n the 5ompte &endu of the >nternational Statistical 5ongress at #aris, 1833, it is stated: @'he French la", "hich limits the length of dail* labour in factories and "or+shops to 16 hours, does not confine this "or+ to definite fi9ed hours8 For children?s labour onl* the "or+4time is prescribed as bet"een 3 a8m8 and 2 p8m8 'herefore, some of the masters use the right "hich this fatal silence gi)es them to +eep their "or+s going, "ithout intermission, da* in, da* out, possibl* "ith the e9ception of Sunda*8 For this purpose the* use t"o different sets of "or+ers, of "hom neither is in the "or+shop more than 16 hours at a time, but the "or+ of the establishment lasts da* and night8 'he la" is satisfied, but is humanit*EA /esides @the destructi)e influence of night4labour on the human organism,A stress is also laid upon @the fatal influence of the association of the t"o se9es b* night in the same badl*4lighted "or+shops8A 132 @For instance, there is "ithin m* district one occupier "ho, "ithin the same curtilage, is at the same time a bleacher and d*er under the /leaching and 0*eing Bor+s (ct, a printer under the #rint Bor+s (ct, and a finisher under the Factor* (ct8A (&eport of $r8 /a+er, in &eports, lic8, for =ctober :1st, 1861, p8 678! (fter enumerating the different pro)isions of these (cts, and the complications arising from them, $r8 /a+er sa*s: @>t "ill hence appear that it must be )er* difficult to secure the e9ecution of these three (cts of #arliament "here the occupier chooses to e)ade the la"8A /ut "hat is assured to the la"*ers b* this is la"4suits8 167 'hus the Factor* >nspectors at last )enture to sa*: @'hese obDections (of capital to the legal limitation of the "or+ing da*! must succumb before the broad principle of the rights of labour8888 'here is a time "hen the master?s right in his "or+man?s labour ceases, and his time becomes his o"n, e)en if there "ere no e9haustion in the Iuestion8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1 st =ct8, 1866, p8 3 8! 161 @Be, the "or+ers of 0un+ir+, declare that the length of time of labour reIuired under the present s*stem is too great, and that, far from lea)ing the "or+er time for rest and education, it plunges him into a condition of ser)itude but little better than sla)er*8 'hat is "h* "e decide that 8 hours are enough for a "or+ing da*, and ought to be legall* recognised as enough; "h* "e call to our help that po"erful le)er, the press; 888 and "h* "e shall consider all those that refuse us this help as enemies of the reform of labour and of the rights of the labourer8A (&esolution of the Bor+ing $en of 0un+ir+, Ce" Nor+ State, 18668! 166 &eports, Pc8, for =ct8, 18 8, p8 1168 16: @'he proceedings (the manoeu)res of capital, e8g8, from 18 8437! ha)e afforded, moreo)er, incontro)ertible proof of the fallac* of the assertion so often ad)anced, that operati)es need no protection, but ma* be considered as free agents in the disposal of the onl* propert* "hich the* possess v the labour of their hands and the s"eat of their bro"s8A (&eports, Pc8, for (pril :7th, 1837, p8 38! @Free labour (if so it ma* be termed! e)en in a free countr*, reIuires the strong arm of the la" to protect it8A (&eports, Pc8, for =ctober :1st, 186 , p8 : 8! @'o permit, "hich is tantamount to compelling 888 to "or+ 1 hours a da* "ith or "ithout meals,A Pc8 (&epts8, Pc8, for (pril :7th, 186:, p8

78! Friedrich Engels, l8c8, p8 38 163 'he 17 -ours? (ct has, in the branches of industr* that come under it, @put an end to the premature decrepitude of the former long4hour "or+ers8A (&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 1832, p8 78! @5apital (in factories! can ne)er be emplo*ed in +eeping the machiner* in motion be*ond a limited time, "ithout certain inDur* to the health and morals of the labourers emplo*ed; and the* are not in a position to protect themsel)es8A (l8c8, p8 8! 166 @( still greater boon is the distinction at last made clear bet"een the "or+er?s o"n time and his master?s8 'he "or+er +no"s no" "hen that "hich he sells is ended, and "hen his o"n begins; and b* possessing a sure fore+no"ledge of this, is enabled to prearrange his o"n minutes for his o"n purposes8A (l8c8, p8 368! @/* ma+ing them masters of their o"n time (the Factor* (cts! ha)e gi)en them a moral energ* "hich is directing them to the e)entual possession of political po"erA (l8c8, p8 7!8 Bith suppressed iron*, and in )er* "ell "eighed "ords, the Factor* >nspectors hint that the actual la" also frees the capitalist from some of the brutalit* natural to a man "ho is a mere embodiment of capital, and that it has gi)en him time for a little @culture8A @Formerl* the master had no time for an*thing but mone*; the ser)ant had no time for an*thing but labourA (l8c8, p8 8!8 1 'his elementar* la" appears to be un+no"n to the )ulgar economists, "ho, upside4do"n (rchimedes, in the determination of the mar+et4price of labour b* suppl* and demand, imagine the* ha)e found the fulcrum b* means of "hich, not to mo)e the "orld, but to stop its motion8 6 Further particulars "ill be gi)en in /oo+ >;8 : @'he <abour, that is the economic time, of societ*, is a gi)en portion, sa* ten hours a da* of a million of people, or ten million hours8888 5apital has its boundar* of increase8 'his boundar* ma*, at an* gi)en period, be attained in the actual e9tent of economic time emplo*ed8A (@(n Essa* on the #olitical Econom* of Cations8A <ondon, 1861, pp8 7, 28! @'he farmer cannot rel* on his o"n labour, and if he does, > "ill maintain that he is a loser b* it8 -is emplo*ment should be a general attention to the "hole: his thresher must be "atched, or he "ill soon lose his "ages in corn not threshed out, his mo"ers reapers, Pc8, must be loo+ed after; he must constantl* go round his fences; he must see there is no neglect; "hich "ould be the case if he "as confined to an* one spot8A (@(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice of #ro)isions and the Si1e of Farms, Pc8 /* a Farmer8A <ondon, 177:, p8 168! 'his boo+ is )er* interesting8 >n it the genesis of the @capitalist farmerA or @merchant farmer,A as he is e9plicitl* called, ma* be studied, and his self4glorification at the e9pense of the small farmer "ho has onl* to do "ith bare subsistence, be noted8 @'he class of capitalists are from the first partiall*, and the* become ultimatel* completel*, discharged from the necessit* of the manual labour8A (@'e9tboo+ of <ectures on the #olitical Econom* of Cations8 /* the &e)8 &ichard Lones8A -ertford 18368 <ecture >>>8, p8 :28! 3 'he molecular theor* of modern chemistr* first scientificall* "or+ed out b* <aurent and Gerhardt rests on no other la"8 ((ddition to :rd Edition8! For the e9planation of this statement, "hich is not )er* clear to nonchemists, "e remar+ that the author spea+s here of the homologous series of carbon compounds, first so named b* 58 Gerhardt in 18 :, each series of "hich has its o"n general algebraic formula8 'hus the series of paraffins: 5 n-6n_6, that of the normal alcohols: 5n-6n_6=; of the normal fatt* acids: 5n- 6n=6 and man* others8 >n the abo)e e9amples, b* the simpl* Iuantitati)e addition of 5-6 to the molecular formula, a Iualitati)el* different bod* is each time formed8 =n the share (o)erestimated b* $ar9! of <aurent and Gerhardt in the determination of this important fact see .opp, @Ent"ic+lung der 5hemie8A $unchen, 187:, pp8 772, 716, and Schor+mmer, @'he &ise and 0e)elopment of =rganic 5hemistr*8A <ondon, 1872, p8 3 8 v !$ E$8 See <etter from $ar9 to Engels, 66 Lune 1867 For -egel?s formulation of the idea in the Lo ic, see &emar+: E9amples of Such Codal <ines; the $a9im, WCature 0oes Cot $a+e <eaps?8 6 $artin <uther calls these +inds of institutions: @'he 5ompan* $onopolia8A 7 &eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, (pril :7th, 18 2, p8 328 8 l8c8, p8 678 Factor* >nspector Stuart, himself a Scotchman, and in contrast to the English Factor* >nspectors, Iuite ta+en capti)e b* the capitalistic method of thin+ing, remar+s e9pressl* on this letter "hich he incorporates in his report that it is @the most useful of the communications "hich an* of the factor*o"ners "or+ing "ith rela*s ha)e gi)en to those engaged in the same trade, and "hich is the most calculated to remo)e the preDudices of such of them as ha)e scruples respecting an* change of the arrangement of the hours of "or+8A 1 'he )alue of his a)erage dail* "ages is determined b* "hat the labourer reIuires @so as to li)e, labour, and generate8A (Bm8 #ett*: @#olitical (natom* of >reland,A 1676, p8 6 8! @'he price of <abour is al"a*s constituted of the
16

price of necessaries 888 "hene)er 888 the labouring man?s "ages "ill not, suitabl* to his lo" ran+ and station, as a labouring man, support such a famil* as is often the lot of man* of them to ha)e,A he does not recei)e proper "ages8 (L8 ;anderlint, l8c8, p8 138! @<e simple ou)rier, Iui n?a Iue ses bras et son industrie, n?a rien Iu?autant Iu?il par)ient X )endre X d?autres sa peine888 En tout genre de tra)ail il doit arri)er, et il arri)e en effet, Iue le salaire de l?ou)rier se borne X ce Iui lui est nRcessaire pour lui procurer sa subsistance8A G'he mere "or+man, "ho has onl* his arms and his industr*, has nothing unless he succeeds in selling his labour to others 888 >n e)er* +ind of "or+ it cannot fail to happen, as a matter of fact it does happen, that the "ages of the "or+man are limited to "hat is necessar* to procure him his subsistence8H ('urgot, @&Rfle9ions, Pc8,A -euvres, Rd8 0aire t8 >, p8 178! @'he price of the necessaries of life is, in fact, the cost of producing labour8A ($althus, @>nIuir* into, Pc8, &ent,A <ondon, 1813, p8 8, note8! 6 Kuando si perfe1ionano le arti, che non n altro che la scoperta di nuo)e )ie, onde si possa compiere una manufattura con meno gente o (che n lo stesso! in minor tempo di prima8A (Galiani, l8c8, p8 1328! @<?Rconomie sur les frais de production ne peut donc dtre autre chose Iue l?Rconomie sur la IuantitR de tra)ail emplo*R pour produire8A G#erfection of hte crafts means nothing other than the disco)er* of ne" "a*s of ma+ing a product "ith fe"er people, or ("hich is the same thing! in less time than pre)iousl*H (Sismondi, @tudes,A t8 >8 p8 668! : @<et us suppose 888 the products 888 of the manufacturer are doubled b* impro)ement in machiner* 888 he "ill be able to clothe his "or+men b* means of a smaller proportion of the entire return 888 and thus his profit "ill be raised8 /ut in no other "a* "ill it be influenced8A (&amsa*, l8c8, pp8 168, 1628! @( man?s profit does not depend upon his command of the produce of other men?s labour, but upon his command of labour itself8 >f he can sell his goods at a higher price, "hile his "or+men?s "ages remain unaltered, he is clearl* benefited8888 ( smaller proportion of "hat he produces is sufficient to put that labour into motion, and a larger proportion conseIuentl* remains for himself8A (@=utlines of #ol8 Econ8A <ondon, 18:6, pp8 2, 378! 3 @>f m* neighbour b* doing much "ith little labour, can sell cheap, > must contri)e to sell as cheap as he8 So that e)er* art, trade, or engine, doing "or+ "ith labour of fe"er hands, and conseIuentl* cheaper, begets in others a +ind of necessit* and emulation, either of using the same art, trade, or engine, or of in)enting something li+e it, that e)er* man ma* be upon the sIuare, that no man ma* be able to undersell his neighbour8A (@'he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade to England,A <ondon, 1767, p8 678! 6 @>n "hate)er proportion the e9penses of a labourer are diminished, in the same proportion "ill his "ages be diminished, if the restraints upon industr* are at the same time ta+en off8A (@5onsiderations 5oncerning 'a+ing off the /ount* on 5orn E9ported,A Pc8, <ondon, 173:, p8 78! @'he interest of trade reIuires, that corn and all pro)isions should be as cheap as possible; for "hate)er ma+es them dear, must ma+e labour dear also 888 in all countries, "here industr* is not restrained, the price of pro)isions must affect the price of labour8 'his "ill al"a*s be diminished "hen the necessaries of life gro" cheaper8A (>8 c8, p8 :8! @Bages are decreased in the same proportion as the po"ers of production increase8 $achiner*, it is true, cheapens the necessaries of life, but it also cheapens the labourer8A (@( #ri1e Essa* on the 5omparati)e $erits of 5ompetition and 5o4operation8A <ondon, 18: , p8 678! 7 @>ls con)iennent Iue plus on peut, sans prRDudice, Rpargner de frais ou de tra)au9 dispendieu9 dans la fabrication des ou)rages des artisans, plus cette Rpargne est profitable par la diminution des pri9 de ces ou)rages8 5ependant ils croient Iue la production de richesse Iui rRsulte des tra)au9 des artisans consiste dans l?augmentation de la )aleur )Rnale de leurs ou)rages8A (Kuesna*: @0ialogues sur le 5ommerce et les 'ra)au9 des (rtisans8A pp8 188, 1828! 8 @5es spRculateurs si Rconomes du tra)ail des ou)riers Iu?il faudrait Iu?ils pa*assent8A G'hese speculators, "ho are so economical of the labour of "or+ers the* "ould ha)e to pa*H (L8 C8 /idaut: @0u $onopole Iui s?Rtablit dans les arts industriels et le commerce8A #aris, 1868, p8 1:8! @'he emplo*er "ill be al"a*s on the stretch to economise time and labour8A (0ugald Ste"art: Bor+s ed8 b* Sir B8 -amilton, Edinburgh, )8, )iii8, 18338 @<ectures on #olit8 Econ8,A p8 :188! @'heir (the capitalists?! interest is that the producti)e po"ers of the labourers the* emplo* should be the greatest possible8 =n promoting that po"er their attention is fi9ed and almost e9clusi)el* fi9ed8A (&8 Lones: l8c8, <ecture >>>8! 1 @%nIuestionabl*, there is a good deal of difference bet"een the )alue of one man?s labour and that of another from strength, de9terit*, and honest application8 /ut > am Iuite sure, from m* best obser)ation, that an* gi)en fi)e men "ill, in their total, afford a proportion of labour eIual to an* other fi)e "ithin the periods of life > ha)e stated; that is, that among such fi)e men there "ill be one possessing all the Iualifications of a good "or+man, one bad, and the other three middling, and appro9imating to the first, and the last8 So that in so small a platoon as that of e)en fi)e, *ou "ill find the full complement of all that fi)e men can earn8A (E8 /ur+e, 18 c8, pp8 13, 168! 5ompare KuRtelet on the a)erage indi)idual8 6 #rofessor &oscher claims to ha)e disco)ered that one needle"oman emplo*ed b* $rs8 &oscher during t"o da*s, does more "or+ than t"o needle"omen emplo*ed together during one da*8 'he learned professor should not stud* the

capitalist process of production in the nurser*, nor under circumstances "here the principal personage, the capitalist, is "anting8 : @5oncours de forces8A (0estutt de 'rac*, l8c8, p8 878! 'here are numerous operations of so simple a +ind as not to admit a di)ision into parts, "hich cannot be performed "ithout the co4operation of man* pairs of hands8 > "ould instance the lifting of a large tree on to a "ain 88, e)er*thing, in short, "hich cannot be done unless a great man* pairs of hands help each other in the same undi)ided emplo*ment and at the same time8A (E8 G8 Ba+efield: @( ;ie" of the (rt of 5olonisation8A <ondon, 18 2, p8 1688! 3 @(s one man cannot, and ten men must strain to lift a ton of "eight, *et 177 men can do it onl* b* the strength of a finger of each of them8A (Lohn /etters: @#roposals for &aising a 5olledge of >ndustr*8A <ondon, 1626, p8 618! 6 @'here is alsoA ("hen the same number of men are emplo*ed b* one farmer on :77 acres, instead of b* ten farmers "ith :7 acres a piece! @an ad)antage in the proportion of ser)ants, "hich "ill not so easil* be understood but b* practical men; for it is natural to sa*, as 1 is to , so are : to 16; but this "ill not hold good in practice; for in har)est time and man* other operations "hich reIuire that +ind of despatch b* the thro"ing man* hands together, the "or+ is better and more e9peditiousl* done: f i8 in har)est, 6 dri)ers, 6 loaders, 6 pitchers, 6 ra+ers, and the rest at the ric+, or in the barn, "ill despatch double the "or+ that the same number of hands "ould do if di)ided into different gangs on different farms8A (@(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice of #ro)isions and the Si1e of Farms8A /* a Farmer8 <ondon, 177:, pp8 7, 88! 7 Strictl*, (ristotle?s definition is that man is b* nature a to"n4citi1en8 'his is Iuite as characteristic of ancient classical societ* as Fran+lin?s definition of man, as a tool4ma+ing animal, is characteristic of Nan+eedom8 8 @=n doit encore remarIuer Iue cette di)ision partielle de tra)ail peut se faire Iuand mdme les ou)riers sont occupRs d?une mdme besogne8 0es mazons par e9emple, occupRs X faire passer de mains en mains des briIues X un Rchafaudage supRrieur, font tous la mdme besogne, et pourtant il e9iste parmi eu9 une espnce de di)ision de tra)ail, Iui consiste en ce Iue chacun d?eu9 fait passer la briIue par un espace donnR, et Iue tous ensemble la font par)enir beaucoup plus promptement X l?endroit marIuR Iu?ils ne le feraient si chacun d?eu9 portait sa briIue sRparRment DusIu?X l?Rchafaudage supRrieur8A G>t should be noted further that this partial di)ision of labour can occur e)en "hen the "or+ers are engaged in the same tas+8 $asons, for e9ample, engaged in passing bric+s from hand to hand to a higher stage of the building, are all performing the same tas+, and *et there does e9ist amongst them a sort of di)ision of labour8 'his consists in the fact that each of them passes the bric+ through a gi)en space, and, ta+en together, the* ma+e it arri)e much more Iuic+l* at the reIuired spot than the* "ould do if each of them carried his bric+ separatel* to the upper store*H (F8 S+arbe+: @'hRorie des richesses sociales8A #aris, 18:2, t8 >, pp8 27, 288! 2 @Est4il Iuestion d?e9Rcuter un tra)ail compliIuR, plusieurs choses doi)ent dtre faites simultanRment8 <?un en fait une pendant Iue l?autre en fait une autre, et tous contribuent X l?effet Iu?un seul homme n?aurait pu produire8 <?un rame pendant Iue l?autre tient le gou)ernail, et Iu?un troisinme Dette le filet on harponne le poisson, et la pdche a un succns impossible sans ce concours8A G>s it a Iuestion of underta+ing a comple9 piece of labourE $an* things must be done simultaneousl*8 =ne person does one thing, "hile another does something else, and the* all contribute to an effect that a single man "ould be unable to produce8 =ne ro"s "hile the other holds the rudder, and a third casts the net or harpoons the fish; in this "a* fishing enDo*s a success that "ould be impossible "ithout this cooperationH (0estutt de 'rac*, l8c8! 17 @'he doing of it (agricultural "or+! at the critical Duncture is of so much the greater conseIuence8A (@(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice,A Pc8, p8 28! @>n agriculture, there is no more important factor than that of time8A (<iebig: @%eber 'heorie und #ra9is in der <and"irtschaft8A 1836, p8 6:8! 11 @'he ne9t e)il is one "hich one "ould scarcel* e9pect to find in a countr* "hich e9ports more labour than an* other in the "orld, "ith the e9ception, perhaps, of 5hina and England the impossibilit* of procuring a sufficient number of hands to clean the cotton8 'he conseIuence of this is that large Iuantities of the crop are left unpic+ed, "hile another portion is gathered from the ground "hen it has fallen, and is of course discoloured and partiall* rotted, so that for "ant of labour at the proper season the culti)ator is actuall* forced to submit to the loss of a large part of that crop for "hich England is so an9iousl* loo+ing8A (@/engal -ur+aru8A /i4$onthl* =)erland Summar* of Ce"s, 66nd Lul*, 18618! 16 >n the progress of culture @all, and perhaps more than all, the capital and labour "hich once loosel* occupied 377 acres, are no" concentrated for the more complete tillage of 1778A (lthough @relati)el* to the amount of capital and labour emplo*ed, space is concentrated, it is an enlarged sphere of production, as compared to the sphere of production formerl* occupied or "or+ed upon b* one single independent agent of production8A (&8 Lones: @(n Essa* on the 0istribution of Bealth,A part >8 =n &ent8 <ondon, 18:18 p8 1218!

1:

@<a for1a di ciascuno uomo n minima, ma la riunione delle minime for1e forma una for1a totale maggiore anche della somma delle for1e medesime fino a che le for1e per essere riunite possono diminuere il tempo ed accrescere lo spa1io della loro a1ione8A (G8 &8 5arli, Cote to #8 ;erri, l8c8, t8 9)8, p8 1268! 1 @#rofits 888 is the sole end of trade8A (L8 ;anderlint, l8c8, p8 118! 13 'hat #hilistine paper, the ;pectator, states that after the introduction of a sort of partnership bet"een capitalist and "or+men in the @Bire"or+ 5ompan* of $anchester,A @the first result "as a sudden decrease in "aste, the men not seeing "h* the* should "aste their o"n propert* an* more than an* other master?s, and "aste is, perhaps, ne9t to bad debts, the greatest source of manufacturing loss8A 'he same paper finds that the main defect in the &ochdale co4 operati)e e9periments is this: @'he* sho"ed that associations of "or+men could manage shops, mills, and almost all forms of industr* "ith success, and the* immediatel* impro)ed the condition of the men; but then the* did not lea)e a clear place for masters8A Kuelle horreurQ 16 #rofessor 5airnes, after stating that the superintendence of labour is a leading feature of production b* sla)es in the Southern States of Corth (merica, continues: @'he peasant proprietor (of the Corth!, appropriating the "hole produce of his toil, needs no other stimulus to e9ertion8 Superintendence is here completel* dispensed "ith8A (5airnes, l8c8, pp8 8, 28! 17 Sir Lames Steuart, a "riter altogether remar+able for his Iuic+ e*e for the characteristic social distinctions bet"een different modes of production, sa*s: @Bh* do large underta+ings in the manufacturing "a* ruin pri)ate industr*, but b* coming nearer to the simplicit* of sla)esEA (@#rin8 of #ol8 Econ8,A <ondon, 1767, )8 >8, pp8 167, 1688! 18 (uguste 5omte and his school might therefore ha)e sho"n that feudal lords are an eternal necessit* in the same "a* that the* ha)e done in the case of the lords of capital8 12 &8 Lones8 @'e9tboo+ of <ectures,A Pc8, pp8 77, 788 'he ancient (ss*rian, Eg*ptian, and other collections in <ondon, and in other European capitals, ma+e us e*e4"itnesses of the modes of carr*ing on that co4operati)e labour8 67 <inguet is improbabl* right, "hen in his @'hRorie des <ois 5i)iles,A he declares hunting to be the first form of co4 operation, and man4hunting ("ar! one of the earliest forms of hunting8 61 #easant agriculture on a small scale, and the carr*ing on of independent handicrafts, "hich together form the basis of the feudal mode of production, and after the dissolution of that s*stem, continue side b* side "ith the capitalist mode, also form the economic foundation of the classical communities at their best, after the primiti)e form of o"nership of land in common had disappeared, and before sla)er* had sei1ed on production in earnest8 66 @Bhether the united s+ill, industr*, and emulation of man* together on the same "or+ be not the "a* to ad)ance itE (nd "hether it had been other"ise possible for England, to ha)e carried on her Boollen $anufacture to so great a perfectionEA (/er+ele*8 @'he Kuerist8A <ondon, 1731, p8 36, par8 3618! 1 'o gi)e a more modern instance: 'he sil+ spinning and "ea)ing of <*on and Crmes @est toute patriarcale; elle emploie beaucoup de femmes et d?enfants, mais sans les Rpuiser ni les corrompre; elle les laisse dans leur belles )alises de la 0rtme, du ;ar, de l?>snre, de ;aucluse, pour * Rle)er des )ers et dR)ider leurs cocons; Damais elle n?entre dans une )Rritable fabriIue8 #our dtre aussi bien obser)R 888 le principe de la di)ision du tra)ail s?* re)dt d?un caractnre spRcial8 >l * a bien des dR)ideuses, des moulineurs, des teinturiers, des encolleurs, puis des tisserands; mais ils ne sont pas rRunis dans un mdme Rtablissement, ne dRpendent pas d?un mdme martre, tous ils sont indRpendantsA G888 is entirel* patriarchal; it emplo*s a large number of "omen and children, but "ithout e9hausting or ruining them; it allo"s them to sta* in their beautiful )alle*s of the 0rtme, the ;ar, the >snre, the ;aucluse, cultu)ating their sil+"orms and un"inding their cocoons; it ne)er becomes a true factor* industr*8 -o"e)er, the principle of the di)ision of labour ta+es on a special character here8 'here do indeed e9ist "inders, thro"sters8 d*ers, si1ers, and finall* "ea)ers; but the* are not assembled in the same "or+shop, nor are the* dependent on a single master; the* are all independentH ((8 /lanIui: @5ours, d?Econ8 >ndustrielle8A &ecueilli par (8 /laise8 #aris, 18:84:2, p8 728! Since /lanIui "rote this, the )arious independent labourers ha)e, to some e9tent, been united in factories8 G(nd since $ar9 "rote the abo)e, the po"er4loom has in)aded these factories, and is no" 1886 rapidl* superseding the hand4loom8 (Added in the Bth =erman edition8 'he .refeld sil+ industr* also has its tale to tell anent this subDect8! F8 E8H 6 'he more an* manufacture of much )ariet* shall be distributed and assigned to different artists, the same must needs be better done and "ith greater e9pedition, "ith less loss of time and labour8A (@'he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade,A <ond8, 1767, p8 718! : @Eas* labour is transmitted s+ill8A ('h8 -odgs+in, @#opular #olitical Econom*,A p8 88! @'he arts also ha)e 888 in Eg*pt reached the reIuisite degree of perfection8 For it is the onl* countr* "here artificers ma* not in an* "a* meddle "ith the affairs of another class of citi1ens, but must follo" that calling alone "hich b*

la" is hereditar* in their clan8888 >n other countries it is found that tradesmen di)ide their attention bet"een too man* obDects8 (t one time the* tr* agriculture, at another the* ta+e to commerce, at another the* bus* themsel)es "ith t"o or three occupations at once8 >n free countries, the* mostl* freIuent the assemblies of the people8888 >n Eg*pt, on the contrar*, e)er* artificer is se)erel* punished if he meddles "ith affairs of State, or carries on se)eral trades at once8 'hus there is nothing to disturb their application to their calling8888 $oreo)er, since, the* inherit from their forefathers numerous rules, the* are eager to disco)er fresh ad)antagesA (0iodorus Siculus: /ibl8 -ist8 >8 18 c8, 7 8! 3 @-istorical and descripti)e account of /rit8 >ndia, Pc8,A b* -ugh $urra* and Lames Bilson, Pc8, Edinburgh 18:6, )8 >>8, p8 28 'he >ndian loom is upright, i8e8, the "arp is stretched )erticall*8 6 0ar"in in his epoch4ma+ing "or+ on the origin of species, remar+s, "ith reference to the natural organs of plants and animals: @So long as one and the same organ has different +inds of "or+ to perform, a ground for its changeabilit* ma* possibl* be found in this, that natural selection preser)es or suppresses each small )ariation of form less carefull* than if that organ "ere destined for one special purpose alone8 'hus, +ni)es that are adapted to cut all sorts of things, ma*, on the "hole, be of one shape; but an implement destined to be used e9clusi)el* in one "a* must ha)e a different shape for e)er* different use8A 7 >n the *ear 183 Gene)a produced 87,777 "atches, "hich is not one4fifth of the production in the 5anton of CeufchMtel8 <a 5hau94de4Fond alone, "hich "e ma* loo+ upon as a huge "atch manufactor*, produces *earl* t"ice as man* as Gene)a8 From 1837461 Gene)a produced 767,777 "atches8 See @&eport from Gene)a on the Batch 'radeA in @&eports b* -8 $8?s Secretaries of Embass* and <egation on the $anufactures, 5ommerce, Pc8, Co8 6, 186:8A 'he "ant of conne9ion alone, bet"een the processes into "hich the production of articles that merel* consist of parts fitted together is split up, ma+es it )er* difficult to con)ert such a manufacture into a branch of modem industr* carried on b* machiner*; but in the case of a "atch there are t"o other impediments in addition, the minuteness and delicac* of its parts, and its character as an article of lu9ur*8 -ence their )ariet*, "hich is such, that in the best <ondon houses scarcel* a do1en "atches are made ali+e in the course of a *ear8 'he "atch manufactor* of $essrs8 ;acheron P 5onstantin, in "hich machiner* has been emplo*ed "ith success, produces at the most three or four different )arieties of si1e and form8 8 >n "atchma+ing, that classical e9ample of heterogeneous manufacture, "e ma* stud* "ith great accurac* the abo)e4 mentioned differentiation and specialisation of the instruments of labour caused b* the sub4di)ision of handicrafts8 2 @>n so close a cohabitation of the people, the carriage must needs be less8A (@'he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade,A p8 1768! 17 @'he isolation of the different stages of manufacture, conseIuent upon the emplo*ment of manual labour, adds immensel* to the cost of production, the loss mainl* arising from the mere remo)als from one process to another8A (@'he >ndustr* of Cations8A <ond8, 1833, #art >>, p8 6778! 11 @>t (the di)ision of labour! produces also an econom* of time b* separating the "or+ into its different branches, all of "hich ma* be carried on into e9ecution at the same moment8888 /* carr*ing on all the different processes at once, "hich an indi)idual must ha)e e9ecuted separatel*, it becomes possible to produce a multitude of pins completel* finished in the same time as a single pin might ha)e been either cut or pointed8A (0ugald Ste"art, l8c8, p8 :128! 16 @'he more )ariet* of artists to e)er* manufacture888 the greater the order and regularit* of e)er* "or+, the same must needs be done in less time, the labour must be less8A (@'he (d)antages,A Pc8, p8 688! 1: Ce)ertheless, the manufacturing s*stem, in man* branches of industr*, attains this result but )er* imperfectl*, because it +no"s not ho" to control "ith certaint* the general chemical and ph*sical conditions of the process of production8 1 @Bhen (from the peculiar nature of the produce of each manufactor*!, the number of processes into "hich it is most ad)antageous to di)ide it is ascertained, as "ell as the number of indi)iduals to be emplo*ed, then all other manufactories "hich do not emplo* a direct multiple of this number "ill produce the article at a greater cost8888 -ence arises one of the causes of the great si1e of manufacturing establishments8A (58 /abbage8 @=n the Econom* of $achiner*,A 1st ed8 <ondon8 18:68 5h8 99i, pp8 17647:8! 13 >n England, the melting4furnace is distinct from the glass4furnace in "hich the glass is manipulated8 >n /elgium, one and the same furnace ser)es for both processes8 16 'his can be seen from B8 #ett*, Lohn /ellers, (ndre" Narranton, @'he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade,A and L8 ;anderlint, not to mention others8 17 'o"ards the end of the 16th centur*, mortars and sie)es "ere still used in France for pounding and "ashing ores8

18

'he "hole histor* of the de)elopment of machiner* can be traced in the histor* of the corn mill8 'he factor* in England is still a @mill8A >n German technological "or+s of the first decade of this centur*, the term @$ThleA is still found in use, not onl* for all machiner* dri)en b* the forces of Cature, but also for all manufactures "here apparatus in the nature of machiner* is applied8 12 (s "ill be seen more in detail in the fourth boo+ of this "or+, (dam Smith has not established a single ne" proposition relating to di)ision of labour8 Bhat, ho"e)er, characterises him as the political economist par e9cellence of the period of $anufacture, is the stress he la*s on di)ision of labour8 'he subordinate part "hich he assigns to machiner* ga)e occasion in the earl* da*s of modern mechanical industr* to the polemic of <auderdale, and, at a later period, to that of %re8 (8 Smith also confounds differentiation of the instruments of labour, in "hich the detail labourers themsel)es too+ an acti)e part, "ith the in)ention of machiner*; in this latter, it is not the "or+men in manufactories, but learned men, handicraftsman, and e)en peasants (/rindle*!, "ho pla* a part8 67 @'he master manufacturer, b* di)iding the "or+ to be e9ecuted into different processes, each reIuiring different degrees of s+ill or of force, can purchase e9actl* that precise Iuantit* of both "hich is necessar* for each process; "hereas, if the "hole "or+ "ere e9ecuted b* one "or+man, that person must possess sufficient s+ill to perform the most difficult, and sufficient strength to e9ecute the most laborious of the operations into "hich the article is di)ided8A (5h8 /abbage, l8c8, ch8 9i98! 61 For instance, abnormal de)elopment of some muscles, cur)ature of bones, Pc8 66 'he Iuestion put b* one of the >nIuir* 5ommissioners, -o" the *oung persons are +ept steadil* to their "or+, is )er* correctl* ans"ered b* $r8 Bm8 $arshall, the general manager of a glass manufactor*: @'he* cannot "ell neglect their "or+; "hen the* once begin, the* must go on; the* are Dust the same as parts of a machine8A (@5hildren?s Empl8 5omm8,A th &ep8, 1863, p8 6 78! 6: 0r8 %re, in his apotheosis of $odern $echanical >ndustr*, brings out the peculiar character of manufacture more sharpl* than pre)ious economists, "ho had not his polemical interest in the matter, and more sharpl* e)en than his contemporaries /abbage, e8g8, "ho, though much his superior as a mathematician and mechanician, treated mechanical industr* from the standpoint of manufacture alone8 %re sa*s, @'his appropriation 888 to each, a "or+man of appropriate )alue and cost "as naturall* assigned, forms the )er* essence of di)ision of labour8A =n the other hand, he describes this di)ision as @adaptation of labour to the different talents of men,A and lastl*, characterises the "hole manufacturing s*stem as @a s*stem for the di)ision or gradation of labour,A as @the di)ision of labour into degrees of s+ill,A Pc8 (%re, l8c8, pp8 1246: passim8! 6 @Each handicraftsman being 888 enabled to perfect himself b* practice in one point, became 888 a cheaper "or+man8A (%re, l8c8, p8 128! 63 @0i)ision of labour proceeds from the separation of professions the most "idel* different to that di)ision, "here se)eral labourers di)ide bet"een them the preparation of one and the same product, as in manufacture8A (Storch: @5ours d?Econ8 #ol8,A #aris Edn8 t8 >8, p8 17:8! @Cous rencontrons che1 les peuples par)enus X un certain degrR de ci)ilisation trois genres de di)isions d?industrie: la preminre, Iue nous nommerons gRnRrale, amnne la distinction des producteurs en agriculteurs, manufacturiers et commerzants, elle se rapporte au9 trois principales branches d?industrie nationale; la seconde Iu?on pourrait appeler spRciale, est la di)ision de chaIue genre d?industrie en espnces 888 la troisinme di)ision d?industrie, celle enfin Iu?on de)rait Iualifier de di)ision de la besogne on de tra)ail proprement dit, est celle Iui s?Rtablit dans les arts et les mRtiers sRparRs 888 Iui s?Rtablit dans la plupart des manufactures et des ateliers8A G(mong peoples "hich ha)e reached a certain le)el of ci)ilisation, "e meet "ith three +inds of di)ision of labour: the first, "hich "e shall call general, brings about the di)ision of the producers into agriculturalists, manufacturers, and traders, it corresponds to the three main branches of the nation?s labour; the second, "hich one could call particular, is the di)ision of labour of each branch into species8 888 'he third di)ision of labour, "hich one could designate as a di)ision of tas+s, or of labour properl* so called, is that "hich gro"s up in the indi)idual crafts and trades 888 "hich is established in the maDorit* of the manufactories and "or+shopsH (S+arbe+, l8c8, pp8 8 , 838! 66 Hote to the third edition$ SubseIuent )er* searching stud* of the primiti)e condition of man, led the author to the conclusion, that it "as not the famil* that originall* de)eloped into the tribe, but that, on the contrar*, the tribe "as the primiti)e and spontaneousl* de)eloped form of human association, on the basis of blood relationship, and that out of the first incipient loosening of the tribal bonds, the man* and )arious forms of the famil* "ere after"ards de)eloped8 GF8 E8H 67 Sir Lames Steuart is the economist "ho has handled this subDect best8 -o" little his boo+, "hich appeared ten *ears before the @Bealth of Cations,A is +no"n, e)en at the present time, ma* be Dudged from the fact that the admirers of $althus do not e)en +no" that the first edition of the latter?s "or+ on population contains, e9cept in the purel*

declamator* part, )er* little but e9tracts from Steuart, and in a less degree, from Ballace and 'o"nsend8 68 @'here is a certain densit* of population "hich is con)enient, both for social intercourse, and for that combination of po"ers b* "hich the produce of labour is increased8A (Lames $ill, l8c8, p8 378! @(s the number of labourers increases, the producti)e po"er of societ* augments in the compound ratio of that increase, multiplied b* the effects of the di)ision of labour8A ('h8 -odgs+in, l8c8, pp8 163, 1668! 62 >n conseIuence of the great demand for cotton after 1861, the production of cotton, in some thic+l* populated districts of >ndia, "as e9tended at the e9pense of rice culti)ation8 >n conseIuence there arose local famines, the defecti)e means of communication not permitting the failure of rice in one district to be compensated b* importation from another8 :7 'hus the fabrication of shuttles formed as earl* as the 17th centur*, a special branch of industr* in -olland8 :1 Bhether the "oollen manufacture of England is not di)ided into se)eral parts or branches appropriated to particular places, "here the* are onl* or principall* manufactured; fine cloths in Somersetshire, coarse in Nor+shire, long ells at E9eter, soies at Sudbur*, crapes at Cor"ich, linse*s at .endal, blan+ets at Bhitne*, and so forth8A (/er+ele*: @'he Kuerist,A 1731, 3678! :6 (8 Ferguson: @-istor* of 5i)il Societ*8A Edinburgh, 1767; #art i), sect8 ii8, p8 6838 :: >n manufacture proper, he sa*s, the di)ision of labour appears to be greater, because @those emplo*ed in e)er* different branch of the "or+ can often be collected into the same "or+house, and placed at once under the )ie" of the spectator8 >n those great manufactures, (Q! on the contrar*, "hich are destined to suppl* the great "ants of the great bod* of the people, e)er* different branch of the "or+ emplo*s so great a number of "or+men, that it is impossible to collect them all into the same "or+house 888 the di)ision is not near so ob)ious8A ((8 Smith: @Bealth of Cations,A b+8 i, ch8 i8! 'he celebrated passage in the same chapter that begins "ith the "ords, @=bser)e the accommodation of the most common artificer or da*4labourer in a ci)ilised and thri)ing countr*,A Pc8, and then proceeds to depict "hat an enormous number and )ariet* of industries contribute to the satisfaction of the "ants of an ordinar* labourer, is copied almost "ord for "ord from /8 de $ande)ille?s &emar+s to his @Fable of the /ees, or #ri)ate ;ices, #ublic+ /enefits8A (First ed8, "ithout the remar+s, 1776; "ith the remar+s, 171 8! : @'here is no longer an*thing "hich "e can call the natural re"ard of indi)idual labour8 Each labourer produces onl* some part of a "hole, and each part, ha)ing no )alue or utilit* in itself, there is nothing on "hich the labourer can sei1e, and sa*: >t is m* product, this > "ill +eep to m*self8A (@<abour 0efended against the 5laims of 5apital8A <ond8, 1863, p8 638! 'he author of this admirable "or+ is the 'h8 -odgs+in > ha)e alread* cited8 :3 'his distinction bet"een di)ision of labour in societ* and in manufacture, "as practicall* illustrated to the Nan+ees8 =ne of the ne" ta9es de)ised at Bashington during the ci)il "ar, "as the dut* of 6` @on all industrial products8A Kuestion: Bhat is an industrial productE (ns"er of the legislature: ( thing is produced @"hen it is made,A and it is made "hen it is read* for sale8 Co", for one e9ample out of man*8 'he Ce" Nor+ and #hiladelphia manufacturers had pre)iousl* been in the habit of @ma+ingA umbrellas "ith all their belongings8 /ut since an umbrella is a mixtum compositum of )er* heterogeneous parts, b* degrees these parts became the products of )arious separate industries, carried on independentl* in different places8 'he* entered as separate commodities into the umbrella manufactor*, "here the* "ere fitted together8 'he Nan+ees ha)e gi)en to articles thus fitted together, the name of @assembled articles,A a name the* deser)e, for being an assemblage of ta9es8 'hus the umbrella @assembles,A first, 6` on the price of each of its elements, and a further 6` on its o"n total price8 :6 @=n peut888 Rtablir en rngle gRnRrale, Iue moins l?autoritR prRside X la di)ision du tra)ail dans l?intRrieur de la sociRtR, plus la di)ision du tra)ail se dR)eloppe dans l?intRrieur de l?atelier, et plus elle * est soumise X l?autoritR d?un seul8 (insi l?autoritR dans l?atelier et celle dans la sociRtR, par rapport X la di)ision du tra)ail, sont en raison in)erse l?une de l?autre8A G>t can 888 be laid do"n as a general rule that the less authorit* presides o)er the di)ision of labour inside societ*, the more the di)ision of labour de)elops inside the "or+shop, and the more it is subDected there to the authorit* of a single person8 'hus authorit* in the "or+shop and authorit* in societ* in relation to the di)ision of labour, are in in)erse ratio to each otherH (.arl $ar9, @$isnre,A Pc8, pp8 1:741:18! :7 <ieut845ol8 $ar+ Bil+s: @-istorical S+etches of the South of >ndia8A <ond8, 1817417, )8 >8, pp8 1184678 ( good description of the )arious forms of the >ndian communities is to be found in George 5ampbell?s @$odern >ndia8A <ond8, 18368 :8 @%nder this simple form 888 the inhabitants of the countr* ha)e li)ed from time immemorial8 'he boundaries of the )illages ha)e been but seldom altered; and though the )illages themsel)es ha)e been sometimes inDured, and e)en desolated b* "ar, famine, and disease, the same name, the same limits, the same interests, and e)en the same families, ha)e continued for ages8 'he inhabitants gi)e themsel)es no trouble about the brea+ing up and di)ision of +ingdoms;

