Baltic Bioenergy and Industrial Charcoal

REVIEW OF CURRENT BIOCOAL PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Tony Kiuru, Jukka Hyytiinen

The Development of Bioenergy and Industrial Charcoal (Biocoal) Production (Report of BalBiC project cb46) Report 4/2013 Production and Logistics

Title: Review of current Biocoal production technology

This report has been written for The Development of Bioenergy and Industrial Charcoal (Biocoal) Production (BalBiC) project, partially financed by the Central Baltic INTERREG IV A Programme 20072013.

The content of this publication reflects the authors views; the Managing Authority is not responsible for the information published by the project partners.

Publisher: University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences

Authors: Tony Kiuru1, Jukka Hyytiinen1

1)

Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland

Printer: Unigrafia Viikki, Infokeskus, Helsinki 2013

Table of Contents 1 2 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 Basic information about biocoal production ................................................................ 2 2.1 2.2 3 4 Biomass as a feedstock ...................................................................................... 2 Properties of biocoal .......................................................................................... 2

Applications of biocoal .................................................................................................6 Information on the general process for making biocoal ...............................................7 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Pyrolysis ............................................................................................................ 8 Torrefaction ....................................................................................................... 9 Process parameters ............................................................................................ 9 Heat integration ............................................................................................... 11 Different possibilities for a biocoal production system ................................... 13 Global initiatives.............................................................................................. 23 Initiatives in the Baltic area ............................................................................. 26

5 6

Current technological applications for biocoal production ........................................13 5.1 6.1 6.2 Current biocoal production systems and technology developers ............................... 23

7 8

Development aspects in the production technology ...................................................30 References ..................................................................................................................31

PREFACE In recent years, interest in biocoal has grown significantly, mainly because of the improved properties of biocoal over those of untreated wood. The most interesting features of these properties are its improved transportability, high bulk energy density, hydrophobicity and grindability. These properties make biocoal much like coal, which is widely used in energy production. In addition to these properties, interesting as they are from the viewpoints of transportation and energy production, biocoal also offers applications for agriculture and environmental management. The BalBiC project uses the definition of biocoal from Wang et al., who defined it as an umbrella concept which covers all thermally degraded biomass products with different features and applications.1 The term biocoal is presently rather imprecise, and several terms such charcoal, bio-char, char, torrefied wood, torrefied pellets, green coal, black chips, black pellets, and others are interrelated. Several lexical varieties of the term exist in Finnish, including puuhiili, grillihiili, TOPpelletti, torefiointi/paahdettu biomassa, biohiilipelletti, and Biocarbon, among others. The term biocoal in the BalBiC project focuses on the solid product and large-scale industrial applications such as substituting fossil coal in coal-fired power plants. The aim of this report is to provide a comprehensive review of the current production technology used to produce biocoal. The purpose of this report is also to describe current on-going initiatives in the world which focus on biocoal production. The study reviews a wide range of the literature on the current state of biocoal production. The report was produced within Work Package 4 of the BalBiC project. BalBiC is a joint project of the University of Helsinki, Latvian State Forest Institute Silava and Forestry Development Centre Tapio. The project was partly funded by the Central Baltic Interreg IV A programme.

Introduction

Biocoal is a solid fuel produced from biomass in a pyrolysis process. Depending on the process conditions, the solid product of pyrolysis is called charcoal or torrefied wood. In this study, we refer to these two products as biocoal. Biocoal is a CO2-neutral and renewable fuel that has several advantages over other biobased fuels, namely high energy content and coal-like properties. This makes biocoal an attractive fuel for existing coal-fired power plants. The suitability and properties of biocoal for energy production have recently been the most discussed applications of biocoal by far. Although interest in energy production is presently the major driver for launching new development projects related to biocoal production, the authors remind the reader of all the other current and potential applications for biocoal, including environmental management, metallurgy and producing activated carbon. Tens of on-going initiatives are currently underway in the world to develop an economically and technologically feasible solution for biocoal production. These initiatives are located mainly in Europe and North America. Of the known initiatives, only a few actually produce biocoal. No commercial-scale production plants currently exist in the world, mainly because upscaling the process leads to difficulties in handling the process conditions and in maintaining consistent quality in the end product, which is essential for the development of biocoal markets. Smaller demonstrations or pilot-sized plants, however, have avoided these problems , so more testing in large-scale is needed. This report first discusses some basic information about the properties of the feedstock used to produce biocoal as well as some of the main properties of biocoal that are interesting for different applications. After reviewing the general information on biocoal, this report provides an overview of a typical biocoal production setup, describes the main process parameters and explores the differences between pyrolysis conditions. The main part of this report aims to describe the different technological applications used to produce biocoal. At the end of the report appears a list of some of the on-going initiatives in the world and in the Baltic area.

2
2.1

Basic information about biocoal production

Biomass as a feedstock

When the production of biomass is organised in a sustainable manner, biomass is kept as a clean and renewable material. Fulfilling the sustainability criteria also keeps the consumption of end products produced from biomass sustainable and carbon neutral.2 Most of the challenges of utilising biomass come from the heterogeneity of biomass feedstock. Different feedstocks have their own unique chemical compositions, which directly affect the properties and yield of the biocoal produced from it. Biomass is generally composed of three major constituents: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The weight proportions of the main constituents differ between feedstocks. The other components of biomass are grouped as extractives and minerals. These proportions influence the distribution of biocoal productsamong the process conditions in current use.3, 4 Among the variations in chemical composition are several factors that also affect the process. These factors include the low energy density, high moisture content and high oxygen content of biomass. For example, moisture content affects the reaction time and yield of biocoal, because the process itself requires more energy for the carbonisation process. Difficulties in grinding untreated biomass can also be considered a drawback, since operations such as the co-firing of biomass in the pulverised systems of operating coal plants require a small particle size. Biomass is also prone to fungal attacks and biodegradation during storage.5, 6 Variations in biomass must also be taken into account in biocoal production, usually by adjusting the operating conditions. Although the properties of untreated biomass listed above strongly impact the properties and yield of biocoal, the operating conditions in use can still significantly affect end-product quality (i.e., calorific value, hydrophobicity, grindability, etc.). The operating conditions, such as peak temperature, significantly affect the quality of biocoal, can be adjusted fairly easily. The significance of operating conditions on end-product quality places great importance, but attributes such as the availability, cost and sustainability of the feedstock in industrial biocoal production are also important aspects to be considered.7 The nature of biomass is relevant when using untreated biomass. For example, if biomass is directly used for energy production, a much higher load of biomass is required to produce the same amount of energy as from fossil fuels. The high moisture and oxygen content of biomass lowers its heating value, because the combustion of moist biomass causes water to evaporate, which is an endothermic process that draws heat from the actual combustion reactions, which are exothermic. The moisture content of biomass is related to the higher heating value (HHV) and the lower heating value (LHV). A higher moisture content in the biomass lowers both the HHV and LHV. Most of the energy obtained from biomass serves to remove moisture, so a lower moisture content leads to the release of more energy.6 2.2 Properties of biocoal

Reviewing the literature on the properties of biocoal reveals a variety of experimental studies on the properties of biocoal. Many of these studies differ from each other accord2