"hile the )illage remains entire, the* care not to "hat po"er it is transferred, or to "hat so)ereign it de)ol)es; its internal econom* remains unchanged8A ('h8 Stamford &affles, late <ieut8 Go)8 of La)a: @'he -istor* of La)a8A <ond8, 1817, ;ol8 >8, p8 6838! :2 @>t is not sufficient that the capitalA (the "riter should ha)e said the necessar* means of subsistence and of production! @reIuired for the subdi)ision of handicrafts should be in readiness in the societ*: it must also be accumulated in the hands of the emplo*ers in sufficientl* large Iuantities to enable them to conduct their operations on a large scale8888 'he more the di)ision increases, the more does the constant emplo*ment of a gi)en number of labourers reIuire a greater outla* of capital in tools, ra" material, Pc8A (Storch: @5ours d?Econ8 #olit8A #aris Ed8, t8 >8, pp8 637, 6318! @<a concentration des instruments de production et la di)ision du tra)ail sont aussi insRparables l?une de l?autre Iue le sont, dans le rRgime politiIue, la concentration des pou)oirs publics et la di)ision des intRrdts pri)Rs8A G'he concentration of the instruments of production and the di)ision of labour are as inseparable one from the other, as are, in the political sphere, the concentration of public po"ers and the di)ision of pri)ate interests8H (.arl $ar9, l8c8, p8 1: 8! 7 0ugald Ste"art calls manufacturing labourers @li)ing automatons 888 emplo*ed in the details of the "or+8A (>8 c8, p8 :188! 1 >n corals, each indi)idual is, in fact, the stomach of the "hole group; but it supplies the group "ith nourishment, instead of, li+e the &oman patrician, "ithdra"ing it8 6 @<?ou)rier Iui porte dans ses bras tout un mRtier, peut aller partout e9ercer son industrie et trou)er des mo*ens de subsister: l?autre (the manufacturing labourer! n?est Iu?un accessoire Iui, sRparR de ses confrnres, n?a plus ni capacitR, ni indRpendance, et Iui se trou)e force d?accepter la loi Iu?on Duge X propos de lui imposer 8A G'he "or+er "ho is the master of a "hole craft can "or+ and find the means of subsistence an*"here; the other (the manufacturing labourer! is onl* an appendage "ho, "hen he is separated from his fello"s, possesses neither capabilit* nor independence, and finds himself forced to accept an* la" it is thought fit to imposeH (Storch, l8c8, #etersb8 edit8, 1813, t8 >8, p8 67 8! : (8 Ferguson, l8c8, p8 681: @'he former ma* ha)e gained "hat the other has lost8A @'he man of +no"ledge and the producti)e labourer come to be "idel* di)ided from each other, and +no"ledge, instead of remaining the handmaid of labour in the hand of the labourer to increase his producti)e po"ers 888 has almost e)er*"here arra*ed itself against labour 888 s*stematicall* deluding and leading them (the labourers! astra* in order to render their muscular po"ers entirel* mechanical and obedient8A (B8 'hompson: @(n >nIuir* into the #rinciples of the 0istribution of Bealth8A <ondon, 186 , p8 67 8! 3 (8 Ferguson, l8c8, p8 6878 6 L8 08 'uc+ett: @( -istor* of the #ast and #resent State of the <abouring #opulation8A <ond8, 18 68 7 (8 Smith: @Bealth of Cations,A /+8 )8, ch8 i, art8 ii8 /eing a pupil of (8 Ferguson "ho sho"ed the disad)antageous effects of di)ision of labour, (dam Smith "as perfectl* clear on this point8 >n the introduction to his "or+, "here he ex professo praises di)ision of labour, he indicates onl* in a cursor* manner that it is the source of social ineIualities8 >t is not till the 3th /oo+, on the &e)enue of the State, that he reproduces Ferguson8 >n m* @$isnre de la #hilosophie,A > ha)e sufficientl* e9plained the historical conne9ion bet"een Ferguson, (8 Smith, <emonte*, and Sa*, as regards their criticisms of 0i)ision of <abour, and ha)e sho"n, for the first time, that 0i)ision of <abour as practised in manufactures, is a specific form of the capitalist mode of production8 8 Ferguson had alread* said, l8c8, p8 681: @(nd thin+ing itself, in this age of separations, ma* become a peculiar craft8A 2 G8 Garnier, )ol8 ;8 of his translation of (8 Smith, pp8 438 37 &ama11ini, professor of practical medicine at #adua, published in 171: his "or+ @0e morbis artificum,A "hich "as translated into French 1781, reprinted 18 1 in the @Enc*clopRdie des Sciences $Rdicales8 7me 0is8 (uteurs 5lassiIues8A 'he period of $odern $echanical >ndustr* has, of course, )er* much enlarged his catalogue of labour?s diseases8 See @-*ginne ph*siIue et morale de l?ou)rier dans les grandes )illes en gRnRral et dans la )ille de <*on en particulier8 #ar le 0r8 (8 <8 Fonteret, #aris, 1838,A and @0ie .ran+heiten, "elche )erschiednen Stnden, (ltern und Geschlechtern eigenthTmlich sind8 6 ;ols8 %lm, 1867,A and others8 >n 183 the Societ* of (rts appointed a 5ommission of >nIuir* into industrial patholog*8 'he list of documents collected b* this commission is to be seen in the catalogue of the @'"ic+enham Economic $useum8A ;er* important are the official @&eports on #ublic -ealth8A See also Eduard &eich, $8 08 @%eber die Entartung des $enschen,A Erlangen, 18688 31 (08 %rIuhart: @Familiar Bords8A <ond8, 1833, p8 1128! -egel held )er* heretical )ie"s on di)ision of labour8 >n his @&echtsphilosophieA he sa*s: @/* "ell educated men "e understand in the first instance, those "ho can do e)er*thing

that others do8A 36 'he simple belief in the in)enti)e genius e9ercised a priori b* the indi)idual capitalist in di)ision of labour, e9ists no"4a4da*s onl* among German professors, of the stamp of -err &oscher, "ho, to recompense the capitalist from "hose Lo)ian head di)ision of labour sprang read* formed, dedicates to him @)arious "agesA (di)erse ArbeitslMhne!8 'he more or less e9tensi)e application of di)ision of labour depends on length of purse, not on greatness of genius8 3: 'he older "riters, li+e #ett* and the anon*mous author of @(d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade,A bring out the capitalist character of di)ision of labour as applied in manufacture more than (8 Smith does8 3 (mongst the moderns ma* be e9cepted a fe" "riters of the 18th centur*, li+e /eccaria and Lames -arris, "ho "ith regard to di)ision of labour almost entirel* follo" the ancients8 'hus, /eccaria: @5iascuno pro)a coll?esperien1a, che applicando la mano e l?ingegno sempre allo stesso genere di opere e di produtte, egli pix facili, pix abbondanti e migliori ne traca risultati, di Iuello che se ciascuno isolatamente le cose tutte a se necessarie soltanto facesse8888 0i)idendosi in tal maniera per la comune e pri)ata utilitX gli uomini in )arie classi e condi1ioni 8A GE)er*one +no"s from e9perience that if the hands and the intelligence are al"a*s applied to the same +ind of "or+ and the same products, these "ill be produced more easil*, in greater abundance, and in higher Iualit*, than if each indi)idual ma+es for himself all the things he needs 888 >n this "a*, men are di)ided up into )arious classes and conditions, to their o"n ad)antage and to that of the commodit*8H(5esare /eccaria: @Elementi di Econ: #ubblica,A ed8 5ustodi, #arte $oderna, t8 9i, p8 628! Lames -arris, after"ards Earl of $almesbur*, celebrated for the @0iariesA of his embass* at St8 #etersburg, sa*s in a note to his @0ialogue 5oncerning -appiness,A <ond8, 17 1, reprinted after"ards in @'hree 'reatises, : Ed8, <ond8, 1776: @'he "hole argument to pro)e societ* natural (i8e8, b* di)ision of emplo*ments! 888 is ta+en from the second boo+ of #lato?s &epublic8A

'hus, in the =d*sse* 9i)8, 668, G@ \ \A For different men ta+e Do* in different "or+sH and (rchilochus in Se9tus Empiricus, G@ \ 8A men differ as to things cheer their heartsH 36 G@ , \ 8A -e could do man* "or+s, but all of them badl* F -omerH E)er* (thenian considered himself superior as a producer of commodities to a Spartan; for the latter in time of "ar had men enough at his disposal but could not command mone*, as 'huc*dides ma+es #ericles sa* in the speech inciting the (thenians to the #eloponnesian "ar: G@ A people producing for their o"n consumption "ill rather let "ar ha)e their bodies than their mone*H ('huc8: 1, >8 c8 18! Ce)ertheless, e)en "ith regard to material production, Gautarceia self4sufficienc*H, as opposed to di)ision of labour remained their ideal, G@ , , \8A For "ith the latter there is "ell4being, but "ith the former there is independence8H >t should be mentioned here that at the date of the fall of the :7 '*rants there "ere still not 3,777 (thenians "ithout landed propert*8 37 Bith #lato, di)ision of labour "ithin the communit* is a de)elopment from the multifarious reIuirements, and the limited capacities of indi)iduals8 'he main point "ith him is, that the labourer must adapt himself to the "or+, not the "or+ to the labourer; "hich latter is una)oidable, if he carries on se)eral trades at once, thus ma+ing one or the other of them subordinate8 G@ , . . , , 8A GFor the "or+man must "ait upon the "or+; it "ill not "ait upon his leisure and allo" itself to be done in a spare moment8 v Nes, he must,v So the conclusion is that more "ill be produced of e)er* thing and the "or+ "ill be more easil* and better done, "hen e)er* man is set free from all other occupations to do, at the right time, the one thing for "hich he is naturall* fitted8H (&ep8 18 68 Ed8 /aiter, =relli, Pc8! So in 'huc*dides, l8c8, c8 1 6: @Seafaring is an art li+e an* other, and cannot, as circumstances reIuire, be carried on as a subsidiar* occupation; na*, other subsidiar* occupations cannot be carried on alongside of this one8A >f the "or+, sa*s #lato, has to "ait for the labourer, the critical point in the process is missed and the article spoiled, G@ 8A G>f someone lets slip 888H 'he same #latonic idea is found recurring in the protest of the English bleachers against the clause in the Factor* (ct that pro)ides fi9ed mealtimes for all operati)es8 'heir business cannot "ait the con)enience of the "or+men, for @in the )arious operations of singeing, "ashing, bleaching, mangling, calendering, and d*eing, none of them can be stopped at a gi)en moment "ithout ris+ of
33

damage 888 to enforce the same dinner hour for all the "or+people might occasionall* subDect )aluable goods to the ris+ of danger b* incomplete operations8A Le platonisme oN va)t)il se nicher! GBhere "ill #latonism be found ne9tQH 38 Oenophon sa*s, it is not onl* an honour to recei)e food from the table of the .ing of #ersia, but such food is much more tast* than other food8 @(nd there is nothing "onderful in this, for as the other arts are brought to special perfection in the great to"ns, so the ro*al food is prepared in a special "a*8 For in the small to"ns the same man ma+es bedsteads, doors, ploughs, and tables: often, too, he builds houses into the bargain, and is Iuite content if he finds custom sufficient for his sustenance8 >t is altogether impossible for a man "ho does so man* things to do them all "ell8 /ut in the great to"ns, "here each can find man* bu*ers, one trade is sufficient to maintain the man "ho carries it on8 Ca*, there is often not e)en need of one complete trade, but one man ma+es shoes for men, another for "omen8 -ere and there one man gets a li)ing b* se"ing, another b* cutting out shoes; one does nothing but cut out clothes, another nothing but se" the pieces together8 >t follo"s necessaril* then, that he "ho does the simplest +ind of "or+, undoubtedl* does it better than an*one else8 So it is "ith the art of coo+ing8A (Oen8 5*rop8 >8 )iii8, c8 68! Oenophon here la*s stress e9clusi)el* upon the e9cellence to be attained in use4)alue, although he "ell +no"s that the gradations of the di)ision of labour depend on the e9tent of the mar+et8 32 -e (/usiris! di)ided them all into special castes 888 commanded that the same indi)iduals should al"a*s carr* on the same trade, for he +ne" that the* "ho change their occupations become s+illed in none; but that those "ho constantl* stic+ to one occupation bring it to the highest perfection8 >n truth, "e shall also find that in relation to the arts and handicrafts, the* ha)e outstripped their ri)als more than a master does a bungler; and the contri)ances for maintaining the monarch* and the other institutions of their State are so admirable that the most celebrated philosophers "ho treat of this subDect praise the constitution of the Eg*ptian State abo)e all others8 (>socrates, /usiris, c8 88! 67 5f8 0iodorus Siculus8 61 %re, l8c8, p8 678 66 'his is more the case in England than in France, and more in France than in -olland8 1 $ill should ha)e said, @of an* human being not fed b* other people?s labour,A for, "ithout doubt, machiner* has greatl* increased the number of "ell4to4do idlers8 6 See, for instance, -utton: @5ourse of $athematics8A : @From this point of )ie" "e ma* dra" a sharp line of distinction bet"een a tool and a machine: spades, hammers, chisels, Pc8, combinations of le)ers and of scre"s, in all of "hich, no matter ho" complicated the* ma* be in other respects, man is the moti)e po"er, 888 all this falls under the idea of a tool; but the plough, "hich is dra"n b* animal po"er, and "ind4mills, Pc8, must be classed among machines8A (Bilhelm Schul1: @0ie /e"egung der #rodu+tion8A ,Trich, 18 :, p8 :88! >n man* respects a boo+ to be recommended8 /efore his time, spinning machines, although )er* imperfect ones, had alread* been used, and >tal* "as probabl* the countr* of their first appearance8 ( critical histor* of technolog* "ould sho" ho" little an* of the in)entions of the 18th centur* are the "or+ of a single indi)idual8 -itherto there is no such boo+8 0ar"in has interested us in the histor* of Cature?s 'echnolog*, i8e8, in the formation of the organs of plants and animals, "hich organs ser)e as instruments of production for sustaining life8 0oes not the histor* of the producti)e organs of man, of organs that are the material basis of all social organisation, deser)e eIual attentionE (nd "ould not such a histor* be easier to compile, since, as ;ico sa*s, human histor* differs from natural histor* in this, that "e ha)e made the former, but not the latterE 'echnolog* discloses man?s mode of dealing "ith Cature, the process of production b* "hich he sustains his life, and thereb* also la*s bare the mode of formation of his social relations, and of the mental conceptions that flo" from them8 E)er* histor* of religion, e)en, that fails to ta+e account of this material basis, is uncritical8 >t is, in realit*, much easier to disco)er b* anal*sis the earthl* core of the mist* creations of religion, than, con)ersel*, it is, to de)elop from the actual relations of life the corresponding celestialised forms of those relations8 'he latter method is the onl* materialistic, and therefore the onl* scientific one8 'he "ea+ points in the abstract materialism of natural science, a materialism that e9cludes histor* and its process, are at once e)ident from the abstract and ideological conceptions of its spo+esmen, "hene)er the* )enture be*ond the bounds of their o"n specialit*8 3 Especiall* in the original form of the po"er4loom, "e recognise, at the first glance, the ancient loom8 >n its modern form, the po"er4loom has undergone essential alterations8 6 >t is onl* during the last 13 *ears (i8e8, since about 1837!, that a constantl* increasing portion of these machine tools ha)e been made in England b* machiner*, and that not b* the same manufacturers "ho ma+e the machines8 >nstances of machines for the fabrication of these mechanical tools are, the automatic bobbin4ma+ing engine, the cardsetting

engine, shuttle4ma+ing machines, and machines for forging mule and throstle spindles8 7 $oses sa*s: @'hou shalt not mu11le the o9 that treads the corn8A 'he 5hristian philanthropists of German*, on the contrar*, fastened a "ooden board round the nec+s of the serfs, "hom the* used as a moti)e po"er for grinding, in order to pre)ent them from putting flour into their mouths "ith their hands8 8 >t "as partl* the "ant of streams "ith a good fall on them, and partl* their battles "ith superabundance of "ater in other respects, that compelled the 0utch to resort to "ind as a moti)e po"er8 'he "ind4mill itself the* got from German*, "here its in)ention "as the origin of a prett* sIuabble bet"een the nobles, the priests, and the emperor, as to "hich of those three the "ind @belonged8A 'he air ma+es bondage, "as the cr* in German*, at the same time that the "ind "as ma+ing -olland free8 Bhat it reduced to bondage in this case, "as not the 0utchman, but the land for the 0utchman8 >n 18:6, 16,777 "indmills of 6,777 horse4po"er "ere still emplo*ed in -olland, to pre)ent t"o4thirds of the land from being recon)erted into morasses8 2 >t "as, indeed, )er* much impro)ed b* Batt?s first so4called single acting engine; but, in this form, it continued to be a mere machine for raising "ater, and the liIuor from salt mines8 17 @'he union of all these simple instruments, set in motion b* a single motor, constitutes a machine8A (/abbage, l8c8! 11 >n Lanuar*, 1861, Lohn 58 $orton read before the Societ* of (rts a paper on @'he forces emplo*ed in agriculture8A -e there states: @E)er* impro)ement that furthers the uniformit* of the land ma+es the steam4engine more and more applicable to the production of pure mechanical force8888 -orse4po"er is reIuisite "here)er croo+ed fences and other obstructions pre)ent uniform action8 'hese obstructions are )anishing da* b* da*8 For operations that demand more e9ercise of "ill than actual force, the onl* po"er applicable is that controlled e)er* instant b* the human mind4in other "ords, man4po"er8A $r8 $orton then reduces steam4po"er, horse4po"er, and man4po"er, to the unit in general use for steam4engines, namel*, the force reIuired to raise ::,777 lbs8 one foot in one minute, and rec+ons the cost of one horse4po"er from a steam4engine to be :d8, and from a horse to be 3[d8 per hour8 Further, if a horse must full* maintain its health, it can "or+ no more than 8 hours a da*8 'hree at the least out of e)er* se)en horses used on tillage land during the *ear can be dispensed "ith b* using steam4po"er, at an e9pense not greater than that "hich, the horses dispensed "ith, "ould cost during the : or months in "hich alone the* can be used effecti)el*8 <astl*, steam4 po"er, in those agricultural operations in "hich it can be emplo*ed, impro)es, in comparison "ith horse4po"er, the Iualit* of the "or+8 'o do the "or+ of a steam4engine "ould reIuire 66 men, at a total cost of 13S8 an hour, and to do the "or+ of a horse, :6 men, at a total cost of 8s8 an hour8 16 Faulhaber, 1663; 0e 5aus, 16888 1: 'he modern turbine frees the industrial e9ploitation of "ater4po"er from man* of its former fetters8 1 @>n the earl* da*s of te9tile manufactures, the localit* of the factor* depended upon the e9istence of a stream ha)ing a sufficient fall to turn a "ater4"heel; and, although the establishment of the "ater4mills "as the commencement of the brea+ing up of the domestic s*stem of manufacture, *et the mills necessaril* situated upon streams, and freIuentl* at considerable distances the one from the other, formed part of a rural, rather than an urban s*stem; and it "as not until the introduction of the steam4po"er as a substitute for the stream that factories "ere congregated in to"ns, and localities "here the coal and "ater reIuired for the production of steam "ere found in sufficient Iuantities8 'he steam4engine is the parent of manufacturing to"ns8A ((8 &edgra)e in @&eports of the >nsp8 of Fact8, :7th (pril, 1867,A p8 :68! 13 From the standpoint of di)ision of labour in $anufacture, "ea)ing "as not simple, but, on the contrar*, complicated manual labour; and conseIuentl* the po"er4loom is a machine that does )er* complicated "or+8 >t is altogether erroneous to suppose that modern machiner* originall* appropriated those operations alone, "hich di)ision of labour had simplified8 Spinning and "ea)ing "ere, during the manufacturing period, split up into ne" species, and the implements "ere modified and impro)ed; but the labour itself "as in no "a* di)ided, and it retained its handicraft character8 >t is not the labour, but the instrument of labour, that ser)es as the starting4point of the machine8 16 /efore the epoch of $echanical >ndustr*, the "ool manufacture "as the predominating manufacture in England8 -ence it "as in this industr* that, in the first half of the 18th centur*, the most e9periments "ere made8 5otton, "hich reIuired less careful preparation for its treatment b* machiner*, deri)ed the benefit of the e9perience gained on "ool, Dust as after"ards the manipulation of "ool b* machiner* "as de)eloped on the lines of cotton4spinning and "ea)ing b* machiner*8 >t "as onl* during the 17 *ears immediatel* preceding 1866, that isolated details of the "ool manufacture, such as "oolcombing, "ere incorporated in the factor* s*stem8 @'he application of po"er to the process of combing "ool 888 e9tensi)el* in operation since the introduction of the combingmachine, especiall* <ister?s 888 undoubtedl* had the effect of thro"ing a )er* large number of men out of "or+8 Bool "as formerl* combed b* hand, most freIuentl* in the cottage of the comber8 >t is no" )er* generall* combed in the factor*, and hand4labour is

superseded, e9cept in some particular +inds of "or+, in "hich hand4combed "ool is still preferred8 $an* of the hand4 combers found emplo*ment in the factories, but the produce of the hand4combers bears so small a proportion to that of the machine, that the emplo*ment of a )er* large number of combers has passed a"a*8A (@&ep8 of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1836,A p8 168! 17 @'he principle of the factor* s*stem, then, is to substitute 888 the partition of a process into its essential constituents, for the di)ision or graduation of labour among artisans8A ((ndre" %re: @'he #hilosoph* of $anufactures,A <ond8, 18:3, p8 678! 18 'he po"er4loom "as at first made chiefl* of "ood; in its impro)ed modern form it is made of iron8 'o "hat an e9tent the old forms of the instruments of production influenced their ne" forms at first starting, is sho"n b*, amongst other things, the most superficial comparison of the present po"er4loom "ith the old one, of the modern blo"ing apparatus of a blast4furnace "ith the first inefficient mechanical reproduction of the ordinar* bello"s, and perhaps more stri+ingl* than in an* other "a*, b* the attempts before the in)ention of the present locomoti)e, to construct a locomoti)e that actuall* had t"o feet, "hich after the fashion of a horse, it raised alternatel* from the ground8 >t is onl* after considerable de)elopment of the science of mechanics, and accumulated practical e9perience, that the form of a machine becomes settled entirel* in accordance "ith mechanical principles, and emancipated from the traditional form of the tool that ga)e rise to it8 12 Eli Bhitne*?s cotton gin had until )er* recent times undergone less essential changes than an* other machine of the 18th centur*8 >t is onl* during the last decade (i8e8, since 1836! that another (merican, $r8 Emer*, of (lban*, Ce" Nor+, has rendered Bhitne*?s gin antiIuated b* an impro)ement as simple as it is effecti)e8 67 @'he >ndustr* of Cations,A <ond8, 1833, #art >>8, p8 6:28 'his "or+ also remar+s: WSimple and out"ardl* unimportant as this appendage to lathes ma* appear, it is not, "e belie)e, a)erring too much to state, that its influence in impro)ing and e9tending the use of machiner* has been as great as that produced b* Batt?s impro)ements of the steam4engine itself8 >ts introduction "ent at once to perfect all machiner*, to cheapen it, and to stimulate in)ention and impro)ement8A 61 =ne of these machines, used for forging paddle4"heel shafts in <ondon, is called @'hor8A >t forges a shaft of 16[ tons "ith as much ease as a blac+smith forges a horseshoe8 66 Bood4"or+ing machines that are also capable of being emplo*ed on a small scale are mostl* (merican in)entions8 6: Science, generall* spea+ing, costs the capitalist nothing, a fact that b* no means hinders him from e9ploiting it8 'he science of others is as much anne9ed b* capital as the labour of others8 5apitalistic appropriation and personal appropriation, "hether of science or of material "ealth, are, ho"e)er, totall* different things8 0r8 %re himself deplores the gross ignorance of mechanical science e9isting among his dear machiner*4e9ploiting manufacturers, and <iebig can a tale unfold about the astounding ignorance of chemistr* displa*ed b* English chemical manufacturers8 6 &icardo la*s such stress on this effect of machiner* (of "hich, in other conne9ions, he ta+es no more notice than he does of the general distinction bet"een the labour process and the process of creating surplus )alue!, that he occasionall* loses sight of the )alue gi)en up b* machines to the product, and puts machines on the same footing as natural forces8 'hus @(dam Smith no"here under)alues the ser)ices "hich the natural agents and machiner* perform for us, but he )er* Dustl* distinguishes the nature of the )alue "hich the* add to commodities888 as the* perform their "or+ gratuitousl*, the assistance "hich the* afford us, adds nothing to )alue in e9change8A (&ic8, l8c8, pp8 ::6, ::78! 'his obser)ation of &icardo is of course correct in so far as it is directed against L8 /8 Sa*, "ho imagines that machines render the @ser)iceA of creating )alue "hich forms a part of @profits8A 63 ( horse4po"er is eIual to a force of ::,777 foot4pounds per minute, i8e8, to a force that raises ::,777 pounds one foot in a minute, or one pound ::,777 feet8 'his is the horse po"er meant in the te9t8 >n ordinar* language, and also here and there in Iuotations in this "or+, a distinction is dra"n bet"een the @nominalA and the @commercialA or @indicatedA horse4po"er of the same engine8 'he old or nominal horse4po"er is calculated e9clusi)el* from the length of piston4stro+e, and the diameter of the c*linder, and lea)es pressure of steam and piston speed out of consideration8 >t e9presses practicall* this: 'his engine "ould be one of 37 horse4po"er, if it "ere dri)en "ith the same lo" pressure of steam, and the same slo" piston speed, as in the da*s of /oulton and Batt8 /ut the t"o latter factors ha)e increased enormousl* since those da*s8 >n order to measure the mechanical force e9erted toda* b* an engine, an indicator has been in)ented "hich sho"s the pressure of the steam in the c*linder8 'he piston speed is easil* ascertained8 'hus the @indicatedA or @commercialA horse4po"er of an engine is e9pressed b* a mathematical formula, in)ol)ing diameter of c*linder, length of stro+e, piston speed, and steam pressure, simultaneousl*, and sho"ing "hat multiple of ::,777 pounds is reall* raised b* the engine in a minute8 -ence, one @nominalA horse4po"er ma* e9ert three, four, or e)en fi)e @indicatedA or @realA horse4po"ers8 'his obser)ation is made for the purpose of e9plaining )arious citations in the

subseIuent pages8 v !$ E8 66 'he reader "ho is imbued "ith capitalist notions "ill naturall* miss here the @interestA that the machine, in proportion to its capital )alue, adds to the product8 >t is, ho"e)er, easil* seen that since a machine no more creates ne" )alue than an* other part of constant capital, it cannot add an* )alue under the name of @interest8A >t is also e)ident that here, "here "e are treating of the production of surplus )alue, "e cannot assume a priori the e9istence of an* part of that )alue under the name of interest8 'he capitalist mode of calculating, "hich appears, prim% facie, absurd, and repugnant to the la"s of the creation of )alue, "ill be e9plained in the third boo+ of this "or+8 67 'his portion of )alue "hich is added b* the machiner*, decreases both absolutel* and relati)el*, "hen the machiner* does a"a* "ith horses and other animals that are emplo*ed as mere mo)ing forces, and not as machines for changing the form of matter8 >t ma* here be incidentall* obser)ed, that 0escartes, in defining animals as mere machines, 8sa" "ith e*es of the manufacturing period, "hile to e*es of the middle ages, animals "ere assistants to man, as the* "ere later to ;on -aller in his @&estauration der Staats"issenschaften8A 'hat 0escartes, li+e /acon, anticipated an alteration in the form of production, and the practical subDugation of Cature b* $an, as a result of the altered methods of thought, is plain from his @0iscours de la $Rthode8A -e there sa*s: @>l est possible (b* the methods he introduced in philosoph*! de par)enir X des connaissances fort utiles X la )ie, et Iu?au lieu de cette philosophie spRculati)e Iu?on enseigne dans les Rcoles, on en peut trou)er une pratiIue, par laIuelle, connaissant la force et les actions du feu, de l?eau, de l?air, des astres, et de tous les autres corps Iui nous en)ironnent, aussi distinctement Iue nous connaissons les di)ers mRtiers de nos artisans, nous les pourrions emplo*er en mdme fazon X tous les usages au9Iuels ils sont propres, et ainsi nous rendre comme martres et possesseurs de la natureA and thus @contribuer au perfectionnement de la )ie humaine8A G>t is possible to attain +no"ledge )er* useful in life and, in place of the speculati)e philosoph* taught in the schools, one can find a practical philosoph* b* "hich, gi)en that "e +no" the po"ers and the effecti)eness of fire, "ater, air, the stars, and all the other bodies that surround us, as "ell and as accuratel* as "e +no" the )arious trades of our craftsmen, "e shall be able to emplo* them in the same manner as the latter to all uses to "hich the* are adapted, and thus as it "ere ma+e oursel)es the masters and possessors of nature, and thus contributing to the perfection of human life8H >n the preface to Sir 0udle* Corth?s @0iscourses upon 'radeA (1621! it is stated, that 0escartes? method had begun to free #olitical Econom* from the old fables and superstitious notions of gold, trade, Pc8 =n the "hole, ho"e)er, the earl* English economists sided "ith /acon and -obbes as their philosophers; "hile, at a later period, the philosopher G888H of #olitical Econom* in England, France, and >tal*, "as <oc+e8 68 (ccording to the annual report (186:! of the Essen chamber of commerce, there "as produced in 1866, at the cast4 steel "or+s of .rupp, "ith its 161 furnaces, thirt*4t"o steam4engines (in the *ear 1877 this "as about the number of all the steam4engines "or+ing in $anchester!, and fourteen steam4hammers (representing in all 1,6:6 horse4po"er! fort*4nine forges, 67: tool4machines, and about 6, 77 "or+men4thirteen million pounds of cast steel8 -ere there are not t"o "or+men to each horse4po"er8 62 /abbage estimates that in La)a the spinning labour alone adds 117` to the )alue of the cotton8 (t the same period (18:6! the total )alue added to the cotton b* machiner* and labour in the fine4spinning industr*, amounted to about ::` of the )alue of the cotton8 (@=n the Econom* of $achiner*,A pp8 163, 1668! :7 $achine printing also economises colour8 :1 See #aper read b* 0r8 Batson, &eporter on #roducts to the Go)ernment of >ndia, before the Societ* of (rts, 17th (pril, 18678 :6 @'hese mute agents (machines! are al"a*s the produce of much less labour than that "hich the* displace, e)en "hen the* are of the same mone*4)alue8A (&icardo, l8c8, p8 78! :: -ence in a communistic societ* there "ould be a )er* different scope for the emplo*ment of machiner* than there can be in a bourgeois societ*8 : @Emplo*ers of labour "ould not unnecessaril* retain t"o sets of children under thirteen8888 >n fact one class of manufacturers, the spinners of "oollen *am, no" rarel* emplo* children under thirteen *ears of age, i8e8, half4timers8 'he* ha)e introduced impro)ed and ne" machiner* of )arious +inds, "hich altogether supersedes the emplo*ment of children (i8e8, under 1: *ears!; f8 i8, > "ill mention one process as an illustration of this diminution in the number of children, "herein b* the addition of an apparatus, called a piecing machine, to e9isting machines, the "or+ of si9 or four half4timers, according to the peculiarit* of each machine, can be performed b* one *oung person (o)er 1: *ears!888 the half4time s*stem Wstimulated? the in)ention of the piecing machine8A (&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 18388! :3 @BretchA is the recognised term in English #olitical Econom* for the agricultural labourer8

:6 :7

@$achiner* 888 can freIuentl* not be emplo*ed until labour (he means "ages! rises8A (&icardo, l8c8, p8 728! See @&eport of the Social Science 5ongress, at Edinburgh8A =ct8, 186:8 :8 0r8 Ed"ard Smith, during the cotton crisis caused b* the (merican 5i)il Bar, "as sent b* the English Go)ernment to <ancashire, 5heshire, and other places, to report on the sanitar* condition of the cotton operati)es8 -e reported, that from a h*gienic point of )ie", and apart from the banishment of the operati)es from the factor* atmosphere, the crisis had se)eral ad)antages8 'he "omen no" had sufficient leisure to gi)e their infants the breast, instead of poisoning them "ith @Godfre*?s cordial8A 'he* had time to learn to coo+8 %nfortunatel* the acIuisition of this art occurred at a time "hen the* had nothing to coo+8 /ut from this "e see ho" capital, for the purposes of its self4e9pansion, has usurped the labour necessar* in the home of the famil*8 'his crisis "as also utilised to teach se"ing to the daughters of the "or+men in se"ing schools8 (n (merican re)olution and a uni)ersal crisis, in order that the "or+ing girls, "ho spin for the "hole "orld, might learn to se"Q :2 @'he numerical increase of labourers has been great, through the gro"ing substitution of female for male, and abo)e all, of childish for adult labour8 'hree girls of 1:, at "ages of from 6 shillings to 8 shillings a "ee+, ha)e replaced the one man of mature age, of "ages )ar*ing from 18 shillings to 3 shillings8A ('h8 de Kuince*: @'he <ogic of #olitical Econ8,A <ondon, 18 8 Cote to p8 1 78! Since certain famil* functions, such as nursing and suc+ling children, cannot be entirel* suppressed, the mothers confiscated b* capital, must tr* substitutes of some sort8 0omestic "or+, such as se"ing and mending, must be replaced b* the purchase of read*4made articles8 -ence, the diminished e9penditure of labour in the house is accompanied b* an increased e9penditure of mone*8 'he cost of +eeping the famil* increases, and balances the greater income8 >n addition to this, econom* and Dudgment in the consumption and preparation of the means of subsistence becomes impossible8 (bundant material relating to these facts, "hich are concealed b* official #olitical Econom*, is to be found in the &eports of the >nspectors of Factories, of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, and more especiall* in the &eports on #ublic -ealth8 7 >n stri+ing contrast "ith the great fact, that the shortening of the hours of labour of "omen and children in English factories "as e9acted from capital b* the male operati)es, "e find in the latest reports of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission traits of the operati)e parents in relation to the traffic in children, that are trul* re)olting and thoroughl* li+e sla)e4dealing8 /ut the #harisee of a capitalist, as ma* be seen from the same reports, denounces this brutalit* "hich he himself creates, perpetuates, and e9ploits, and "hich he moreo)er baptises @freedom of labour8A @>nfant labour has been called into aid 888 e)en to "or+ for their o"n dail* bread8 Bithout strength to endure such disproportionate toil, "ithout instruction to guide their future life, the* ha)e been thro"n into a situation ph*sicall* and morall* polluted8 'he Le"ish historian has remar+ed upon the o)erthro" of Lerusalem b* 'itus that it "as no "onder it should ha)e been destro*ed, "ith such a signal destruction, "hen an inhuman mother sacrificed her o"n offspring to satisf* the cra)ings of absolute hunger8A (@#ublic Econom* 5oncentrated8A 5arlisle, 18::, p8 668! 1 (8 &edgra)e in @&eports of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 1838,A pp8 7, 18 6 @5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, Fifth &eport,A <ondon, 1866, p8 81, n8 :18 8Added in the Bth =erman edition$ I /he <ethnal =reen sil" industry is no1 almost destroyed$ I !$ E$H : @5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission, 'hird &eport,A <ondon, 186 , p8 3:, n8 138 l8c8, Fifth &eport, p8 66, n8 1:78 3 @Si9th &eport on #ublic -ealth,A <ond8, 186 , p8 : 8 6 @>t (the inIuir* of 1861!888 sho"ed, moreo)er, that "hile, "ith the described circumstances, infants perish under the neglect and mismanagement "hich their mothers? occupations impl*, the mothers become to a grie)ous e9tent denaturalised to"ards their offspring4commonl* not troubling themsel)es much at the death, and e)en sometimes888 ta+ing direct measures to insure it8A (l8c8! 7 l8c8, p8 3 8 8 l8c8, pp8 3 4 6:8 @&eport b* 0r8 -enr* Lulian -unter on the e9cessi)e mortalit* of infants in some rural districts of England8A 2 l8c8, p8 :3 and pp8 33, 368 37 l8c8, p8 368 31 >n the agricultural as "ell as in the factor* districts the consumption of opium among the gro"n4up labourers, both male and female, is e9tending dail*8 @'o push the sale of opiate888 is the great aim of some enterprising "holesale merchants8 /* druggists it is considered the leading article8A (l8c8, p8 328! >nfants that ta+e opiates @shran+ up into little old men,A or @"i1ened li+e little mon+e*s8A (l8c8, p8 678! Be here see ho" >ndia and 5hina a)enged themsel)es on England8

36 3:

l8c8, p8 :78 @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1866,A p8 328 $r8 /a+er "as formerl* a doctor8 3 <8 -orner in @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :7th Lune, 1837,A p8 178 33 <8 -orner in @&ep8 of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1833,A pp8 18, 128 36 Sir Lohn .incaid in @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1838,A pp8 :1, :68 37 <8 -orner in @&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ct8, 1837,A pp8 17, 188 38 Sir L8 .incaid in @&eports, Pc8, :1st =ct8, 1836,A p8 66 32 (8 &edgra)e in @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st8 =ct8, 1837,A pp8 14 68 >n those industries "here the Factor* (ct proper (not the #rint Bor+s (ct referred to in the te9t! has been in force for some time, the obstacles in the "a* of the education clauses ha)e, in recent *ears, been o)ercome8 >n industries not under the (ct, the )ie"s of $r8 L8 Geddes, a glass manufacturer, still e9tensi)el* pre)ail8 -e informed $r8 Bhite, one of the >nIuir* 5ommissioners: @(s far as > can see, the greater amount of education "hich a part of the "or+ing4class has enDo*ed for some *ears past is an e)il8 >t is dangerous, because it ma+es them independent8A (@5hildren?s Empl8 5omm8, Fourth &eport,A <ond8, 1863, p8 63:8! 67 @$r8 E8, a manufacturer 888 informed me that he emplo*ed females e9clusi)el* at his po"er4looms 888 gi)es a decided preference to married females, especiall* those "ho ha)e families at home dependent on them for support; the* are attenti)e, docile, more so than unmarried females, and are compelled to use their utmost e9ertions to procure the necessaries of life8 'hus are the )irtues, the peculiar )irtues of the female character to be per)erted to her inDur* F thus all that is most dutiful and tender in her nature is made a means of her bondage and suffering8A ('en -ours? Factor* /ill8 'he Speech of <ord (shle*, $arch 13th, <ond8, 18 , p8 678! 61 @Since the general introduction of machiner*, human nature has been forced far be*ond its a)erage strength8A (&ob8 ="en: @=bser)ations on the Effects of the $anufacturing S*stem,A 6nd Ed8, <ondon, 18178! 66 'he English, "ho ha)e a tendenc* to loo+ upon the earliest form of appearance of a thing as the cause of its e9istence, are in the habit of attributing the long hours of "or+ in factories to the e9tensi)e +idnapping of children, practised b* capitalists in the infanc* of the factor* s*stem, on "or+houses and orphanages, b* means of "hich robber*, unresisting material for e9ploitation "as procured8 'hus, for instance, Ficiden, himself a manufacturer, sa*s: @>t is e)ident that the long hours of "or+ "ere brought about b* the circumstance of so great a number of destitute children being supplied from different parts of the countr*, that the masters "ere independent of the hands, and that ha)ing once established the custom b* means of the miserable materials the* had procured in this "a*, the* could impose it on their neighbours "ith the greater facilit*8A (L8 Ficiden: @'he 5urse of the Factor* S*stem,A <ond8, 18:6, p8 > 18! Bith reference to the labour of "omen, Saunders, the factor* inspector, sa*s in his report of 18 : @(mongst the female operati)es there are some "omen "ho, for man* "ee+s in succession, e9cept for a fe" da*s, are emplo*ed from 6 a8 in8 till midnight, "ith less than 6 hours for meals, so that on 3 da*s of the "ee+ the* ha)e onl* 6 hours left out of the 6 , for going to and from their homes and resting in bed8A 6: @=ccasion888 inDur* to the delicate mo)ing parts of metallic mechanism b* inaction8A (%re, l8c8, p8 6818! 6 'he $anchester Spinner (/imes, 66th Co)8, 1866! before referred to sa*s in relation to this subDect: @>t (namel*, the @allo"ance for deterioration of machiner*V! is also intended to co)er the loss "hich is constantl* arising from the superseding of machines before the* are "orn out, b* others of a ne" and better construction8A 63 @>t has been estimated, roughl*, that the first indi)idual of a ne"l*4in)ented machine "ill cost about fi)e times as much as the construction of the second8A (/abbage, l8c8, p8 : 28 66 @'he impro)ements "hich too+ place not long ago in frames for ma+ing patent net "ere so great that a machine in good repair "hich had cost ]1,677, sold a fe" *ears after for ]67 888 impro)ements succeeded each other so rapidl*, that machines "hich had ne)er been finished "ere abandoned in the hands of their ma+ers, because ne" impro)ements bad superseded their utilit*8A (/abbage, l8c8, p8 6::8! >n these storm*, go4ahead times, therefore, the tulle manufacturers soon e9tended the "or+ing da*, b* means of double sets of hands, from the original 8 hours to 6 8 67 @>t is self4e)ident, that, amid the ebbings and flo"ings of the mar+ets and the alternate e9pansions and contractions of demand, occasions "ill constantl* recur, in "hich the manufacturer ma* emplo* additional floating capital "ithout emplo*ing additional fi9ed capital888 if additional Iuantities of ra" material can be "or+ed up "ithout incurring an additional e9pense for buildings and machiner*8A (&8 'orrens: @=n Bages and 5ombination8A <ondon, 18: , p8 6 8! 68 'his circumstance is mentioned onl* for the sa+e of completeness, for > shall not consider the rate of profit, i8e8, the ratio of the surplus )alue to the total capital ad)anced, until > come to the third boo+8