ing to the process conditions used. This is why the results for a single property of biocoal may vary significantly between studies. In this report, the given properties of biocoal are indicative and intended to provide a broad overview of its various properties. The typical properties of biocoal described in the literature include its content of volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash. Antal and Grnli3 described volatile matter content as the measured weight loss that occurs during heating, when the residual solid is carbonised charcoal. The ash content is determined by heating the carbonised charcoal residue of the volatile matter to burn away all the combustible matter; what remains is considered ash. The fixed carbon content is defined as the percentage left after deducting the volatile matter and ash from the total content. The typical volatile matter content ranges from 40% to 5%.8 According to Domac et al.,9 the content of volatiles in charcoal intended for barbecue is 20-30%m, while the volatile content of metallurgical charcoal is typically 10-15%m. The fixed carbon content varies between 78 and 90%m, taking into account the ash content, which varies between 1.5 and 5%m. In addition, several other qualities also serve to describe the properties of biocoal. Table 1 describes the qualities that are especially interesting from the point of view of energy production and transportation. Table 1 presents the moisture content, calorific value and mass density properties of torrefied wood, wood pellets, TOP pellets, charcoal and coal. The table also shows two important factors that make biocoal more attractive than untreated wood; the moisture content is lower and the calorific value is higher than for untreated wood. These two factors significantly lower total transportation costs and also improve the energy efficiency of biomass combustion. Table 1. Indicative properties of torrefied wood, wood pellets, TOP pellets, charcoal and coal.10-13
Unit Moisture content (%) % wt Torrefied wood biomass 11 3 - 35 Wood pellets 11 7.0 - 10.0 TOP pellets 11 Charcoal 12 1.0 - 5.0 10 - 16.0 Coal 10, 13 6.0 - 10

Calorific value (LHV) as MJ/kg received Calorific value MJ/kg3 (LHV) dry Mass density (bulk) kg/m3

19.9 - 10.5

16.2 - 15.6

21.6 - 19.9

31.8 - 27.2

26.1 - 23.6

20.4 - 17.7 230 - 550

17.7 500 - 650

22.7 - 20.4 750 - 850

35 - 30 100 - 500

28.3 - 26.0 900 100013

2.2.1 Particle size distribution, pore-size and particle surface area Downie et al.14 found that raising the peak temperature from 450C to 700C reduced the particle size of biocoal. They attributed the smaller particle size distribution to the decreasing tensile strength of the material, when it reacts more completely. The experiments used sawdust and woodchips. Similar to Downie et al., Phanphanich and Mani15 reported 3

on how the particle size distribution reacted to higher heating temperatures. Phanphanich and Mani carried out their experiments in the torrefaction temperature range with logging residues and woodchips. The average particle size for both of the raw materials decreased as the torrefaction temperature rose from 225C to 300C. The average particle size of logging residues was slightly larger than for the woodchips. For particles larger than those mentioned, Lu et al.16 concluded that particle size and shape dramatically affect the pyrolysis conversion time. The particle surface area and pore-size distribution are interesting properties of biocoal when it is used, for example, to affect the physical characteristics of soil. Pore structure and surface area vary significantly based on the structure of the biomass feedstock as well as on the process conditions. From several studies of the surface area and peak temperature, Downie et al.14 concluded that surface area increased as the peak temperature rose. They also discovered a linear relationship between surface area and pore volume. Higher surface area values and pore-size distributions increase the liquid and gas absorption capacity of biocoal. 2.2.2 Hydrophobicity Biocoal is known to be more hydrophobic and resistant to biological decay after thermal treatment process than untreated wood.17 The hydrophobicity of biocoal means that its moisture uptake is lower than for untreated wood, mainly because the hydrophobicity of biocoal stems from changes in the chemical structure of the biomass. According to Bergman,11 when biomass is completely dried, the number of OH groups decreases, which reduces the capacity of the biomass to form hydrogen bonds with water. In addition to this weakened hydrogen bonding capacity, non-polar unsaturated structures form on the biocoal, which also tend to be hydrophobic. Bergman11 determined this hydrophobicity by immersing produced torrefied pellets in water for 15 hours. The pellets were evaluated according to two factors: the state of the pellet after the period and its water uptake during the period. The water uptake was measured gravimetrically. The results showed that pellets of untreated biomass swelled and rapidly lost their form, whereas torrefied pellets did not disintegrate and showed only modest water uptake (7-20% based on mass) depending on the production conditions. 2.2.3 Grindability Thermally treating biomass improves its grindability mainly because biomass loses its tenacity and fibrous structure.18 Grindability, like energy content and hydrophobicity, is generally known to improve as the peak temperature rises. The main benefit of improved grindability is to lower energy consumption during milling, which reduces total electricity costs. Phanphanich and Mani15 found that the energy required to grind torrefied woodchips and logging residues was significantly lower than for untreated biomass. Grinding torrefied wood chips required approximately ten times less energy than did untreated chips, and torrefied logging residues required six times less energy than did untreated logging residues. The power sector usually expresses the grindability of coal on the Hardgrove Index (HGI). Comparisons of coal, wood pellets and torrefied wood have found that thermal 4

treatment significantly improves the grindability of biomass. The expected HGI value for coal is from 50 to 80, while wood pellets show an HGI in the low 20s. The HGI of torrefied wood falls in the low to mid 50s, which is significantly higher than for wood pellets. The higher HGI value indicates milling consumes less energy. The higher HGI of thermally treated biomass offers advantages when, for instance, co-firing biomass in existing coal power plants.19 2.2.4 Pelletability Producing a homogenous and standard quality end product from thermally treated biomass requires an important process in the industrial use of biocoal known as densification. Densification reduces problems associated with the heterogeneous properties of biomass and its low bulk density. The densification of treated biomass offers several advantages such as reduced costs and better handling in transportation and storage.20 A study by Li et al.21 examined densifying torrefied sawdust into pellets and found that the higher the degree of torrefaction, the more the energy required to densify the torrefied sawdust. During torrefaction, the reduction of hemicellulose and lignin reduces the number of hydroxyl groups. Hydroxyl groups are crucial for particle binding in the absence of adhesives. Increasing the degree of torrefaction reduces the hardness of the pellets made from torrefied sawdust. Stelte et al.22 also found problems similar to those of Li et al. when they tried to produce pellets from torrefied spruce at higher torrefaction temperatures (over 250C). According to Stelte et al., the solution to the bonding problems is to use an additive with a high bonding capacity, after the torrefaction process, to compensate for the reduction in hydrogen bonding. Although studies show that producing pellets from torrefied material is problematic, Shang et al.23 notes that studies of pellet manufacturing from torrefied wood use single pellet presses, which differ from industrial pellet mills, which currently manufacture commercial pellets made from torrefied biomass that show good durability.

Applications of biocoal

In recent years, biocoal has attracted the attention mainly of the energy sector because of biocoals enchained properties, which form during pyrolysis. Biocoal (charcoal) has traditionally been used in developing countries for cooking, in agriculture for soil preparation, and in industry or metallurgy as activated carbon. In the energy sector, the main properties of particular interest in biocoal are its higher energy density, hydrophobicity and grindability. Biocoals higher bulk energy density decreases the total transportation costs, so longer transportation distances become more economically viable. Biocoals higher hydrophobicity facilitates storage and avoids material losses thanks to its lower fungal degradation. The improved grindability of biocoal also makes it an interesting option for co-firing in existing coal plants, because the raw material can be ground to a sufficiently small particle size.24 For metallurgy purposes, biocoal provides strong reducing properties. Heating ores containing metal, oxides, and sulfides in the presence of carbon facilitates metal extraction, as the carbon readily combines with oxygen and sulfur. Hardwood species such as eucalyptus comprise most of the biocoal used in blast furnaces. Biocoal is generally considered good, if not better, than coke in metallurgy, although obtaining adequate supplies of biocoal to satisfy the high demands of the large iron and steel industries is a challenge, since achieving competitive steel prices requires large amounts of biocoal. Achieving large supplies of biocoal is currently possible only in countries with extensive forested areas and inexpensive biocoal production. An example of such a country would be Brazil.25 Biocoal has value not only in fuel and metallurgical applications, but also in gas and liquid absorption applications such as activated charcoal. Activated charcoal is charcoal that has been chemically treated at high temperatures. The treatment process produces a pure carbon product with very high surface area containing micropores that increase its absorptive capacity. Activated charcoal can be used, for example, in air and water filters.25 Biocoal can also be used in agriculture to improve crop yields and soil properties. The high surface area of biocoal may affect the water holding capacity of treated soil.26 Liang et al.27 also found that biocoal can absorb and retain cations in exchangeable form, thanks to its large surface area and greater negative surface charge. The ability of soils to retain cations in exchangeable form increases in proportion to the amount of organic matter in the soil.28 Biocoal also affects the soils properties by increasing its capability to absorb phosphate, although the mechanism by which this occurs remains unknown.28 These attributes of biocoal may impact soil quality and nutrient availability for plants, which may potentially increase crop yields. In the future, coal may be used in many ways. Recent studies promise huge applications for coal in, for example, products such as graphene (a strong, flexible, transparent and conductive carbon film), lightweight materials for cars and airplanes, and cell phones that roll up in your pocket. We will use biocoal for all kinds of purposes in the coming years.