62 77

Senior, @<etters on the Factor* (ct8A <ondon, 18:7, pp8 1:, 1 8 @'he great proportion of fi9ed to circulating capital 888 ma+es long hours of "or+ desirable8A Bith the increased use of machiner*, Pc8, @the moti)es to long hours of "or+ "ill become greater, as the onl* means b* "hich a large proportion of fi9ed capital can be made profitable8A (l8c8, pp8 1141:8! @'here are certain e9penses upon a mill "hich go on in the same proportion "hether the mill be running short or full time, as, for instance, rent rates, and ta9es, insurance against fire, "ages of se)eral permanent ser)ants, deterioration of machiner*, "ith )arious other charges upon a manufacturing establishment, the proportion of "hich to profits increases as the production decreases8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1866,A p8 128! 71 Bh* it is, that the capitalist, and also the political economists "ho are imbued "ith his )ie"s, are unconscious of this immanent contradiction, "ill appear from the first part of the third boo+8 76 >t is one of the greatest merits of &icardo to ha)e seen in machiner* not onl* the means of producing commodities, but of creating a @redundant population8A 7: F8 /iese8 @0ie #hilosophie des (ristoteles,A ;ol8 68 /erlin, 18 6, p8 788 7 > gi)e belo" the translation of this poem b* Stolberg, because it brings into relief, Iuite in the spirit of former Iuotations referring to di)ision of labour, the antithesis bet"een the )ie"s of the ancients and the moderns8 @Spare the hand that grinds the corn, =h, miller girls, and softl* sleep8 <et 5hanticleer announce the morn in )ainQ 0eo has commanded the "or+ of the girls to be done b* the C*mphs, and no" the* s+ip lightl* o)er the "heels, so that the sha+en a9les re)ol)e "ith their spo+es and pull round the load of the re)ol)ing stones8 <et us li)e the life of our fathers, and let us rest from "or+ and enDo* the gifts that the Goddess sends us8A @Schonet der mahlenden -and, o $Tllerinnen, und schlafet SanftQ es )er+Tnde der -ahn euch den $orgen umsonstQ 0o hat die (rbeit der $idchen den C*mphen befohlen, %nd it1t hTpfen sic leicht Tber die &der dahin, 0a die erschTtterten (chsen mit ihren Speichen sich "l1en, %nd im .reise die <ast drehen des "l1enden Steins8 <at uns leben das <eben der ;ter, und la/t uns der Gaben (rbeitslos uns freun, "elche die Guttin uns schen+t8A (Gedichte aus dem Griechischen Tberset1t )on 5hristian Graf 1u Stolberg, -amburg, 17868! 73 'here are, of course, al"a*s differences, in the intensities of the labour in )arious industries8 /ut these differences are, as (dam Smith has sho"n, compensated to a partial e9tent b* minor circumstances, peculiar to each sort of labour8 <abour4time, as a measure of )alue, is not, ho"e)er, affected in this case, e9cept in so far as the duration of labour, and the degree of its intensit*, are t"o antithetical and mutuall* e9clusi)e e9pressions for one and the same Iuantit* of labour8 76 Especiall* b* piece4"or+, a form "e shall in)estigate in #art ;>8 of this boo+8 77 See @&ep8 of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 18638A 78 &ep, of >nsp, of Fact8 for 18 and the Iuarter ending :7th (pril, 18 3, pp8 674618 72 l8c8, p8 128 Since the "ages for piece4"or+ "ere unaltered, the "ee+l* "ages depended on the Iuantit* produced8 87 l8c8, p8 678 81 'he moral element pla*ed an important part in the abo)e e9periments8 'he "or+people told the factor* inspector: @Be "or+ "ith more spirit, "e ha)e the re"ard e)er before us of getting a"a* sooner at night, and one acti)e and cheerful spirit per)ades the "hole mill, from the *oungest piecer to the oldest hand, and "e can greatl* help each other8A (l8c8, p8 618! 86 Lohn Fielden, l8c8, p8 :68 8: <ord (shle*, l8c8, pp8 642, passim8 8 &ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for Kuarter ending :7th September, 18 , and from 1st =ctober, 18 , to :7th (pril, 18 3, p8 678 83 l8c8, p8 668 86 @&ep8 of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 1866,A p8 668 87 'his "as altered in the @#arliamentar* &eturnA of 18668 >n it the actual horse4po"er of the modern steam engines and "ater "heels appears in place of the nominal8 'he doubling spindles, too, are no longer included in the spinning

spindles (as "as the case in the @&eturnsA of 18:2, 1837, and 1836!; further, in the case of "oollen mills, the number of @gigsA is added, a distinction made bet"een Dute and hemp mills on the one hand and fla9 mills on the other, and finall* stoc+ing4"ea)ing is for the first time inserted in the report8 88 @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 1836,A pp8 1:41 , 67 and 1836, p8 6:8 82 l8c8, pp8 1 4138 27 l8c8, p8 678 21 @&eports, Pc8, for :1st =ctober, 1838,A pp8 74178 5ompare @&eports, Pc8, for :7th (pril, 1867,A p8 :7, sII8 26 @&eports of lnsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1866,A pp8 177 and 1:78 2: =n 6 modern po"er4looms a "ea)er no" ma+es in a "ee+ of 67 hours 66 pieces of certain Iualit*, length, and breadth; "hile on the old po"er4looms he could ma+e no more than such pieces8 'he cost of "ea)ing a piece of such cloth had alread* soon after 1837 fallen from 6s8 2d8 to 3 1J8d8 @'hirt* *ears ago (18 1! one spinner "ith three placers "as not reIuired to attend to more than one pair of mules "ith :774:6 spindles8 (t the present time (1871! he has to mind "ith the help of 3 piecers 6,677 spindles, and produces not less than se)en times as much *arn as in 18 18A ((le98 &edgra)e, Factor* >nspector F in the Oournal of Arts, 3th Lanuar*, 18768! 2 @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1861,A pp8 63, 668 23 'he agitation for a "or+ing da* of 8 hours has no" (1867! begun in <ancashire among the factor* operati)es8 26 'he follo"ing fe" figures indicate the increase in the @factoriesA of the %nited .ingdom since 18 8:

Kuantit* E9ported8 18#8.Kuantit* E9ported8 18'1.Kuantit* E9ported8 186-.Kuantit* E9ported8 186'.C+TT+,5otton *arnlbs8
1:3,8:1,166lbs8 1 :,266,176lbs8 127,: :,633lbs8 17:,731, 33Se"ing threadvlbs8 ,:26,176lbs8 6,627,33 lbs8 ,6 8,6115otton cloth*ds8 1,721,:7:,2:7*ds8 1,3 :,161,782*ds8 6,776,618, 67*ds8 6,713,6:7,83138AB C =*MPNarnlbs8 11,766,186lbs8 18,8 1,:66lbs8 :1,617,616lbs8 :6,777,:: 5loth*ds8 88,271,312*ds8 162,176,73:*ds8 1 :,226,77:*ds8 6 7,7168362 /8ANarnlbs8 66,863lbs8 66,31:lbs8 827, 76lbs8 816,3825lothv*ds8 1,181, 33*ds8 1,:77,62:*ds8 6,862,8:7(++8Boollen and

Borsted *arnsvlbs8 1 ,677,887lbs8 67,3::,268lbs8 :1,662,6675lothv*ds8 131,6:1,13:*ds8 127,:71,377*ds8 678,8:7, 18

;alue E9ported8 18#8. D;alue E9ported8 18'1. D;alue E9ported8 186-. D;alue E9ported8 186'. DC+TT+,Narn3,267,8:16,6: ,7662,877,87317,:31,7 25loth16,73:,:626:, 3 ,817 6,1
1,373 6,27:,72638AB C =*MPNarn 2:, 2231, 661,871,6766,373, 275loth6,876,782 ,177,:26 ,87 ,87:2,133,: 38 /8ANarn77,782126,:87866,177768,76 5lothv 1,1:7,:281,387,:7:1, 72,661(++8Narn776,2731, 8 ,3 :,8 :, 373, 6 ,7 75loth3,7:: ,8688,:77,18:16,136,22867,176,632See the /lue boo+s @Statistical (bstract of the

%nited .ingdom,A Cos8 8 and 1:8 <ond8, 1261 and 18668 >n <ancashire the number of mills increased onl* per cent8 bet"een 18:2 and 1837; 12 per cent8 bet"een 1837 and 1836; and :: per cent8 bet"een 1836 and 1866; "hile the persons emplo*ed in them during each of the abo)e periods of >t *ears increased absolutel*, but diminished relati)el*8 (See @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, for :1st =ct8, 1866,A p8 6:8! 'he cotton trade preponderates in <ancashire8 Be ma* form an idea of the stupendous nature of the cotton trade in that district "hen "e consider that, of the gross number of te9tile factories in the %nited .ingdom, it absorbs 386 per cent8, of the spindles 8:8: per cent8, of the po"er4looms 818 per cent8, of the mechanical horse4 po"er 7686 per cent8, and of the total number of persons emplo*ed 3886 per cent8 (l8c8, pp8 6646:8!
27 28

%re, l8c8, p8 188 %re, l8c8, #8 : 18 See .arl $ar9, l8c8, pp8 1 741 18 22 >t loo+s )er* li+e intentional misleading b* statistics ("hich misleading it "ould be possible to pro)e in detail in other cases too!, "hen the English factor* legislation e9cludes from its operation the class of labourers last mentioned in the te9t, "hile the parliamentar* returns e9pressl* include in the categor* of factor* operati)es, not onl* engineers, mechanics, Pc8, but also managers, salesmen, messengers, "arehousemen, pac+ers, Pc8, in short e)er*bod*, e9cept the o"ner of the factor* himself8 177 %re grants this8 -e sa*s, @in case of need,A the "or+men can be mo)ed at the "ill of the manager from one machine to another, and he triumphantl* e9claims: @Such a change is in flat contradiction "ith the old routine, that di)ides the labour, and to one "or+man assigns the tas+ of fashioning the head of a needle, to another the sharpening

of the point8A -e had much better ha)e as+ed himself, "h* this @old routineA is departed from in the automatic factor*, onl* @in case of need8 @ 171 Bhen distress is )er* great, as, for instance, during the (merican 5i)il Bar, the factor* operati)e is no" and then set b* the /ourgeois to do the roughest =f Bor+, such as road4ma+ing, Pc88 'he English @ateliers nationau9A Gnational "or+shopsH of 1866 and the follo"ing *ears, established for the benefit of the destitute cotton operati)es, differ from the French of 18 8 in this, that in the latter the "or+men had to do unproducti)e "or+ at the e9pense of the state, in the former the* had to do producti)e municipal "or+ to the ad)antage of the bourgeois, and that, too, cheaper than the regular "or+men, "ith "hom the* "ere thus thro"n into competition8 @'he ph*sical appearance of the cotton operati)es is unIuestionabl* impro)ed8 'his > attribute 888 as to the men, to outdoor labour on public "or+s8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 186:,A p8 328! 'he "riter here alludes to the #reston factor* operati)es, "ho "ere emplo*ed on #reston $oor8 176 (n e9ample: 'he )arious mechanical apparatus introduced since the (ct of 18 into "oollen mills, for replacing the labour of children8 So soon as it shall happen that the children of the manufacturers themsel)es ha)e to go through a course of schooling as helpers in the mill, this almost une9plored territor* of mechanics "ill soon ma+e remar+able progress8 @=f machiner*, perhaps self4acting mules are as dangerous as an* other +ind8 $ost of the accidents from them happen to little children, from their creeping under the mules to s"eep the floor "hilst the mules are in motion8 Se)eral Wminders? ha)e been fined for this offence, but "ithout much general benefit8 >f machine ma+ers "ould onl* in)ent a self4s"eeper, b* "hose use the necessit* for these little children to creep under the machiner* might be pre)ented, it "ould be a happ* addition to our protecti)e measures8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st8 =ct8, 1866,A p8 6:8! 17: So much then for #roudhon?s "onderful idea: he @construesA machiner* not as a s*nthesis of instruments of labour, but as a s*nthesis of detail operations for the benefit of the labourer himself8 17 F8 Engels, l8c8, p8 6178 E)en an ordinar* and optimist Free4trader, li+e $r8 $olinari, goes so far as to sa*, @%n homme s?use plus )ite en sur)eillant, Iuin1e heures par Dour, l?R)olution uniforme d?un mRcanisme, Iu?en e9ercant, dans le mdme espace de temps, sa force ph*siIue8 5e tra)ail de sur)eillance Iui ser)irait peut4dtre d?utile g*mnastiIue X l?intelligence, s?il n?Rtait pas trop prolongR, dRtruit X la longue, par son e9cns, et l?intelligence, et le corps mdme8A G( man becomes e9hausted more Iuic+l* "hen he "atches o)er the uniform motion of mechanism for fifteen hours a da*, than "hen he applies his ph*sical strength o)er the same period of time8 'his labour of sur)eillance, "hich might perhaps ser)e as a useful e9ercise for the mind, if it did not go on too long, destro*s both the mind and the bod* in the long run, through e9cessi)e applicationH (G8 de $olinari: @tudes conomiIues8A #aris, 18 68! 173 F8 Engels, l8c8, p8 6168 176 @'he $aster Spinners? and $anufacturers? 0efence Fund8 &eport of the 5ommittee8A $anchester, 183 , p8 178 Be shall see hereafter, that the @masterA can sing Iuite another song, "hen he is threatened "ith the loss of his @li)ingA automaton8 177 %re, l8c8, p8 138 Bhoe)er +no"s the life histor* of (r+"right, "ill ne)er dub this barber4genius @noble8A =f all the great in)entors of the 18th centur*, he "as incontestabl* the greatest thie)er of other people?s in)entions and the meanest fello"8 178 @'he sla)er* in "hich the bourgeoisie has bound the proletariat, comes no"here more plainl* into da*light than in the factor* s*stem8 >n it all freedom comes to an end both at la" and in fact8 'he "or+man must be in the factor* at half past fi)e8 >f he come a fe" minutes late, he is punished; if he come 17 minutes late, he is not allo"ed to enter until after brea+fast, and thus loses a Iuarter of a da*?s "age8 -e must eat, drin+ and sleep at "ord of command8888 'he despotic bell calls him from his bed, calls him from brea+fast and dinner8 (nd ho" does he fare in the millE 'here the master is the absolute la"4gi)er8 -e ma+es "hat regulations he pleases; he alters and ma+es additions to his code at pleasure; and if he insert the )eriest nonsense, the courts sa* to the "or+man: Since *ou ha)e entered into this contract )oluntaril*, *ou must no" carr* it out 8888 'hese "or+men are condemned to li)e, from their ninth *ear till their death, under this mental and bodil* torture8A (F8 Engels, l8c8, p8 617, sI8! Bhat, @the courts sa*,A > "ill illustrate b* t"o e9amples8 =ne occurs at Sheffield at the end of 18668 >n that to"n a "or+man had engaged himself for 6 *ears in a steel"or+s8 >n conseIuence of a Iuarrel "ith his emplo*er he left the "or+s, and declared that under no circumstances "ould he "or+ for that master an* more8 -e "as prosecuted for breach of contract, and condemned to t"o months? imprisonment8 (>f the master brea+ the contract, he can be proceeded against onl* in a ci)il action, and ris+s nothing but mone* damages8! (fter the "or+man has ser)ed his t"o months, the master in)ites him to return to the "or+s, pursuant to the contract8 Bor+man sa*s: Co, he has alread* been punished for the breach8 'he master

prosecutes again, the court condemns again, although one of the Dudges, $r8 Shee, publicl* denounces this as a legal monstrosit*, b* "hich a man can periodicall*, as long as he li)es, be punished o)er and o)er again for the same offence or crime8 'his Dudgment "as gi)en not b* the @Great %npaid,A the pro)incial 0ogberries, but b* one of the highest courts of Dustice in <ondon8 v G(dded in the Bth =erman edition$ I /his has no" been done a"a* "ith8 Bith fe" e9ceptions, e8g8, "hen public gas4"or+s are in)ol)ed, the "or+er in England is no" put on an eIual footing "ith the emplo*er in case of breach of contract and can be sued onl* ci)ill*8 v F8 E8H 'he second case occurs in Biltshire at the end of Co)ember 186:8 (bout :7 po"er4loom "ea)ers, in the emplo*ment of one -arrup, a cloth manufacturer at <eo"er?s $ill, Bestbur* <eigh, struc+ "or+ because master -arrup indulged in the agreeable habit of ma+ing deductions from their "ages for being late in the morning; 6d8 for 6 minutes; 1s8 for : minutes, and 1s8 6d8 for ten minutes8 'his is at the rate of 2s8 per hour, and ] 17s8 7d8 per diem; "hile the "ages of the "ea)ers on the a)erage of a *ear, ne)er e9ceeded 17s8 to 16s8 "ee+l*8 -arrup also appointed a bo* to announce the starting time b* a "histle, "hich he often did before si9 o?cloc+ in the morning: and if the hands "ere not all there at the moment the "histle ceased, the doors "ere closed, and those hands "ho "ere outside "ere fined: and as there "as no cloc+ on the premises, the unfortunate hands "ere at the merc* of the *oung -arrup4inspired time4+eeper8 'he hands on stri+e, mothers of families as "ell as girls, offered to resume "or+ if the time+eeper "ere replaced b* a cloc+, and a more reasonable scale of fines "ere introduced8 -arrup summoned >2 "omen and girls before the magistrates for breach of contract8 'o the utter indignation of all present, the* "ere each mulcted in a fine of 6d8 and 6s8 6d8 for costs8 -arrup "as follo"ed from the court b* a cro"d of people "ho hissed him8 ( fa)ourite operation "ith manufacturers is to punish the "or+people b* deductions made from their "ages on account of faults in the material "or+ed on8 'his method ga)e rise in 1866 to a general stri+e in the English potter* districts8 'he reports of the 5h8 Empl8 5orn8 (186:4 1866!, gi)e cases "here the "or+er not onl* recei)es no "ages, but becomes, b* means of his labour, and of the penal regulations, the debtor to boot, of his "orth* master8 'he late cotton crisis also furnished edif*ing e9amples of the sagacit* sho"n b* the factor* autocrats in ma+ing deductions from "ages8 $r8 &8 /a+er, the >nspector of Factories, sa*s, @> ha)e m*self had latel* to direct prosecutions against one cotton mill occupier for ha)ing in these pinching and painful times deducted 17d8 a piece from some of the *oung "or+ers emplo*ed b* him, for the surgeon?s certificate (for "hich he himself had onl* paid 6d8!, "hen onl* allo"ed b* the la" to deduct :d8, and b* custom nothing at all 8888 (nd > ha)e been informed of another, "ho, in order to +eep "ithout the la", but to attain the same obDect, charges the poor children "ho "or+ for him a shilling each, as a fee for learning them the art and m*ster* of cotton spinning, so soon as the* are declared b* the surgeon fit and proper persons for that occupation8 'here ma* therefore be undercurrent causes for such e9traordinar* e9hibitions as stri+es, not onl* "here)er the* arise, but particularl* at such times as the present, "hich "ithout e9planation, render them ine9plicable to the public understanding8A -e alludes here to a stri+e of po"er4loom "ea)ers at 0ar"en, Lune, 186:8 (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :7 (pril, 186:,A pp8 374 318! 'he reports al"a*s go be*ond their official dates8 172 'he protection afforded b* the Factor* (cts against dangerous machiner* has had a beneficial effect8 @/ut 888 there are other sources of accident "hich did not e9ist t"ent* *ears since; one especiall*, )i18, the increased speed of the machiner*8 Bheels, rollers, spindles and shuttles are no" propelled at increased and increasing rates; fingers must be Iuic+er and defter in their mo)ements to ta+e up the bro+en thread, for, if placed "ith hesitation or carelessness, the* are sacrificed8888 ( large number of accidents are caused b* the eagerness of the "or+people to get through their "or+ e9peditiousl*8 >t must be remembered that it is of the highest importance to manufacturers that their machiner* should be in motion, i8e8, producing *ams and goods8 E)er* minute?s stoppage is not onl* a loss of po"er, but of production, and the "or+people are urged b* the o)erloo+ers, "ho are interested in the Iuantit* of "or+ turned off, to +eep the machiner* in motion, and it is no less important to those of the operati)es "ho are paid b* the "eight or piece, that the machines should be +ept in motion8 5onseIuentl*, although it is strictl* forbidden in man*, na* in most factories, that machiner* should be cleaned "hile in motion, it is ne)ertheless the constant practice in most, if not in all, that the "or+people do, unrepro)ed, pic+ out "aste, "ipe rollers and "heels, Pc8, "hile their frames are in motion8 'hus from this cause onl*, 276 accidents ha)e occurred during the si9 months8888 (lthough a great deal of cleaning is constantl* going on da* b* da*, *et Saturda* is generall* the da* set apart for the thorough cleaning of the machiner*, and a great deal of this is done "hile the machiner* is in motion8A Since cleaning is not paid for, the "or+people see+ to get done "ith it as speedil* as possible8 -ence @the number of accidents "hich occur on Frida*s, and especiall* on Saturda*s, is much larger than on an* other da*8 =n the former da* the e9cess is nearl* 16 per cent8 o)er the a)erage number of the four first da*s of the "ee+, and on the latter da* the e9cess is 63 per cent8 o)er the a)erage of the preceding fi)e da*s; or, if the number of "or+ing4hours on Saturda* being ta+en into account v 7[ hours on Saturda* as compared "ith 17[ on other da*s v there is an e9cess of 63 per cent8 on Saturda*s o)er the a)erage of the other fi)e da*s8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1866,A pp8 2, 13, 16, 178!

117

>n #art >8 of /oo+ >>>8 > shall gi)e an account of a recent campaign b* the English manufacturers against the 5lauses in the Factor* (cts that protect the @handsA against dangerous machiner*8 For the present, let this one Iuotation from the official report of <eonard -orner suffice: @> ha)e heard some mill4o"ners spea+ "ith ine9cusable le)it* of some of the accidents; such, for instance, as the loss of a finger being a trifling matter8 ( "or+ing4man?s li)ing and prospects depend so much upon his fingers, that an* loss of them is a )er* serious matter to him8 Bhen > ha)e heard such inconsiderate remar+s made, > ha)e usuall* put this Iuestion: Suppose *ou "ere in "ant of an additional "or+man, and t"o "ere to appl*, both eIuall* "ell Iualified in other respects, but one had lost a thumb or a forefinger, "hich "ould *ou engageE 'here ne)er "as a hesitation as to the ans"er8888A 'he manufacturers ha)e @mista+en preDudices against "hat the* ha)e heard represented as a pseudo4philanthropic legislation8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 18338V! 'hese manufacturers are cle)er fol+, and not "ithout reason "ere the* enthusiastic for the sla)e4holders? rebellion8 111 >n those factories that ha)e been longest subDect to the Factor* (cts, "ith their compulsor* limitation of the hours of labour, and other regulations, man* of the older abuses ha)e )anished8 'he )er* impro)ement of the machiner* demands to a certain e9tent @impro)ed construction of the buildings,A and this is an ad)antage to the "or+people8 (See @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 186:,A p8 1728! 116 See amongst others, Lohn -oughton: @-usbandr* and 'rade >mpro)ed8A <ondon, 17678 @'he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade, 17678A Lohn /ellers, l8c8 @'he masters and their "or+men are, unhappil*, in a perpetual "ar "ith each other8 'he in)ariable obDect of the former is to get their "or+ done as cheapl* as possible; and the* do not fail to emplo* e)er* artifice to this purpose, "hilst the latter are eIuall* attenti)e to e)er* occasion of distressing their masters into a compliance "ith higher demands8A (@(n EnIuir* into the 5auses of the #resent -igh #rice of #ro)isions,A pp8 614668 (uthor, the &e)8 Cathaniel Forster, Iuite on the side of the "or+men8! 11: >n old4fashioned manufactures the re)olts of the "or+people against machiner*, e)en to this da*, occasionall* assume a sa)age character, as in the case of the Sheffield file cutters in 18638 11 Sir Lames Steuart also understands machiner* Iuite in this sense8 @Le considnre donc les machines comme des mo*ens d?augmenter ()irtuellement! le nombre des gens industrieu9 Iu?on n?est pas obligR de nourrir8888 En Iuoi l?effet d?une machine diffnre4t4il de celui de nou)eau9 habitantsEA (French trans8 t8 >8, l8 >8, ch8 O>O8! $ore nao)e is #ett*, "ho sa*s, it replaces @#ol*gam*8A 'he abo)e point of )ie" is, at the most, admissible onl* for some parts of the %nited States8 =n the other hand, @machiner* can seldom be used "ith success to abridge the labour of an indi)idual; more time "ould be lost in its construction than could be sa)ed b* its application8 >t is onl* reall* useful "hen it acts on great masses, "hen a single machine can assist the "or+ of thousands8 >t is accordingl* in the most populous countries, "here there are most idle men, that it is most abundant8888 >t is trot called into use b* a scarcit* of men, but b* the facilit* "ith "hich the* can be brought to "or+ in masses8A (#ierc* &a)enstone: @'houghts on the Funding S*stem and its Effects8A <ondon, 186 , p8 38! 113 8Hote in the Bth =erman edition$ v 'his applies to German* too8 Bhere in our countr* agriculture on a large scale e9ists, hence particularl* in the East, it has become possible onl* in conseIuence of the clearing of the estates (@/auernlegenA!, a practice "hich became "iderspread in the 16th centur* and "as particularl* so since 16 88 v !$ E$H 116 @$achiner* and labour are in constant competition8A &icardo, l8c8, p8 728 117 'he competition bet"een hand4"ea)ing and po"er4"ea)ing in England, before the passing of the #oor <a" of 18::, "as prolonged b* supplementing the "ages, "hich had fallen considerabl* belo" the minimum, "ith parish relief8 @'he &e)8 $r8 'urner "as, in 1867, rector of Bilmslo" in 5heshire, a manufacturing district8 'he Iuestions of the 5ommittee of Emigration, and $r8 'urner?s ans"ers, sho" ho" the competition of human labour is maintained against machiner*8 WKuestion: -as not the use of the po"er4loom superseded the use of the hand4loomE (ns"er: %ndoubtedl*; it "ould ha)e superseded them much more than it has done, if the hand4loom "ea)ers "ere not enabled to submit to a reduction of "ages8? WKuestion: /ut in submitting he has accepted "ages "hich are insufficient to support him, and loo+s to parochial contribution as the remainder of his supportE (ns"er: Nes, and in fact the competition bet"een the hand4loom and the po"er4loom is maintained out of the poor4rates8? 'hus degrading pauperism or e9patriation, is the benefit "hich the industrious recei)e from the introduction of machiner*, to be reduced from the respectable and in some degree independent mechanic, to the cringing "retch "ho li)es on the debasing bread of charit*8 'his the* call a temporar* incon)enience8A (@( #ri1e Essa* on the 5omparati)e $erits of 5ompetition and 5o4operation8A <ond8, 18: , p8 628! 118 @'he same cause "hich ma* increase the re)enue of the countr*A (i8e8, as &icardo e9plains in the same passage, the re)enues of landlords and capitalists, "hose "ealth, from the economic point of )ie", forms the Bealth of the

Cation!, @ma* at the same time render the population redundant and deteriorate the condition of the labourer8A (&icardo, l8c8, p8 628! @'he constant aim and the tendenc* of e)er* impro)ement in machiner* is, in fact, to do a"a* entirel* "ith the labour of man, or to lessen its price b* substituting the labour of "omen and children for that of gro"n4up men, or of uns+illed for that of s+illed "or+men8A (%re, l8c8, t8 >8, p8 :38! 112 @&ep8 >nsp8 Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 1838,A p8 :8 167 @&ep8 lnsp8 Fact8 for :1st =ctober, 1836,A p8 138 161 %re, l8c8, p8 128 @'he great ad)antage of the machiner* emplo*ed in bric+4ma+ing consists in this, that the emplo*er is made entirel* independent of s+illed labourers8A (@5h8 Empl8 5omm8 ;8 &eport,A <ond8, 1866, p8 1:7, n8 68! $r8 (8 Sturroc+, superintendent of the machine department of the Great Corthern &ail"a*, sa*s, "ith regard to the building of locomoti)es, Pc8: @E9pensi)e English "or+men are being less used e)er* da*8 'he production of the "or+shops of England is being increased b* the use of impro)ed tools and these tools are again ser)ed b* a lo" class of labour8888 Formerl* their s+illed labour necessaril* produced all the parts of engines8 Co" the parts of engines are produced b* labour "ith less s+ill, but "ith good tools8 /* tools, > mean engineer?s machiner*, lathes, planing machines, drills, and so on8A (@&o*al 5orn8 on &ail"a*s,A <ond8, 1867, $inutes of E)idence, n8 17, 866 and 17, 86:8! 166 %re, l8c8, p8 678 16: %re, l8c8, p8 :618 16 %re, l8c8, p8 6:8 163 @&ep8 >nsp8 Fact8, :1st =ct8, 186:,A pp8 178,1728 166 l8c8, p8 1728 'he rapid impro)ement of machiner*, during the crisis, allo"ed the English manufacturers, immediatel* after the termination of the (merican 5i)il Bar, and almost in no time, to glut the mar+ets of the "orld again8 5loth,? during the last si9 months of 1866, "as almost unsaleable8 'hereupon began the consignment of goods to >ndia and 5hina, thus naturall* ma+ing the glut more intense8 (t the beginning of 1867 the manufacturers resorted to their usual "a* out of the difficult*, )i18, reducing "ages 3 per cent8 'he "or+people resisted, and said that the onl* remed* "as to "or+ short time, da*s a4"ee+; and their theor* "as the correct one8 (fter holding out for some time, the self4elected captains of industr* had to ma+e up their minds to short time, "ith reduced "ages in some places, and in others "ithout8 167 @'he relation of master and man in the blo"n4flint bottle trades amounts to a chronic stri+e8A -ence the impetus gi)en to the manufacture of pressed glass, in "hich the chief operations are done b* machiner*8 =ne firm in Ce"castle, "ho formerl* produced :37,777 lbs8 of blo"n4flint glass, no" produces in its place :,777,377 lbs8 of pressed glass8 (@5h8 Empl8 5omm8, Fourth &ep8,A 1863, pp8 666466:8! 168 Gas+ell8 @'he $anufacturing #opulation of England,A <ondon, 18::, pp8 :, 8 162 B8 Fairbairn disco)ered se)eral )er* important applications of machiner* to the construction of machines, in conseIuence of stri+es in his o"n "or+shops8 1:7 %re, l8c8, pp8 :684:77 1:1 %re, l8c8, pp8 :68, 7, :77, 687, 681, :61, :77, 738 1:6 &icardo originall* "as also of this opinion, but after"ards e9pressl* disclaimed it "ith the scientific impartialit* and lo)e of truth characteristic of him8 See l8c8, ch8 999i8 @=n $achiner*8A 1:: Hota bene8 $* illustration is entirel* on the lines of those gi)en b* the abo)e named economists8 1: ( disciple of &icardo, in ans"er to the insipidities of L8 /8 Sa*, remar+s on this point: @Bhere di)ision of labour is "ell de)eloped, the s+ill of the labourer is a)ailable onl* in that particular branch in "hich it has been acIuired; he himself is a sort of machine8 >t does not therefore help matters one Dot, to repeat in parrot fashion, that things ha)e a tendenc* to find their le)el8 =n loo+ing around us "e cannot but see, that the* are unable to find their le)el for a long time; and that "hen the* do find it, the le)el is al"a*s lo"er than at the commencement of the process8A (@(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand,A Pc8, <ond8 1861, p8 768! 1:3 $ac5ulloch, amongst others, is a past master in this pretentious cretinism8 @>f,A he sa*s, "ith the affected nao)etR of a child of 8 *ears, @if it be ad)antageous, to de)elop the s+ill of the "or+man more and more, so that he is capable of producing, "ith the same or "ith a less Iuantit* of labour, a constantl* increasing Iuantit* of commodities, it must also be ad)antageous, that he should a)ail himself of the help of such machiner* as "ill assist him most effecti)el* in the attainment of this result8A ($ac5ulloch: @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ8,A <ond8 18:7, p8 1668! 1:6 @'he in)entor of the spinning machine has ruined >ndia, a fact, ho"e)er, that touches us but little8A (8 'hiers: 0e la propriRtR8 v $8 'hiers here confounds the spinning machine "ith the po"er4loom, @a fact, ho"e)er, that touches us

but little8A 1:7 (ccording to the census of 1861 (;ol8 >>8, <ond8, 186:!, the number of people emplo*ed in coal mines in England and Bales, amounted to 6 6,61: of "hich 7:,3 3 "ere under, and 17:,767 "ere o)er 67 *ears8 =f those under 67, 8:3 "ere bet"een 3 and 17 *ears, :7,771 bet"een 17 and 13 *ears, 6,717 bet"een 13 and 12 *ears8 'he number emplo*ed in iron, copper8 lead, tin, and other mines of e)er* description, "as :12, 6668 1:8 >n England and Bales, in 1861, there "ere emplo*ed in ma+ing machiner*, 67,877 persons, including the masters and their cler+s, Pc8, also all agents and business people connected "ith this industr*, but e9cluding the ma+ers of small machines, such as se"ing4machines, Pc8, as also the ma+ers of the operati)e parts of machines, such as spindles8 'he total number of ci)il engineers amounted to :,:628 1:2 Since iron is one of the most important ra" materials; let me here state that, in 1861, there "ere in England and Bales 163,771 operati)e iron founders, of "hom 16:, :7 "ere maim 6,: 1 females8 =f the former :7,817 "ere under, and 26,667 o)er 67 *ears8 1 7 @( famil* of four gro"n4up persons, "ith t"o children as "inders, earned at the end of the last, and the beginning of the present centur*, b* ten hours? dail* labour, ] a "ee+8 >f the "or+ "as )er* pressing, the* could earn more8888 /efore that, the* had al"a*s suffered from a deficient suppl* of *arn8A (Gas+ell, l8c8, pp8 634678! 1 1 F8 Engels, in @<age, Pc8,A points out the miserable condition of a large number of those "ho "or+ on these )er* articles of lu9ur*8 See also numerous instances in the @&eports of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission8A 1 6 >n 1861, in England and Bales, there "ere 2 ,663 sailors in the merchant ser)ice8 1 : =f these onl* 177,326 are males abo)e 1: *ears of age8 1 =f these, :7,371 are females8 1 3 =f these, 1:7, 7 males8 Cone are included in the 1,678,6 8 "ho do not ser)e in pri)ate houses8 /et"een 1861 and 1877 the number of male ser)ants nearl* doubled itself8 >t increased to 667,6718 >n the *ear 18 7 there "ere 6,62 game+eepers (for the landlords? preser)es!, in 1862 there "ere ,2618 'he *oung ser)ant girls in the houses of the <ondon lo"er middle class are in common parlance called @sla)e*s8A 1 6 Ganilh, on the contrar*, considers the final result of the factor* s*stem to be an absolutel* less number of operati)es, at "hose e9pense an increased number of @gens honndtesA li)e and de)elop their "ell4+no"n @perfectibilitR perfectible8A <ittle as he understands the mo)ement of production, at least he feels, that machiner* must needs be a )er* fatal institution, if its introduction con)erts bus* "or+men into paupers, and its de)elopment calls more sla)es of labour into e9istence than it has suppressed8 >t is not possible to bring out the cretinism of his standpoint, e9cept b* his o"n "ords: @<es classes condamnRes X produire et X consommer diminuent, et les classes Iui dirigent le tra)ail, Iui soulagent, consolent, et Rclairent toute la population, se multiplient 888 et s?approprient tous les bienfaits Iui rRsultent de la diminution des frais du tra)ail, de l?abondance des productions, et du bon marchR des consommations8 0ans cette direction, l?espRce humaine s?Rln)e au9 plus hautes conceptions du gRnie, pRnntre dans les profoundeurs m*stRrieuses de la religion, Rtablit les principes salutaires de la morale ("hich consists in Ws?approprier tous les beinfaits,? Pc8!, les lois tutRlaires de la libertR (libert* of Wles classes condamnRes X produireE?! et du pou)oir, de l?obRissance et de la Dustice, du de)oir et de la l?humanitR8A G'he classes condemned to produce and to consume diminish, and the classes "hich direct labour, "hich relie)e, console and enlighten the "hole population, multipl* 888 and appropriate all the benefits "hich result from the diminution of the costs of labour, from the abundance of products and the cheapness of consumer goods8 >n this "a*, the human species rises to the highest creations of genius, penetrates the m*sterious depths of religion, and establishes the salutor* principles of moralit*, the la"s for the protection of libert*, and po"er, of obedience and Dustice, of obligation and humanit*H For this t"addle, see @0es S*stnmes d?Economie #olitiIue, Pc8, #ar $8 5h8 Ganilh,A 6nme ed8, #aris, 1861, t8 >, p8 66 , and see p8 6168 1 7 @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1 =ct8, 1863,A p8 38, sI8 (t the same time, ho"e)er, means of emplo*ment for an increased number of hands "as read* in 117 ne" mills "ith 11,663 looms, 668,376 spindles and 6,623 total horse4 po"er of steam and "ater (l8c8!8 1 8 @&eports, Pc8, for :1 =ct8, 1866,A p8 728 (t the end of 1871, $r8 (8 &edgra)e, the factor* inspector, in a lecture gi)en at /radford, in the Ce" $echanics? >nstitution, said: @Bhat has struc+ me for some time past is the altered appearance of the "oollen factories8 Formerl* the* "ere filled "ith "omen and children, no" machiner* seems to do all the "or+8 (t m* as+ing for an e9planation of this from a manufacturer, he ga)e me the follo"ing: W%nder the old s*stem > emplo*ed 6: persons; after the introduction of impro)ed machiner* > reduced m* hands to ::, and latel*, in conseIuence of ne" and e9tensi)e alterations, > ha)e been in a position to reduce those :: to 1:8A 1 2 See @&eports, Pc8, :1 =ct8, 1836,A p8 168

137

@'he sufferings of the hand4loom "ea)ers "ere the subDect of an inIuir* b* a &o*al 5ommission, but although their distress "as ac+no"ledged and lamented, the amelioration of their condition "as left, and probabl* necessaril* so, to the chances and changes of time, "hich it ma* no" be hopedA G67 *ears laterQH @ha)e nearl* obliterated those miseries, and not improbabl* b* the present great e9tention of the po"er4loom8A (@&ep8 >nsp8 of Fact8, :1 =ct8, 1836,A p8 138! 131 =ther "a*s in "hich machiner* affects the production of ra" material "ill be mentioned in the third boo+8
136

EO#=&' =F 5=''=C F&=$ >C0>( '= G&E(' /&>'(>C818 68 v: ,3 7,1 : lbs818678 v 67 ,1 1,168 lbs818638 v 3,2 7,677 lbs8EO#=&' =F B==< F&=$ >C0>( '= G&E(' /&>'(>C818 68 v ,377,381 lbs818678 v67,61 ,17: lbs818638 v67,672,111 lbs8
13:

EO#=&' =F B==< F&=$ '-E 5(#E '= G&E(' /&>'(>C818 68 v6,238, 37 lbs818678 v 16,37 ,: 3 lbs818638 v62,267,66: lbs8EO#=&' =F B==< F&=$ (%S'&(<>( '= G&E(' /&>'(>C818 68 v61,782,: 6 lbs818678 v32,166,616 lbs818638 v172,7: ,661 lbs8
13

'he economic de)elopment of the %nited States is itself a product of European, more especiall* of English modern industr*8 >n their present form (1866! the States must still be considered a European colon*8 G Added in the Bth =erman edition$ I P;ince then they have developed into country 1hose industry holds second place in the 1orld+ 1ithout on that account entirely losin their colonial character$@ I !$ E$H

EO#=&' =F 5=''=C F&=$ '-E %C>'E0 S'('ES '= G&E(' /&>'(>C18 68 v 71,2 2,:2: lbs818368 v763,6:7,3 : lbs818328 v261,777,66 lbs818678 v1,113,827,678 lbs8 EO#=&' =F 5=&C, Pc8, F&=$ '-E %C>'E0 S'('ES '= G&E(' /&>'(>C 1866Bheat, c"ts16,676,:16 1,7::,37:/arle*, c"ts:,662,63:6,66 ,877=ats, c"ts:,17 ,871 , 26,22 &*e, c"ts:88,7 27,178Flour, c"ts:,812, 77,677,11:/uc+"heat, c"ts1,73 12,371$ai1e, c"ts3, 7:,16111,62 ,818/ere or /igg (a sort of /arle*!, c"ts6,7:27,673#eas, c"ts811,6671,76 ,766/eans, c"ts1,866,2766,7:7,1:7'otal e9portsv7 ,78:, 1
133

>n an appeal made in Lul*, 1866, to the 'rade Societies of England, b* the shoema+ers of <eicester, "ho had been thro"n on the streets b* a loc+4out, it is stated: @'"ent* *ears ago the <eicester shoe trade "as re)olutionised b* the introduction of ri)eting in the place of stitching8 (t that time good "ages could be earned8 Great competition "as sho"n bet"een the different firms as to "hich could turn out the neatest article8 Shortl* after"ards, ho"e)er a "orse +ind of competition sprang up, namel*, that of underselling one another in the mar+et8 'he inDurious conseIuences soon manifested themsel)es in reductions of "ages, and so s"eepingl* Iuic+ "as the fall in the price of labour, that man* firms no" pa* onl* one half of the original "ages8 (nd *et, though "ages sin+ lo"er and lo"er, profits appear, "ith each alteration in the scale of "ages, to increase8A E)en bad times are utilised b* the manufacturers, for ma+ing e9ceptional profits b* e9cessi)e lo"ering of "ages, i8e8, b* a direct robber* of the labourer?s means of subsistence8 =ne e9ample (it has reference to the crisis in the 5o)entr* sil+ "ea)ing!: @From information > ha)e recei)ed from manufacturers as "ell as "or+men, there seems to be no doubt that "ages ha)e been reduced to a greater e9tent than either the competition of the foreign producers, or other circumstances ha)e rendered necessar* 888 the maDorit* of "ea)ers are "or+ing at a reduction of :7 to 7 per cent8 in their "ages8 ( piece of ribbon for8 ma+ing "hich the "ea)er got 6s8 or 7s8 fi)e *ears bac+, no" onl* brings them :s8 :d8 or :s8 6d8; other "or+ is no" priced at 6s8 and 6s8 :d8 "hich "as formerl* priced at s8 and s8 :d8 'he reduction in "age seems to ha)e been carried to a greater e9tent than is necessar* for increasing demand8 >ndeed, the reduction in the cost of "ea)ing, in the case of man* descriptions of ribbons, has net been accompanied b* an* corresponding reduction in the selling price of the manufactured article8A ($r8 F8 08 <onges &eport8 @5h8 Emp8 5orn8, ;8 &ep8, 1866,A p8 11 , 18! 136 5onf @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ctober, 1866,A p8 :78 137 l8c8, p8 128 138 @&ep8 >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ctober, 186:,A pp8 14 38 132 l8c8, pp8 14 6 167 l8c8, p8 378