Information on the general process for making biocoal

The biocoal production process generally entails three different phases: the pre-drying phase of the biomass, the pyrolysis or torrefaction phase, and the cooling phase of the treated biomass. The thermal treatment process after the pre-drying phase is known as pyrolysis or torrefaction depending on the peak temperature used. A more precise description of how these two processes differ appears later in this section. Following the thermal treatment process, biocoal is first cooled, after which it can then be pelletised or briquetted for transportation or storage. Alternatively, biocoal can be directed toward combustion if the biocoal is intended for energy production. In the production of biocoal, volatile gases and liquids are normally separated from the system for further processing. Such liquids and gaseous products can be used forcombustion in the biocoal production process or further processed into, for example, transportation fuels. If the process aimes to produce biocoal, the volatiles are combusted in an afterburner and the flue gas is used either directly or indirectly for heating during the actual process or in the pre-drying phase. A general picture of the process appears in Figure 1.

Utility fuel Heat to process

Biocoal production

Combustion Pelletising Process gases

Biomass

Drying

Pyrolysis process

Cooling

Biocoal

Combustion

Figure 1. General description of the biocoal production process.

4.1

Pyrolysis

Although the general process description has many different phases, the biocoal itself forms in pyrolysis, where biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen. Free oxygen in the system would allow the biomass to ignite and burn to ashes. Without oxygen, however, biomass is forced to decompose into three end products: solids (charcoal, torrefied wood), liquids (tar and aqueous solutions or organics) and gases.29

Figure 2. Three stages of thermal degradation of a solid biomass particle under inert atmosphere.30 It is important to note that the pyrolysis process entails primary and secondary pyrolysis, both of which affect the final product distribution. Figure 2 presents the different stages of thermal degradation of solid biomass. According to Neves et al.,30 the degradation of biomass consists of three stages: drying, primary pyrolysis and secondary pyrolysis. In the first phase, known as the drying stage, the particle is introduced to transient heat, which dries the biomass particle and the evaporation of moisture starts to occur. In the primary pyrolysis stage, after the drying stage, the pyrolytic volatiles begin to escape from the biomass. The primary volatiles are produced from the thermal scission of chemical bonds in the individual constituents of the biomass (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and extractives). The volatiles comprise permanent gas species, such as CO2, CH, and CO4, as well as condensable species, such as organic compounds and water. The constituents of the biomass decompose at different temperatures The primary pyrolysis stage is complete at a relatively low temperature of approximately 500C, yielding a solid product called char or charcoal.30 At higher temperatures, the primary volatiles may participate in secondary reactions, which can occur separately or simultaneously with the primary reactions. For example, the primary char can remain active during secondary reactions, which can lead to the polymerisation of organic vapours to secondary char. If secondary reactions occur during pyrolysis, the charcoal actually produced contains both primary charcoal and second8

ary charcoal. Depending on the operating conditions, the secondary conversion of primary volatiles can modestly to significantly influence the final composition and yield of the volatiles.3, 30 4.2 Torrefaction

Torrefaction is a pre-treatment process of biomass under inert conditions carried out at operating temperatures between 200C and 300C with a slow heating rate of less than 50C/min. The process is carried out under conditions of atmospheric pressure and in the absence of oxygen. The torrefaction temperature range is usually distinct from that of pyrolysis, because in most cases, torrefaction maximises the yield of biocoal. In some instances, torrefaction is also referred as roasting, mild pyrolysis, slow pyrolysis and thermal-pretreatment.18, 31 During the torrefaction process, the biomass dries completely and turns into solid products and volatiles. The volatiles include non-condensable gases and condensable liquids. The gases produced are mostly CO2, CO and methane (CH4), and the liquids include water, acetic acid and other oxygenates.18, 32 4.3 Process parameters

The main process parameters, which are adjusted during pyrolysis, are the peak temperature, the residence time and the heating rate. All of these parameters affect the total yield and properties of biocoal. The biomass moisture content, tree species used and its varying chemical composition also significantly affects the yield and properties of biocoal. In the first published report of the BalBiC project, Rautiainen et al.33 discuss the effect of the main process parameters on the properties and yield of biocoal from different wood species. Table 2 presents values that indicate how the conditions and temperature of the pyrolysis process affects the yields of liquid, char and gas. Of the process parameters, the peak temperature generally has the most significant effect on the properties of biocoal. The literature describes the peak temperature as the highest temperature reached during the pyrolysis process. Raising the peak temperature decreases the yield of biocoal and increases the heating value of the remaining biocoal. The heating rate influences mainly the distribution of different end products. If the desired product is biocoal, the heating rate should be slow, as in conventional pyrolysis, where the heating rate is 0.1-1C/s. Although a slow heating rate should maximise the yield of biocoal, Antal and Grnli3 have discovered that this is not always consistent. The higher the heating rate, the more gaseous and liquid products form. If the heating rate is exceptionally high, the process is called Flash-pyrolysis. In Flash-pyrolysis, the yield of gaseous products is high.12 The last main process parameter, known as the residence time, describes the time that a particle spends inside a particular system. Generally, a longer residence time reduces the total yield of solid biocoal. On some occasions, a slightly higher heating value has been reported. Several studies, such as Prins et al.34, Pach et al.35 and Bergman et al.36, have reported on the effect of residence time on the properties of biocoal.

Table 2. Indicative product yields (dry wood basis) under different pyrolysis modes and conditions.37
Mode Fast Conditions Moderate temperature, short hot vapour residence time 1 second Temperature Around 500C Liquid Char Gas 75% 12% 13%

Intermediate

Moderate temperature, moderate hot vapour residence time 10-20 second

Around 500C

50%

20% 30%

Slow (Carbonisation)

Low temperature, very long solids residence time

Around 400C

30%

35% 35%

Gasification

High temperature, long solids and vapour residence time

Around 800C

5%

10% 85%

In the literature, the definition of different pyrolysis processes and the specific process parameters used in them vary. In Table 3 presents a broad view of the different pyrolysis processes and their main operating parameters. The pyrolysis process can be divided into roughly three subclasses: conventional pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis and flash pyrolysis.38 Generally, pyrolysis conditions significantly affect product distribution. Low process temperature and long residence time maximizes biocoal production, whereas high temperature and long residence time maximises gas production; moderate temperature and short residence time maximises liquid production.39 Table 3. Main operating process parameters for pyrolysis processes.38
Parameter Operating temperature (C) Heating rate (C/s) Solid residence time (s) Particle size (mm) *Up to 2,000C with solar furnaces Conventional pyrolysis Fast pyrolysis Flash pyrolysis 300 - 700 0.1 - 1 600 - 6,000 5 - 50 600 - 1,000 10 - 200 0.5 - 5 <1 800 - 1,000* 1,000 < 0.5 Dust