161 166

l8c8, pp8 374318 l8c8, pp8 6646:8 16: @&ep8 Pc8, :7th (pril, 186 ,A p8 678 16 From a letter of $r8 -arris, 5hief 5onstable of /olton, in @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ctober, 1863,A pp8 614668 163 >n an appeal, dated 186:, of the factor* operati)es of <ancashire, Pc8, for the purpose of forming a societ* for organised emigration, "e find the follo"ing: @'hat a large emigration of factor* "or+ers is no" absolutel* essential to raise them from their present prostrate condition, fe" "ill den*; but to sho" that a continuous stream of emigration is at all times demanded, and, "ithout "hich it is impossible for than to maintain their position in ordinar* times, "e beg to call attention to the subDoined facts: v >n 181 the official )alue of cotton goods e9ported "as ]17,663,:78, "hilst the real mar+etable )alue "as ]67,777,86 8 >n 1838 the official )alue of cotton goods e9ported, "as ]186,661,681; but the real or mar+etable )alue "as onl* ] :,771,:66, being a ten4fold Iuantit* sold for little more than double the former price8 'o produce results so disad)antageous to the countr* generall*, and to the factor* "or+ers in particular, se)eral causes ha)e cooperated, "hich, had circumstances permitted, "e should ha)e brought more prominentl* under *our notice; suffice it for the present to sa* that the most ob)ious one is the constant redundanc* of labour, "ithout "hich a trade so ruinous in its effects ne)er could ha)e been carried on, and "hich reIuires a constantl* e9tending mar+et to sa)e it from annihilation8 =ur cotton mills ma* be brought to a stand b* the periodical stagnations of trade, "hich, under present arrangements, are as ine)itable as death itself; but the human mind is constantl* at "or+, and although "e belie)e "e are under the mar+ in stating that si9 millions of persons ha)e left these shores during the last 63 *ears, *et, from the natural increase of population, and the displacement of labour to cheapen production, a large percentage of the male adults in the most prosperous times find it impossible to obtain "or+ in factories on an* conditions "hate)er8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, :7th (pril 186:,A pp8 314368! Be shall, in a later chapter, see ho" our friends, the manufacturers, endea)oured, during the catastrophe in the cotton trade, to pre)ent b* e)er* means, including State interference, the emigration of the operati)es8 166 @5h8 Empt8 5omm8 >>>8 &eport, 186 ,A p8 178, n8 78 167 >n the %nited States the restoration, in this "a*, of handicrafts based on machiner* is freIuent; and therefore, "hen the ine)itable transition to the factor* s*stem shall ta+e place, the ensuing concentration "ill, compared "ith Europe and e)en "ith England, stride on in se)en4league boots8 168 See @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A p8 6 8 162 $r8 Gillott erected in /irmingham the first steel4pen factor* on a large scale8 >t produced, so earl* as 1831, o)er 187,777,777 of pens *earl*, and consumed 167 tons of steel8 /irmingham has the monopol* of this industr* in the %nited .ingdom, and at present produces thousands of millions of steel4pens8 (ccording to the 5ensus of 1861, the number of persons emplo*ed "as 1, 68, of "hom 1,668 females from 3 *ears of age up"ards8 177 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8 >>8 &ep8 186 ,A p8 <O;>>>8, n8 138 171 (nd no" forsooth children are emplo*ed at file4cutting in Sheffield8 176 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8, ;8 &ep8 1866,A p8 :, n8 6 ; p8 6, n8 33, 36; p8 7, n8 32, 678 17: l8c8, pp8 11 , 113, n8 6, 78 'he commissioner Dustl* remar+s that though as a rule machines ta+e the place of men, here literall* *oung persons replace machines8 17 See the &eport on the rag trade, and numerous details in @#ublic -ealth, ;>>>8 &ep8A <ond8 1866, app8, pp8 126, 6788 173 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8 ;8 &ep8, 1866,A pp8 9)i49)iii, n8 86427, and pp8 1:741::, n8 :24718 See also >>>8 &ep8, 186 , pp8 8, 368 176 @#ublic -ealth8 Si9th &ep8,A <ond8 186 , pp8 62, :18 177 l8c8, p8 :78 0r8 Simon remar+s that the mortalit* among the <ondon tailors and printers bet"een the ages of 63 and :3 is in fact much greater, because the emplo*ers in <ondon obtain from the countr* a great number of *oung people up to :7 *ears of age, as @apprenticesA and @impro)ers,A "ho come for the purpose of being perfected in their trade8 'hese figure in the census as <ondoners, the* s"ell out the number of heads on "hich the <ondon death4rate is calculated, "ithout adding proportionall* to the number of deaths in that place8 'he greater part of them in fact return to the countr*, and especiall* in cases of se)ere illness8 (l8c8! 178 > allude here to hammered nails, as distinguished from nails cut out and made b* machiner*8 See @5hild8 Empl8 5omm8, 'hird &ep8,A pp8 9i8, 9i98, n8 16341:7, p8 36, n8 11, p8 11 , n8 87, p8 1:7, n8 67 8 172 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8, >>8 &ep8,A p8 99ii, n8 1668

187 181

@5h8 Empl8 5omm8, >>8 &ep8, 186 ,A pp8 9i98, 998, 99i8 l8c8, pp8 99i88 99ii8 186 l8c8, pp8 99i98, 9998 18: l8c8, pp8 9i8, 9ii8 18 @5hild8 Empl8 5omm8, >8 &ep8 186:,A p8 1838 183 >n England milliner* and dressma+ing are for the most part carried on, on the premises of the emplo*er, partl* b* "or+"omen "ho li)e there, partl* b* "omen "ho li)e off the premises8 186 $r8 Bhite, a commissioner, )isited a militar* clothing manufactor* that emplo*ed 1,777 to 1,677 persons, almost all females, and a shoe manufactor* "ith 1,:77 persons; of these nearl* one half "ere children and *oung persons8 187 (n instance8 'he "ee+l* report of deaths b* the &egistrar4General dated 66th Feb8, 186 , contains 3 cases of death from star)ation8 =n the same da* /he /imes reports another case8 Si9 )ictims of star)ation in one "ee+Q 188 @5hild8 Empl8 5omm8, Second &ep8, 186 ,A p8 l9)ii8, n8 7642, p8 8 , n8 16 , p8 l99iii, n8 1, p8 68, n8 6, p8 8 , n8 166, p8 78, n8 83, p8 76, n8 62, p8 l99ii, n8 8:8 182 @'he rental of premises reIuired for "or+rooms seems the element "hich ultimatel* determines the point; and conseIuentl* it is in the metropolis, that the old s*stem of gi)ing "or+ out to small emplo*ers and families has been longest retained, and earliest returned to8A (l8c8, p8 8:, n8 16:8! 'he concluding statement in this Iuotation refers e9clusi)el* to shoema+ing8 127 >n glo)e4ma+ing and other industries "here the condition of the "or+4people is hardl* distinguishable from that of paupers, this does not occur8 121 l8c8, p8 8:, n8 1668 126 >n the "holesale boot and shoe trade of <eicester alone, there "ere in 186 , 877 se"ing4machines alread* in use8 12: l8c8, p8 8 , n8 16 8 12 >nstances: 'he (rm* 5lothing 0epot at #imlico, <ondon, the Shirt factor* of 'illie and -enderson at <ondonderr*, and the clothes factor* of $essrs8 'ait at <imeric+ "hich emplo*s about 1,677 hands8 123 @'endenc* to Factor* S*stemA (l8c8, p8 l9)ii!8 @'he "hole emplo*ment is at this time in a state of transition, and is undergoing the same 5hange as that effected in the lace trade, "ea)ing, Pc8A (l8c8, n8 738! @( complete re)olutionA (l8c8, p8 9l)i8, n8 :18!8 (t the date of the 5hild8 Empl8 5omm8 of 18 7 stoc+ing ma+ing "as still done b* manual labour8 Since 18 6 )arious sorts of machines ha)e been introduced, "hich are no" dri)en b* steam8 'he total number of persons of both se9es and of all ages from : *ears up"ards, emplo*ed in stoc+ing ma+ing in England, "as in 1866 about 162,7778 =f these onl* ,76: "ere, according to the #arliamentar* &eturn of the 11th Februar*, 1866, "or+ing under the Factor* (cts8 126 'hus, e8g8, in the earthen"are trade, $essrs8 5ochrane, of the /ritain #otter*, Glasgo", report: @'o +eep up our Iuantit* "e ha)e gone e9tensi)el* into machines "rought b* uns+illed labour, and e)er* da* con)inces us that "e can produce a greater Iuantit* than b* the old method8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A p8 1:8! @'he effect of the Fact8 (cts is to force on the further introduction of machiner*A (l8c8, pp8 1:41 !8 127 'hus, after the e9tension of the Factor* (ct to the potteries, great increase of po"erDiggers in place of hand4mo)ed Diggers8 128 @&eport of lnsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A pp8 26 and 1678 122 'he introduction of this and other machiner* into match4ma+ing caused in one department alone 6:7 *oung persons to be replaced b* :6 bo*s and girls of 1 to 17 *ears of age8 'his sa)ing in labour "as carried still further in 1863, b* the emplo*ment of steam po"er8 677 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8, 118 &ep8, 186 ,A p8 i98, n8 378 671 @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A p88668 676 @/ut it must be borne in mind that those impro)ements, though carried out full* in some establishments, are b* no means general, and are not capable of being brought into use in man* of the old manufactories "ithout an e9penditure of capital be*ond the means of man* of the present occupiers8A @> cannot but reDoice,A "rites Sub4>nsp8 $a*, @that not"ithstanding the temporar* disorganisation "hich ine)itabl* follo"s the introduction of such a measure (as the Factor* (ct E9tension (ct!, and is, indeed, directl* indicati)e of the e)ils "hich it "as intended to remed*, Pc8A (&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 18638!

67:

Bith blast furnaces, for instance, @"or+ to"ards the end of the "ee+ being generall* much increased in duration in conseIuence of the habit of the men of idling on $onda* and occasionall* during a part or the "hole of 'uesda* also8A (@5hild8 Empl8 5omm8, >>>8 &ep8,A p8 )i8! @'he little masters generall* ha)e )er* irregular hours8 'he* lose t"o or three da*s, and then "or+ all night to ma+e it up8888 'he* al"a*s emplo* their o"n children, if the* ha)e an*8A (l8c8, p8 )ii8! @'he "ant of regularit* in coming to "or+, encouraged b* the possibilit* and practice of ma+ing up for this b* "or+ing longer hours8A (l8c8, p8 9)iii8! @>n /irmingham 888 an enormous amount of time is lost 888 idling part of the time, sla)ing the rest8A (l8c8, p8 9i8! 67 @5hild8 Empl8 5omm8, >;8, &ep8,A p8 999ii8, @'he e9tension of the rail"a* s*stem is said to ha)e contributed greatl* to this custom of gi)ing sudden orders, and the conseIuent hurr*, neglect of meal4times, and late hours of the "or+people8A (l8c8, p8 999i8! 673 @5h8 Empl8 5omm, >;8 &ep8,A pp8 999)8, n8 6:3, 6:78 676 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8 >;8 &ep8,A p8 167, n8 368 677 Bith respect to the loss of trade b* non4completion of shipping orders in time, > remember that this "as the pet argument of the factor* masters in 18:6 and 18::8 Cothing that can be ad)anced no" on this subDect, could ha)e the force that it had then, before steam had hal)ed all distances and established ne" regulations for transit8 >t Iuite failed at that time of proof "hen put to the test, and again it "ill certainl* fail should it ha)e to be tried8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1 =ct8, 1866,A pp8 3 , 338! 678 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8 >;8 &ep8,A p8 9)iii, n8 1188 672 Lohn /ellers remar+ed as far bac+ as 1622: @'he uncertaint* of fashions does increase necessitous poor8 >t has t"o great mischiefs in it8 1st, 'he Dourne*men are miserable in "inter for "ant of "or+, the mercers and master4"ea)ers not daring to la* out their stoc+s to +eep the Dourne*men emplo*ed before the spring comes, and the* +no" "hat the fashion "ill then be; 6ndl*, >n the spring the Dourne*men are not sufficient, but the master4"ea)ers must dra" in man* prentices, that the* ma* suppl* the trade of the +ingdom in a Iuarter or half a *ear, "hich robs the plough of hands, drains the countr* of labourers, and in a great part stoc+s the cit* "ith beggars, and star)es some in "inter that are ashamed to beg8A (@Essa*s about the #oor, $anufactures, Pc8,A p8 28! 617 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8 ;8 &ep8,A p8 171, n8 : 8 611 'he e)idence of some /radford e9port4houses is as follo"s: @%nder these circumstances, it seems clear that no bo*s need be "or+ed longer than from 8 a8m8 to 7 or 78:7 p8m8, in ma+ing up8 >t is merel* a Iuestion of e9tra hands and e9tra outla*8 >f some masters "ere not so greed*, the bo*s "ould not "or+ late; an e9tra machine costs onl* ]16 or ]18; much of such o)er4time as does occur is to be referred to an insufficienc* of appliances, and a "ant of space8A @5h8 Empl, 5omm8 ;8 &ep8,A p8 171, n8 :3, :6, :88 616 l8c8 ( <ondon manufacturer, "ho in other respects loo+s upon the compulsor* regulation of the hours of labour as a protection for the "or+people against the manufacturers, and for the manufacturers themsel)es against the "holesale trade, states: @'he pressure in our business is caused b* the shippers, "ho "ant, e8g8, to send the goods b* sailing )essel so as to reach their destination at a gi)en season, and at the same time "ant to poc+et the difference in freight bet"een a sailing )essel and a steamship, or "ho select the earlier of t"o steamships in order to be in the foreign mar+et before their competitors8A 61: @'his could be ob)iated,A sa*s a manufacturer, @at the e9pense of an enlargement of the "or+s under the pressure of a General (ct of #arliament8A l8c8, p8 98, n8 :88 61 l8c8, p8 9)8, n8 768 sII8 613 @&ep8 >nsp8 Fact8, :1st =ctober, 1863,A p8 1678 616 >t has been found out b* e9periment, that "ith each respiration of a)erage intensit* made b* a health* a)erage indi)idual, about 63 cubic inches of air are consumed, and that about 67 respirations are made in each minute8 -ence the air inhaled in 6 hours b* each indi)idual is about 767,777 cubic inches, or 16 cubic feet8 >t is clear, ho"e)er, that air "hich has been once breathed, can no longer ser)e for the same process until it has been purified in the great "or+shop of Cature8 (ccording to the e9periments of ;alentin and /runner, it appears that a health* man gi)es off about 1,:77 cubic inches of carbonic acid per hour; this "ould gi)e about 8 ounces of solid carbon thro"n off from the lungs in 6 hours8A E)er* man should ha)e at least 877 cubic feet8A (-u9le*8! 617 (ccording to the English Factor* (ct, parents cannot send their children under 1 *ears of age into Factories under the control of the (ct, unless at the same time the* allo" them to recei)e elementar* education8 'he manufacturer is responsible for compliance "ith the (ct8 @Factor* education is compulsor*, and it is a condition of labour8A (@&ep8 >nsp8 Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A p8 1118!

618

=n the )er* ad)antageous results of combining g*mnastics (and drilling in the case of bo*s! "ith compulsor* education for factor* children and pauper scholars, see the speech of C8 B8 Senior at the se)enth annual congress of @'he Cational (ssociation for the #romotion of Social Science,A in @&eport of #roceedings, Pc8,A <ond8 186:, pp8 6:, 6 , also the @&ep8 >nsp8 Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A pp8 118, 112, 167, 166, sII8 612 @&ep8 >nsp8 Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1863,A p8 1188 ( sil+ manufacturer nai)el* states to the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommissioners: @> am Iuite sure that the true secret of producing efficient "or+people is to be found in uniting education and labour from a period of childhood8 =f course the occupation must not be too se)ere, nor ir+some, or unhealth*8 /ut of the ad)antage of the union > ha)e no doubt8 > "ish m* o"n children could ha)e some "or+ as "ell as pla* to gi)e )ariet* to their schooling8A (@5h8 Empl8 5omm8 ;8 &ep8,A p8 86, n8 :68! 667 Senior, l8c8, p8 668 -o" modern industr*, "hen it has attained to a certain pitch, is capable, b* the re)olution it effects in the mode of production and in the social conditions of production, of also re)olutionising people?s minds, is stri+ingl* sho"n b* a comparison of Senior?s speech in 186:, "ith his philippic against the Factor* (ct of 18::; or b* a comparison, of the )ie"s of the congress abo)e referred to, "ith the fact that in certain countr* districts of England poor parents are forbidden, on pain of death b* star)ation, to educate their children8 'hus, e8g8, $r8 Snell reports it to be a common occurrence in Somersetshire that, "hen a poor person claims parish relief, he is compelled to ta+e his children from school8 $r8 Bollarton, the clerg*man at Feltham, also tells of cases "here all relief "as denied to certain families @because the* "ere sending their children to schoolQA 661 Bhere)er handicraft4machines, dri)en b* men, compete directl* or indirectl* "ith more de)eloped machines dri)en b* mechanical po"er, a great change ta+es place "ith regard to the labourer "ho dri)es the machine8 (t first the steam4engine replaces this labourer, after"ards he must replace the steam4engine8 5onseIuentl* the tension and the amount of tambour4po"er e9pended become monstrous, and especiall* so in the case of the children "ho are condemned to this torture8 'hus $r8 <onge; one of the commissioners, found in 5o)entr* and the neighbourhood bo*s of from 17 to 13 *ears emplo*ed in dri)ing the ribbon4looms, not to mention *ounger children "ho had to dri)e smaller machines8 @>t is e9traordinaril* fatiguing "or+8 'he bo* is a mere substitute for steam po"er8A (@5h8 Empl8 5omm8 ;, &ep8 1866;A p8 11 , n8 68! (s to the fatal conseIuences of @this s*stem of sla)er*,A as the official report st*les it, see l8c8, p8 11 sII8 666 l8c8, p8 :, n8 6 8 66: l8c8, #8 7, n8 678 66 @>n some parts of the -ighlands of Scotland, not man* *ears ago, e)er* peasant, according to the Statistical (ccount, made his o"n shoes of leather tanned b* himself8 $an* a shepherd and cottar too, "ith his "ife and children, appeared at 5hurch in clothes "hich had been touched b* no hands but their o"n, since the* "ere shorn from the sheep and so"n in the fla9field8 >n the preparation of these8 it is added, scarcel* a single article had been purchased, e9cept the a"l, needle, thimble, and a )er* fe" parts of the iron4"or+ emplo*ed in the "ea)ing8 'he d*es, toci, "ere chiefl* e9tracted b* the "omen from trees, shrubs and herbs8A (0ugald Ste"art?s @Bor+s,A -amilton?s Ed8, ;ol8 )iii8, pp8 :674:688! 663 >n the celebrated @<i)re des mRtiersA of Etienne /oileau, "e find it prescribed that a Dourne*man on being admitted among the masters had to s"ear @to lo)e his brethren "ith brotherl* lo)e, to support them in their respecti)e trades, not "ilfull* to betra* the secrets of the trade, and besides, in the interests of all, not to recommend his o"n4"ares b* calling the attention of the bu*er to defects in the articles made b* others8A 666 @'he bourgeoisie cannot e9ist "ithout continuall* re)olutionising the instruments of production, and thereb* the relations of production and all the social relations8 5onser)ation, in an unaltered form, of the old modes of production "as on the contrar* the first condition of e9istence for all earlier industrial classes8 5onstant re)olution in production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, e)erlasting uncertaint* and agitation, distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones8 (ll fi9ed, fast4fro1en relations, "ith their train of ancient and )enerable preDudices and opinions, are s"ept a"a*, all ne" formed ones become antiIuated before the* can ossif*8 (ll that is solid melts into air, all that is hol* is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face "ith sober senses his real conditions of life, and his relations "ith his +ind8A (F8 Engels und .arl $ar9: @$anifest der .ommunistischen #artei8A <ond8 18 8, p8 38! 667 @Nou ta+e m* life Bhen *ou do ta+e the means "hereb* > li)e8A Sha+espeare8 668 ( French "or+man, on his return from San4Francisco, "rites as follo"s: @> ne)er could ha)e belie)ed, that > "as capable of "or+ing at the )arious occupations > "as emplo*ed on in 5alifornia8 > "as firml* con)inced that > "as fit for nothing but letter4press printing8888 =nce in the midst of this "orld of ad)enturers, "ho change their occupation as

often as the* do their shirt, egad, > did as the others8 (s mining did not turn out remunerati)e enough, > left it for the to"n, "here in succession > became t*pographer, slater, plumber, Pc8 >n conseIuence of thus finding out that > am fit to an* sort of "or+, > feel less of a mollus+ and more of a man8A ((8 5orbon, @0e l?enseignement professionnel,A 6nme ed8, p8 378! 662 Lohn /ellers, a )er* phenomenon in the histor* of #olitical Econom*, sa" most clearl* at the end of the 17th centur*, the necessit* for abolishing the present s*stem of education and di)ision of labour, "hich beget h*pertroph* and atroph* at the t"o opposite e9tremities of societ*8 (mongst other things he sa*s this: @(n idle learning being little better than the learning of idleness8888 /odil* labour, it?s a primiti)e institution of God8888 <abour being as proper for the bodies? health as eating is for its li)ing; for "hat pains a man sa)es b* ease, he "ill find in disease8888 <abour adds oil to the lamp of life, "hen thin+ing inflames it8888 ( childish sill* emplo*A (a "arning this, b* presentiment, against the /asedo"s and their modern imitators! @lea)es the children?s minds sill*,A (@#roposals for &aising a 5olledge of >ndustr* of all %seful 'rades and -usbandr*8A <ond8, 1626, pp8 16, 1 , 188! 6:7 'his sort of labour goes on mostl* in small "or+shops, as "e ha)e seen in the lacema+ing and stra"4plaiting trades, and as could be sho"n more in detail from the metal trades of Sheffield, /irmingham, Pc8 6:1 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8, ;8 &ep8,A p8 99)8, n8 166, and >>8 &ep8, p8 999)iii8, n, 683, 682, p8 99)8, 99)i8, n8 1218 6:6 @Factor* labour ma* be as pure and as e9cellent as domestic labour, and perhaps more so? @ (@&ep8 >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ctober, 1863,A p8 1628! 6:: @&ep8 >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ctober, 1863,A pp8 674:68 6: Cumerous instances "ill be found in @&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8A 6:3 @5h8 Empl8 5omm8, ;8 &ep8,A p8 98, n8 :38 6:6 5h8 Empl8 5omm8, ;8 &ep8,A p8 i98, n8 688 6:7 l8c8, p8 99)8, n8 16341678 (s to the ad)antages of large scale, compared "ith small scale, industries, see @5h8 Empl8 5omm8, >>>8 &ep8,A p8 1:, n8 1 , p8 63, n8 161, p8 66, n8 163, p8 67, n8 1 7, Pc8 6:8 'he trades proposed to be brought under the (ct "ere the follo"ing: <ace4ma+ing, stoc+ing4"ea)ing, stra"4 plaiting, the manufacture of "earing apparel "ith its numerous sub4di)isions, artificial flo"er4ma+ing, shoema+ing, hat4ma+ing, glo)e4ma+ing, tailoring, all metal "or+s, from blast furnaces do"n to needle"or+s, Pc8, paper4mills, glass"or+s, tobacco factories, >ndia4rubber "or+s, braid4ma+ing (for "ea)ing!, hand4carpetma+ing, umbrella and parasol ma+ing, the manufacture of spindles and spools, letterpress printing, boo+4binding, manufacture of stationer* (including paper bags, cards, coloured paper, Pc8!, rope4ma+ing, manufacture of Det ornaments, bric+4ma+ing, sil+ manufacture b* hand, 5o)entr* "ea)ing, salt "or+s, tallo" chandiers, cement "or+s, sugar refineries, biscuit4ma+ing, )arious industries connected "ith timber, and other mi9ed trades8 6:2 l8c8, p8 99)8, n8 1628 6 7 -ere (from @'he 'or* 5abinet888888 to @Cassau B8 SeniorV! the English te9t has been altered in conformit* "ith the th German edition8 v Ed8 6 1 'he Factor* (cts E9tension (ct "as passed on (ugust 16, 18678 it regulates all foundries, smithies, and metal manufactories, including machine shops; furthermore glass4"or+s, paper mills, gutta4percha and >ndia4rubber "or+s, tobacco manufactories, letter4press printing and boo+4binding "or+s, and, lastl*, all "or+shops in "hich more than 37 persons are emplo*ed8 'he -ours of <abour &egulation (ct, passed on (ugust 17, 1867, regulates the smaller "or+shops and the so4called domestic industries8 > shall re)ert to these (cts and to the ne" $ining (ct of 1876 in ;olume >>8 6 6 Senior, @Social Science 5ongress,A pp8 334388 6 : 'he @personnelA of this staff consisted of 6 inspectors, 6 assistant inspectors and 1 sub4inspectors8 Eight additional sub4inspectors "ere appointed in 18718 'he total cost of administering the (cts in England, Scotland, and >reland amounted for the *ear 1871476 to no more than ]63,: 7, inclusi)e of the la" e9penses incurred b* prosecutions of offending masters8 6 &obert ="en, the father of 5o4operati)e Factories and Stores, but "ho, as before remar+ed, in no "a* shared the illusions of his follo"ers "ith regard to the bearing of these isolated elements of transformation, not onl* practicall* made the factor* s*stem the sole foundation of his e9periments, but also declared that s*stem to be theoreticall* the starting4point of the social re)olution8 -err ;issering, #rofessor of #olitical Econom* in the %ni)ersit* of <e*den, appears to ha)e a suspicion of this "hen, in his @-andboe+ )an #ractische Staatshuishoud+unde, 1867466,A "hich reproduces all the platitudes of )ulgar econom*, he strongl* supports handicrafts against the factor* s*stem8

EAdded in the 4th German edition v 'he @hopelessl* be"ildering tangle of contradictor* enactmentsA (S8 :1 ! (present )olume, p8 68 ! "hich English legislation called into life b* means of the mutuall* conflicting Factor* (cts, the Factor* (cts E9tension (ct and the Bor+shops? (ct, finall* became intolerable, and thus all legislati)e enactments on this subDect "ere codified in the Factor* and Bor+shop (ct of 18788 =f course no detailed critiIue of this English industrial code no" in effect can be presented here8 'he follo"ing remar+s "ill ha)e to suffice8 'he (ct comprises: 1! Te:tile Mills8 -ere e)er*thing remains about as it "as: children more than 17 *ears of age ma* "or+ 3[ hours a da*; or 6 hours and Saturda* off; *oung persons and "omen, 17 hours on 3 da*s, and at most 6[ on Saturda*8 6! ,on@Te:tile 3actories8 -ere the regulations are brought closer than before to those of Co8 1, but there are still se)eral e9ceptions "hich fa)our the capitalists and "hich in certain cases ma* be e9panded b* special permission of the -ome Secretar*8 :! (or<shops, defined appro9imatel* as in the former (ct; as for the children, *oung "or+ers and "omen emplo*ed there, the "or+shops are about on a par "ith the non4te9tile factories, but again conditions are easier in details8 ! (or<shops in "hich no children or *oung "or+ers are emplo*ed, but onl* persons of both se9es abo)e the age of 18; this categor* enDo* still easier conditions8 3! 7omestic (or<shops, "here onl* members of the famil* are emplo*ed, in the famil* d"elling: still more elastic regulations and simultaneousl* the restriction that the inspector ma*, "ithout special permission of the ministr* or a court, enter onl* rooms not used also for d"elling purposes; and lastl* unrestricted freedom for stra"4plaiting and lace and glo)e4ma+ing b* members of the famil*8 Bith all its defects this (ct, together "ith the S"iss Federal Factor* <a" of $arch 6:, 1877, is still b* far the best piece of legislation in this field8 ( comparison of it "ith the said S"iss federal la" is of particular interest because it clearl* demonstrates the merits and demerits of the t"o legislati)e methods v the English, @historicalA method, "hich inter)enes "hen occasion reIuires, and the continental method, "hich is built up on the traditions of the French &e)olution and generalises more8 %nfortunatel*, due to insufficient inspection personnel, the English code is still largel* a dead letter "ith regard to its application to "or+shops8 I !$ E$H 6 3 @Nou di)ide the people into t"o hostile camps of clo"nish boors and emasculated d"arfs8 Good hea)ensQ a nation di)ided into agricultural and commercial interests, calling itself sane; na*, st*ling itself enlightened and ci)ilised, not onl* in spite of, but in conseIuence of this monstrous and unnatural di)ision8A (0a)id %rIuhart, l8c8, p8 1128! 'his passage sho"s, at one and the same time, the strength and the "ea+ness of that +ind of criticism "hich +no"s ho" to Dudge and condemn the present, but not ho" to comprehend it8 6 6 See <iebig: @0ie 5hemie in ihrer (n"endung auf (gricultur und #h*siologie,A 78 (uflage, 1866, and especiall* the @Einleitung in die Caturgeset1e des Feldbaus,A in the 1st ;olume8 'o ha)e de)eloped from the point of )ie" of natural science, the negati)e, i8e8, destructi)e side of modern agriculture, is one of <iebig?s immortal merits8 -is summar*, too, of the histor* of agriculture, although not free from gross errors, contains flashes of light8 >t is, ho"e)er, to be regretted that he )entures on such hapha1ard assertions as the follo"ing: @/* greater pul)erising and more freIuent ploughing, the circulation of air in the interior of porous soil is aided, and the surface e9posed to the action of the atmosphere is increased and rene"ed; but it is easil* seen that the increased *ield of the land cannot be proportional to the labour spent on that land, but increases in a much smaller proportion8 'his la",A adds <iebig, @"as first enunciated b* Lohn Stuart $ill in his W#rinciples of #ol8 Econ8,? ;ol8 1, p8 17, as follo"s: W'hat the produce of land increases, caeteris paribus, in a diminishing ratio to the increase of the labourers emplo*ed? ($ill here introduces in an erroneous form the la" enunciated b* &icardo?s school, for since the Wdecrease of the labourers emplo*ed,? +ept e)en pace in England "ith the ad)ance of agriculture, the la" disco)ered in, and applied to, England, could ha)e no application to that countr*, at all e)ents!, Wis the uni)ersal la" of agricultural industr*8? 'his is )er* remar+able, since $ill "as ignorant of the reason for this ta"8A (<iebig, l8c8, /d8 >8, p8 1 : and Cote8! (part from <iebig?s "rong interpretation of the "ord @labour,A b* "hich "ord he understands something Iuite different from "hat #olitical Econom* does, it is, in an* case, @)er* remar+ableA that he should ma+e $r8 Lohn Stuart $ill the first propounder of a theor* "hich "as first published b* Lames (nderson in (8 Smith?s da*s, and "as repeated in )arious "or+s do"n to the beginning of the 12th centur*; a theor* "hich $althus, that master in plagiarism (the "hole of his population theor* is a shameless plagiarism!, appropriated to himself in 1813; "hich Best de)eloped at the same time as, and independentl* of, (nderson; "hich in the *ear 1817 "as connected b* &icardo "ith the general theor* of )alue, then made the round of the "orld as &icardo?s theor*, and in 1867 "as )ulgarised b* Lames $ill, the father of Lohn Stuart $ill; and "hich, finall*, "as reproduced b* Lohn Stuart $ill and others, as a dogma alread* Iuite commonplace, and +no"n to e)er* schoolbo*8 >t cannot be denied that Lohn Stuart $ill o"es his, at all e)ents, @remar+ableA authorit* almost entirel* to such &uid)pro)&uos8

@'he )er* e9istence of the master4capitalists, as a distinct class, is dependent on the producti)eness of industr*8A (&amsa*, l8c8, p8 6768! @>f each man?s labour "ere but enough to produce his o"n food, there could be no propert*8A (&a)enstone, l8c8 p8 1 , 138! 6 (ccording to a recent calculation, there are *et at least ,777,777 cannibals in those parts of the earth "hich ha)e alread* been e9plored8 : @(mong the "ild >ndians in (merica, almost e)er*thing is the labourer?s, 22 parts of a hundred are to be put upon the account of labour8 >n England, perhaps, the labourer has not 6J:8A ('he (d)antages of the East >ndia 'rade, Pc8, p8 7:8! 0iodorus, l8c8, l8 >8, c8 878 3 @'he first (natural "ealth! as it is most noble and ad)antageous, so doth it ma+e the people careless, proud, and gi)en to all e9cesses; "hereas the second enforceth )igilanc*, literature, arts and polic*8A (England?s 'reasure b* Foreign 'rade8 =r the /alance of our Foreign 'rade is the &ule of our 'reasure8 Britten b* 'homas $un of <ondon, merchant, and no" published for the common good b* his son Lohn $un8 <ondon, 1662, p8 181, 1868! @Cor can > concei)e a greater curse upon a bod* of people, than to be thro"n upon a spot of land, "here the productions for subsistence and food "ere, in great measure, spontaneous, and the climate reIuired or admitted little care for raiment and co)ering888 there ma* be an e9treme on the other side8 ( soil incapable of produce b* labour is Iuite as bad as a soil that produces plentifull* "ithout an* labour8A ((n >nIuir* into the #resent -igh #rice of #ro)isions8 <ond8 1767, p8 178! 6 'he necessit* for predicting the rise and fall of the Cile created Eg*ptian astronom*, and "ith it the dominion of the priests, as directors of agriculture8 @<e solstice est le moment de l?annRe ou commence la crue du Cil, et celui Iue les Eg*ptiens ont du obser)er a)ec le plus d?attention8888 5?Rtait cette annRe tropiIue Iu?il leur importait de marIuer pour se diriger dans leurs opRrations agricoles8 >ls durent donc chercher dans le ciel un signe apparent de son retour8A G'he solstice is the moment of the *ear "hen the Cile begins to rise, and it is the moment the Eg*ptians ha)e had to "atch for "ith the greatest attention 888 >t "as the e)olution of the tropical *ear "hich the* had to establish firml* so as to conduct their agricultural operations in accordance "ith it8 'he* therefore had to search the hea)ens for a )isible sign of the solstice?s return8H (5u)ier: 0iscours sur les rR)olutions du globe, ed8 -oefer, #aris, 186:, p8 1 18! 7 =ne of the material bases of the po"er of the state o)er the small disconnected producing organisms in >ndia, "as the regulation of the "ater suppl*8 'he $ahometan rulers of >ndia understood this better than their English successors8 >t is enough to recall to mind the famine of 1866, "hich cost the li)es of more than a million -indus in the district of =rissa, in the /engal presidenc*8 8 @'here are no t"o countries "hich furnish an eIual number of the necessaries of life in eIual plent*, and "ith the same Iuantit* of labour8 $en?s "ants increase or diminish "ith the se)erit* or temperateness of the climate the* li)e in; conseIuentl*, the proportion of trade "hich the inhabitants of different countries are obliged to carr* on through necessit* cannot be the same, nor is it practicable to ascertain the degree of )ariation farther than b* the degrees of -eat and 5old; from "hence one ma* ma+e this general conclusion, that the Iuantit* of labour reIuired for a certain number of people is greatest in cold climates, and least in hot ones; for in the former men not onl* "ant more clothes, but the earth more culti)ating than in the latter8A ((n Essa* on the Go)erning 5auses of the Catural &ate of >nterest8 <ond8 17378 p8 678! 'he author of this epoch4ma+ing anon*mous "or+ is L8 $ass*8 -ume too+ his theor* of interest from it8 2 @5haIue tra)ail doit (this appears also to be part of the droits et devoirs du citoyen Grights and duties of the citi1enH! laisser un e9cRdent8A G(ll labour must lea)e a surplusH #roudhon8 17 F8 Schou": @0ie Erde, die #flan1e und der $ensch,A 68 Ed8 <eip18 183 , p8 1 88 11 >n earlier editions of Capital the Iuotation from Lohn Stuart $ill, @> assume throughout888of the labourer,A had been gi)en incorrectl*, the "ords @"here the labourers and capitalists are separate classesA ha)ing been left out8 $ar9, in a letter dated Co)ember 68, 1878, pointed this out to 0anielson, the &ussian translator of Capital, adding: @'he ne9t t"o sentences, )i18 WStrange optical illusion to see e)er*"here a state of things "hich as *et e9ists onl* e9ceptionall* on our earth8 /ut let us finish? 4 should be deleted and the follo"ing sentence substituted: @$r8 $ill is good enough to belie)e that this state of things is not an absolute necessit*, e)en in that economic s*stem in "hich Wlabourers and capitalists are separate classes8?A 'he substance of this note has been ta+en from the #ol"saus abe8 'he Iuotation from $ill is from his Principles of Political Economy, /oo+ >>, 5hap O;, 38 16 L8 St8 $ill8 #rinciples of #ol8 Econ8 <ond8 1868, p8 63643: passim8

1 6

Hote in the 7rd =erman edition8 v 'he case considered at pages :614:6 is here of course omitted8 v !$ E$ 'o this third la" $ac5ulloch has made, amongst others, this absurd addition, that a rise in surplus )alue, unaccompanied b* a fall in the )alue of labour4po"er, can occur through the abolition of ta9es pa*able b* the capitalist8 'he abolition of such ta9es ma+es no change "hate)er in the Iuantit* of surplus )alue that the capitalist e9torts at first4hand from the labourer8 >t alters onl* the proportion in "hich that surplus )alue is di)ided bet"een himself and third persons8 >t conseIuentl* ma+es no alteration "hate)er in the relation bet"een surplus )alue and )alue of labour4po"er8 $ac5ullochUs e9ception therefore pro)es onl* his misapprehension of the rule, a misfortune that as often happens to him in the )ulgarisation of &icardo, as it does to L8 /8 Sa* in the )ulgarisation of (dam Smith8 : @Bhen an alteration ta+es place in the producti)eness of industr*, and that either more or less is produced b* a gi)en Iuantit* of labour and capital, the proportion of "ages ma* ob)iousl* )ar*, "hilst the Iuantit*, "hich that proportion represents, remains the same, or the Iuantit* ma* )ar*, "hilst the proportion remains the same8A (@=utlines of #olitical Econom*, Pc8,A p8 678! @(ll things being eIual, the English manufacturer can turn out a considerabl* larger amount of "or+ in a gi)en time than a foreign manufacturer, so much as to counterbalance the difference of the "or+ing da*s, bet"een 67 hours a "ee+ here, and 76 or 87 else"here8A (&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8, 1833, p8 638! 'he most infallible means for reducing this Iualitati)e difference bet"een the English and 5ontinental "or+ing hour "ould be a la" shortening Iuantitati)el* the length of the "or+ing da* in 5ontinental factories8 3 @'here are compensating circumstances 888 "hich the "or+ing of the 'en -oursU (ct has brought to light8A (&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8 for :1st =ct8 18 8,A p8 78! 6 @'he amount of labour "hich a man had undergone in the course of 6 hours might be appro9imatel* arri)ed at b* an e9amination of the chemical changes "hich had ta+en place in his bod*, changed forms in matter indicating the anterior e9ercise of d*namic force8A (Gro)e: @=n the 5orrelation of #h*sical Forces8A! 7 @5orn and labour rarel* march Iuite abreast; but there is an ob)ious limit, be*ond "hich the* cannot be separated8 Bith regard to the unusual e9ertions made b* the labouring classes in periods of dearness, "hich produce the fall of "ages noticed in the e)idenceA (namel*, before the #arliamentar* 5ommittee of >nIuir*, 181 413!, @the* are most meritorious in the indi)iduals, and certainl* fa)our the gro"th of capital8 /ut no man of humanit* could "ish to see them constant and unremitted8 'he* are most admirable as a temporar* relief; but if the* "ere constantl* in action, effects of a similar +ind "ould result from them, as from the population of a countr* being pushed to the )er* e9treme limits of its food8A ($althus: @>nIuir* into the Cature and #rogress of &ent,A <ond8, 1813, p8 8, note8! (ll honour to $althus that he la*s stress on the lengthening of the hours of labour, a fact to "hich he else"here in his pamphlet dra"s attention, "hile &icardo and others, in face of the most notorious facts, ma+e in)ariabilit* in the length of the "or+ing da* the ground"or+ of all their in)estigations8 /ut the conser)ati)e interests, "hich $althus ser)ed, pre)ented him from seeing that an unlimited prolongation of the "or+ing da*, combined "ith an e9traordinar* de)elopment of machiner*, and the e9ploitation of "omen and children, must ine)itabl* ha)e made a great portion of the "or+ing4class @supernumerar*,A particularl* "hene)er the "ar should ha)e ceased, and the monopol* of England in the mar+ets of the "orld should ha)e come to an end8 >t "as, of course, far more con)enient, and much more in conformit* "ith the interests of the ruling classes, "hom $althus adored li+e a true priest, to e9plain this @o)er4 populationA b* the eternal la"s of Cature, rather than b* the historical la"s of capitalist production8 8 @( principal cause of the increase of capital, during the "ar, proceeded from the greater e9ertions, and perhaps the greater pri)ations of the labouring classes, the most numerous in e)er* societ*8 $ore "omen and children "ere compelled b* necessitous circumstances, to enter upon laborious occupations, and former "or+men "ere, from the same cause, obliged to de)ote a greater portion of their time to increase production8A (Essa*s on #ol8 Econ8, in "hich are illustrated the principal causes of the present national distress8 <ond8, 18:7, p8 6 88! 1 'hus, e8g8, in @0ritter /rief an )8 .irchmann )on &odbertus8 Biderlegung der &icardo?schen <ehre )on der Grundrente und /egrundung einer neuen &ententheorie8A /erlin, 18318 > shall return to this letter later on; in spite of its erroneous theor* of rent, it sees through the nature of capitalist production8 C='E (00E0 >C '-E :&0 GE&$(C E0>'>=C: >t ma* be seen from this ho" fa)orabl* $ar9 Dudged his predecessors, "hene)er he found in them real progress, or ne" and sound ideas8 'he subseIuent publications of &obertus? letters to &ud8 $e*er has sho"n that the abo)e ac+no"ledgement b* $ar9 "ants restricting to some e9tent8

>n those letters this passage occurs: @5apital must be rescued not onl* from labor, but from itself, and that "ill be best effected, b* treating the acts of the industrial capitalist as economic and political functions, that ha)e been delegated to him "ith his capital, and b* treating his profit as a form of salar*, because "e still +no" no other social organi1ation8 /ut salaries ma* be regulated, and ma* also be reduced if the* ta+e too much from "ages8 'he irruption of $ar9 into Societ*, as > ma* call his boo+, must be "arded off8888 (ltogether, $ar9?s boo+ is not so much an in)estigation into capital, as a polemic against the present form of capital, a form "hich he confounds "ith the concept itself of capital8A (V/riefe, Pc8, )on 0r8 &obertus4Laget1o", herausgg8 )on 0r8 &ud8 $e*er,A /erlin, 1881, >, /d8 #8111, 68 /rief )on &odbertus8! 'o such ideological commonplaces did the bold attac+ b* &obertus in his @social lettersA finall* d"indle do"n8 v !$ E$ 6 'hat part of the product "hich merel* replaces the constant capital ad)anced is of course left out in this calculation8 $r8 <8 de <a)ergne, a blind admirer of England, is inclined to estimate the share of the capitalist too lo", rather than too high8 : (ll "ell4de)eloped forms of capitalist production being forms of cooperation, nothing is, of course, easier, than to ma+e abstraction from their antagonistic character, and to transform them b* a "ord into some form of free association, as is done b* (8 de <aborde in @0e l?Esprit d?(ssociation dans tous les intRrdts de la communautRV8 #aris 18188 -8 5are*, the Nan+ee, occasionall* performs this conDuring tric+ "ith li+e success, e)en "ith the relations resulting from sla)er*8 (lthough the #h*siocrats could not penetrate the m*ster* of surplus )alue, *et this much "as clear to them, )i18, that it is @une richesse indRpendante et disponible Iu?il (the possessor! n?a point achetRe et Iu?il )end8A Ga "ealth "hich is independent and disposable, "hich he 888 has not bought and "hich he sellsH ('urgot: @&Rfle9ions sur la Formation et la 0istribution des &ichesses,A p8118!
1

@$r8&icardo ingeniousl* enough a)oids a difficult* "hich, on a first )ie", threatens to encumber his doctrine v that )alue depends on the Iuantit* of labour emplo*ed in production8 >f this principle is rigidl* adhered to, it follo"s that the )alue of labour depends on the Iuantit* of labour emplo*ed in producing it v "hich is e)identl* absurd8 /* a de9terous turn, therefore, $r8 &icardo ma+es the )alue of labour depend on the Iuantit* of labour reIuired to produce "ages; or, to gi)e him the benefit of his o"n language, he maintains, that the )alue of labour is to be estimated b* the Iuantit* of labour reIuired to produce "ages; b* "hich he means the Iuantit* of labour reIuired to produce the mone* or commodities gi)en to the labourer8 'his is similar to sa*ing, that the )alue of cloth is estimated, not b* the Iuantit* of labour besto"ed on its production, but b* the Iuantit* of labour besto"ed on the production of the sil)er, for "hich the cloth is e9changed8A v @( 5ritical 0issertation on the Cature, Pc8, of ;alue,A pp8 37, 318 6 @>f *ou call labour a commodit*, it is not li+e a commodit* "hich is first produced in order to e9change, and then brought to mar+et "here it must e9change "ith other commodities according to the respecti)e Iuantities of each "hich there ma* be in the mar+et at the time; labour is created the moment it is brought to mar+et; na*, it is brought to mar+et before it is created8A v @=bser)ations on 5ertain ;erbal 0isputes,A Pc8, pp8 73, 768 : @'reating labour as a commodit*, and capital, the produce of labour, as another, then, if the )alues of these t"o commodities "ere regulated b* eIual Iuantities of labour, a gi)en amount of labour "ould 888 e9change for that Iuantit* of capital "hich had been produced b* the same amount of labour; antecedent labour "ould 888 e9change for the same amount as present labour8 /ut the )alue of labour in relation to other commodities 888 is determined not b* eIual Iuantities of labour8A v E8 G8 Ba+efield in his edition of (dam Smith?s @Bealth of Cations,A ;ol8 >8, <ondon, 18:6, p8 6:1, note8 @'here has to be a ne" agreementA (a ne" edition of the social contractQ! @that "hene)er there is an e9change of "or+ done for "or+ to be done, the latterA (the capitalist! @is to recei)e a higher )alue than the formerA (the "or+er!8 v Simonde (de Sismondi!, @0e la &ichesse 5ommerciale,A Gene)a, 187:, ;ol >, p8 :78 3 @<abour the e9clusi)e standard of )alue 888 the creator of all "ealth, no commodit*8A 'homas -odgs+in, @#opul8 #olit8 Econ8,A p8 1868 6 =n the other hand, the attempt to e9plain such e9pressions as merel* poetic license onl* sho"s the impotence of the anal*sis8 -ence, in ans"er to #roudhon?s phrase; @<abour is called )alue, not as being a commodit* itself, but in )ie" of the )alues supposed to be potentiall* embodied in it8 'he )alue of labour is a figurati)e e9pression,A Pc8 > ha)e remar+ed: @>n labour, commodit*, "hich is a frightful realit*, he (#roudhon! sees nothing but a grammatical ellipsis8 'he "hole of e9isting societ*, then, based upon labour commodit*, is henceforth based upon a poetic license, on a figurati)e e9pression8 0oes societ* desire to eliminate all the incon)eniences "hich trouble it, it has onl* to eliminate

all the ill4sounding terms8 <et it change the language, and for that it has onl* to address itself to the (cadem* and as+ it for a ne" edition of its dictionar*8A (.arl $ar9, @$isnre de la #hilosophie,A pp8 : , :38! >t is naturall* still more con)enient to understand b* )alue nothing at all8 'hen one can "ithout difficult* subsume e)er*thing under this categor*8 'hus, e8g8, L8 /8 Sa*: @Bhat is )alueEA (ns"er: @'hat "hich a thing is "orthV; and "hat is @priceVE (ns"er: @'he )alue of a thing e9pressed in mone*8A (nd "h* has agriculture a )alueE (ns"er: @/ecause one sets a price on it8A 'herefore )alue is "hat a thing is "orth, and the land has its @)alue,A because its )alue is @e9pressed in mone*8A 'his is, an*ho", a )er* simple "a* of e9plaining the "h* and the "herefore of things8 7 5f8 @,ur .riti+ Pc8,A p8 7, "here > state that, in the portion of that "or+ that deals "ith 5apital, this problem "ill be sol)ed: @-o" does production, on the basis of e9change4)alue determined simpl* b* labour4time, lead to the result that the e9change4)alue of labour is less than the e9change4)alue of its productEA 8 'he @$orning Star,A a <ondon Free4trade organ, naif to silliness, protested again and again during the (merican 5i)il Bar, "ith all the moral indignation of "hich man is capable, that the Cegro in the @5onfederate StatesA "or+ed absolutel* for nothing8 >t should ha)e compared the dail* cost of such a Cegro "ith that of the free "or+man in the East4end of <ondon8 2 > gi)e in order that *ou ma* gi)e; > gi)e in order that *ou ma* produce; > produce so that *ou ma* gi)e; > produce so that *ou ma* produce8 17 (dam Smith onl* accidentall* alludes to the )ariation of the "or+ing da* "hen he is referring to piece4"ages8 1 'he )alue of mone* itself is here al"a*s supposed constant8 6 @'he price of labour is the sum paid for a gi)en Iuantit* of labour8A (Sir Ed"ard Best, @#rice of 5orn and Bages of <abour,A <ondon, 18:6, p8 678! Best is the author of the anon*mous @Essa* on the (pplication of 5apital to <and8A b* a Fello" of the %ni)ersit* 5ollege of =9ford, <ondon, 18138 (n epoch4ma+ing "or+ in the histor* of #olitical Econom*8 : @'he "ages of labour depend upon the price of labour and the Iuantit* of labour performed8888 (n increase in the "ages of labour does not necessaril* impl* an enhancement of the price of labour8 From fuller emplo*ment, and greater e9ertions, the "ages of labour ma* be considerabl* increased, "hile the price of labour ma* continue the same8A (Best, op8 cit8, pp8 67, 68, 1168! 'he main Iuestion: @-o" is the price of labour determinedEA Best, ho"e)er, dismisses "ith mere banalities8 'his is percei)ed b* the fanatical representati)e of the industrial bourgeoisie of the 18th centur*, the author of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerceA often Iuoted b* us, although he puts the matter in a confused "a*: @>t is the Iuantit* of labour and not the price of itA (he means b* this the nominal dail* or "ee+l* "ages! @that is determined b* the price of pro)isions and other necessaries: reduce the price of necessaries )er* lo", and of course *ou reduce the Iuantit* of labour in proportion8 $aster manufacturers +no" that there are )arious "a*s of raising and felling the price of labour, besides that of altering its nominal amount8A (op8 cit8, pp8 8, 618! >n his @'hree <ectures on the &ate of Bages,A <ondon, 18:7, in "hich C8 B8 Senior uses Best?s "or+ "ithout mentioning it, he sa*s: @'he labourer is principall* interested in the amount of "agesA (p8 1 !, that is to sa*, the labourer is principall* interested in "hat he recei)es, the nominal sum of his "ages, not in that "hich he gi)es, the amount of labourQ 3 'he effect of such an abnormal lessening of emplo*ment is Iuite different from that of a general reduction of the "or+ing da*, enforced b* la"8 'he former has nothing to do "ith the absolute length of the "or+ing da*, and ma* occur Dust as "ell in a "or+ing da* of 13, as of 6 hours8 'he normal price of labour is in the first case calculated on the labourer "or+ing 13 hours, in the second case on his "or+ing 6 hours a da* on the a)erage8 'he result is therefore the same, if he in the one case is emplo*ed onl* for 7[, in the other onl* for : hours8 6 @'he rate of pa*ment for o)ertime (in lace4ma+ing! is so small, from [ d8 and e d8 to 6d8 per hour, that it stands in painful contrast to the amount of inDur* produced to the health and stamina of the "or+people8888 'he small amount thus earned is also often obliged to be spent in e9tra nourishment8A (@5hild8Empl85om8, >>8 &ep8,A p8 9)i8, n8 1178! 7 E8g8, in paper4staining before the recent introduction into this trade of the Factor* (ct8 @Be "or+ on "ith no stoppage for meals, so that the da*?s "or+ of 17[ hours is finished b* ::7 p8m8, and all after that is o)er4time, and "e seldom lea)e off "or+ing before 6 p8m8, so that "e are reall* "or+ing o)er4time the "hole *ear round8A ($r8 Smith?s @E)idence in 5hild8 Empl8 5om8, 18 &ep8,A p8 1638! 8 E8g8, in the Scotch bleaching4"or+s8 @>n some parts of Scotland this tradeA (before the introduction of the Factor* (ct in 1866! @"as carried on b* a s*stem of o)er4time, i8e8, ten hours a da* "ere the regular hours of "or+, for "hich a nominal "age of 1s8 6d8 per da* "as paid to a man, there being e)er* da* o)er4time for three or four hours, paid at the rate of :d8 per hour8 'he effect of this s*stem 888 a man could not earn more than 8s8 per "ee+ "hen "or+ing the

ordinar* hours 888 "ithout o)er4time the* could not earn a fair da*?s "ages8A (@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Factories,A (pril :7th, 186:, p8 178! @'he higher "ages, for getting adult males to "or+ longer hours, are a temptation too strong to be resisted8A (@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8,A (pril :7th, 18 8, p8 38! 'he boo+4binding trade in the cit* of <ondon emplo*s )er* man* *oung girls from 1 to >3 *ears old, and that under indentures "hich prescribe certain definite hours of labour8 Ce)ertheless, the* "or+ in the last "ee+ of each month until 17, 11, 16, or 1 o?cloc+ at night, along "ith the older labourers, in a )er* mi9ed compan*8 @'he masters tempt them b* e9tra pa* and supper,A "hich the* eat in neighboring public houses8 'he great debaucher* thus produced among these @*oung immortalsA (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5omm8, ;8 &ept8,A p8 , n8 121! is compensated b* the fact that among the rest man* /ibles and religious boo+s are bound b* them8 2 See @&eports of lnsp8 of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 186:, p8 178 Bith )er* accurate appreciation of the state of things, the <ondon labourers emplo*ed in the building trades declared, during the great stri+e and loc+4out of 1867, that the* "ould onl* accept "ages b* the hour under t"o conditions: (1!, that, "ith the price of the "or+ing4hour, a normal "or+ing da* of 2 and 17 hours respecti)el* should be fi9ed, and that the price of the hour for the 17 hours, "or+ing da* should be higher than that for the hour of the 2 hours "or+ing da*; (6!, that e)er* hour be*ond the normal "or+ing da* should be rec+oned as o)er4time and proportionall* more highl* paid8 17 @>t is a )er* notable thing, too, that "here long hours are the rule, small "ages are also so8A (@&eport of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st8 =ct8, 186:, p8 28! @'he "or+ "hich obtains the scant* pittance of food, is, for the most part, e9cessi)el* prolonged8A (@#ublic -ealth, Si9th &eport,A 186 , p8 138! 11 @&eport of >nspectors of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 1867, pp8 :1, :68 16 'he hand nail4ma+ers in England, e8g8, ha)e, on account of the lo" price of labour, to "or+ 13 hours a da* in order to hammer out their miserable "ee+l* "age8 @>t?s a great man* hours in a da* (6 a8m8 to 8 p8m8!, and he has to "or+ hard all the time to get >> d8 or >s8, and there is the "ear of the tools, the cost of firing, and something for "aste iron to go out of this, "hich ta+es off altogether 6[d8 or :d8A (@5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5om8, >>>8 &eport,A p8 1:6, n8 6718! 'he "omen earn b* the same "or+ing4time a "ee+?s "age of onl* 3 shillings8 (l8c8, p8 1:7, n8 67 8! 1: >f a factor*4hand, e8g8, refused to "or+ the customar* long hours, @he "ould )er* shortl* be replaced b* somebod* "ho "ould "or+ an* length of time, and thus be thro"n out of emplo*ment8A (@&eports of >nspectors of Factories,A :7th (pril, 18 88 E)idence, p8 :2, n8 388! @>f one man performs the "or+ of t"o888 the rate of profits "ill generall* be raised 888 in conseIuence of the additional suppl* of labour ha)ing diminished its price8A (Senior, l8c8, p8 138! 1 @5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5om8, >>> &ep8,A E)idence, p8 66, n8 668 13 @&eport, Pc8, &elati)e to the Grie)ances 5omplained of b* the Lourne*men /a+ers8A <ondon, 1866, p8 11, and ib8 E)idence, notes 72, :32, 678 (n*ho" the full4priced ba+ers, as "as mentioned abo)e, and as their spo+esman, /ennett, himself admits, ma+e their men @generall* begin "or+ at 11 p8m8 888 up to 8 o?cloc+ the ne9t morning8888 'he* are then engaged all da* long 888 as late as 7 o?cloc+ in the e)ening8A (l8c8, p8 668! 1 @'he s*stem of piece4"or+ illustrates an epoch in the histor* of the "or+ing4man; it is half"a* bet"een the position of the mere da*4labourer depending upon the "ill of the capitalist and the co4operati)e artisan, "ho in the not distant future promises to combine the artisan and the capitalist in his o"n person8 #iece4"or+ers are in fact their o"n masters, e)en "hilst "or+ing upon the capital of the emplo*er8A (Lohn Batts: @'rade Societies and Stri+es, $achiner* and 5o4operati)e Societies8A $anchester, 1863, pp8 36, 3:8! > Iuote this little "or+ because it is a )er* sin+ of all long4ago4rotten, apologetic commonplaces8 'his same $r8 Batts earlier traded in ="enism and published in 18 6 another pamphlet: @Facts and Fictions of #olitical Economists,A in "hich among other things he declares that @propert* is robber*8A 'hat "as long ago8 6 '8 L8 0unning: @'rades? %nions and Stri+es,A <ond8, 1867, p8 668 : -o" the e9istence, side b* side and simultaneousl*, of these t"o forms of "age fa)ors the masters? cheating: @( factor* emplo*s 77 people, the half of "hich "or+ b* the piece, and ha)e a direct interest in "or+ing longer hours8 'he other 677 are paid b* the da*, "or+ eIuall* long "ith the others, and get no more mone* for their o)er4time8888 'he "or+ of these 677 people for half an hour a da* is eIual to one person?s "or+ for 37 hours, or 3J6?s of one person?s labour in a "ee+, and is a positi)e gain to the emplo*er8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1867,A p8 28! @=)er4"or+ing to a )er* considerable e9tent still pre)ails; and, in most instances, "ith that securit* against detection and punishment "hich the la" itself affords8 > ha)e in man* former reports sho"n 888 the inDur* to "or+people "ho are not emplo*ed on piece4"or+, but recei)e "ee+l* "ages8A (<eonard -orner in @&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 1832, pp8 8, 28! @Bages can be measured in t"o "a*s: either b* the duration of the labour, or b* its product8A (@(brRgR R1Rmentaire des principes de l?Rconomie politiIue8A #aris, 1726, p8 :68! 'he author of this anon*mous "or+: G8 Garnier8

@So much "eight of cotton is deli)ered to himA (the spinner!, @and he has to return b* a certain time, in lieu of it, a gi)en "eight of t"ist or *arn, of a certain degree of fineness, and he is paid so much per pound for all that he so returns8 >f his "or+ is defecti)e in Iualit*, the penalt* falls on him, if less in Iuantit* than the minimum fi9ed for a gi)en time, he is dismissed and an abler operati)e procured8A (%re, l8c8, p8 :178! 6 @>t is "hen "or+ passes through se)eral hands, each of "hich is to ta+e its share of profits, "hile onl* the last does the "or+, that the pa* "hich reaches the "or+"oman is miserabl* disproportioned8A (@5hild8 Emp8 5omm8 >> &eport,A p8 1998, n8 6 8! 7 E)en Batts, the apologetic, remar+s: @>t "ould be a great impro)ement to the s*stem of piece4"or+, if all the men emplo*ed on a Dob "ere partners in the contract, each according to his abilities, instead of one man being interested in o)er4"or+ing his fello"s for his o"n benefit8A (l8c8, p8 3:8! =n the )ileness of this s*stem, cf8 @5hild8 Emp8 5omm8, &ep8 >>>8,A p8 66, n8 66, p8 11, n8 16 , p8 9i, n8 1:, 3:, 32, Pc8 8 'his spontaneous result is often artificiall* helped along, e8g8, in the Engineering 'rade of <ondon, a customar* tric+ is @the selecting of a man "ho possesses superior ph*sical strength and Iuic+ness, as the principal of se)eral "or+men, and pa*ing him an additional rate, b* the Iuarter or other"ise, "ith the understanding that he is to e9ert himself to the utmost to induce the others, "ho are onl* paid the ordinar* "ages, to +eep up to him 888 "ithout an* comment this "ill go far to e9plain man* of the complaints of stinting the action, superior s+ill, and "or+ing4po"er, made b* the emplo*ers against the menA (in 'rades4%nions8 0unning, l8c8, pp8 66, 6:!8 (s the author is himself a labourer and secretar* of a 'rades? %nion, this might be ta+en for e9aggeration8 /ut the reader ma* compare the @highl* respectableA @5*clopedia of (gricultureA of L8 58 $orton, (rt8, the article @<abourer,A "here this method is recommended to the farmers as an appro)ed one8 2 @(ll those "ho are paid b* piece4"or+ 888 profit b* the transgression of the legal limits of "or+8 'his obser)ation as to the "illingness to "or+ o)er4time is especiall* applicable to the "omen emplo*ed as "ea)ers and reelers8A (@&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :7th (pril, 1838,A p8 28! @'his s*stemA (piece4"or+!, @so ad)antageous to the emplo*er 888 tends directl* to encourage the *oung potter greatl* to o)er4"or+ himself during the four or fi)e *ears during "hich he is emplo*ed in the piece4"or+ s*stem, but at lo" "ages8888 'his is 888 another great cause to "hich the bad constitutions of the potters are to be attributed8A (@5hild8 Empl8 5omm8 18 &ept8,A p8 9iii8! 17 @Bhere the "or+ in an* trade is paid for b* the piece at so much per Dob 888 "ages ma* )er* materiall* differ in amount8888 /ut in "or+ b* the da* there is generall* an uniform rate 888 recogni1ed b* both emplo*er and emplo*ed as the standard of "ages for the general run of "or+men in the trade8A (0unning, l8c8, p8 178! 11 @'he "or+ of the Dourne*man4artisans "ill be ruled b* the da* or b* the piece8 'hese master4artisans +no" about ho" much "or+ a Dourne*man4artisan can do per da* in each craft, and often pa* them in proportion to the "or+ "hich the* do; the Dourne* men, therefore, "or+ as much as the* can, in their o"n interest, "ithout an* further inspection8A (5antillon, @Essai sur la Cature du 5ommerce en gRnRral,A (mst8 Ed8, 1736, pp8 183 and 6768 'he first edition appeared in 17338! 5antillon, from "hom Kuesna*, Sir Lames Steuart P (8 Smith ha)e largel* dra"n, alread* here represents piece4"age as simpl* a modified form of time4"age8 'he French edition of 5antillon professes in its title to be a translation from the English, but the English edition: @'he (nal*sis of 'rade, 5ommerce, Pc8,A b* #hilip 5antillon, late of the cit* of <ondon, $erchant, is not onl* of later date (1732!, but pro)es b* its contents that it is a later and re)ised edition: e8g8, in the French edition, -ume is not *et mentioned, "hilst in the English, on the other hand, #ett* hardl* figures an* longer8 'he English edition is theoreticall* less important, but it contains numerous details referring specificall* to English commerce, bullion trade, Pc8, that are "anting in the French te9t8 'he "ords on the title4page of the English edition, according to "hich the "or+ is @ta+en chiefl* from the manuscript of a )er* ingenious gentleman, deceased, and adapted, Pc8,A seem, therefore, a pure fiction, )er* customar* at that time8 16 @-o" often ha)e "e seen, in some "or+shops, man* more "or+ers recruited than the "or+ actuall* called forE =n man* occasions, "or+ers are recruited in anticipation of future "or+, "hich ma* ne)er materiali1e8 /ecause the* are paid b* piece "ages, it is said that no ris+ is incurred, since an* loss of time "ill be charged against the unemplo*ed8A (-8 Gregoir: @<es '*pographes de)ant le 'ribunal correctionnel de /ru9elles,A /russeles, 1863, p8 28! 1: @&emar+s on the 5ommercial #olic* of Great /ritain,A <ondon, 18138 1 @( 0efense of the <ando"ners and Farmers of Great /ritain,A 181 , pp8 , 3 13 $althus, @>nIuir* into the Cature and #rogress of &ent,A <ond8, 18138 16 @'hose "ho are paid b* piece4"or+ 888 constitute probabl* four4fifths of the "or+ers in the factories8A @&eport of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :7th (pril, 18388

17

@'he producti)e po"er of his spinning4machine is accuratel* measured, and the rate of pa* for "or+ done "ith it decreases "ith, though not as, the increase of its producti)e po"er8A (%re, l8c8, p8 :178! 'his last apologetic phrase %re himself again cancels8 'he lengthening of the mule causes some increase of labour, he admits8 'he labour does therefore not diminish in the same ratio as its producti)it* increases8 Further: @/* this increase the producti)e po"er of the machine "ill be augmented one4fifth8 Bhen this e)ent happens the spinner "ill not be paid at the same rate for "or+ done as he "as before, but as that rate "ill not be diminished in the ratio of one4fifth, the impro)ement "ill augment his mone* earnings for an* gi)en number of hours? "or+,A but @the foregoing statement reIuires a certain modification8888 'he spinner has to pa* something additional for Du)enile aid out of his additional si9pence, accompanied b* displacing a portion of adultsA (l8c8, p8 :61!, "hich has in no "a* a tendenc* to raise "ages8 18 -8 Fa"cett: @'he Economic #osition of the /ritish labourer8A 5ambridge and <ondon, 1863, p8 1788 12 >n the @<ondon StandardA of =ctober 66, 1861, there is a report of proceedings of the firm of Lohn /right P 5o8, before the &ochdale magistrates @to prosecute for intimidation the agents of the 5arpet Bea)ers 'rades? %nion8 /right?s partners had introduced ne" machiner* "hich "ould turn out 6 7 *ards of carpet in the time and "ith the labour (Q! pre)iousl* reIuired to produce 167 *ards8 'he "or+men had no claim "hate)er to share in the profits made b* the in)estment of their emplo*er?s capital in mechanical impro)ements8 (ccordingl*, $essrs8 /right proposed to lo"er the rate of pa* from 1[d8 per *ard to 1d8, lea)ing the earnings of the men e9actl* the same as before for the same labour8 /ut there "as a nominal reduction, of "hich the operati)es, it is asserted, had not fair "arning beforehand8A
67

@'rades? %nions, in their desire to maintain "ages, endea)or to share in the benefits of impro)ed machiner*8A (Kuelle horreurQ! @888 the demanding higher "ages, because labour is abbre)iated, is in other "ords the endea)or to establish a dut* on mechanical impro)ements8A (@=n 5ombination of 'rades,A ne" ed8, <ondon, 18: , p8 68!

@>t is not accurate to sa* that "agesA (he deals here "ith their mone* e9pression! @are increased, because the* purchase more of a cheaper article8A (0a)id /uchanan in his edition of (dam Smith?s @Bealth of Cations,A 181 , ;ol8 1, p8 17, note8! 6 Be shall inIuire, in another place, "hat circumstances in relation to producti)it* ma* modif* this la" for indi)idual branches of industr*8 : Lames (nderson remar+s in his polemic against (dam Smith: @>t deser)es, li+e"ise, to be remar+ed, that although the apparent price of <abour is usuall* lo"er in poor countries, "here the produce of the soil, and grain in general, is cheap; *et it is in fact for the most part reall* higher than in other countries8 For it is not the "ages that is gi)en to the labourer per da* that constitutes the real price of labour, although it is its apparent price8 'he real price is that "hich a certain Iuantit* of "or+ performed actuall* costs the emplo*er; and considered in this light, labour is in almost all cases cheaper in rich countries than in those that are poorer, although the price of grain and other pro)isions is usuall* much lo"er in the last than in the first8888 <abour estimated b* the da* is much lo"er in Scotland than in England8888 <abour b* the piece is generall* cheaper in England8A (Lames (nderson, @=bser)ations on the $eans of E9citing a Spirit of Cational >ndustr*,A Ptc8, Edin8 1777, pp8 :37, :318! =n the contrar*, lo"ness of "ages produces, in its turn, dearness of labour8 @<abour being dearer in >reland than it is in England 888 because the "ages are so much lo"er8A (C8 6772 in @&o*al 5ommission on &ail"a*s, $inutes,A 18678! (%re, op8 cit8, p8 :1 8! 3 (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8,A :1st =ct8, 1866, pp8 :14:7, passim8! 6 @Essa* on the &ate of Bages, "ith an E9amination of the 5auses of the 0ifferences in the 5ondition of the <abouring #opulation throughout the Borld,A #hiladelphia, 18:38 1 @$ais ces riches, Iui consomment les produits du tra)ail des autres, ne peu)ent les obtenir Iue par des Rchanges Gpurchases of commoditiesH8 S?ils donnent cependant leur richesse acIuise et accumulRe en retour contre ces produits nou)eau9 Iui sont l?obDet de leur fantaisie, ils semblent e9posRs X Rpuiser bienttt leur fonds de rRser)e; ils ne tra)aillent point, a)ons4nous dit, et ils ne peu)ent mdme tra)ailler; on croirait donc Iue chaIue Dour doit )oir diminuer leurs )ieilles richesses, et Iue lorsIu?il ne leur en restera plus, rien ne sera offert en Rchange au9 ou)riers Iui tra)aillent e9clusi)ement pour eu98888 $ais dans l?ordre social, la richesse a acIuis la propriRtR de se reproduire par le

tra)ail d?autrui, et sans Iue son propriRtaire * concoure8 <a richesse, comme le tra)ail, et par le tra)ail, donne un fruit annuel Iui peut dtre dRtruit chaIue annRe sans Iue le riche en de)ienne plus pau)re8 5e fruit est le revenu Iui nart du capital8A G'he rich, "ho consume the labour of others, can onl* obtain them b* ma+ing e9changes 888 /* gi)ing a"a* their acIuired and accumulated "ealth in e9change for the ne" products "hich are the obDect of their capricious "ishes, the* seem to be e9posed to an earl* e9haustion of their reser)e fund; "e ha)e alread* said that the* do not "or+ and are unable to "or+; therefore it could be assumed "ith full Dustification that their former "ealth "ould be diminishing "ith e)er* da* and that, finall*, a da* "ould come "hen the* "ould ha)e nothing, and the* "ould ha)e nothing to offer to the "or+ers, "ho "or+ e9clusi)el* for them8 888 /ut, in the social order, "ealth has acIuired the po"er of reproducing itself through the labour of others, "ithout the help of its o"ners8 Bealth, li+e labour, and b* means of labour, bears fruit e)er* *ear, but this fruit can be destro*ed e)er* *ear "ithout ma+ing the rich man an* poorer thereb*8 'his fruit is the revenue "hich arises our of capital8H (Sismondi: @Cou)8 #rinc8 d?Econ8 #ol8A #aris, 1812, t8 >, pp8 814868! 6 @Bages as "ell as profits are to be considered, each of them, as reall* a portion of the finished product8A (&amsa*, l8 c8, p8 1 68! @'he share of the product "hich comes to the labourer in the form of "ages8A (L8 $ill, @ElRments, Pc8A 'ranslated b* #arissot8 #aris, 186:, p8 : 8! : @Bhen capital is emplo*ed in ad)ancing to the "or+man his "ages, it adds nothing to the funds for the maintenance of labour8A (5a1eno)e in note to his edition of $althus? @0efinitions in #ol8 Econ8A <ondon, 183:, p8 668! @'he "ages of labour are ad)anced b* capitalists in the case of less than one fourth of the labourers of the earth8A (&ich8 Lones: @'e9tboo+ of <ectures on the #ol8 Econ8 of Cations8A -ertford, 1836, p8 :68! 3 @'hough the manufacturerA (i8e8, the labourer! @has his "ages ad)anced to him b* his master, he in realit* costs him no e9pense, the )alue of these "ages being generall* reser)ed, together "ith a profit, in the impro)ed )alue of the subDect upon "hich his labour is besto"ed8A ((8 Smith, l8 c8, /oo+ >>88 ch8 >>>, p8 :118! 6 @'his is a remar+abl* peculiar propert* of producti)e labour8 Bhate)er is producti)el* consumed is capital and it becomes capital b* consumption8A (Lames $ill, l8 c8, p8 6 68! Lames $ill, ho"e)er, ne)er got on the trac+ of this @remar+abl* peculiar propert*8A 7 @>t is true indeed, that the first introducing a manufacture emplo*s man* poor, but the* cease not to be so, and the continuance of it ma+es man*8A (@&easons for a <imited E9portation of Bool8A <ondon, 1677, p8 128! @'he farmer no" absurdl* asserts, that he +eeps the poor8 'he* are indeed +ept in miser*8A (@&easons for the <ate >ncrease of the #oor &ates: or a 5omparati)e ;ie" of the #rices of labour and #ro)isions8A <ondon, 1777, p8 :18! 8 &ossi "ould not declaim so emphaticall* against this, had he reall* penetrated the secret of @producti)e consumption8A 2 @'he labourers in the mines of S8 (merica, "hose dail* tas+ (the hea)iest perhaps in the "orld! consists in bringing to the surface on their shoulders a load of metal "eighing from 187 to 677 pounds, from a depth of 37 feet, li)e on broad and beans onl*; the* themsel)es "ould prefer the bread alone for food, but their masters, "ho ha)e found out that the men cannot "or+ so hard on bread, treat them li+e horses, and compel them to eat beans; beans, ho"e)er, are relati)el* much richer in bone4earth (phosphate of lime! than is bread8A (<iebig, l8 c8, )ol8 18, p8 12 , note8! 17 Lames $ill, l8 c8, p8 6:8 11 @>f the price of labour should rise so high that, not"ithstanding the increase of capital, no more could be emplo*ed, > should sa* that such increase of capital "ould be still unproducti)el* consumed8A (&icardo, l8 c8, p8 16:8! 16 @'he onl* producti)e consumption, properl* so called, is the consumption or destruction of "ealthA (he alludes to the means of production! @b* capitalists "ith a )ie" to reproduction8888 'he "or+man 888 is a producti)e consumer to the person "ho emplo*s him, and to the State, but not, strictl* spea+ing, to himself8A ($althus? @0efinitions, Pc8,A p8 :78! 1: @'he onl* thing, of "hich one can sa*, that it is stored up and prepared beforehand, is the s+ill of the labourer8888 'he accumulation and storage of s+illed labour, that most important operation, is, as regards the great mass of labourers, accomplished "ithout an* capital "hate)er8A ('h8 -odgs+in: @<abour 0efended, Pc8,A p8 1:8! 1 @'hat letter might be loo+ed upon as the manifesto of the manufacturers8A (Ferrand: @$otion on the 5otton Famine8A -8o858, 67th (pril, 186:8! 13 >t "ill not be forgotten that this same capital sings Iuite another song, under ordinar* circumstances, "hen there is a Iuestion of reducing "ages8 'hen the masters e9claim "ith one )oice: @'he factor* operati)es should +eep in "holesome remembrance the fact that theirs is reall* a lo" species of s+illed labour, and that there is none "hich is more easil* acIuired, or of its Iualit* more ampl* remunerated, or "hich, b* a short training of the least e9pert, can

be more Iuic+l*, as "ell as abundantl*, acIuired 888 'he master?s machiner*A ("hich "e no" learn can be replaced "ith ad)antage in 16 months,! @reall* pla*s a far more important part in the business of production than the labour and s+ill of the operati)eA ("ho cannot no" be replaced under :7 *ears!, @"hich si9 months? education can reach, and a common labourer can learn8A (See ante, p8 6:8! 16 #arliament did not )ote a single farthing in aid of emigration, but simpl* passed some (cts empo"ering the municipal corporations to +eep the operati)es in a half4star)ed state, i$e8, to e9ploit them at less than the normal "ages8 =n the other hand, "hen : *ears later, the cattle disease bro+e out, #arliament bro+e "ildl* through its usages and )oted, straight off, millions for indemnif*ing the millionaire landlords, "hose farmers in an* e)ent came off "ithout loss, o"ing to the rise in the price of meat8 'he bull4li+e bello" of the landed proprietors at the opening of #arliament, in 1866, sho"ed that a man can "orship the co" Sabala "ithout being a -indu, and can change himself into an o9 "ithout being a Lupiter8 17 @<?ou)rier demandait de la subsistence pour )i)re, le chef demandait du tra)ail pour gagner8A G'he "or+er reIuired the means of subsistence to li)e, the boss reIuired labour to ma+e a profitH (Sismondi, l8 c8, p8 218! 18 ( boorishl* clums* form of this bondage e9ists in the count* of 0urham8 'his is one of the fe" counties, in "hich circumstances do not secure to the farmer undisputed proprietar* rights o)er the agricultural labourer8 'he mining industr* allo"s the latter some choice8 >n this count*, the farmer, contrar* to the custom else"here, rents onl* such farms as ha)e on them labourers? cottages8 'he rent of the cottage is a part of the "ages8 'hese cottages are +no"n as @hinds? houses8A 'he* are let to the labourers in consideration of certain feudal ser)ices, under a contract called @bondage,A "hich, amongst other things, binds the labourer, during the time he is emplo*ed else"here, to lea)e some one, sa* his daughter, Pc8, to suppl* his place8 'he labourer himself is called a @bondsman8A 'he relationship here set up also sho"s ho" indi)idual consumption b* the labourer becomes consumption on behalf of capital4or producti)e consumption4from Iuite a ne" point of )ie": @>t is curious to obser)e that the )er* dung of the hind and bondsman is the perIuisite of the calculating lord 888 and the lord "ill allo" no pri)* but his o"n to e9ist in the neighbourhood, and "ill rather gi)e a bit of manure here and there for a garden than bate an* part of his seigneurial right8A (@#ublic -ealth, &eport ;>>8, 186 ,A p8 1888! 12 >t "ill not be forgotten, that, "ith respect to the labour of children, Pc8, e)en the formalit* of a )oluntar* sale disappears8 67 @5apital pre4supposes "age labour, and "age labour pre4supposes capital8 =ne is a necessar* condition to the e9istence of the other; the* mutuall* call each other into e9istence8 0oes an operati)e in a cotton4factor* produce nothing but cotton goodsE Co, he produces capital8 -e produces )alues that gi)e fresh command o)er his labour, and that, b* means of such command, create fresh )alues8A (.arl $ar9: @<ohnarbeit und .apital,A in the Heue Rheinische Leitun : Co8 666, 7th (pril, 18 28! 'he articles published under the abo)e title in the H$ Rh$ L$ are parts of some lectures gi)en b* me on that subDect, in 18 7, in the German @(rbeiter4;ereinA at /russels, the publication of "hich "as interrupted b* the re)olution of Februar*8 1 @(ccumulation of capital; the emplo*ment of a portion of re)enue as capital8A ($althus: @0efinitions, Pc8,A ed8 5a1eno)e, p8 118! @5on)ersion of re)enue into capital,A ($althus: @#rinc8 of #ol8 Econ @ 6nd Ed8, <ond88 18:6, p8 :678! 6 Be here ta+e no account of e9port trade, b* means of "hich a nation can change articles of lu9ur* either into means of production or means of subsistence, and vice versE$ >n order to e9amine the obDect of our in)estigation in its integrit*, free from all disturbing subsidiar* circumstances, "e must treat the "hole "orld as one nation, and assume that capitalist production is e)er*"here established and has possessed itself of e)er* branch of industr*8 : Sismondi?s anal*sis of accumulation suffers from the great defect, that he contents himself, to too great an e9tent, "ith the phrase @con)ersion of re)enue into capital,A "ithout fathoming the material conditions of this operation8 @<e tra)ail primitif auIuel son capital a dS sa naissance8A Gthe original labour, to "hich his capital o"ed its originH Sismondi, l8 c8, ed8 #aris, t8 >8, p8 1728 3 @<abour creates capital before capital emplo*s labour8A E8 G8 Ba+efield, @England and (merica,A <ond8, 18::, ;ol8 >>, p8 1178 6 'he propert* of the capitalist in the product of the labour of others @is a strict conseIuence of the la" of appropriation, the fundamental principle of "hich "as, on the contrar*, the e9clusi)e title of e)er* labourer to the product of his o"n labour8A (5herbulie1, @&ichesse ou #au)retR,A #aris, 18 1, p8 38, "here, ho"e)er, the dialectical re)ersal is not properl* de)eloped8!

'he follo"ing passage (to p8 331 @la"s of capitalist appropriation8A! has been added to the English te9t in conformit* "ith the th German edition8 8 Be ma* "ell, therefore, feel astonished at the cle)erness =f #roudhon, "ho "ould abolish capitalistic propert* b* enforcing the eternal la"s of propert* that are based on commodit* productionQ 2 @5apital, )i18, accumulated "ealth emplo*ed "ith a )ie" to profit8A ($althus, l8 c8! @5apital 888 consists of "ealth sa)ed from re)enue, and used "ith a )ie" to profit8A (&8 Lones: @(n >ntroductor* <ecture on #olit8 Econ8,A <ond8, 18::, p8 168! 17 @'he possessors of surplus4produce or capital8A (@'he Source and &emed* of the Cational 0ifficulties8 ( <etter to <ord Lohn &ussell8A <ond8, 18618! 11 @5apital, "ith compound interest on e)er* portion of capital sa)ed, is so all engrossing that all the "ealth in the "orld from "hich income is deri)ed, has long ago become the interest on capital8A (<ondon, Economist+ 12th Lul*, 18318! 16 @Co political economist of the present da* can b* sa)ing mean8mere hoarding: and be*ond this contracted and insufficient proceeding, no use of the term in reference to the national "ealth can "ell be imagined,8 but that "hich must arise from a different application of "hat is sa)ed, founded upon a real distinction bet"een the different +inds of labour maintained b* it8A ($althus, l8 c8, pp8 :8, :28! 1: 'hus for instance, /al1ac, "ho so thoroughl* studied e)er* shade of a)arice, represents the old usurer Gobsec+ as in his second childhood "hen he begins to heap up a hoard of commodities8 1 @(ccumulation of stoc+s 888 upon4e9change 888 o)er4production8A ('h8 5orbet8 l8 c8, p8 17 8! 13 >n this sense Cec+er spea+s of the @obDets de faste et de somptuositR,A Gthings of pomp and lu9ur*H of "hich @le temps a grossi l?accummulation,A Gaccumulation has gro"n "ith timeH and "hich @les lois de propriRtR ont rassemblRs dans une seule classe de la sociRtR8A Gthe la"s of propert* ha)e brought into the hands of one class of societ* aloneH (-euvres de M$ Hec"er, #aris and <ausanne, 1782, t8 ii8, p8 6218! 16 &icardo, 18c8, p8 16:, note8 17 >n spite of his @<ogic,A Lohn St8 $ill ne)er detects e)en such fault* anal*sis as this "hen made b* his predecessors, an anal*sis "hich, e)en from the bourgeois standpoint of the science, cries out for rectification8 >n e)er* case he registers "ith the dogmatism of a disciple, the confusion of his master?s thoughts8 So here: @'he capital itself in the long run becomes entirel* "ages, and "hen replaced b* the sale of produce becomes "ages again8A 18 >n his description of the process of reproduction, and of accumulation, (dam Smith, in man* "a*s, not onl* made no ad)ance, but e)en lost considerable ground, compared "ith his predecessors, especiall* b* the #h*siocrats8 5onnected "ith the illusion mentioned in the te9t, is the reall* "onderful dogma, left b* him as an inheritance to #olitical Econom*, the dogma, that the price of commodities is made up of "ages, profit (interest! and rent, i$e$+ of "ages and surplus )alue8 Starting from this basis, Storch nai)el* confesses, @>l est impossible de rRsoudre le pri9 nRcessaire dans ses RlRments les plus simples8A G888 it is impossible to resol)e the necessar* price into its simplest elementsH (Storch, l8 c8, #etersb8 Edit8, 1813, t8 ii8, p8 1 1, note8! ( fine science of econom* this, "hich declares it impossible to resol)e the price of a commodit* into its simplest elementsQ 'his point "ill be further in)estigated in the se)enth part of /oo+ iii8 12 'he reader "ill notice, that the "ord re)enue is used in a double sense: first, to designate surplus )alue so far as it is the fruit periodicall* *ielded b* capital; secondl*, to designate the part of that fruit "hich is periodicall* consumed b* the capitalist, or added to the fund that supplies his pri)ate consumption8 > ha)e retained this double meaning because it harmonises "ith the language of the English and French economists8 67 'a+ing the usurer, that old4fashioned but e)er rene"ed specimen of the capitalist for his te9t, <uther sho"s )er* aptl* that the lo)e of po"er is an element in the desire to get rich8 @'he heathen "ere able, b* the light of reason, to conclude that a usurer is a double4d*ed thief and murderer8 Be 5hristians, ho"e)er, hold them in such honour, that "e fairl* "orship them for the sa+e of their mone*8888 Bhoe)er eats up, robs, and steals the nourishment of another, that man commits as great a murder (so far as in him lies! as he "ho star)es a man or utterl* undoes him8 Such does a usurer, and sits the "hile safe on his stool, "hen he ought rather to be hanging on the gallo"s, and be eaten b* as man* ra)ens as he has stolen guilders, if onl* there "ere so much flesh on him, that so man* ra)ens could stic+ their bea+s in and share it8 $ean"hile, "e hang the small thie)es8888 <ittle thie)es are put in the stoc+s, great thie)es go flaunting in gold and sil+8888 'herefore is there, on this earth, no greater enem* of man (after the de)il! than a gripe4 mone*, and usurer, for he "ants to be God o)er all men8 'ur+s, soldiers, and t*rants are also bad men, *et must the* let the people li)e, and 5onfess that the* are bad, and enemies, and do, na*, must, no" and then sho" pit* to some8