10

4.4

Heat integration

Many current biocoal manufacturers have a heat integration system in their production process. The basic design of a heat integration system is to combust the volatiles in an afterburner and use the flue gas to directly or indirectly heat the biomass pre-drying process or the actual biocoal production process.40 Handling the moisture content of the biomass is important when the aim is to optimise the carbonising process. The higher the moisture content, the more energy is required to dry the biomass. If the moisture content is high, the carbonising process lasts longer and more of the biomass remains uncarbonised, thereby reducing the quality of the biocoal. If very moist biomass is dried rapidly, the charcoal becomes porous, thereby reducing the strength of the charcoal.12 The pyrolysis gases from biomass contain organic acids and primary tars. These compounds must be cracked in the afterburner, because condensation of the tars on the product or internals of the afterburner and system can generate problems. The operation of the afterburner depends heavily on the process gases obtained. A high moisture content in the pyrolysis gases reduces the calorific value, which will eventually lower the thermal efficiency of the entire biocoal production plant. Because the gases obtained from the process contain some organic compounds even after combustion, additional flue gas cleaning is necessary.40

Natural gas or biomass

Combustion

Product

Gas cleaning

2 Biomass input Drying 3 1 Pyrolysis process Cooling Pelletising

Heat exchange Gas cleaning Emission

Figure 3. Heat integration options for the pyrolysis process (adapted from Kleinschmidt 40 ). 11

In Figure 3, the first option (shown in red) for heat integration is the recirculation of flue gases to directly heat the pyrolysis process. Although the flue gases contain a certain percentage of oxygen, which reduces the total efficiency of the pyrolysis process, the loss in the heat exchange is minimal. Large volumes of flue gases will, however, require investments for ducts, fans and compressors, which may increase electricity consumption.40 In the second option (shown in blue), the torrefaction gas or pyrolysis gas is recirculated to directly heat the process itself. The heat is transferred efficiently, as in the first option, but the gas contains a higher concentration of organic acids and cyclic organic components, which leads to more tar formation during the process. The volume of gas will be lower than in the flue gas option.40 In the third option (shown in green), steam (super critical) is used directly or indirectly to heat the pyrolysis process. The directly heated system produces efficient heat transfer, and the process also remains inert. The use of steam affects the process gas (torrefaction gas or pyrolysis gas), which will have a relatively low calorific value because it is saturated with moisture. The high moisture content leads to inefficient combustion of the volatiles (acids), causing the recycled steam flow to be contaminated with volatiles and tars. Condensation of the volatiles and tars in cold spots can cause problems in the recycling system. In the indirectly heated system, hot spots may occur where the biomass comes into contact with the reactor wall. The presence of hot spots increases the risk that the carbonisation will be too intense, which would then lower the yield of end products. Heat is also transferred less efficiently.40