/ut a usurer and mone*4glutton, such a one "ould ha)e the "hole "orld perish of hunger and thirst, miser* and "ant, so far as in him lies, so that he ma* ha)e all to himself, and e)er* one ma* recei)e from him as from a God, and be his serf for e)er8 'o "ear fine cloa+s, golden chains, rings, to "ipe his mouth, to be deemed and ta+en for a "orth*, pious man 8888 %sur* is a great huge monster, li+e a "ere"olf, "ho la*s "aste all, more than an* 5acus, Gerion or (ntus8 (nd *et dec+s himself out, and "ould be thought pious, so that people ma* not see "here the o9en ha)e gone, that he drags bac+"ards into his den8 /ut -ercules shall hear the cr* of the o9en and of his prisoners, and shall see+ 5acus e)en in cliffs and among roc+s, and shall set the o9en loose again from the )illain8 For 5acus means the )illain that is a pious usurer, and steals, robs, eats e)er*thing8 (nd "ill not o"n that he has done it, and thin+s no one "ill find him out, because the o9en, dra"n bac+"ards into his den, ma+e it seem, from their foot4prints, that the* ha)e been let out8 So the usurer "ould decei)e the "orld, as though he "ere of use and ga)e the "orld o9en, "hich he, ho"e)er, rends, and eats all alone888 (nd since "e brea+ on the "heel, and behead high"a*men, murderers and housebrea+ers, ho" much more ought "e to brea+ on the "heel and +ill8888 hunt do"n, curse and behead all usurers8A ($artin <uther, l8 c8! 61 See Goethe?s @Faust8A 66 0r8 (i+in: @0escription of the 5ountr* from :7 to 7 miles round $anchester8A <ond8, 1723, p8 186, sI8 6: (8 Smith, l8 c8, b+8 iii8, ch8 iii8 6 E)en L8 /8 Sa* sa*s: @<es Rpargnes des riches se font au9 dRpens des pau)res8A Gthe sa)ings of the rich are made at the e9pense of the poorH @'he &oman proletarian li)ed almost entirel* at the e9pense of societ*8888 >t can almost be said that modern societ* li)es at the e9pense of the proletarians, on "hat it +eeps out of the remuneration of labour8A (Sismondi: @Rtudes, Pc8,A t8 i8, p8 6 8! 63 $althus, l8 c8, pp8 :12, :678 66 @(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand, Pc8,A p8 678 67 l8 c8, p8 328 68 (Senior, @#rincipes fondamentau9 del?con8 #ol8A trad8 (rri)abene8 #aris, 18:6, p8 :788! 'his "as rather too much for the adherents of the old classical school8 @$r8 Senior has substituted for itA (the e9pression, labour and,profit! @the e9pression labour and (bstinence8 -e "ho con)erts his re)enue abstains from the enDo*ment "hich its e9penditure "ould afford him8 >t is not the capital, but the use of the capital producti)el*, "hich is the cause of profits8A (Lohn 5a1eno)e, l8 c8, p8 1:7, Cote8! Lohn St8 $ill, on the contrar*, accepts on the one hand &icardo?s theor* of profit, and anne9es on the other hand Senior?s @remuneration of abstinence8A -e is as much at home in absurd contradictions, as he feels at sea in the -egelian contradiction, the source of all dialectic8 >t has ne)er occurred to the )ulgar economist to ma+e the simple refle9ion, that e)er* human action ma* be )ie"ed, as @abstinenceA from its opposite8 Eating is abstinence from fasting, "al+ing, abstinence from standing still, "or+ing, abstinence from idling, idling, abstinence from "or+ing, Pc8 'hese gentlemen "ould do "ell, to ponder, once in a ""hile, o)er Spino1a?s: @0eterminatio est Cegatio8A 62 Senior, l8 c8, p8 : 68 :7 @Co one 888 "ill so" his "heat, for instance, and allo" it to remain a t"el)le month in the ground, or lea)e his "ine in a cellar for *ears, instead of consuming these things or their eIui)alent at once 888 unless he e9pects to acIuire additional )alue, Pc8A (Scrope, @#olit8 Econ8,A edit8 b* (8 #otter, Ce" Nor+, 18 1, pp8 1::41: 8! :1 @<a pri)ation Iue s?impose le capitalistR, en prdtant G'he depri)ation the capitalist imposes on himself b* lending 888H (this euphemism used, for the purpose of identif*ing, according to the appro)ed method of )ulgar econom*, the labourer "ho is e9ploited, "ith the industrial capitalist "ho e9ploits, and to "hom other capitalists lend mone*! ses instruments de production au tra)ailleur, au lieu d?en consacrer la )aleur X son propre usage, en la transforment en obDets d?utilitR ou d?agrRment8A Ghis instruments of production to the "or+er, instead of de)oting their )alue to his o"n consumption, b* transforming them into obDects of utilit* or pleasureH (G8 de $olinari, l8 c8, p8 :68! :6 @<a conser)ation d?un capital e9ige 888 un effort constant pour rRsister a la tentation de le consommer8A (5ourcelle4 Seneuil, l8 c8, p8 378! :: @'he particular classes of income "hich *ield the most abundantl* to the progress of national capital, change at different stages of their progress, and are, therefore, entirel* different in nations occup*ing different positions in that progress8888 #rofits 888 unimportant source of accumulation, compared "ith "ages and rents, in the earlier stages of societ*8888 Bhen a considerable ad)ance in the po"ers of national industr* has actuall* ta+en place, profits rise into comparati)e importance as a source of accumulation8A (&ichard Lones, @'e9tboo+, Pc8,A pp8 16, 618! : l8 c8, p8 :6, sI8

:3

@&icardo sa*s: W>n different stages of societ* the accumulation of capital or of the means of emplo*ing? (i8e8, e9ploiting! Wlabour is more or less rapid, and must in all cases depend on the producti)e po"ers of labour8 'he producti)e po"ers of labour are generall* greatest "here there is an abundance of fertile land8? >f, in the first sentence, the producti)e po"ers of labour mean the smallness of that aliIuot part of an* produce that goes to those "hose manual labour produced it, the sentence is nearl* identical, because the remaining aliIuot part is the fund "hence capital can, if the o1ner pleases+ be accumulated8 /ut then this does not generall* happen, "here there is most fertile land8A (@=bser)ations on 5ertain ;erbal 0isputes, Pc8A pp8 7 , 738! :6 L8 Stuart $ill: @Essa*s on Some %nsettled Kuestions of #olitical Econom*,A <ond8, 18 , p8 278 :7 @(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce,A <ond8, 1777, #8 8 /he /imes of 0ecember, 1866, and Lanuar*, 1867, in li+e manner published certain outpourings of the heart of the English mine4o"ner, in "hich the happ* lot of the /elgian miners "as pictured, "ho as+ed and recei)ed no more than "as strictl* necessar* for them to li)e for their @masters8A 'he /elgian labourers ha)e to suffer much, but to figure in /he /imes as model labourersQ >n the beginning of Februar*, 1867, came the ans"er: stri+e of the /elgian miners at $archienne, put do"n b* po"der and lead8 :8 l8 c8, pp8 , 68 :2 'he Corthamptonshire manufacturer commits a pious fraud, pardonable in one "hose heart is so full8 -e nominall* compares the life of the English and French manufacturing labourer, but in the "ords Dust Iuoted he is painting, as he himself confesses in his confused "a*, the French agricultural labourers8 7 l8 c8, pp8 77, 718 Hote in the 7rd =erman edition0 toda*, than+s to the competition on the "orld4mar+et, established since then, "e ha)e ad)anced much further8 @>f 5hina,A sa*s $r8 Stapleton, $8#8, to his constituents, @should become a great manufacturing countr*, > do not see ho" the manufacturing population of Europe could sustain the contest "ithout descending to the le)el of their competitors8A ( /imes+ Sept8 :, 187:, p8 88! 'he "ished4for goal of English capital is no longer 5ontinental "ages but 5hinese8 1 /enDamin 'hompson: @Essa*s, #olitical, Economical, and #hilosophical, Pc8,A : )ols8, <ond, 172641876, )ol8 i8, p8 62 8 >n his @'he State of the #oor, or an -istor* of the labouring 5lasses in England, Pc8,A Sir F8 $8 Eden strongl* recommends the &umfordian beggar4soup to "or+house o)erseers, and reproachfull* "arns the English labourers that @man* poor people, particularl* in Scotland, li)e, and that )er* comfortabl*, for months together, upon oat4meal and barle*4meal, mi9ed "ith onl* "ater and salt8A (l8 c8, )ol8 i, boo+ i8, ch8 6, p8 37:8! 'he same sort of hints in the 12th centur*8 @'he most "holesome mi9tures of flour ha)ing been refused (b* the English agricultural labourer!888 in Scotland, "here education is better, this preDudice is, probabl*, un+no"n8A (5harles -8 #arr*, $8 08, @'he Kuestion of the Cecessecit* of the E9isting 5orn <a"s 5onsidered8A <ondon, 1816,, p8 628! 'his same #arr*, ho"e)er, complains that the English labourer is no" (1813! in a much "orse condition than in Eden?s time (17278! 6 From the reports of the last #arliamentar* 5ommission on adulteration of means of subsistence, it "ill be seen that the adulteration e)en of medicines is the rule, not the e9ception in England8 E8g8, the e9amination of : specimens of opium, purchased of as man* different chemists in <ondon, sho"ed that :1 "ere adulterated "ith popp* heads, "heat4flour, gum, cla*, sand, Pc8 Se)eral did not contain an atom of morphia8 : G8 /8 Ce"nham (barrister4at4la"!: @( &e)ie" of the E)idence before the 5ommittee of the t"o -ouses of #arliament on the 5om <a"s8A <ond8, 1813, p8 67, note$ l8 c8, pp8 12, 678 3 58 -8 #arr*, l8 c8, pp8 77, 628 'he landlords, on their side, not onl* @indemnifiedA themsel)es for the (nti4Lacobin Bar, "hich the* "aged in the name of England, but enriched themsel)es enormousl*8 'heir rents doubled, trebled, Iuadrupled, @and in one instance, increased si9fold in eighteen *ears8A (>8 c8, pp8 177, 1718! 6 Friedrich Engels, @<age der arbeitenden .lasse in England,A p8 678 7 lassic econom* has, on account of a deficient anal*sis of the labour process, and of the process of creating )alue4, ne)er properl* grasped this "eight* element of reproduction, as ma* be seen in &icardo; he sa*s, e$ $, "hate)er the change in producti)e po"er, @a million men al"a*s produce in manufactures the same )alue8A 'his is accurate, if the e9tension and degree of >ntensit* of their labour are gi)en8 /ut it does not pre)ent (this &icardo o)erloo+s in certain conclusions he dra"s! a million men "ith different po"ers of producti)it* in their labour, turning into products )er* different masses of the means of production, and therefore preser)ing in their products )er* different masses of )alue; in conseIuence of "hich the )alues of the products *ielded ma* )ar* considerabl*8 &icardo has, it ma* be noted in passing, tried in )ain to ma+e clear to L8 /8 Sa*, b* that )er* e9ample, the difference bet"een use )alue ("hich he here calls "ealth or material riches! and e9change4)alue8 Sa* ans"ers: @Kuant X la difficultR Iu?Rln)e $r8 &icardo en disant Iue, par des procRdRs mieu9 entendus un million de personnes peu)ent produire deu9 fois, trois fois autant de

richesses, sans produire plus de )aleurs, cette difficultR n?est pas une lorsIue l?on considRre, ainsi Iu?on le doit, la production comme un Rchange dans leIuel on donne les ser)ices productifs de son tra)ail, de sa terre, et de ses capitau9, pour obtenir des produits8 5?est par le mo*en de ces ser)ices productifs, Iue nous acIuRrons tous les produits Iui sont au monde8 =r888 nous sommes d?autant plus riches, nos ser)ices productifs ont d?autant plus de )aleur Iu?ils obtiennent dans l?Rchange appelR production une plus grande IuantitR de choses utiles8A G(s for the difficult* raised b* &icardo "hen he sa*s that, b* using better methods of production, a million people can produce t"o or three times as much "ealth, "ithout producing an* more )alue, this difficult* disappears "hen one bears in mind, as one should, that production is li+e an e9change in "hich a man contributes the producti)e ser)ices of his labour, his land, and his capital, in order to obtain products8 >t is b* means of these producti)e ser)ices that "e acIuire all the products e9isting in the "orld8 'herefore 888 "e are richer, our producti)e ser)ices ha)e the more )alue, the greater the Iuantit* of useful things the* bring in through the e9change "hich is called productionH (L8 /8 Sa*, @<ettres X $8 $althus,A #aris, 1867, pp8 168, 1628! 'he @difficultRA v it e9ists for him, not for &icardo v that Sa* means to clear up is this: Bh* does not the e9change4)alue of the use )alues increase, "hen their Iuantit* increases in conseIuence of increased producti)e po"er of labourE (ns"er: the difficult* is met b* calling use )alue, e9change4 )alue, if *ou please8 E9change4)alue is a thing that is connected one "a* or another "ith e9change8 >f therefore production is called an e9change of labour and means of production against the product, it is clear as da* that *ou obtain more e9change4)alue in proportion as the production *ields more use )alue8 >n other "ords, the more use )alues, e8g8, stoc+ings, a "or+ing da* *ields to the stoc+ing4manufacturer, the richer is he in stoc+ings8 Suddenl*, ho"e)er, Sa* recollects that @"ith a greater Iuantit*A of stoc+ings their @priceA ("hich of course has nothing to do "ith their e9change4)alueQ! falls @parce Iue la concurrence les (les producteurs! oblige X donner les produits pour ce Iu?ils leur coStent888 Gbecause competition obliges them (the producers! to sell their products for "hat the* cost to ma+eH /ut "hence does the profit come, if the capitalist sells the commodities at cost4priceE Ce)er mindQ Sa* declares that, in conseIuence of increased producti)it*, e)er* one no" recei)es in return for a gi)en eIui)alent t"o pairs of stoc+ings instead of one as before8 'he result he arri)es at, is precisel* that proposition of &icardo that he aimed at dispro)ing8 (fter this might* effort of thought, he triumphantl* apostrophises $althus in the "ords: @'elle est, monsieur, la doctrine bien liRe, sans laIuelle il est impossible, De le dRclare, d?e9pliIuer les plus grandes difficultRs de l?Rconomie politiIue, et notamment, comment il se peut Iu?une nation soit plus riche lorsIue ses produits diminuent de )aleur, IuoiIue la richesse soit de la )aleur8A G'his, Sir, is the "ell4founded doctrine "ithout "hich it is impossible, > sa*, to e9plain the greatest difficulties in political econom*, and, in particular, to e9plain "h* it is that a nation can be richer "hen its products fall in )alue, e)en though "ealth is )alueH (l8 c8, p8 1778! (n English economist remar+s upon the conDuring tric+s of the same nature that appear in Sa*?s @<ettresA: @'hose affected "a*s of tal+ing ma+e up in general that "hich $8 Sa* is pleased to call his doctrine and "hich he earnestl* urges $althus to teach at -ertford, as it is alread* taught Wdans plusieurs parties de l?Europe8? -e sa*s, WSi )ous trou)e1 une ph*sionomie de parado9e X toutes ces propositions, )o*e1 les choses Iu?elles e9priment, et D?ose croire Iu?elles )ous parartront fort simples et fort raisonnables8? Gin numerous parts of Europe 888 >f all those propositions appear parado9ical to *ou, loo+ at the things the* e9press, and > )enture to belie)e that the* "ill then appear )er* simple and )er* rationalH 0oubtless, and in conseIuence of the same process, the* "ill appear e)er*thing else, e9cept original8A (@(n >nIuir* into those #rinciples &especting the Cature of 0emand, Pc8,A pp8 116, 1178! 8 $ac5ulloch too+ out a patent for @"ages of past labour,A long before Senior did for @"ages of abstinence8A 2 5ompare among others, Lerem* /entham: @'hRorie des #eines et des &Rcompenses,A traduct8 d?Et8 0umont, :nme Rdit8 #aris, 1866, t8 >>, <8 >;8, ch8 >>8 37 /entham is a purel* English phenomenon8 Cot e)en e9cepting our philosopher, 5hristian Bolff, in no time and in no countr* has the most homespun commonplace e)er strutted about in so self4satisfied a "a*8 'he principle of utilit* "as no disco)er* of /entham8 -e simpl* reproduced in his dull "a* "hat -el)Rtius and other Frenchmen had said "ith esprit in the 18th centur*8 'o +no" "hat is useful for a dog, one must stud* dog4nature8 'his nature itself is not to be deduced from the principle of utilit*8 (ppl*ing this to man, he that "ould criticise all human acts, mo)ements, relations, etc8, b* the principle of utilit*, must first deal "ith human nature in general, and then "ith human nature as modified in each historical epoch8 /entham ma+es short "or+ of it8 Bith the driest nai)etR he ta+es the modern shop+eeper, especiall* the English shop+eeper, as the normal man8 Bhate)er is useful to this Iueer normal man, and to his "orld, is absolutel* useful8 'his *ard4measure, then, he applies to past, present, and future8 'he 5hristian religion, e8g8, is @useful,A @because it forbids in the name of religion the same faults that the penal code condemns in the name of the la"8A (rtistic criticism is @harmful,A because it disturbs "orth* people in their enDo*ment of $artin 'upper, etc8 Bith such rubbish has the bra)e fello", "ith his motto, @nuila dies sine lineQ,A piled up mountains of boo+s8 -ad > the courage of m* friend, -einrich -eine, > should call $r8 Lerem* a genius in the "a* of bourgeois stupidit*8

31

@#olitical economists are too apt to consider a certain Iuantit* of capital and a certain number of labourers as producti)e instruments of uniform po"er, or operating "ith a certain uniform intensit*8888 'hose888 "ho maintain 888 that commodities are the sole agents of production 888 pro)e that production could ne)er be enlarged, for it reIuires as an indispensable condition to such an enlargement that food, ra" materials, and tools should be pre)iousl* augmented; "hich is in fact maintaining that no increase of production can ta+e place "ithout a pre)ious increase, or, in other "ords, that an increase is impossible8A (S8 /aile*: @$one* and its ;icissitudes,A pp8 38 and 778! /aile* criticises the dogma mainl* from the point of )ie" of the process of circulation8 36 Lohn Stuart $ill, in his @#rinciples of #olitical Econom*,A sa*s: @'he reall* e9hausting and the reall* repulsi)e labours instead of being better paid than others, are almost in)ariabl* paid the "orst of all8888 'he more re)olting the occupation, the more certain it is to recei)e the minimum of remuneration8888 'he hardships and the earnings, instead of being directl* proportional, as in an* Dust arrangements of societ* the* "ould be, are generall* in an in)erse ratio to one another8A 'o a)oid misunderstanding, let me sa* that although men li+e Lohn Stuart $ill are to blame for the contradiction bet"een their traditional economic dogmas and their modern tendencies, it "ould be )er* "rong to class them "ith the herd of )ulgar economic apologists8 3: -8 Fa"cett, #rofessor of #olitical Econom* at 5ambridge8 @'he Economic position of the /ritish labourer8A <ondon, 1863, p8 1678 3 > must here remind the reader that the categories, @)ariable and constant capital,A "ere first used b* me8 #olitical Econom* since the time of (dam Smith has confusedl* mi9ed up the essential distinctions in)ol)ed in these categories, "ith the mere formal differences, arising out of the process of circulation, of fi9ed and circulating capital8 For further details on this point, see /oo+ >>8, #art >>8 33 Fa"cett, l8 c8, pp8 166, 16:8 36 >t might be said that not onl* capital, but also labourers, in the shape of emigrants, are annuall* e9ported from England8 >n the te9t, ho"e)er, there is no Iuestion of the peculium of the emigrants, "ho are in great part not labourers8 'he sons of farmers ma+e up a great part of them8 'he additional capital annuall* transported abroad to be put out at interest is in much greater proportion to the annual accumulation than the *earl* emigration is to the *earl* increase of population8 1 .arl $ar9, l8 c8, @( RgalitR d?oppression des masses, plus un pa*s a de prolRtaires et plus il est riche8A (5olins, @<?Economie #olitiIue8 Source des &R)olutions et des %topies, prRtendues Socialistes8A #aris, 1837, t8 >>>8, p8 ::18! =ur @prolRtarianA is economicall* none other than the "age labourer, "ho produces and increases capital, and is thro"n out on the streets, as soon as he is superfluous for the needs of aggrandisement of @$onsieur capital,A as #ecIueur calls this person8 @'he sic+l* proletarian of the primiti)e forest,A is a prett* &oscherian fanc*8 'he primiti)e forester is o"ner of the primiti)e forest, and uses the primiti)e forest as his propert* "ith the freedom of an orang4 outang8 -e is not, therefore, a proletarian8 'his "ould onl* be the case, if the primiti)e forest e9ploited him, instead of being e9ploited b* him8 (s far as his health is concerned, such a man "ould "ell bear comparison, not onl* "ith the modern proletarian, but also "ith the s*philitic and scrofulous upper classes8 /ut, no doubt, -err Bilhelm &oscher, b* @primiti)e forestA means his nati)e heath of <Tneburg8 6 Lohn /ellers, l8 c8, p8 68 : /ernard de $ande)ille: @'he Fable of the /ees,A 3th edition, <ondon, 17688 &emar+s, pp8 616, 61:, :688 @'emperate li)ing and constant emplo*ment is the direct road, for the poor, to rational happinessA Gb* "hich he most probabl* means long "or+ing da*s and little means of subsistenceH, @and to riches and strength for the stateA ( viF8, for the landlords, capitalists, and their political dignitaries and agents!8 (@(n Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerce,A <ondon, 1777, p8 3 8! Eden should ha)e as+ed, "hose creatures then are @the ci)il institutionsVE From his standpoint of Duridical illusion, he does not regard the la" as a product of the material relations of production, but con)ersel* the relations of production as products of the la"8 <inguet o)erthre" $ontesIuieu?s illusor* @Esprit des loisA "ith one "ord: @ <?esprit des lois, c?est la propriRtR8A G'he spirit of la"s is propert*H 3 Eden, l8 c8, ;ol8 1, boo+ >8, chapter 1, pp8 1, 6, and preface, p8 998 6 >f the reader reminds me of $althus, "hose @Essa* on #opulationA appeared in 1728, > remind him that this "or+ in its first form is nothing more than a schoolbo*ish, superficial plagiar* of 0e #oe, Sir Lames Steuart, 'o"nsend, Fran+lin, Ballace, Pc8, and does not contain a single sentence thought out b* himself8 'he great sensation this pamphlet caused, "as due solel* to part* interest8 'he French &e)olution had found passionate defenders in the %nited .ingdom; the @principle of population,A slo"l* "or+ed out in the eighteenth centur*, and then, in the midst of a great social crisis, proclaimed "ith drums and trumpets as the infallible antidote to the teachings of 5ondorcet, Pc8,

"as greeted "ith Dubilance b* the English oligarch* as the great destro*er of all han+erings after human de)elopment8 $althus, hugel* astonished at his success, ga)e himself to stuffing into his boo+ materials superficiall* compiled, and adding to it ne" matter, not disco)ered but anne9ed b* him8 Cote further: (lthough $althus "as a parson of the English State 5hurch, he had ta+en the monastic )o" of celibac* v one of the conditions of holding a Fello"ship in #rotestant 5ambridge %ni)ersit*: @Socios collegiorum maritos esse non permittimus, sed statim postIuam Iuis u9orem du9erit socius collegii desinat esse8A (@&eports of 5ambridge %ni)ersit* 5ommission,A p8 1768! 'his circumstance fa)ourabl* distinguishes $althus from the other #rotestant parsons, "ho ha)e shuffled off the command enDoining celibac* of the priesthood and ha)e ta+en, @/e fruitful and multipl*,A as their special /iblical mission in such a degree that the* generall* contribute to the increase of population to a reall* unbecoming e9tent, "hilst the* preach at the same time to the labourers the @principle of population8A >t is characteristic that the economic fall of man, the (dam?s apple, the urgent appetite, @the chec+s "hich tend to blunt the shafts of 5upid,A as #arson 'o"nsend "aggishl* puts it, that this delicate Iuestion "as and is monopolised b* the &e)erends of #rotestant 'heolog*, or rather of the #rotestant 5hurch8 Bith the e9ception of the ;enetian mon+, =rtes, an original and cle)er "riter, most of the population theor* teachers are #rotestant parsons8 For instance, /ruc+ner, @'hRorie du S*stnme animal,A <e*de, 1767, in "hich the "hole subDect of the modern population theor* is e9hausted, and to "hich the passing Iuarrel bet"een Kuesna* and his pupil, the elder $irabeau, fumished ideas on the same topic; then #arson Ballace, #arson 'o"nsend, #arson $althus and his pupil, the arch4#arson 'homas 5halmers, to sa* nothing of lesser re)erend scribblers in this line8 =riginall*, #olitical Econom* "as studied b* philosophers li+e -obbes, <oc+e, -ume; b* businessmen and statesmen, li+e 'homas $ore, 'emple, Sull*, 0e Bitt, Corth, <a", ;anderlint, 5antillon, Fran+lin; and especiall*, and "ith the greatest success, b* medical men li+e #ett*, /arbon, $ande)ille, Kuesna*8 E)en in the middle of the eighteenth centur*, the &e)8 $r8 'uc+er, a notable economist of his time, e9cused himself for meddling "ith the things of $ammon8 <ater on, and in truth "ith this )er* @#rinciple of population,A struc+ the hour of the #rotestant parsons8 #ett*, "ho regarded the population as the basis of "ealth, and "as, li+e (dam Smith, an outspo+en foe to parsons, sa*s, as if he had a presentiment of their bungling interference, @that &eligion best flourishes "hen the #riests are most mortified, as "as before said of the <a", "hich best flourisheth "hen la"*ers ha)e least to do8A -e ad)ises the #rotestant priests, therefore, if the*, once for all, "ill not follo" the (postle #aul and @mortif*A themsel)es b* celibac*, @not to breed more 5hurchmen than the /enefices, as the* no" stand shared out, "ill recei)e, that is to sa*, if there be places for about t"el)e thousand in England and Bales, it "ill not be safe to breed up 6 ,777 ministers, for then the t"el)e thousand "hich are unpro)ided for, "ill see+ "a*s ho" to get themsel)es a li)elihood, "hich the* cannot do more easil* than b* persuading the people that the t"el)e thousand incumbents do poison or star)e their souls, and misguide them in their "a* to -ea)en8A (#ett*: @( 'reatise of 'a9es and 5ontributions,A <ondon, 1667, p8 378! (dam Smith?s position "ith the #rotestant priesthood of his time is sho"n b* the follo"ing8 >n @( <etter to (8 Smith, <8<808 =n the <ife, 0eath, and #hilosoph* of his Friend, 0a)id -ume8 /* one of the #eople called 5hristians,A th Edition, =9ford, 178 , 0r8 -orne, /ishop of Cor"ich, repro)es (dam Smith, because in a published letter to $r8 Strahan, he @embalmed his friend 0a)idA (sc8 -ume!; because he told the "orld ho" @-ume amused himself on his deathbed "ith <ucian and Bhist,A and because he e)en had the impudence to "rite of -ume: @> ha)e al"a*s considered him, both in his life4time and since his death, as approaching as nearl* to the idea of a perfectl* "ise and )irtuous man, as, perhaps, the nature of human frailt* "ill permit8A 'he bishop cries out, in a passion: @>s it right in *ou, Sir, to hold up to our )ie" as Wperfectl* "ise and )irtuous,? the character and conduct of one, "ho seems to ha)e been possessed "ith an incurable antipath* to all that is called Reli ionJ and "ho strained e)er* ner)e to e9plode, suppress and e9tirpate the spirit of it among men, that its )er* name, if he could effect it, might no more be had in remembranceEA (l8 c8, p8 88! @/ut let not the lo)ers of truth be discouraged8 (theism cannot be of long continuance8A (#8 178! (dam Smith, @had the atrocious "ic+edness to propagate atheism through the land ()i18, b* his @'heor* of $oral SentimentsA!8 %pon the "hole, 0octor, *our meaning is good; but > thin+ *ou "ill not succeed this time8 Nou "ould persuade us, b* the e9ample of David *ume+ Es&$+ that atheism is the onl* cordial for lo" spirits, and the proper antidote against the fear of death8888 Nou ma* smile o)er <abylon in ruins and congratulate the hardened Pharaoh on his o)erthro" in the &ed Sea8A (l8 c8, pp8 61, 668! =ne orthodo9 indi)idual, amongst (dam Smith?s college friends, "rites after his death: @Smith?s "ell4placed affection for -ume 888 hindered him from being a 5hristian8888 Bhen he met "ith honest men "hom he li+ed 888 he "ould belie)e almost an*thing the* said8 -ad he been a friend of the "orth* ingenious -orro9 he "ould ha)e belie)ed that the moon some times disappeared in a clear s+* "ithout the interposition of a cloud8888 -e approached to republicanism in his political principles8A (@'he /ee8A /* Lames (nderson, 18 ;ols8, ;ol8 :, pp8 166, 163, Edinburgh, 172142:8! #arson 'homas 5halmers has his suspicions as to (dam Smith ha)ing in)ented the categor* of @unproducti)e labourers,A solel* for the #rotestant parsons, in spite of their blessed "or+ in the )ine*ard of the <ord8

@'he limit, ho"e)er, to the emplo*ment of both the operati)e and the labourer is the same; namel*, the possibilit* of the emplo*er realising a profit on the produce of their industr*8 >f the rate of "ages is such as to reduce the master?s gains belo" the a)erage profit of capital, he "ill cease to emplo* them, or he "ill onl* emplo* them on condition of submission to a reduction of "ages8A (Lohn Bade, l8 c8, p8 6 18! 8 Cote b* the >nstitute of $ar9ism4<eninism to the &ussian edition: 'he $S in the first case sa*s @littleA and in the second case @muchA; the correction has been introduced according to the authorised French translation8 2 5f8 .arl $ar9: @,ur .riti+ der #olitischen =e+onomie,A pp8 166, seI8 17 @>f "e no" return to our first inIuir*, "herein it "as sho"n that capital itself is onl* the result of human labour888 it seems Iuite incomprehensible that man can ha)e fallen under the domination of capital, his o"n product; can be subordinated to it; and as in realit* this is be*ond dispute the case, in)oluntaril* the Iuestion arises: -o" has the labourer been able to pass from being master of capital v as its creator v to being its sla)eEA (;on 'hTnen, @0er isolierte StaatA #art ii8, Section ii8, &ostoc+, 186:, pp8 3, 68! >t is 'hTnen?s merit to ha)e as+ed this Iuestion8 -is ans"er is simpl* childish8 11 (dam Smith, @EnIuir* into the Cature of 888A, ;olume >8 16 Hote in the Bth =erman edition$ v 'he latest English and (merican @trustsA are alread* stri)ing to attain this goal b* attempting to unite at least all the large4scale concerns in one branch of industr* into one great Doint4stoc+ compan* "ith a practical monopol*8 !$ E$ 1: Hote in the 7rd =erman edition$ v >n $ar9?s cop* there is here the marginal note: @-ere note for "or+ing out later; if the e9tension is onl* Iuantitati)e, then for a greater and a smaller capital in the same branch of business the profits are as the magnitudes of the capitals ad)anced8 >f the Iuantitati)e e9tension induces Iualitati)e change, then the rate of profit on the larger capital rises simultaneousl*8A !$ E$ 1 'he census of England and Bales sho"s: all persons emplo*ed in agriculture (landlords, farmers, gardeners, shepherds, Pc8, included!: 1831, 6,711, 7; 1861, 1,26 ,1178 Fall, 87,::78 Borsted manufacture: 1831, 176,71 persons; 1861, 72,6 68 Sil+ "ea)ing: 1831, 111,2 7; 1861, 171,6788 5alico4printing: 1831, 16,728; 1861, 16,3368 ( small rise that, in the face of the enormous e9tension of this industr* and impl*ing a great fall proportionall* in the number of labourers emplo*ed8 -at4ma+ing: 1831, 13,237; 1861, 1:,81 8 Stra"4hat and bonnet4ma+ing: 1831, 67,:2:; 1861, 18,1768 $alting: 1831, 17,366; 1861, 17,6778 5handler*, 1831, ,2 2; 1861, ,6868 'his fall is due, besides other causes, to the increase in lighting b* gas8 5omb4ma+ing v 1831, 6,7:8; 1861, 1, 788 Sa"*ers: 1831, :7,336; 1861, :1,6 7 v a small rise in conseIuence of the increase of sa"ing4machines8 Cail4ma+ing: 1831, 66,2 7; 1861, 66,1:7 v fall in conseIuence of the competition of machiner*8 'in and copper4mining: 1831, :1,:67; 1861, :6,7 18 =n the other hand: 5otton4spinning and "ea)ing: 1831, :71,777; 1861, 36,6 68 5oal4mining: 1831, 18:,:82, 1861, 6 6,61:, @'he increase of labourers is generall* greatest, since 1831, in such branches of industr* in "hich machiner* has not up to the present been emplo*ed "ith success8A (5ensus of England and Bales for 18618 ;ol8 >ll8 <ondon, 186:, p8 :68! 13 Added in the Bth =erman edition$ v 'he la" of progressi)e diminution of the relati)e magnitude of )ariable capital and its effect on the condition of the class of "age "or+ers is conDectured rather than understood b* some of the prominent economists of the classical school8 'he greatest ser)ice "as rendered here b* Lohn /arton, although he, li+e all the rest, lumps together constant and fi9ed capital, )ariable and circulating capital8 -e sa*s: @'he demand for labour depends on the increase of circulating, and not of fi9ed capital8 Bere it true that the proportion bet"een these t"o sorts of capital is the same at all times, and in all circumstances, then, indeed, it follo"s that the number of labourers emplo*ed is in proportion to the "ealth of the state8 /ut such a proposition has not the semblance of probabilit*8 (s arts are culti)ated, and ci)ilisation is e9tended, fi9ed capital bears a larger and larger proportion to circulating capital8 'he amount of fi9ed capital emplo*ed in the production of a piece of /ritish muslin is at least a hundred, probabl* a thousand times greater than that emplo*ed in a similar piece of >ndian muslin8 (nd the proportion of circulating capital is a hundred or thousand times less 888 the "hole of the annual sa)ings, added to the fi9ed capital, "ould ha)e no effect in increasing the demand for labour8A (Lohn /arton, @=bser)ations on the 5ircumstances "hich >nfluence the 5ondition of the <abouring 5lasses of Societ*8A <ondon, 1817, pp8 16, 178! @'he same cause "hich ma* increase the net re)enue of the countr* ma* at the same time render the population redundant, and deteriorate the condition of the labourer8A (&icardo, l8 c8, p8 628! Bith increase of capital, @the demand Gfor labourH "ill be in a diminishing ratio8A (>bid8, p8 87, Cote8! @'he amount of capital de)oted to the maintenance of labour ma* )ar*, independentl* of an* changes in the "hole amount of capital8888 Great fluctuations in the amount of emplo*ment, and great suffering ma* become more freIuent as capital itself becomes more plentiful8A (&ichard Lones, @(n >ntroductor* <ecture on #ol8 Econ8,A <ond8 18::, p8 1:! @0emand Gfor labourH "ill rise 888 not in proportion to the

accumulation of the general capital8 888 E)er* augmentation, therefore, in the national stoc+ destined for reproduction, comes, in the progress of societ*, to ha)e less and less influence upon the condition of the labourer8A (&amsa*, l8 c8, pp8 27, 218! 16 -8 $eri)ale8 @<ectures on 5olonisation and 5olonies,A 18 1, ;ol8 > , p8 1 68 17 $althus, @#rinciples of #olitical Econom*,A pp8 613, :12, :678 >n this "or+, $althus finall* disco)ers, "ith the help of Sismondi, the beautiful 'rinit* of capitalistic production: o)er4production, o)er4population, o)er4consumption v three )er* delicate monsters, indeed8 5f8 F8 Engels, @%mrisse 1u einer .riti+ der Cationalu+onomie,A l8 c8, p, 177, et seI8 18 -arriet $artineau, @( $anchester Stri+e,A 18:6, p8 1718 12 E)en in the cotton famine of 186: "e find, in a pamphlet of the operati)e cotton4spinners of /lac+burn, fierce denunciations of o)er"or+, "hich, in conseIuence of the Factor* (cts, of course onl* affected adult male labourers8 @'he adult operati)es at this mill ha)e been as+ed to "or+ from 16 to 1: hours per da*, "hile there are hundreds "ho are compelled to be idle "ho "ould "illingl* "or+ partial time, in order to maintain their families and sa)e their brethren from a premature gra)e through being o)er"or+ed8888 Be,A it goes on to sa*, @"ould as+ if the practice of "or+ing o)ertime b* a number of hands, is li+el* to create a good feeling bet"een masters and ser)ants8 'hose "ho are "or+ed o)ertime feel the inDustice eIuall* "ith those "ho are condemned to forced idleness8 'here is in the district almost sufficient "or+ to gi)e to all partial emplo*ment if fairl* distributed8 Be are onl* as+ing "hat is right in reIuesting the masters generall* to pursue a s*stem of short hours, particularl* until a better state of things begins to da"n upon us, rather than to "or+ a portion of the hands o)ertime, "hile others, for "ant of "or+, are compelled to e9ist upon charit*8A (@&eports of >nsp8 of Fact8, =ct8 :1, 186:,A p8 88! 'he author of the @Essa* on 'rade and 5ommerceA grasps the effect of a relati)e surplus population on the emplo*ed labourers "ith his usual unerring bourgeois instinct8 @(nother cause of idleness in this +ingdom is the "ant of a sufficient number of labouring hands 8888 Bhene)er from an e9traordinar* demand for manufactures, labour gro"s scarce, the labourers feel their o"n conseIuence, and "ill ma+e their masters feel it li+e"ise v it is ama1ing; but so depra)ed are the dispositions of these people, that in such cases a set of "or+men ha)e combined to distress the emplo*er b* idling a "hole da* together8A (@Essa*, Pc8,A pp8 67, 688! 'he fello"s in fact "ere han+ering after a rise in "ages8 67 Economist+ Lan8 618 18678 61 Bhilst during the last si9 months of 1866, 87427,777 "or+ing people in <ondon "ere thro"n out of "or+, the Factor* &eport for that same half *ear sa*s: @>t does not appear absolutel* true to sa* that demand "ill al"a*s produce suppl* Dust at the moment "hen it is needed8 >t has not done so "ith labour, for much machiner* has been idle last *ear for "ant of hands8A (@&ep8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1866,A p8 818! 66 =pening address to the Sanitar* 5onference, /irmingham, Lanuar* 13th, 1873, b* L8 5hamberlain, $a*or of the to"n, no" (188:! #resident of the /oard of 'rade8 6: 781 to"ns gi)en in the census for 1861 for England and Bales @contained 17,267,228 inhabitants, "hile the )illages and countr* parishes contained 2,173,6668 >n 1831, 387 to"ns "ere distinguished, and the population in them and in the surrounding countr* "as nearl* eIual8 /ut "hile in the subseIuent ten *ears the population in the )illages and the countr* increased half a million, the population in the 387 to"ns increased b* a million and a half (1,33 ,767!8 'he increase of the population of the countr* parishes is 683 per cent8, and of the to"ns 178: per cent8 'he difference in the rates of increase is due to the migration from countr* to to"n8 'hree4fourths of the total increase of population has ta+en place in the to"ns8A (@5ensus8 Pc8,A pp8 11 and 168! 6 @#o)ert* seems fa)ourable to generation8A ((8 Smith8! 'his is e)en a speciall* "ise arrangement of God, according to the gallant and "itt* (bbR Galiani @>ddio af che gli uomini che esercitano mestieri di prima utiliti nascono abbondantemente8A (Galiani, l8 c8, p8 788! GGod ordains that men "ho carr* on trades of primar* utilit* are born in abundanceH @$iser* up to the e9treme point of famine and pestilence, instead of chec+ing, tends to increase population8A (S8 <aing, @Cational 0istress,A 18 , p8 628! (fter <aing has illustrated this b* statistics, he continues: @>f the people "ere all in eas* circumstances, the "orld "ould soon be depopulated8A 63 @0e Dour en Dour il de)ient donc plus clair Iue les rapports de production dans lesIuels se meut la bourgeoisie n?ont pas un caractnre un, un catactnre simple, mais un caractnre de duplicitR; Iue dans les mdmes rapports dans lesIuels se produit la richesse, la misRre se produit aussi; Iue dans les mdmes rapports dans lesIuels il * a dR)eloppement des forces producti)es, il * a une force producti)e de rRpression; Iue ces rapports ne produisent la richesse bourgeoise, c?est4X4dire la richesse de la classe bourgeoise, Iu?en anRantissant continuellement la richesse des membres intRgrants de cette classe et en produisant un prolRtariat touDours croissant8A GFrom da* to da* it thus becomes clearer that the production relations in "hich the bourgeoisie mo)es ha)e not a simple, uniform character, but a dual character; that in

the selfsame relations in "hich "ealth is produced, po)ert* is produced also; that in the selfsame relations in "hich there is a de)elopment of producti)e forces, there is also a force producing repression; that there relations produce bourgeois "ealth, i8e8, the "ealth of the bourgeois class, onl* b* continuall* annihilating the "ealth of the indi)idual members of this class and b* producing an e)ergro"ing proletariatH (.arl $ar9: @$isnre de la #hilosophie,A p8 1168! 66 G8 =rtes: @0elia Economia Ca1ionale libri sei, 1777,A in 5ustodi, #arte $oderna, t8 99i, pp8 6, 2, 66, 63, etc8 =rtes sa*s, l8 c8, p8 :6: @>n luoco di progettar sistemi inutili per la felicitX de?popoli, mi limitery a in)estigate la region delta loro infelicitX8A G>nstead of proDecting useless s*stems for achie)ing the happiness of people, > shall limit m*self to in)estigating the reasons for their unhappinessH 67 @( 0issertation on the #oor <a"s8 /* a Bell4"isher of $an+ind8 ('he &e)8 L8 'o"nsend! 1786,A republished <ond8 1817, pp8 13, :2, 18 'his @delicateA parson, from "hose "or+ Dust Iuoted, as "ell as from his @Lourne* through Spain,A $althus often copies "hole pages, himself borro"ed the greater part of his doctrine from Sir Lames Steuart, "hom he ho"e)er alters in the borro"ing8 E$ 8, "hen Steuart sa*s: @-ere, in sla)er*, "as a forcible method of ma+ing man+ind diligent,A Gfor the non4"or+ersH 888 @$en "ere then forced to "or+A G i$e8,to "or+ gratis for othersH, @because the* "ere sla)es of others; men are no" forced to "or+A G i$e8, to "or+ gratis for non4"or+ersH @because the* are the sla)es of their necessities,A he does not thence conclude, li+e the fat holder of benefices, that the "age labourer must al"a*s go fasting8 -e "ishes, on the contrar*, to increase their "ants and to ma+e the increasing number of their "ants a stimulus to their labour for the @more delicate8A 68 Storch, l8 c8, t8 iii, p8 66:8 62 Sismondi, l8 c8, pp8 72, 87, 838 :7 0estutt de 'rac*, l8 c8, p8 6:1: @<es nations pau)res, c?est lX ox le peuple est X son aise; et les nations riches, c?est lX ox il est ordinairement pau)re8A G'he poor nations are those "here the people are comfortabl* off; and the rich nationss, those "here the people are generall* poorH :1 @'enth &eport of the 5ommissioners of -8 $8 >nland &e)enue8A <ond8, 18668 p8 :88 :6 lbidem8 :: 'hese figures are sufficient for comparison, but, ta+en absolutel*, are false, since, perhaps, ]177,777,777 of income are annuall* not declared8 'he complaints of the >nland &e)enue 5ommissioners of s*stematic fraud, especiall* on the part of the commercial and industrial classes, are repeated in each of their reports8 So e$ $+ @( Loint4stoc+ compan* returns ]6,777 as assessable profits, the sur)e*or raises the amount to ]88,777, and upon that sum dut* is ultimatel* paid8 (nother compan* "hich returns ]127,777 is finall* compelled to admit that the true return should be ]637,7778A (>bid8, p, 68! : @5ensus, Pc8,A l8 c8, p8 628 Lohn /right?s assertion that 137 landlords o"n half of England, and 16 half the Scotch soil, has ne)er been refuted8 :3 @Fourth &eport, Pc8, of >nland &e)enue8A <ond8, 1867, p8 178 :6 hese are the net incomes after certain legall* authorised abatements8 :7 (t this moment, $arch, 1867, the >ndian and 5hinese mar+et is again o)erstoc+ed b* the consignments of the /ritish cotton manufacturers8 >n 1866 a reduction in "ages of 3 per cent8 too+ place amongst the cotton operati)es8 >n 1867, as conseIuence of a similar operation, there "as a stri+e of 67,777 men at #reston8 8Added in the Bth =erman edition8 v 'hat "as the prelude to the crisis "hich bro+e out immediatel* after"ards8 v !$ E$9 :8 @5ensus, Pc8,A l8 c8, #8 118 :2 Gladstone in the -ouse of 5ommons, Feb8 1:th, 18 :8 /imes+ Feb8 1 th, 18 : v @>t is one of the most melanchol* features in the social state of this countr* that "e see, be*ond the possibilit* of denial, that "hile there is at this moment a decrease in the consuming po"ers of the people, an increase of the pressure of pri)ations and distress; there is at the same time a constant accumulation of "ealth in the upper classes, an increase of the lu9uriousness of their habits, and of their means of enDo*ment8A (-ansard, 1:th Feb8! 7 Gladstone in the -ouse of 5ommons, (pril 16th, 186:8 Mornin ;tar+ (pril 17th8 1 See the official accounts in the /lue boo+: @$iscellaneous Statistics of the %nited .ingdom,A #art )i8, <ondon, 1866, pp8 667467:, passim8 >nstead of the statistics of orphan as*lums, Pc8, the declamations of the ministerial Dournals in recommending do"ries for the &o*al children might also ser)e8 'he greater dearness of the means of subsistence is ne)er forgotten there8 6 Gladstone, -ouse of 5ommons, 7th (pril, 186 8 v @'he -ansard )ersion runs: W(gain, and *et more at large v "hat is human life, but, in the maDorit* of cases, a struggle for e9istence8? 'he continual cr*ing contradictions in

Gladstone?s /udget speeches of 186: and 186 "ere characterised b* an English "riter b* the follo"ing Iuotation from /oileau: @;oilX l?homme en effet8 >l )a du blanc au noir, >l condamne au matin ses sentiments du soir8 >mportun X tout autre, X soi4mdme incommode, >l change X tout moment d?esprit comme de mode8A GSuch is the man: he goes from blac+ to "hite8 J -e condemns in the morning "hat he felt in the e)ening8 J ( nuisance to e)er*one else, and an incon)enience to himself, J he changes his "a* of thin+ing as easil* as he changes his "a* of dressingH (@'he 'heor* of E9changes, Pc8,A <ondon, 186 , p8 1:38! : -8 Fa"cett, l8 c8, pp8 674868 (s to the increasing dependence of labourers on the retail shop+eepers, this is the conseIuence of the freIuent oscillations and interruptions of their emplo*ment8 Bales here is al"a*s included in England8 3 ( peculiar light is thro"n on the ad)ance made since the time of (dam Smith, b* the fact that b* him the "ord @"or+houseA is still occasionall* used as s*non*mous "ith @manufactor*A; e$ 8, the opening of his chapter on the di)ision of labour; @those emplo*ed in e)er* different branch of the "or+ can often be collected into the same "or+house8A 6 @#ublic -ealth8 Si9th &eport, 186 ,A p8 1:8 7 l8 c8, p8 178 8 l8 c8, p8 1:8 2 l8 c8, (ppendi9, p8 6:68 37 l8 c8, pp8 6:6, 6::8 31 l8 c8, pp8 1 , 138 36 @>n no particular ha)e the rights of persons been so a)o"edl* and shamefull* sacrificed to the rights of property as in regard to the lodging of the labouring class8 E)er* large to"n ma* be loo+ed upon as a place of human sacrifice, a shrine "here thousands pass *earl* through the fire as offerings to the moloch of a)arice,A S8 <aing, l8 c8, p8 1378 3: @#ublic -ealth, Eighth &eport8 18668A p8 1 , note8 3 8 c8, p8 828 Bith reference to the children in these colonies, 0r8 -unter sa*s: @#eople are not no" ali)e to tell us ho" children "ere brought up before this age of dense agglomerations of poor began, and he "ould be a rash prophet "ho should tell us "hat future beha)iour is to be e9pected from the present gro"th of children, "ho, under circumstances probabl* ne)er before paralleled in this countr*, are no" completing their education for future practice, as ?dangerous classes? b* sitting up half the night "ith persons of e)er* age, half na+ed, drun+en, obscene, and Iuarrelsome8A (l8 c8, p8 368! 33 l8 c8, p8 668 36 @&eport of the =fficer of -ealth of St8 $artins4in4the4Fields, 18638 37 #ublic -ealth, Eighth &eport, 1866,A p8 218 38 l8 c8, p8 888 32 l8 c8, p8 888 67 l8 c8, p8 828 61 l8 c8, p8 33 and 368 66 l8 c8, p8 1 28 6: l8 c8, p8 378
6

5=<<E5'>CG (GEC'S <>S' (/&(0F=&0!*ouses;ulcan Street, Co8 1661 &oom16 persons<umie) Street, Co8 1:1 &oom11 persons/o"er Street, Co8 11 &oom11 persons#ortland Street8 Co8 1161 &oom17 persons-ard* Street, Co8 171 &oom17 personsCorth Street, Co8 181 &oom16 personsCorth Street, Co8 171 &oom1: personsB*mer Street, Co8 121 &oom8 adultsLo"ett Street, Co8 361 &oom16 personsGeorge Street, Co8 1371 &oom: families&ifle 5ourt $ar*gate, Co8 111 &oom11 persons$arshall Street, Co8 681 &oom17 persons$arshall Street, Co8 21 &oom: familiesGeorge Street, Co8 1681 &oom18 personsGeorge Street, Co8 1:71 &oom16 personsEd"ard Street, Co8 1 &oom17 personsGeorge Street, Co8 21 &oom6 familiesNor+ Street, Co8 : 1 &oom6 familiesSalt #ie Street (bottom!1 &oom66 personsCellars&egent SIuare1 cellar8 persons(cre Street1 cellar7 persons:: &oberts 5ourt1 cellar7 persons/ac+ #ratt Street used as a bra1ier?s shop1 cellar7 persons67 Ebene1er Street1 cellar6 personsl8c8 p8iii (no male o)er 18! 63 l8 c8, p8 11 8 66 l8 c8, p8 378 67 @#ublic -ealth8 Se)enth &eport8 1863,A p8 188 68 l8 c8, p8 1638 62 l8 c8, p8 18, Cote8 v 'he &elie)ing =fficer of the 5hapel4en4le4Frith %nion reported to the &egistar4General as follo"s: v @(t 0o)eholes, a number of small e9ca)ations ha)e been made into a large hilloc+ of lime ashes (the refuse of lime4+ilns!, and "hich are used as d"ellings, and occupied b* labourers and others emplo*ed in the construction of a rail"a* no" in course of construction through that neighbourhood8 'he e9ca)ations are small and damp, and ha)e no drains or pri)ies about them, and not the slightest means of )entilation e9cept up a hole pulled through the top, and used for a chimne*8 >n conseIuence of this defect, small4po9 has been raging for some time, and some deaths Gamongst the troglod*tesH ha)e been caused b* it8A (l8 c8, note 68! 77 'he details gi)en at the end of #art >;8 refer especiall* to the labourers in coal mines8 =n the still "orse condition in metal mines, see the )er* conscientious &eport of the &o*al 5ommission of 186 8 71 l8 c8, pp8 187, 1868 76 l8 c8, pp8 313, 3178 7: l8 c8, p8 168 7 @Bholesale star)ation of the <ondon #oor8888 Bithin the last fe" da*s the "alls of <ondon ha)e been placarded "ith large posters, bearing the follo"ing remar+able announcement: v WFat o9enQ Star)ing menQ 'he fat o9en from their palace of glass ha)e gone to feed the rich in their lu9urious abode, "hile the star)ing men are left to rot and die in their "retched dens8? 'he placards bearing these ominous "ords are put up at certain inter)als8 Co sooner has one set been defaced or co)ered o)er, than a fresh set is placarded in the former, or some eIuall* public place8888 'his 888 reminds one of the secret re)olutionar* associations "hich prepared the French people for the e)ents of 17828888 (t this moment, "hile English "or+men "ith their "i)es and children are d*ing of cold and hunger, there are millions of English gold v the produce of English labour v being in)ested in &ussian, Spanish, >talian, and other foreign enterprises8A vReynoldsC He1spaper+ Lanuar* 67th, 18678 73 Lames E8 'horold &ogers8 (#rof8 of #olit8 Econ8 in the %ni)ersit* of =9ford8! @( -istor* of (griculture and #rices in England8A =9ford, 1866, )8 1, p8 6278 'his "or+, the fruit of patient and diligent labour, contains in the t"o )olumes that ha)e so far appeared, onl* the period from 1632 to 1 778 'he second )olume contains simpl* statistics8 >t is the first authentic @-istor* of #ricesA of the time that "e possess8 76 @&easons for the <ate >ncrease of the #oor4&ates: or a comparati)e )ie" of the prices of labour and pro)isions8A <ond8, 1777, pp8 3, 118 77 0r8 &ichard #rice: @=bser)ations on &e)ersionar* #a*ments,A 6th Ed8 /* B8 $organ, <ond8, 187:, )8 118, pp8 138, 1328 #rice remar+s on p8 132: @'he nominal price of da*4labour is at present no more than about four times, or, at most, fi)e times higher than it "as in the *ear 131 8 /ut the price of corn is se)en times, and of flesh4meat and raiment about fifteen times higher8 So far, therefore, has the price of labour been e)en from ad)ancing in proportion to the increase in the e9penses of li)ing, that it does not appear that it bears no" half the proportion to those e9penses that it did bear8A 78 /arton, l8 c8, p8 668 For the end of the 18th centur* cf8 Eden, l8 c8 72 #arr*, l8 c8, p8 868 87 ibid8, p8 61:8 81 S8 <aing, l8 c8, p8 668

86 8:

@England and (merica8A <ond8, 18::, ;ol8 1, p8 78 <ondon Economist+ $a* 62th, 18 3, p8 6278 8 'he landed aristocrac* ad)anced themsel)es to this end, of course per #arliament, funds from the State 'reasur*, at a )er* lo" rate of interest, "hich the farmers ha)e to ma+e good at a much higher rate8 83 'he decrease of the middle4class farmers can be seen especiall* in the census categor*: @Farmer?s son, grandson, brother, nephe", daughter, granddaughter, sister, nieceV; in a "ord, the members of his o"n famil*, emplo*ed b* the farmer8 'his categor* numbered, in 1831, 616,831 persons; in 1861, onl* 176,1318 From 1831 to 1871, the farms under 67 acres fell b* more than 277 in number; those bet"een 37 and 73 acres fell from 8,63: to 6,:77; the same thing occurred "ith all other farms under 177 acres8 =n the other hand, during the same t"ent* *ears, the number of large farms increased; those of :774377 acres rose from 7,771 to 8, 17, those of more than 377 acres from 6,733 to :,21 , those of more than 1,777 acres from 26 to 3868 86 'he number of shepherds increased from 16,317 to 63,3328 87 5ensus, l8 c8, p8 :68 88 &ogers, l8 c8, p8 62:, p8 178 $r8 &ogers belongs to the <iberal School, is a personal friend of 5obden and /right, and therefore no laudator temporis acti8 82 @#ublic -ealth8 Se)enth &eport,A 1863, p8 6 68 >t is therefore nothing unusual either for the landlord to raise a labourer?s rent as soon as he hears that he is earning a little more, or for the farmer to lo"er the "age of the labourer, @because his "ife has found a trade,A l8 c8 27 l8 c8, p8 1:38 21 l8 c8, p8 1: 8 26 @&eport of the 5ommissioners 888 relating to 'ransportation and #enal Ser)itude,A <ond8, 186:, pp8 6, 378 2: l8 c8, p8 778 @$emorandum b* the <ord 5hief Lustice8A 2 l8 c8, ;ol8 11, $inutes of E)idence8 23 l8 c8, ;ol8 18 (ppendi9, p8 6878 26 l8 c8, pp8 67 , 6738 27 @#ublic -ealth, Si9th &eport,A 186 , pp8 6:8, 6 2, 661, 6668 28 l8 c8, p8 6668 22 l8 c8, p8 178 'he English agricultural labourer recei)es onl* 1J as much mil+, and [ as much bread as the >rish8 (rthur Noung in his @'our in >reland,A at the beginning of this centur*, alread* noticed the better nourishment of the latter8 'he reason is simpl* this, that the poor >rish farmer is incomparabl* more humane than the rich English8 (s regards Bales, that "hich is said in the te9t holds onl* for the south"est8 (ll the doctors there agree that the increase of the death4rate through tuberculosis, scrofula, etc8, increases in intensit* "ith the deterioration of the ph*sical condition of the population, and all ascribe this deterioration to po)ert*8 @-is (the farm labourer?s! +eep is rec+oned at about fi)e pence a da*, but in man* districts it "as said to be of much less cost to the farmerA Ghimself )er* poorH8888 @( morsel of the salt meat or bacon, 888 salted and dried to the te9ture of mahogan*, and hardl* "orth the difficult process of assimilation 888 is used to fla)our a large Iuantit* of broth or gruel, of meal and lee+s, and da* after da* this is the labourer?s dinner8A 'he ad)ance of industr* resulted for him, in this harsh and damp climate, in @the abandonment of the solid homespun clothing in fa)our of the cheap and so4called cotton goods,A and of stronger drin+s for so4called tea8 @'he agriculturist, after se)eral hours? e9posure to "ind and rain, pins his cottage to sit b* a fire of peat or of balls of cla* and small coal +neaded together, from "hich )olumes of carbonic and sulphurous acids are poured forth8 -is "alls are of mud and stones, his floor the bare earth "hich "as there before the hut "as built, his roof a mass of loose and sodden thatch8 E)er* cre)ice is topped to maintain "armth, and in an atmosphere of diabolic odour, "ith a mud fioor, "ith his onl* clothes dr*ing on his bac+, he often sups and sleeps "ith his "ife and children8 =bstetricians "ho ha)e passed parts of the night in such cabins ha)e described ho" the* found their feet sin+ing in the mud of the floor, and the* "ere forced (eas* tas+! to drill a hole through the "all to effect a little pri)ate respiration8 >t "as attested b* numerous "itnesses in )arious grades of life, that to these insanitar* influences, and man* more, the underfed peasant "as nightl* e9posed, and of the result, a debilitated and scrofulous people, there "as no "ant of e)idence8888 'he statements of the relie)ing officers of 5armarthenshire and 5ardiganshire sho" in a stri+ing "a* the same state of things8 'here is besides @a plague more horrible still, the great number of idiots8A Co" a "ord on the climatic conditions8 @( strong south4"est "ind blo"s o)er the "hole countr* for 8 or 2 months in the *ear, bringing "ith it torrents of rain, "hich discharge principall* upon the "estern slopes of the hills8 'rees are rare,

e9cept in sheltered places, and "here not protected, are blo"n out of all shape8 'he cottages generall* crouch under some ban+, or often in a ra)ine or Iuarr*, and none but the smallest sheep and nati)e cattle can li)e on the pastures8888 'he *oung people migrate to the eastern mining districts of Glamorgan and $onmouth8 5armarthenshire is the breeding ground of the mining population and their hospital8 'he population can therefore barel* maintain its numbers8A 'hus in 5ardiganshire: 18311861$ales 3,133 , 6Females36, 3236,23327,61 27, 710r8 -unter?s &eport in @#ublic -ealth, Se)enth &eport8 1863,A pp8 284376, passim8 177 >n 1863 this la" "as impro)ed to some e9tent8 >t "ill soon be learnt from e9perience that tin+ering of this sort is of no use8 171 >n order to understand that "hich follo"s, "e must remember that @5lose ;illagesA are those "hose o"ners are one or t"o large landlords8 @=pen )illages,A those "hose soil belongs to man* smaller landlords8 >t is in the latter that building speculators can build cottages and lodging4houses8 176 ( sho"4)illage of this +ind loo+s )er* nice, but is as unreal as the )illages that 5atherine >>8 sa" on her Dourne* to the 5rimea8 >n recent times the shepherd, also has often been banished from these sho"4)illages; e$ 8, near $ar+et -arboro is sheep4farm of about 377 acres, "hich onl* emplo*s the labour of one man8 'o reduce the long trudges o)er these "ide plains, the beautiful pastures of <eicester and Corthampton, the shepherd used to get a cottage on the farm8 Co" the* gi)e him a thirteenth shilling a "ee+ for lodging, that he must find far a"a* in an open )illage8 17: @'he labourers? houses (in the open )illages, "hich, of course, are al"a*s o)ercro"ded! are usuall* in ro"s, built "ith their bac+s against the e9treme edge of the plot of land "hich the builder could call his, and on this account are not allo"ed light and air, e9cept from the front8A (0r8 -unter?s &eport, l8 c8, p8 1:38! ;er* often the beerseller or grocer of the )illage is at the same time the letter of its houses8 >n this case the agricultural labourer finds in him a second master, besides the farmer8 -e must be his customer as "ell as his tenant8 @'he hind "ith his 17s8 a "ee+, minus a rent of ] a *ear 888 is obliged to bu* at the seller?s o"n terms, his modicum of tea, sugar, flour, soap, candies, and beer8A (l8 c8, p8 1:68! 'hese open )illages form, in fact, the @penal settlementsA of the English agricultural proletariat8 $an* of the cottages are simpl* lodging4houses, through "hich all the rabble of the neighbourhood passes8 'he countr* labourer and his famil* "ho had often, in a "a* trul* "onderful, preser)ed, under the foulest conditions, a thoroughness and purit* of character, go, in these, utterl* to the de)il8 >t is, of course, the fashion amongst the aristocratic sh*loc+s to shrug their shoulders pharisaicall* at the building speculators, the small landlords, and the open )illages8 'he* +no" "ell enough that their @close )illagesA and @sho"4)illagesA are the birth4places of the open )illages, and could not e9ist "ithout them8 @'he labourers 888 "ere it not for the small o"ners, "ould, for b* far the most part, ha)e to sleep under the trees of the farms on "hich the* "or+8A (l8 c8, p8 1:38! 'he s*stem of @openA and @closedA )illages obtains in all the $idland counties and throughout the East of England8 17 @'he emplo*er 888 is 888 directl* or indirectl* securing to himself the profit on a man emplo*ed at 17s8 a "ee+, and recei)ing from this poor hind ] or ]3 annual rent for houses not "orth ]67 in a reall* free mar+et, but maintained at their artificial )alue b* the po"er of the o"ner to sa* W%se m* house, or go see+ a hiring else"here "ithout a character from me8888? 0oes a man "ish to better himself, to go as a plate4la*er on the rail"a*, or to begin Iuarr*4 "or+, the same po"er is read* "ith WBor+ for me at this lo" rate of "ages or begone at a "ee+?s notice; ta+e *our pig "ith *ou, and get "hat *ou can for the potatoes gro"ing in *our garden8? Should his interest appear to be better ser)ed b* it, an enhanced rent is sometimes preferred in these cases b* the o"ner ( i$e8, the farmer! as the penalt* for lea)ing his ser)ice8A (0r8 -unter, l8 c8, p8 1:68! 173 @Ce" married couples are no edif*ing stud* for gro"n4up brothers and sisters: and though instances must not be recorded, sufficient data are remembered to "arrant the remar+, that great depression and sometimes death are the lot of the female participator in the offence of incest8A (0r8 -unter, l8 c8, p8 1:78! ( member of the rural police "ho had for man* *ears been a detecti)e in the "orst Iuarters of <ondon, sa*s of the girls of his )illage: @their boldness and shamelessness > ne)er sa" eIualled during some *ears of police life and detecti)e dut* in the "orst parts of <ondon 8888 'he* li)e li+e pigs, great bo*s and girls, mothers and fathers, all sleeping in one room, in man* instances8A (@5hild8 Empl8 5om8 Si9th &eport, 1867,A p8 77 sI8 1338! 176 @#ublic -ealth8 Se)enth &eport, 1863,A pp8 2, 1 passim8 177 @'he hea)en4born emplo*ment of the hind gi)es dignit* e)en to his position8 -e is not a sla)e, but a soldier of peace, and deser)es his place in married men?s Iuarters to be pro)ided b* the landlord, "ho has claimed a po"er of enforced labour similar to that the countr* demands of the soldier8 -e no more recei)es mar+et4price for his "or+ than does the soldier8 <i+e the soldier he is caught *oung, ignorant, +no"ing onl* his o"n trade, and his o"n localit*8 Earl* marriage and8 the operation of the )arious la"s of settlement affect the one as enlistment and the $utin* (ct

affect the other8A (0r8 -unter, l8 c8, p8 1:68! Sometimes an e9ceptionall* soft4hearted landlord relents as the solitude he has created8 @>t is a melanchol* thing to stand alone in one?s countr*,A said <ord <eicester, "hen complimented on the completion of -oo+ham8 @> loo+ around and not a house is to be seen but mine8 > am the giant of Giant 5astle, and ha)e eat up all m* neighbours8A 178 ( similar mo)ement is seen during the last ten *ears in France; in proportion as capitalist production there ta+es possession of agriculture, it dri)es the @surplusA agricultural population into the to"ns8 -ere also "e find deterioration in the housing and other conditions at the source of the surplus population8 =n the special @prolRtariat foncier,A to "hich this s*stem of parcelling out the land has gi)en rise, see, among others, the "or+ of 5olins, alread* Iuoted, and .arl $ar9 @0er (cht1ehnte /rumaire des <ouis /onaparte8A 6nd edition8 -amburg, 1862, pp8 36, Pc8 >n 18 6, the to"n population in France "as represented b* 6 8 6, the agricultural b* 73838; in 1861, the to"n b* 68886, the agricultural b* 7181 per cent8 0uring the last 3 *ears, the diminution of the agricultural percentage of the population has been *et more mar+ed8 (s earl* as 18 6, #ierre 0upont in his @=u)riersA sang: $al )dtus, logRs dans des trous, Sous les combles, dans les dRcombres, Cous )i)ons a)ec les hibou9 Et les larrons, amis des ombres8 G/adl* clothed, li)ing in holes, under the ea)es, in the ruins, "ith the o"ls and the thie)es, companions of the shado"sH 172 @Si9th and last &eport of the 5hildren?s Emplo*ment 5ommission,A published at the end of $arch, 18678 >t deals solel* "ith the agricultural gang4s*stem8 117 @5hild8 Emp8 5omm8, ;>8 &eport8V E)idence 17:, p8 :78 111 Some gang4masters, ho"e)er, ha)e "or+ed themsel)es up to the position of farmers of 377 acres, or proprietors of "hole ro"s of houses8 116 @-alf the girls of <udford ha)e been ruined b* going outA (in gangs!8 l8 c8, p8 6, :68 11: @'he* (gangs! ha)e greatl* increased of late *ears8 >n some places the* are said to ha)e been introduced at comparati)el* late dates; in others "here gangs 888 ha)e been +no"n for man* *ears 888 more and *ounger children are emplo*ed in them8A (l8 c8, p8 72, 17 !8 11 @Small farmers ne)er emplo* gangs8A @>t is not on poor land, but on land "hich affords rent of from 7 to 37 shillings, that "omen and children are emplo*ed in the greatest numbers8A (l8 c8, pp8 17, 1 8! 113 'o one of these gentlemen the taste of his rent "as so grateful that he indignantl* declared to the 5ommission of >nIuir* that the "hole hubbub "as onl* due to the name of the s*stem8 >f instead of @gangA it "ere called @the (gricultural Lu)enile >ndustrial Self4supporting (ssociation,A e)er*thing "ould be all right8 116 @Gang "or+ is cheaper than other "or+; that is "h* the* are emplo*ed,A sa*s a former gang4master (l8 c8, p8 17, 1 !8V'he gang4s*stem is decidedl* the cheapest for the farmer, and decidedl* the "orst for the children,A sa*s a farmer (l8 c8, p8 16, :8! 117 @%ndoubtedl* much of the "or+ no" done b* children in gangs used to be done b* men and "omen8 $ore men are out of "or+ no" "here children and "omen are emplo*ed than formerl*8A (l8 c8, p8 :, n8 6768! =n the other hand, @the labour Iuestion in some agricultural districts, particularl* the arable, is becoming so serious in conseIuence of emigration, and the facilit* afforded b* rail"a*s for getting to large to"ns that > (the @>A is the ste"ard of a great lord! thin+ the ser)ices of children are most indispensable,A (l8 c8, p8 87, n8 1878! For the @labour IuestionA in English agricultural districts, differentl* from the rest of the ci)ilised "orld, means the landlords? and farmers? Iuestion, viF8, ho" is it possible, despite an al"a*s increasing e9odus of the agricultural fol+, to +eep up a sufficient relati)e surplus population in the countr*, and b* means of it +eep the "ages of the agricultural labourer at a minimumE 118 'he @#ublic -ealth &eport,A "here in dealing "ith the subDect of children?s mortalit*, the gang4s*stem is treated in passing, remains un+no"n to the press, and, therefore, to the English public8 =n the other hand, the last report of the @5hild8 Empl8 5omm8A afforded the press sensational cop* al"a*s "elcome8 Bhilst the <iberal press as+ed ho" the fine gentlemen and ladies, and the "ell4paid clerg* of the State 5hurch, "ith "hom <incolnshire s"arms, could allo" such a s*stem to arise on their estates, under their )er* e*es, the* "ho send out e9pressl* missions to the (ntipodes, @for the impro)ement of the morals of South Sea >slandersA v the more refined press confined itself to reflections on the coarse degradation of the agricultural population "ho are capable of selling their children into such sla)er*Q %nder the accursed conditions to "hich these @delicateA people condemn the agricultural labourer, it "ould not be surprising if he ate his o"n children8 Bhat is reall* "onderful is the health* integrit* of character, he has, in great part, retained8

'he official reports pro)e that the parents, e)en in the gang districts, loathe the gang4s*stem8 @'here is much in the e)idence that sho"s that the parents of the children "ould, in man* instances, be glad to be aided b* the reIuirements of a legal obligation, to resist the pressure and the temptations to "hich the* are often subDect8 'he* are liable to be urged, at times b* the parish officers, at times b* emplo*ers, under threats of being themsel)at discharged, to be ta+en to "or+ at an age "hen 888 school attendance 888 "ould be manifestl* to their greater ad)antage8888 (ll that time and strength "asted; all the suffering from e9tra and unprofitable fatigue produced to the labourer and to his children; e)er* instance in "hich the parent ma* ha)e traced the moral ruin of his child to fhe undermining of delicac* b* the o)er4cro"ding of cottages, or to the contaminating influences of the public gang, must ha)e been so man* incenti)es to feelings in the minds of the labouring poor "hich can be "ell understood, and "hich it "ould be needless to particularise8 'he* must be conscious that much bodil* and mental pain has thus been inflicted upon them from causes for "hich the* "ere in no "a* ans"erable; to "hich, had it been in their po"er, the* "ould ha)e in no "a* consented; and against "hich the* "ere po"erless to struggle8A (l8 c8, p8 998, 86, and 99iii8, n8 268! 112 #opulation of >reland, 1871, 3,:12,867 persons; 1811, 6,78 ,226; 1861, 6,862,3 ; 18:1, 7,868,: 7; 18 1, 8,666,66 8 167 'he result "ould be found *et more unfa)ourable if "e "ent further bac+8 'hus: Sheep in 1863, :,688,7 6, but in 1836, :,62 ,62 8 #igs in 1863, 1,622,82:, but in 1838, 1, 72,88: 161 'he data of the te9t are put together from the materials of the @(gricultural Statistics, >reland, General (bstracts, 0ublin,A for the *ears 1867, el se&$+ and @(gricultural Statistics, >reland8 'ables sho"ing the estimated a)erage produce, Pc8, 0ublin, 18668A 'hese statistics are official, and laid before #arliament annuall*8 Hote to 6nd edition8 'he official statistics for the *ear 1876 sho", as compared "ith 1871, a decrease in area under culti)ation of 1: ,213 acres8 (n increase occurred in the culti)ation of green crops, turnips, mangold4"ur1el, and the li+e; a decrease in the area under culti)ation for "heat of 16,777 acres; oats, 1 ,777; barle* and r*e, ,777; potatoes, 66,6:6; fla9, : ,667; grass, clo)er, )etches, rape4seed, :7,7778 'he soil under culti)ation for "heat sho"s for the last 3 *ears the follo"ing stages of decrease: v 1868, 683,777 acres; 1862, 687,777; 1877, 632,777; 1871, 6 ,777; 1876, 668,7778 For 1876 "e find, in round numbers, an increase of 6,677 horses, 87,777 horned cattle, 68,672 sheep, and a decrease of 6:6,777 pigs8 166 'he total *earl* income under Schedule 08 is different in this table from that "hich appears in the preceding ones, because of certain deductions allo"ed b* la"8 16: >f the product also diminishes relati)el* per acre, it must not be forgotten that for a centur* and a half England has indirectl* e9ported the soil of >reland, "ithout as much as allo"ing its culti)ators the means for ma+ing up the constituents of the soil that had been e9hausted8 16 (s >reland is regarded as the promised land of the @principle of population,A 'h8 Sadler, before the publication of his "or+ on population, issued his famous boo+, @>reland, its E)ils and their &emedies8A 6nd edition, <ondon, 18628 -ere, b* comparison of the statistics of the indi)idual pro)inces, and of the indi)idual counties in each pro)ince, he pro)es that the miser* there is not, as $althus "ould ha)e it, in proportion to the number of the population, but in in)erse ratio to this8 163 /et"een 1831 and 187 , the total number of emigrants amounted to 6,:63,2668 166 (ccording to a table in $urph*?s @>reland >ndustrial, #olitical and Social,A 1877, 2 86 per cent8 or the holdings do not reach 177 acres, 38 e9ceed 177 acres8 167 @&eports from the #oor <a" >nspectors on the Bages of (gricultural <abourers in 0ublin,A 18778 See also @(gricultural labourers (>reland!8 &eturn, etc8A 8 $arch, 1861, <ondon, 18668 168 l8 c8, pp8 62, 18 162 l8 c8, p8 168 1:7 l8 c8, p8 168 1:1 l8 c8, p8 638 1:6 l8 c8, p8 678 1:: l8 c8, p8 63 1: l8 c8, p8 18 1:3 l8 c8, pp8 :1, :68 1:6 l8 c8, p88 638

1:7 1:8

l8 c8, p8 :78 l8 c8, pp8 61, 1:8 1:2 @&ept8 of >nsp8 of Fact8, :1st =ct8, 1866,A p8 268 1 7 'he total area includes also peat, bogs, and "aste land8 1 1 -o" the famine and its conseIuences ha)e been deliberatel* made the most of, both b* the indi)idual landlords and b* the English legislature, to forcibl* carr* out the agricultural re)olution and to thin the population of >reland do"n to the proportion satisfactor* to the landlords, > shall sho" more full* in ;ol8 >>>8 of this "or+, in the section on landed propert*8 'here also > return to the condition of the small farmers and the agricultural labourers8 (t present, onl* one Iuotation8 Cassau B8 Senior sa*s, "ith other things, in his posthumous "or+, @Lournals, 5on)ersations and Essa*s relating to >reland8A 6 )ols8 <ondon, 1868; ;ol8 >>8, p8 6868 @Bell,A said 0r8 G8, @"e ha)e got our #oor <a" and it is a great instrument for gi)ing the )ictor* to the landlords8 (nother, and a still more po"erful instrument is emigration8888 Co friend to >reland can "ish the "ar to be prolonged Gbet"een the landlords and the small 5eltic farmersH v still less, that it should end b* the )ictor* of the tenants8 'he sooner it is o)er v the sooner >reland becomes a gra1ing countr*, "ith the comparati)el* thin population "hich a gra1ing countr* reIuires, the better for all classes8A 'he English 5orn <a"s of 1813 secured >reland the monopol* of the free importation of corn into Great /ritain8 'he* fa)oured artificiall*, therefore, the culti)ation of corn8 Bith the abolition of the 5orn <a"s in 18 6, this monopol* "as suddenl* remo)ed8 (part from all other circumstances, this e)ent alone "as sufficient to gi)e a great impulse to the turning of >rish arable into pasture land, to the concentration of arms, and to the e)iction of small culti)ators8 (fter the fruitfulness of the >rish soil had been praised from 1813 to 18 6, and proclaimed loudl* as b* Cature herself destined for the culti)ation of "heat, English agronomists, economists, politicians, disco)er suddenl* that it is good for nothing but to produce forage8 $8 <Ronce de <a)ergne has hastened to repeat this on the other side of the 5hannel8 >t ta+es a @seriousA man, X la <a)ergne, to be caught b* such childishness8 1 >n >tal*, "here capitalistic production de)eloped earliest, the dissolution of serfdom also too+ place earlier than else"here8 'he serf "as emancipated in that countr* before he had acIuired an* prescripti)e right to the soil8 -is emancipation at once transformed him into a free proletarian, "ho, moreo)er, found his master read* "aiting for him in the to"ns, for the most part handed do"n as legacies from the &oman time8 Bhen the re)olution of the "orld4 mar+et, about the end of the 13th centur*, annihilated Corthern >tal*?s commercial supremac*, a mo)ement in the re)erse direction set in8 'he labourers of the to"ns "ere dri)en en masse into the countr*, and ga)e an impulse, ne)er before seen, to the petite culture, carried on in the form of gardening8 1 @'he pett* proprietors "ho culti)ated their o"n fields "ith their o"n hands, and enDo*ed a modest competence8888 then formed a much more important part of the nation than at present8 >f "e ma* trust the best statistical "riters of that age, not less than 167,777 proprietors "ho, "ith their families, must ha)e made up more than a se)enth of the "hole population, deri)ed their subsistence from little freehold estates8 'he a)erage income of these small landlords888 "as estimated at bet"een ]67 and ]77 a *ear8 >t "as computed that the number of persons "ho tilled their o"n land "as greater than the number of those "ho farmed the land of others8A $acaula*: @-istor* of England,A 17th ed8, 183 , >8 pp8 :::, :: 8 E)en in the last third of the 17th centur*, J3 of the English people "ere agricultural8 (l8 c8, p8 1:8! > Iuote $acaula*, because as s*stematic falsifier of histor* he minimises as much as possible facts of this +ind8 6 Be must ne)er forget that e)en the serf "as not onl* the o"ner, if but a tribute4pa*ing o"ner, of the piece of land attached to his house, but also a co4possessor of the common land8 @<e pa*san (in Silesia, under Frederic+ >>8! est serf8A Ce)ertheless, these serfs possess common lands8 @=n n?a pas pu encore engager les SilRsiens au partage des communes, tandis Iue dans la Cou)elle $arche, il n?* a gunre de )illage ox ce partage ne soit e9RcutR a)ec le plus grand succns8A G'he peasant 888 is a serf8 888 >t has not *et been possible to persuade the Silesians to partition the common lands, "hereas in the Ceumar+ there is scarcel* a )illage "here the partition has not been implemented "ith )er* great successH ($irabeau: @0e la $onarchie #russienne8A <ondres, 1788, t8 ii, pp8 163, 1668! : Lapan, "ith its purel* feudal organisation of landed propert* and its de)eloped petite culture, gi)es a much truer picture of the European middle ages than all our histor* boo+s, dictated as these are, for the most part, b* bourgeois preDudices8 >t is )er* con)enient to be @liberalA at the e9pense of the middle ages8 >n his @%topia,A 'homas $ore sa*s, that in England @*our shepe that "ere "ont to be so me+e and tame, and so smal eaters, no", as > heare sa*e, be become so great de)ourers and so "*lde that the* eate up, and s"allo" do"ne, the )er* men themselfes8A @%topia,A transl8 b* &obinson, ed8 (rber, <ond8, 1862, p8 18 3 /acon sho"s the conne9ion bet"een a free, "ell4to4do peasantr* and good infantr*8 @'his did "onderfull* concern the might and mannerhood of the +ingdom to ha)e farms as it "ere of a standard sufficient to maintain an able bod* out of penur*, and did in effect amortise a great part of the lands of the +ingdom unto the hold and occupation of the

*eomanr* or middle people, of a condition bet"een gentlemen, and cottagers and peasants8888 For it hath been held b* the general opinion of men of best Dudgment in the "ars8888 that the principal strength of an arm* consisteth in the infantr* or foot8 (nd to ma+e good infantr* it reIuireth men bred, not in a ser)ile or indigent fashion, but in some free and plentiful manner8 'herefore, if a state run most to noblemen and gentlemen, and that the husbandman and ploughmen be but as their "or+fol+ and labourers, or else mere cottagers ("hich are but hous?d beggars!, *ou ma* ha)e a good ca)alr*, but ne)er good stable bands of foot8888 (nd this is to be seen in France, and >tal*, and some other parts abroad, "here in effect all is noblesse or peasantr*8888 insomuch that the* are inforced to emplo* mercenar* bands of S"it1ers and the li+e, for their battalions of foot; "hereb* also it comes to pass that those nations ha)e much people and fe" soldiers8A (@'he &eign of -enr* ;>>8A ;erbatim reprint from .ennet?s England8 Ed8 17128 <ond8, 1877, p8 :788! 6 0r8 -unter, l8 c8, p8 1: 8 @'he Iuantit* of land assigned (in the old la"s! "ould no" be Dudged too great for labourers, and rather as li+el* to con)ert them into small farmers8A (George &oberts: @'he Social -istor* of the #eople of the Southern 5ounties of England in #ast 5enturies8A <ond8, 1836, pp8 18 41838! 7 @'he right of the poor to share in the tithe, is established b* the tenour of ancient statutes8A ('uc+ett, l8 c8, ;ol8 >>8, pg8 87 48738! 8 Billiam 5obbett: @( -istor* of the #rotestant &eformation,A 718 2 'he @spiritA of #rotestantism ma* be seen from the follo"ing, among other things8 >n the south of England certain landed proprietors and "ell4to4do farmers put their heads together and propounded ten Iuestions as to the right interpretation of the poor4la" of Eli1abeth8 'hese the* laid before a celebrated Durist of that time, Sergeant Snigge (later a Dudge under Lames >8! for his opinion8 @Kuestion 2 v Some of the more "ealth* farmers in the parish ha)e de)ised a s+ilful mode b* "hich all the trouble of e9ecuting this (ct (the :rd of Eli1abeth! might be a)oided8 'he* ha)e proposed that "e shall erect a prison in the parish, and then gi)e notice to the neighbourhood, that if an* persons are disposed to farm the poor of this parish, the* do gi)e in sealed proposals, on a certain da*, of the lo"est price at "hich the* "ill ta+e them off our hands; and that the* "ill be authorised to refuse to an* one unless he be shut up in the aforesaid prison8 'he proposers of this plan concei)e that there "ill be found in the adDoining counties, persons, "ho, being un"illing to labour and not possessing substance or credit to ta+e a farm or ship, so as to li)e "ithout labour, ma* be induced to ma+e a )er* ad)antageous offer to the parish8 >f an* of the poor perish under the contractor?s care, the sin "ill lie at his door, as the parish "ill ha)e done its dut* b* them8 Be are, ho"e)er, apprehensi)e that the present (ct ( :rd of Eli1abeth! "ill not "arrant a prudential measure of this +ind; but *ou are to learn that the rest of the freeholders of the count*, and of the adDoining count* of /, "ill )er* readil* Doin in instructing their members to propose an (ct to enable the parish to contract "ith a person to loc+ up and "or+ the poor; and to declare that if an* person shall refuse to be so loc+ed up and "or+ed, he shall be entitled to no relief8 'his, it is hoped, "ill pre)ent persons in distress from "anting relief, and be the means of +eeping do"n parishes8A (&8 /la+e*: @'he -istor* of #olitical <iterature from the Earliest 'imes8A <ond8, 1833, ;ol8 >>8, pp8 8 4838! >n Scotland, the abolition of serfdom too+ place some centuries later than in England8 E)en in 1628, Fletcher of Saltoun, declared in the Scotch parliament, @'he number of beggars in Scotland is rec+oned at not less than 677,7778 'he onl* remed* that >, a republican on principle, can suggest, is to restore the old state of serfdom, to ma+e sla)es of all those "ho are unable to pro)ide for their o"n subsistence8A Eden, l8 c8, /oo+ >8, ch8 1, pp8 67461, sa*s, @'he decrease of )illenage seems necessaril* to ha)e been the era of the origin of the poor8 $anufactures and commerce are the t"o parents of our national poor8A Eden, li+e our Scotch republican on principle, errs onl* in this: not the abolition of )illenage, but the abolition of the propert* of the agricultural labourer in the soil made him a proletarian, and e)entuall* a pauper8 >n France, "here the e9propriation "as effected in another "a*, the ordonnance of $oulins, 1371, and the Edict of 1636, correspond to the English poor4la"s8 17 #rofessor &ogers, although formerl* #rofessor of #olitical Econom* in the %ni)ersit* of =9ford, the hotbed of #rotestant orthodo9*, in his preface to the @-istor* of (gricultureA la*s stress on the fact of the pauperisation of the mass of the people b* the &eformation8 11 @( <etter to Sir '8 58 /unbur*, /art8, on the -igh #rice of #ro)isions8 /* a Suffol+ Gentleman8A >ps"ich, 1723, p8 8 E)en the fanatical ad)ocate of the s*stem of large farms, the author of the @>nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice of #ro)isions,A <ondon, 177:, p8 1:2, sa*s: @> most lament the loss of our *eomanr*, that set of men "ho reall* +ept up the independence of this nation; and sorr* > am to see their lands no" in the hands of monopolising lords, tenanted out to small farmers, "ho hold their leases on such conditions as to be little better than )assals read* to attend a summons on e)er* mischie)ous occasion8A 16 =n the pri)ate moral character of this bourgeois hero, among other things: @'he large grant of lands in >reland to <ad* =r+ne*, in 1623, is a public instance of the +ing?s affection, and the lad*?s influence888 <ad* =r+ne*?s endearing

offices are supposed to ha)e been v fda labiorum ministeria8A (>n the Sloane $anuscript 5ollection, at the /ritish $useum, Co8 66 8 'he $anuscript is entitled: @'he character and beha)iour of .ing Billiam, Sunderland, etc8, as represented in =riginal <etters to the 0u+e of Shre"sbur* from Somers -alifa9, =9ford, Secretar* ;ernon, etc8A >t is full of curiosa8! 1: @'he illegal alienation of the 5ro"n Estates, partl* b* sale and partl* b* gift, is a scandalous chapter in English histor*888 a gigantic fraud on the nation8A (F8 B8 Ce"man, @<ectures on #olitical Econom*8A <ondon, 1831, pp8 162, 1:78! GFor details as to ho" the present large landed proprietors of England came into their possessions see @=ur =ld Cobilit*8 /* Coblesse =blige8A <ondon, 18728 v !$ E$H 1 &ead, e$ $, E8 /ur+e?s #amphlet on the ducal house of /edford, "hose offshoot "as <ord Lohn &ussell, the @tomtit of <iberalism8A 13 @'he farmers forbid cottagers to +eep an* li)ing creatures besides themsel)es and children, under the pretence that if the* +eep an* beasts or poultr*, the* "ill steal from the farmers? barns for their support; the* also sa*, +eep the cottagers poor and *ou "ill +eep them industrious, Pc8, but the real fact > belie)e, is that the farmers ma* ha)e the "hole right of common to themsel)es8A (@( #olitical >nIuir* into the 5onseIuences of Enclosing Baste <ands8A <ondon, 1783, p8 738! 16 Eden, l8 c8, preface8 17 @5apital Farms8A '"o letters on the Flour 'rade and the 0earness of 5orn8 /* a person in business8 <ondon, 1767, pp8 12, 678 18 @$erchant Farms8A @(n EnIuir* into the 5auses of the #resent -igh #rice of #ro)isions8A <ondon, 1767, p8 118 Cote8v 'his e9cellent "or+, that "as published anon*mousl*, is b* the &e)8 Cathaniel Forster8 12 'homas Bright: @( Short (ddress to the #ublic on the $onopol* of <arge Farms,A 1772, pp8 6, :8 67 &e)8 (ddington: @>nIuir* into the &easons for or against Enclosing =pen Fields,A <ondon, 1776, pp8 :7, : passim8 61 0r8 &8 #rice, l8 c8, )8 ii8, p8 133, Forster, (ddington, .ent, #rice, and Lames (nderson, should be read and compared "ith the miserable prattle of S*cophant $ac5ulloch in his catalogue: @'he <iterature of #olitical Econom*,A <ondon, 18 38 66 #rice, l8 c8, p8 1 78 6: #rice, l8 c8, p8 1328 Be are reminded of ancient &ome8 @'he rich had got possession of the greater part of the undi)ided land8 'he* trusted in the conditions of the time, that these possessions "ould not be again ta+en from them, and bought, therefore, some of the pieces of land l*ing near theirs, and belonging to the poor, "ith the acIuiescence of their o"ners, and too+ some b* force, so that the* no" "ere culti)ating "idel* e9tended domains, instead of isolated fields8 'hen the* emplo*ed sla)es in agriculture and cattle4breeding, because freemen "ould ha)e been ta+en from labour for militar* ser)ice8 'he possession of sla)es brought them great gain, inasmuch as these, on account of their immunit* from militar* ser)ice, could freel* multipl* and ha)e a multitude of children8 'hus the po"erful men dre" all "ealth to themsel)es, and all the land s"armed "ith sla)es8 'he >talians, on the other hand, "ere al"a*s decreasing in number, destro*ed as the* "ere b* po)ert*, ta9es, and militar* ser)ice8 E)en "hen times of peace came, the* "ere doomed to complete inacti)it*, because the rich "ere in possession of the soil, and used sla)es instead of freemen in the tilling of it8A ((ppian: @5i)il Bars,A >878! 'his passage refers to the time before the <icinian rogations8 $ilitar* ser)ice, "hich hastened to so great an e9tent the ruin of the &oman plebeians, "as also the chief means b* "hich, as in a forcing4house, 5harlemagne brought about the transformation of free German peasants into serfs and bondsmen8 6 @(n >nIuir* into the 5onne9ion bet"een the #resent #rice of #ro)isions, Pc8,A pp8 16 , 1628 'o the li+e effect, but "ith an opposite tendenc*: @Bor+ing4men are dri)en from their cottages and forced into the to"ns to see+ for emplo*ment; but then a larger surplus is obtained, and thus capital is augmented8A (@'he #erils of the Cation,A 6nd ed8 <ondon8, 18 :, p8 1 8! 63 l8 c8, p8 1:68 66 Steuart sa*s: @>f *ou compare the rent of these landsA (he erroneousl* includes in this economic categor* the tribute of the tas+men to the clanchief! @"ith the e9tent, it appears )er* small8 >f *ou compare it "ith the numbers fed upon the farm, *ou "ill find that an estate in the -ighlands maintains, perhaps, ten times as man* people as another of the same )alue in a good and fertile pro)ince8A (l8 c8, )ol8 i8, ch8 9)i8, p8 17 8! 67 Lames (nderson: @=bser)ations on the $eans of E9citing a Spirit of Cational >ndustr*, Pc8,A Edinburgh, 17778

68

>n 1867 the people e9propriated b* force "ere e9ported to 5anada under false pretences8 Some fled to the mountains and neighbouring islands8 'he* "ere follo"ed b* the police, came to blo"s "ith them and escaped8 62 @>n the -ighlands of Scotland,A sa*s /uchanan, the commentator on (dam Smith, 181 , @the ancient state of propert* is dail* sub)erted8888 'he landlord, "ithout regard to the hereditar* tenant (a categor* used in error here!, no" offers his land to the highest bidder, "ho, if he is an impro)er, instantl* adopts a ne" s*stem of culti)ation8 'he land, formerl* o)erspread "ith small tenants or labourers, "as peopled in proportion to its produce, but under the ne" s*stem of impro)ed culti)ation and increased rents, the largest possible produce is obtained at the least possible e9pense: and the useless hands being, "ith this )ie", remo)ed, the population is reduced, not to "hat the land "ill maintain, but to "hat it "ill emplo*8 @'he dispossessed tenants either see+ a subsistence in the neighbouring to"ns,A Pc8 (0a)id /uchanan: @=bser)ations on, Pc8, (8 Smith?s Bealth of Cations8A Edinburgh, 181 , )ol8 i)8, p8 1 8! @'he Scotch grandees dispossessed families as the* "ould grub up coppice4"ood, and the* treated )illages and their people as >ndians harassed "ith "ild beasts do, in their )engeance, a Dungle "ith tigers8888 $an is bartered for a fleece or a carcase of mutton, na*, held cheaper8888 Bh*, ho" much "orse is it than the intention of the $oguls, "ho, "hen the* had bro+en into the northern pro)inces of 5hina, proposed in council to e9terminate the inhabitants, and con)ert the land into pasture8 'his proposal man* -ighland proprietors ha)e effected in their o"n countr* against their o"n countr*men8A (George Ensor: @(n >nIuir* 5oncerning the #opulation of Cations8A <ond,8 1818, pp8 613, 6168! :7 Bhen the present 0uchess of Sutherland entertained $rs8 /eecher Sto"e, authoress of @%ncle 'om?s 5abin,A "ith great magnificence in <ondon to sho" her s*mpath* for the Cegro sla)es of the (merican republic v a s*mpath* that she prudentl* forgot, "ith her fello"4aristocrats, during the ci)il "ar, in "hich e)er* @nobleA English heart beat for the sla)e4o"ner v > ga)e in the He1 Qor" /ribune the facts about the Sutherland sla)es8 (Epitomised in part b* 5are* in @'he Sla)e 'rade8A #hiladelphia, 183:, pp8 67:, 67 8! $* article "as reprinted in a Scotch ne"spaper, and led to a prett* polemic bet"een the latter and the s*cophants of the Sutherlands8 :1 >nteresting details on this fish trade "ill be found in $r8 0a)id %rIuhart?s #ortfolio, ne" series8 v Cassau B8 Senior, in his posthumous "or+, alread* Iuoted, terms @the proceedings in Sutherlandshire one of the most beneficent clearings since the memor* of man8A (l8 c8! :6 'he deer4forests of Scotland contain not a single tree8 'he sheep are dri)en from, and then the deer dri)en to, the na+ed hills, and then it is called a deer4forest8 Cot e)en timber4planting and real forest culture8 :: &obert Somers: @<etters from the -ighlands: or the Famine of 18 78A <ondon, 18 8, pp8 16468 passim8 'hese letters originall* appeared in /he /imes8 'he English economists of course e9plained the famine of the Gaels in 18 7, b* their o)er4population8 (t all e)ents, the* @"ere pressing on their food4suppl*8A 'he @clearing of estates,A or as it is called in German*, @/auernlegen,A occurred in German* especiall* after the :7 *ears? "ar, and led to peasant4re)olts as late as 1727 in .ursachsen8 >t obtained especiall* in East German*8 >n most of the #russian pro)inces, Frederic+ >>8 for the first time secured right of propert* for the peasants8 (fter the conIuest of Silesia he forced the landlords to rebuild the huts, barns, etc8, and to pro)ide the peasants "ith cattle and implements8 -e "anted soldiers for his arm* and ta94pa*ers for his treasur*8 For the rest, the pleasant life that the peasant led under Frederic+?s s*stem of finance and hodge4podge rule of despotism, bureaucrac* and feudalism, ma* be seen from the follo"ing Iuotation from his admirer, $irabeau: @<e lin fait donc une des grandes richesses du culti)ateur dans le Cord de l?(llemagne8 $alheureusement pour l?espnce humaine, ce n?est Iu?une ressource contre la misnre et non un mo*en de bien4dtre8 <es imptts directs, les cor)Res, les ser)itudes de tout genre, Rcrasent le culti)ateur allemand, Iui paie encore des imptts indirects dans tout ce Iu?il achnte8888 et pour comble de ruine, il n?ose pas )endre ses productions ox et comme il le )eut; il n?ose pas acheter ce dont il a besoin au9 marchands Iui pourraient le lui li)rer au meilleur pri98 'outes ces causes le ruinent insensiblement, et il se trou)erait hors d?Rtat de pa*er les imptts directs X l?RchRance sans la filerie; elle lui offre une ressource, en occupant utilement sa femme, ses enfants, ses ser)ants, ses )alets, et lui4mdme; mais Iuelle pRnible )ie, mdme aidRe de ce secours8 En RtR, il tra)aille comme un forzat au labourage et X la rRcolte; il se couche X 2 heures et se ln)e X deu9, pour suffire au9 tra)au9; en hi)er il de)rait rRparer ses forces par un plus grand repos; mais il manIuera de grains pour le pain et les semailles, s?il se dRfait des denrRes Iu?il faudrait )endre pour pa*er les imptts8 >l faut donc filer pour supplRer X ce )ide8888 il faut * apporter la plus grande assiduitR8 (ussi le pa*san se couche4t4il en hi)er X minuit, une heure, et se ln)e X cinI ou si9; ou bien il se couche X neuf, et se ln)e X deu9, et cela tous les Dours de la )ie si ce n?est le dimanche8 5es e9cns de )eille et de tra)ail usent la nature humaine, et de lX )ient Iu?hommes et femmes )ieillissent beaucoup pluttt dans les campagnes Iue dans les )illes8A GFla9 represents one of the greatest sources of "ealth for the peasant of Corth German*8 %nfortunatel* for the human race, this is onl* a resource against miser* and not a means to"ards "ell4being8 0irect ta9es, forced labour ser)ice, obligations of all +inds crush the German peasant, especiall* as he still has to pa* indirect ta9es on e)er*thing he bu*s, 888 and to complete his ruin he dare not sell his produce "here and as he "ishes; he dare not bu* "hat he needs from the

merhcants "ho could sell it to him at a cheaper price8 -e is slo"l* ruined b* all those factors, and "hen the dirct ta9es fall due, he "ould find himself incapable of pa*ing them "ithout his spinning4"heel; it offers him a last resort, "hile pro)iding useful occupation for his "ife, his children, his maids, his farm4hands, and himself; but "hat a painful life he leads, e)en "ith this e9tra resourceQ >n summer, he "or+s li+e a con)ict "ith the plough and at har)est; he goes to bed at nine o?cloc+ and rises at t"o to get through all his "or+; in "inter he ought to be reco)ering his strength b* sleeping longer; but he "ould run short of corn for his bread and ne9t *ear?s so"ing if he got rid of the products that he needs to sell in order to pa* the ta9es8 -e therefore has to spin to fill up this gap 888 and indeed he must do so most assiduousl*8 'hus the peasant goes to bed at midnight or one o?cloc+ in "inter, and gets up at fi)e or si9; or he gies to bed at nine and gets up at t"o, and this he does e)er* da* of his life e9cept Sunda*s8 'hese e9cessi)el* short hours of sleep and long hours of "or+ consume a person?s strength and hence it happens that men and "omen age much more in the countr* than in the to"nsH ($irabeau, l8 c8, t8>>>8 pp8 616 sII8! Hote to the second edition$ >n (pril 1866, 18 *ears after the publication of the "or+ of &obert Somers Iuoted abo)e, #rofessor <eone <e)i ga)e a lecture before the Societ* of (rts on the transformation of sheep4"al+s into deer4forest, in "hich he depicts the ad)ance in the de)astation of the Scottish -ighlands8 -e sa*s, "ith other things: @0epopulation and transformation into sheep4"al+s "ere the most con)enient means for getting an income "ithout e9penditure888 ( deer4forest in place of a sheep4"al+ "as a common change in the -ighlands8 'he lando"ners turned out the sheep as the* once turned out the men from their estates, and "elcomed the ne" tenants v the "ild beasts and the feathered birds8888 =ne can "al+ from the Earl of 0alhousie?s estates in Forfarshire to Lohn =?Groats, "ithout e)er lea)ing forest land8888 >n man* of these "oods the fo9, the "ild cat, the marten, the polecat, the "easel and the (lpine hare are common; "hilst the rabbit, the sIuirrel and the rat ha)e latel* made their "a* into the countr*8 >mmense tracts of land, much of "hich is described in the statistical account of Scotland as ha)ing a pasturage in richness and e9tent of )er* superior description, are thus shut out from all culti)ation and impro)ement, and are solel* de)oted to the sport of a fe" persons for a )er* brief period of the *ear8A 'he <ondon Economist of Lune 6, 1866, sa*s, @(mongst the items of ne"s in a Scotch paper of last "ee+, "e read888 ?=ne of the finest sheep farms in Sutherlandshire, for "hich a rent of ]1,677 a *ear "as recentl* offered, on the e9pir* of the e9isting lease this *ear, is to be con)erted into a deer4forest8? -ere "e see the modern instincts of feudalism 888 operating prett* much as the* did "hen the Corman 5onIueror888 destro*ed :6 )illages to create the Ce" Forest8888 '"o millions of acres888 totall* laid "aste, embracing "ithin their area some of the most fertile lands of Scotland8 'he natural grass of Glen 'ilt "as among the most nutriti)e in the count* of #erth8 'he deer4forest of /en (ulder "as b* far the best gra1ing ground in the "ide district of /adenoch; a part of the /lac+ $ount forest "as the best pasture for blac+4faced sheep in Scotland8 Some idea of the ground laid "aste for purel* sporting purposes in Scotland ma* be formed from the fact that it embraced an area larger than the "hole count* of #erth8 'he resources of the forest of /en (ulder might gi)e some idea of the loss sustained from the forced desolations8 'he ground "ould pasture 13,777 sheep, and as it "as not more than one4thirtieth part of the old forest ground in Scotland 888 it might, Pc8, 888 (ll that forest land is as totall* unproducti)e8888 >t might thus as "ell ha)e been submerged under the "aters of the German =cean8888 Such e9temporised "ildernesses or deserts ought to be put do"n b* the decided interference of the <egislature8A 1 'he author of the @Essa* on 'rade, etc8,A 1777, sa*s, @>n the reign of Ed"ard ;>8 indeed the English seem to ha)e set, in good earnest, about encouraging manufactures and emplo*ing the poor8 'his "e learn from a remar+able statute "hich runs thus: W'hat all )agrants shall be branded, Pc8?A l8 c8, p8 38 6 'homas $ore sa*s in his @%topiaV: @'herfore that on co)etous and unsatiable cormaraunte and )er* plage of his nati)e contre* ma*e compasse aboute and inclose man* thousand a+ers of grounde together "ithin one pale or hedge, the husbandman be thrust o"te of their o"ne, or els either b* cone*ne and fraude, or b* )iolent oppression the* be put bes*des it, or b* "rongs and iniuries thei be so "eried that the* be compelled to sell all: b* one meanes, therfore, or b* other, either b* hoo+e or croo+e the* muste needes departe a"a*e, poore, sel*e, "retched soules, men, "omen, husbands, "iues, fatherlesse children, "ido"es, "ofull mothers "ith their *onge babes, and their "hole household smal in substance, and muche in numbre, as husbandr*e reIuireth man* handes8 ("a*e thei trudge, > sa*, o"te of their +no"en accustomed houses, f*nd*nge no place to reste in8 (ll their housholde stuffe, "hich is )er* little "oorthe, thoughe it might "ell abide the sale: *et bee*nge sodainel* thruste o"te, the* be constra*ned to sell it for a thing of nought8 (nd "hen the* haue "andered abrode t*ll that be spent, "hat cant the* then els doe but steale, and then iustl* pard* be hanged, or els go about begg*ng8 (nd *et then also the* be caste in prison as )agaboundes, because the* go aboute and "or+e not: "hom no man "*l set a "or+e though thei neuer so "ill*ngl* profre themselues therto8A =f these poor fugiti)es of "hom 'homas $ore sa*s that the* "ere forced to thie)e, @7,677 great and pett* thie)es "ere put to death,A in the reign of -enr* ;>>>8 (-olinshed, @0escription of England,A ;ol8 1, p8 1868! >n Eli1abeth?s time, @rogues "ere trussed up apace, and that there "as not one *ear commonl* "herein three or four hundred "ere not de)oured and eaten up b* the gallo"es8A (Str*pe?s @(nnals of the &eformation and

Establishment of &eligion and other ;arious =ccurrences in the 5hurch of England during Kueen Eli1abeth?s -app* &eign8A Second ed8, 1763, ;ol8 68! (ccording to this same Str*pe, in Somersetshire, in one *ear, 7 persons "ere e9ecuted, :3 robbers burnt in the hand, :7 "hipped, and 18: discharged as @incorrigible )agabonds8A Ce)ertheless, he is of opinion that this large number of prisoners does not comprise e)en a fifth of the actual criminals, than+s to the negligence of the Dustices and the foolish compassion of the people; and the other counties of England "ere not better off in this respect than Somersetshire, "hile some "ere e)en "orse8 : @Bhene)er the legislature attempts to regulate the differences bet"een masters and their "or+men, its counsellors are al"a*s the masters,A sa*s (8 Smith8 @<?esprit des lois, c?est la propriRtR,A sa*s <inguet8 @Sophisms of Free 'rade8A /* a /arrister8 <ond8, 1837, p8 6768 -e adds maliciousl*: @Be "ere read* enough to interfere for the emplo*er, can nothing no" be done for the emplo*edEA 3 From a clause of Statute 6 Lames >8, c8 6, "e see that certain clothma+ers too+ upon themsel)es to dictate, in their capacit* of Dustices of the peace, the official tariff of "ages in their o"n shops8 >n German*, especiall* after the 'hirt* Nears? Bar, statutes for +eeping do"n "ages "ere general8 @'he "ant of ser)ants and labourers "as )er* troublesome to the landed proprietors in the depopulated districts8 (ll )illagers "ere forbidden to let rooms to single men and "omen; all the latter "ere to be reported to the authorities and cast into prison if the* "ere un"illing to become ser)ants, e)en if the* "ere emplo*ed at an* other "or+, such as so"ing seeds for the peasants at a dail* "age, or e)en bu*ing and selling corn8 (>mperial pri)ileges and sanctions for Silesia, >8, 638! For a "hole centur* in the decrees of the small German potentates a bitter cr* goes up attain and again about the "ic+ed and impertinent rabble that "ill not reconcile itself to its hard lot, "ill not be content "ith the legal "age; the indi)idual landed proprietors are forbidden to pa* more than the State had fi9ed b* a tariff8 (nd *et the conditions of ser)ice "ere at times better after "ar than 177 *ears later; the farm ser)ants of Silesia had, in 1636, meat t"ice a "ee+, "hilst e)en in our centur*, districts are +no"n "here the* ha)e it onl* three times a *ear8 Further, "ages after the "ar "ere higher than in the follo"ing centur*8A (G8 Fre*tag8! 6 (rticle >8 of this la" runs: @<?anRantissement de toute espnce de corporations du mdme Rtat et profession Rtant l?une des bases fondamentales de la constitution franzaise, il est dRfendu de les rRtablir de fait sous IuelIue prRte9te et sous IuelIue forme Iue ce soit8A (rticle >;8 declares, that if @des cito*ens attachRs au9 mdmes professions, arts et mRtiers prenaient des dRlibRrations, faisaient entre eu9 des con)entions tendantes X refuser de concert ou X n?accorder Iu?X un pri9 dRterminR le secours de leur industrie ou de leurs tra)au9, les dites dRlibRrations et con)entions888 seront dRclarRes inconstitutionnelles, attentatoires X la libertR et X la declaration des droits de l?homme, Pc8;A felon*, therefore, as in the old labour4statutes8 G(s the abolition of an* form of association bet"een citi1ens of the same estate and profession is one of the foundations of the French constitution, it is forbidden to re4establish them under an* prete9t or in an* form, "hate)er the* might be8 888 citi1ens belonging to the same profession, craft or trade ha)e Doint discussions and ma+e Doint decisions "ith the intention of refusing together to perform their trade or insisting together on pro)iding the ser)ices of their trade or their labours onl* at a particular price, then the said deliberations and agreements 888 shall be declared unconstitutional, derogator* to libert* and the declaration of the rights of man, etc8H (@&R)olutions de #aris,A #aris, 1721, t8 >>>, p8 36:8! 7 /uche1 et &ou9: @-istoire #arlementaire,A t8 98, p8 1238 1 -arrison in his @0escription of England,A sa*s @although perad)enture foure pounds of old rent be impro)ed to fortie, to"ard the end of his term, if he ha)e not si9 or se)en *eares rent lieng b* him, fiftie or a hundred pounds, *et "ill the farmer thin+e his gaines )erie small8A 6 =n the influence of the depreciation of mone* in the 16th centur*, on the different classes of societ*, see @( 5ompendium of /riefe E9amination of 5erta*ne =rdinar* 5omplaints of 0i)ers of our 5ountr*men in these our 0a*s,A b* B8 S8 Gentleman (<ondon 1381!8 'he dialogue form of this "or+ led people for a long time to ascribe it to Sha+espeare, and e)en in 1731, it "as published under his name8 >ts author is Billiam Stafford8 >n one place the +night reasons as follo"s: Kni ht: Nou, m* neighbor, the husbandman, *ou $aister $ercer, and *ou Goodman 5ooper, "ith other artificers, ma* sa)e *oursel)es metel* "ell8 For as much as all things are dearer than the* "ere, so much do *ou arise in the pr*ce of *our "ares and occupations that *e sell aga*ne8 /ut "e ha)e nothing to sell "hereb* "e might ad)ance *e price there of, to counter)aile those things that "e must bu* aga*ne8A >n another place, the +night as+s the doctor: > pra* *ou, "hat be those sorts that *e meane8 (nd first, of those that *e thin+e should ha)e no losse thereb*E Doctor: > mean all those that li)e b* bu*ing and selling, for as the* bu* deare, the sell thereafter8 Kni ht: Bhat is the ne9t sort that *e sa* "ould "in b* itE Doctor: $arr*, all such as ha)e ta+ings of fearmes in their o"ne manurance Gculti)ationH at the old rent, for "here the* pa* after the olde rate the* sell after the ne"e v that is, the* pa*e for theire lande good cheape, and sell all things gro"ing thereof deare8 Kni ht: Bhat sorte is that "hich, *e sa*de should ha)e greater losse hereb*, than these men had profitE Doctor: >t is all noblemen, gentlemen, and all other

that li)e either b* a stinted rent or st*pend, or do not manure Gculti)ateH the ground, or doe occup* no bu*ing and selling8A : >n France, the rRgisseur, ste"ard, collector of dues for the feudal lords during the earlier part of the middle ages, soon became an homme dUaffaires, "ho b* e9tortion, cheating, Pc8, s"indled himself into a capitalist8 'hese rRgisseurs themsel)es "ere sometimes noblemen8 E$ $, @5Uest li compte Iue messire LacIues de 'horaine, che)alier chastelain sor /esanzon rent Rs4seigneur tenant les comptes X 0iDon pour monseigneur le duc et comte de /ourgoigne, des rentes appartenant X la dite chastellenie, depuis 99)e Dour de dRcembre $555<>O DusIuUau 99)iiie Dour de dRcembre $555<O8A G'his is the account gi)en b* $8 LacIues de 'horaisse, +night, and <ord of a manor near /esanzon, to the lord "ho administers the accounts at 0iDon for his highness the 0u+e and 5ount of /urgund*, of the rents appurtenant to the abo)e4mentioned manor, from the 63th da* of 0ecember 1:32 to the 68th da* of 0ecember 1:67H ((le9is $onteil: @'raitR de $atRriau9 $anuscrits etc8,A pp8 6: , 6:38! (lread* it is e)ident here ho" in all spheres of social life the lionUs share falls to the middleman8 >n the economic domain, e$ 8, financiers, stoc+4e9change speculators, merchants, shop+eepers s+im the cream; in ci)il matters, the la"*er fleeces his clients; in politics the representati)e is of more importance than the )oters, the minister than the so)ereign; in religion, God is pushed into the bac+ground b* the @$ediator,A and the latter again is sho)ed bac+ b* the priests, the ine)itable middlemen bet"een the good shepherd and his sheep8 >n France, as in England, the great feudal territories "ere di)ided into innumerable small homesteads, but under conditions incomparabl* more fa)orable for the people8 0uring the 1 th centur* arose the farms or terriers8 'heir number gre" constantl*, far be*ond 177,7778 'he* paid rents )ar*ing from 1J16 to 1J3 of the product in mone* or in +ind8 'hese farms "ere fiefs, sub4fiefs, Pc8, according the )alue and e9tent of the domains, man* of them onl* containing a fe" acres8 /ut these farmers had rights of Durisdiction in some degree o)er the d"ellers on the soil; there "ere four grades8 'he oppression of the agricultural population under all these pett* t*rants "ill be understood8 $onteil sa*s that there "ere once in France 167,777 Dudges, "here toda*, ,777 tribunals, including Dustices of the peace, suffice8

1 6

>n his @Cotions de #hilosophie Caturelle8A #aris, 18:88 ( point that Sir Lames Steuart emphasises8 : @Le permettrai,A sa*s the capitalist, @Iue )ous a*e1 l?honneur de me ser)ir, X condition Iue )ous me donne1 le peu Iui )ous reste pour la peine Iue De prends de )ous commander8A G> "ill allo" *ou 888 to ha)e the honour of ser)ing me, on condition that, in return for the pains > ta+e in commanding *ou, *ou gi)e me the little that remains to *ouH (L8 L8 &ousseau: @0iscours sur l?Economie #olitiIue8A! $irabeau, l8c8, t8>>>, pp8674172 passim8 'hat $irabeau considers the separate "or+shops more economical and producti)e than the @combined,A and sees in the latter merel* artificial e9otics under go)ernment culti)ation, is e9plained b* the position at that time of a great part of the continental manufactures8 3 @'"ent* pounds of "ool con)erted unobtrusi)el* into *earl* clothing of a labourer?s famil* b* its o"n industr* in the inter)als of other "or+s v this ma+es no sho"; but bring it to mar+et, send it to the factor*, thence to the bro+er, thence to the dealer, and *ou "ill ha)e great commercial operations, and nominal capital engaged to the amount of t"ent* times its )alue8888 'he "or+ing4class is thus emersed to support a "retched factor* population, a parastical shop4+eeping class, and a fictitious commercial, monetar*, and financial s*stem8A (0a)id %rIuhart, l8c8, p81678! 6 5rom"ell?s time forms an e9ception8 So long as the &epublic lasted, the mass of the English people of all grades rose from the degradation into "hich the* had sun+ under the 'udors8 7 'uc+ett is a"are that the modern "oollen industr* has sprung, "ith the introduction of machiner*, from manufacture proper and from the destruction of rural and domestic industries8 @'he plough, the *o+e, "ere Wthe in)ention of gods, and the occupation of heroes?; are the loom, the spindle, the distaff, of less noble parentage8 Nou se)er the distaff and the plough, the spindle and the *o+e, and *ou get factories and poor4houses, credit and panics, t"o hostile nations, agriculture and commercial8A (0a)id %rIuhart, l8c8, p81668! /ut no" comes 5are*, and cries out upon England, surel* not "ith unreason, that it is tr*ing to turn e)er* other countr* into a mere agricultural nation, "hose manufacturer is to be England8 -e pretends that in this "a* 'ur+e* has been ruined, because @the o"ners and occupants of land ha)e ne)er been permitted b* England to strengthen themsel)es b* the formation of that natural alliance bet"een the plough and the loom, the hammer and the harro"8A

(@'he Sla)e 'rade,A p81638! (ccording to him, %rIuhart himself is one of the chief agents in the ruin of 'ur+e*, "here he had made Free4trade propaganda in the English interest8 'he best of it is that 5are*, a great &ussophile b* the "a*, "ants to pre)ent the process of separation b* that )er* s*stem of protection "hich accelerates it8 8 #hilanthropic English economists, li+e $ill, &ogers, Gold"in Smith, Fa"cett, Pc8, and liberal manufacturers li+e Lohn /right P 5o8, as+ the English landed proprietors, as God as+ed 5ain after (bel, Bhere are our thousands of freeholders goneE /ut "here do you come from, thenE From the destruction of those freeholders8 Bh* don?t *ou as+ further, "here are the independent "ea)ers, spinners, and artisans goneE ii @'he Catural and (rtificial &ights of #ropert* 5ontrasted8A <ond8, 18:6, pp8 284228 (uthor of the anon*mous "or+: @'h8 -odgs+in8A iii E)en as late as 172 , the small cloth4ma+ers of <eeds sent a deputation to #arliament, "ith a petition for a la" to forbid an* merchant from becoming a manufacturer8 (0r8 (i+in, l8 c8! i) Billiam -o"itt: @5olonisation and 5hristianit*: ( #opular -istor* of the 'reatment of the Cati)es b* the Europeans in all their 5olonies8A <ondon, 18:8, p8 28 =n the treatment of the sla)es there is a good compilation in 5harles 5omte, @'raitR de la <Rgislation8A :me Rd8 /ru9elles, 18:78 'his subDect one must stud* in detail, to see "hat the bourgeoisie ma+es of itself and of the labourer, "here)er it can, "ithout restraint, model the "orld after its o"n image8 ) 'homas Stamford &affles, late <ieut4Go)8 of that island: @'he -istor* of La)a,A <ond8, 18178 )i >n the *ear 1866 more than a million -indus died of hunger in the pro)ince of =rissa alone8 Ce)ertheless, the attempt "as made to enrich the >ndian treasur* b* the price at "hich the necessaries of life "ere sold to the star)ing people8 7 Billiam 5obbett remar+s that in England all public institutions are designated @ro*alA; as compensation for this, ho"e)er, there is the @nationalA debt8 8 @Si les 'artares inondaient l?Europe auDourd?hui, il faudrait bien des affaires pour leur faire entendre ce Iue c?est Iu?un financier parmi nous8A Gif the 'artars "ere to flood into Europe toda*, it "ould be a difficult Dob to ma+e them understand "hat a financier is "ith usH $ontesIuieu, @Esprit des lois,A t8 i)8, p8 ::, ed8 <ondres, 17628 2 $irabeau, l8 c8, t8 )i8, p8 1718 17 Eden, l8 c8, ;ol8 >8, /oo+ >>8, 5h8 18, p8 618 11 Lohn Fielden, l8 c8, pp8 3, 68 =n the earlier infamies of the factor* s*stem, cf8 0r8 (i+in (> 723!, l8 c8, p8 6128 and Gisbome: @EnIuir* into the 0uties of $en,A 1723 ;ol8 >>8 Bhen the steam4engine transplanted the factories from the countr* "aterfalls to the middle of to"ns, the @abstemiousA surplus )alue ma+er found the child4material read* to his hand, "ithout being forced to see+ sla)es from the "or+houses8 Bhen Sir &8 #eel (father of the @minister of plausibilit*V!, brought in his bill for the protection of children, in 1813, Francis -omer, lumen of the /illion 5ommittee and intimate friend of &icardo, said in the -ouse of 5ommons: @>t is notorious, that "ith a ban+rupt?s effects, a gang, if he might use the "ord, of these children had been put up to sale, and "ere ad)ertised publicl* as part of the propert*8 ( most atrocious instance had been brought before the 5ourt of .ing?s /ench t"o *ears before, in "hich a number of these bo*s, apprenticed b* a parish in <ondon to one manufacturer, had been transferred to another, and had been found b* some bene)olent persons in a state of absolute famine8 (nother case more horrible had come to his +no"ledge "hile on a G#arliamentar*H 5ommittee 888 that not man* *ears ago, an agreement had been made bet"een a <ondon parish and a <ancashire manufacturer, b* "hich it "as stipulated, that "ith e)er* 67 sound children one idiot should be ta+en8A 16 >n 1727, there "ere in the English Best >ndies ten sla)es for one free man, in the French fourteen for one, in the 0utch t"ent*4three for one8 (-enr* /rougham: @(n >nIuir* into the 5olonial #olic* of the European #o"ers8A Edin8 187:, )ol8 >>8, p8 7 8! 1: 'he phrase, @labouring poor,A is found in English legislation from the moment "hen the class of "age labourers becomes noticeable8 'his term is used in opposition, on the one hand, to the @idle poor,A beggars, etc8, on the8 out and out )ulgar bourgeois8 @'he la"s of commerce are the la"s of Cature, and therefore the la"s of God8A (E8 /ur+e, l8 c8, pp8 :1, :68! Co "onder that, true to the la"s of God and of Cature, he al"a*s sold himself in the best mar+et8 ( )er* good portrait of this Edmund /ur+e, during his liberal time, is to be found in the "ritings of the &e)8 $r8 'uc+er8 'uc+er "as a parson and a 'or*, but, for the rest, an honourable man and a competent political economist8 >n face of the infamous co"ardice of character that reigns toda*, and belie)es most de)outl* in @the la"s of commerce,A it is our bounden dut* again and again to brand the /ur+es, "ho onl* differ from their successors in one thing v talent8 1 $arie (ngier: @0u 5rRdit #ublic8A #aris, 18 68

13

@5apital is said b* a Kuarterl* &e)ie"er to fl* turbulence and strife, and to be timid, "hich is )er* true; but this is )er* incompletel* stating the Iuestion8 5apital esche"s no profit, or )er* small profit, Dust as Cature "as formerl* said to abhor a )acuum8 Bith adeIuate profit, capital is )er* bold8 ( certain 17 per cent8 "ill ensure its emplo*ment an*"here; 67 per cent8 certain "ill produce eagerness; 37 per cent8, positi)e audacit*; 177 per cent8 "ill ma+e it read* to trample on all human la"s; :77 per cent8, and there is not a crime at "hich it "ill scruple, nor a ris+ it "ill not run, e)en to the chance of its o"ner being hanged8 >f turbulence and strife "ill bring a profit, it "ill freel* encourage both8 Smuggling and the sla)e4trade ha)e ampl* pro)ed all that is here stated8A ('8 L8 0unning, l8 c8, pp8 :3, :68! 1 @Cous sommes dans une condition tout4X4fait nou)elle de la societR888 nous tendons a sRparer toute espnce de propriRtR d?a)ec toute espnce de tra)ail8A GBe are in a situation "hich is entirel* ne" for societ* 888 "e are stri)ing to separate e)er* +ind of propert* from e)er* +ind of labourH (Sismondi: @Cou)eau9 #rincipes d?Econ8 #olit8A t8>>, p8 : 8! 6 'he ad)ance of industr*, "hose in)oluntar* promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the labourers, due to competition, b* their re)olutionar* combination, due to association8 'he de)elopment of $odern >ndustr*, therefore, cuts from under its feet the )er* foundation on "hich the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products8 Bhat the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, abo)e all, are its o"n gra)e4diggers8 >ts fall and the )ictor* of the proletariat are eIuall* ine)itable8888 =f all the classes that stand face4to4face "ith the bourgeoisie toda*, the proletariat alone is a reall* re)olutionar* class8 'he other classes perish and disappear in the face of $odern >ndustr*, the proletariat is its special and essential product8888 'he lo"er middle classes, the small manufacturers, the shop+eepers, the artisan, the peasant, all these fight against the bourgeoisie, to sa)e from e9tinction their e9istence as fractions of the middle class888 the* are reactionar*, for the* tr* to roll bac+ the "heel of histor*8 .arl $ar9 and Friedrich Engels, @$anifest der .ommunistischen #artei,A <ondon, 18 8, pp8 2, 118 1 Be treat here of real 5olonies, )irgins soils, coloni1ed b* free immigrants8 'he %nited States are, spea+ing economicall*, still onl* a 5olon* of Europe8 /esides, to this categor* belong such old plantations as those in "hich the abolition of sla)er* has completel* altered the earlier conditions8 6 Ba+efield?s fe" glimpses on the subDect of $odern 5oloni1ation are full* anticipated b* $irabeau #ere, the ph*siocrat, and e)en much earlier b* English economists8 : <ater, it became a temporar* necessit* in the international competiti)e struggle8 /ut, "hate)er its moti)e, the conseIuences remain the same8 @( negro is a negro8 >n certain circumstances he becomes a sla)e8 ( mule is a machine for spinning cotton8 =nl* under certain circumstances does it become capital8 =utside these circumstances, it is no more capital than gold is intrinsicall* mone*, or sugar is the price of sugar8888 5apital is a social relation of production8 >t is a historical relation of production8A (.arl $ar9, @<ohnarbeit und .apital,A H$ Rh$ L8, Co8666, (pril 7, 18 28! 3 E8 G8 Ba+efield: @England and (merica,A )ol8ii8 p8::8 6 l8c8, p8178 7 l8c8, )ol8i, p8188 8 l8c8, pp8 6, :, 8 2 l8c8, )ol8ii, p838 17 @<and, to be an element of coloni1ation, must not onl* be "aste, but it must be public propert*, liable to be con)erted into pri)ate propert*8A (l8c8, ;ol8>>, p81638! 11 l8c8, ;ol8>, p86 78 16 l8c8, pp861, 668 1: l8c8, ;ol8>>, p8116 1 l8c8, ;ol8>, p81:18 13 l8c8, ;ol8>>, p838 16 $eri)ale, l8c8, ;ol8>>, pp86:34:1 passim8 E)en the mild, Free 'rade, )ulgar economist, $olinari, sa*s: @0ans les colonies ox l?escla)age a RtR aboli sans Iue le tra)ail forcR se trou)ait remplacR par une IuantitR RIui)alente de tra)ail libre, on a )u s?opRrer la contre4partie du fait Iui se rRalise tous les Dours sous nos *eu98 =n a )u les simples tra)ailleurs e9ploiter X leur tour les entrepreneurs d?industrie, e9iger d?eu9 des salaires hors de toute proportion a)ec la part lRgitime Iui leur re)enait dans le produit8 <es planteurs, ne pou)ant obtenir de leurs sucres un pri9 suffisant pour cou)rir la hausse de salaire, ont RtR obligRs de fournir l?e9cRdant, d?abord sur leurs profits, ensuite sur leurs capitau9 mdmes8 %ne foule de planteurs ont RtR ruinRs de la sorte, d?autres ont fermR leurs ateliers pour Rchapper X

une ruine imminente8888 Sans doute, il )aut mieu9 )oir pRrir des accumulations de capitau9 Iue des gRnRrations d?hommes Gho" generous $r8 $olinariQH: mais ne )audrait4il pas mieu9 Iue ni les uns ni les autres pRrissentE G>n the colonies "here sla)er* has been abolished "ithout the compulsor* labour being replaced "ith an eIui)alent Iuantit* of free labour, there has occurred the opposite of "hat happens e)er* da* before our e*es8 Simple "or+ers ha)e been seen to e9ploit in their turn the industrial entrepreneurs, demanding from them "ages "hich bear absolutel* no relation to the legitimate share in the product "hich the* ought to recei)e8 'he planters "ere unable to obtain for their sugar for a sufficent price to co)er the increase in "ages, and "ere obliged to furnish the e9tra amount, at first out of their profits, and then out of their )er* capital8 ( considerable amount of planters ha)e been ruined as a result, "hile others ha)e closed do"n their businesses in order to a)oid the ruin "hich threatened them 888 >t is doubtless better that these accumulations of capital should be destro*ed than that generations of men should perish 888 but "ould it not be better if both sur)ibedEH ($olinari, l8c8, pp831,368! $r8 $olinari, $r8 $olinariQ Bhat then becomes of the ten commandments, of $oses and the prophets, of the la" of suppl* and demand, if in Europe the @entrepreneurA can cut do"n the labourer?s legitimate part, and in the Best >ndies, the labourer can cut do"n the entrepreneur?sE (nd "hat, if *ou please, is this @legitimate part,A "hich on *our o"n sho"ing the capitalist in Europe dail* neglects to pa*E =)er *onder, in the colonies "here the labourers are so @simpleA as to @e9ploitA the capitalist, $r8 $olinari feels a strong itching to set the la" of suppl* and demand, that "or+s else"here automaticall*, on the right road b* means of the police8 17 Ba+efield, l8c8, ;ol8>>, p8368 18 l8c8, pp8121, 1268 12 l8c8, ;ol8>, p8 7, 6 68 67 @5?est, aDoute14)ous, grMce X l?appropriation du sol et des capitau9 Iue l?homme, Iui n?a Iue ses bras, trou)e de l?occupation et se fait un re)enu888 c?est au contraire, grMce X l?appropriation indi)iduelle du sol Iu?il se trou)e des hommes n?a*ant Iue leurs bras8888 Kuand )ous mette1 un homme dans le )ide, )ous )ous empare1 de l?atmosphnre8 (insi faites4)ous, Iuand )ous )ous empare1 du sol8888 5?est le mettre dans le )ide le richesses, pour ne la laisser )i)re Iu?X )otre )olontR8A G>t is, *ou add, a result of the appropriation of the soil and of capital that the man "ho has nothing but the strength of his arms finds emplo*ment and creates an income for himself 888 but the opposite is true, it is than+s to the indi)idual appropriation of the soil that there e9ist men "ho onl* possess the strength of their arms8 888 Bhen *ou put a man in a )acuum, *ou rob him of the air8 Nou do the same, "hen *ou ta+e a"a* the soil from him 888 for *ou are putting him in a space )oid of "ealth, so as to lea)e him no "a* of li)ing e9cept according to *our "ishesH (5ollins, l8c8 t8>>>, pp8668471, passim8! 61 Ba+efield, l8c8, ;ol8>>, p81268 66 l8c8, p8 38 6: (s soon as (ustralia became her o"n la"4gi)er, she passed, of course, la"s fa)orable to the settlers, but the sIuandering of the land, alread* accomplished b* the English Go)ernment, stands in the "a*8 @'he first and main obDect at "hich ne" <and (ct of 1866 aims is to gi)e increased facilities for the settlement of the people8A (@'he <and <a" of ;ictoria,A b* the -on8 58 G8 0uff*, $inister of #ublic <ands, <ond8, 18668!