12

5
5.1

Current technological applications for biocoal production

Different possibilities for a biocoal production system

Existing reactor designs, which include ovens, rotary drums, ablative reactors, rotating cone reactors, multiple-hearth furnaces, screw reactors, fixed beds, moving beds, fluidised beds, oscillating belt reactors and microwave reactors, are currently tested for their suitability to biocoal production. Most of the technologies described in this section were originally used for drying biomass or for fast pyrolysis processes. The technologies used for drying can be modified and used for the production of biocoal also. Some of the technologies described in this report are especially developed and used for torrefaction temperatures. The technologies originally used in fast pyrolysis processes normally yield the desired liquid or gaseous end products, although biocoal has in many cases been produced as a side product. Such biocoal has then been used to heat the fast pyrolysis process. All of the existing technologies have pros and cons for biocoal production purposes and many of the technologies, if used to maximise the production of biocoal, still require additional modifications to be efficient enough for industrial purposes. In addition to known technologies, some ongoing initiatives round the world have developed their own technological applications, especially for biocoal production. Section 5.2 describes some of these current initiatives. Several important, critical issues remain to be solved, however, to improve the efficiency of the biocoal production process and consistency in the high quality of the end product. The reactors must be modified or built so that the reaction chamber is gas-tight, can handle exothermic reactions during the process, and is capable of handling the formation of tar-rich volatiles, which condense in and clog the system. The system should also be made more energy efficient by using the emitted process gases.19 The technologies can be categorised by the way biomass is fed into the system and how the system is heated. The ways in which biomass is fed into the system can be categorised into three different categories: continuous, semi-continuous and batch-type systems. In the continuous system, the biomass is fed at a constant rate, while the batch-type system is refilled with new biomass only after the pyrolysis process is complete. In the semicontinuous system, the process works at a constant rate, while the biomass is separated into batch-type vessels. Each of these vessels remains in the system until carbonisation is complete and is then replaced by a new vessel full of fresh biomass.9 The way in which the process is heated divides different technologies into two categories: directly heated and indirectly heated, depending on how heat is brought into the process. In direct heating, the biomass comes in direct contact with the heat carrier. In indirect heating, in contrast, a heat exchange surface provides the heat, and the biomass does not come in direct contact with the heat carrier.41 The pyrolysis reactors may operate at atmospheric pressure, under pressure or in a vacuum. Most pyrolysis reactors operate at atmospheric pressure, because the operating conditions are simple to attain and incur no additional costs from auxiliary equipment. Using a vacuum during the pyrolysis process increases the amount of liquids produced, but also requires a more complex, airtight pyrolysis system. Pressurised pyrolysis processes should produce a higher yield of char and gases.42 13

The applications used to separate biocoal from the other pyrolysis products depend on the size distribution of the biocoal particles and the reactor design used in the process. Biocoal can be separated, for example, by screening or with filters and cyclones. 5.1.1 Ablative reactors Ablative reactors are systems that introduce fast pyrolysis and a short residence time to biomass particles introduced into the system. Ablative reactors differ mainly in the shape of the reactor. The plate-type ablative reactor appears in Figure 4. The ablative reactor permits the use of larger particles than do fluidised bed systems. Heat is transferred to the biomass through a hot molten layer on the hot reactor surface, and no inert gases are required, as in fluidised bed processes.6 The drawbacks of the reactors are that the system is mechanically complex with several moving parts. Heat losses may also be high, because the surface temperature must remain higher than the reaction temperature. The reactions are also limited by the heat transferred to the reactor rather than by the absorption rate of the biomass particle.6 Cone-type ablative reactors also have difficulties adjusting the residence times for biomass particles.43

Figure 4. Simplified diagram of a plate-type ablative reactor.44 5.1.2 Rotating cone reactor The rotating cone reactor introduced a rapid heating and short residence time for solids fed into the reactor. The biomass fed into the system is mixed with sand to provide more efficient heat transfer. The biomass and sand are fed into the system from the bottom of the rotating cone, and the biomass is pyrolysed in the upward spiral motion. The system heats the particles on a heated surface, and no heat carrier gas is necessary. In a flash pyrolysis process, wood dust was decomposed into condensable gases (70%) with a part of non-condensable (15%) gases and char (15%). Adjusting the pyrolysis conditions could achieve higher charcoal yields. A simplified picture of the rotating cone pyrolysis process appears in Figure 5.6

14

Figure 5. Simplified diagram of the rotating cone pyrolysis process.44 5.1.3 Rotary drum reactor The rotary drum reactor is a rotating drum in which biomass is directly or indirectly heated with hot steam or gases. In the direct contact system, hot gases are contacted with biomass inside the rotating drum. In the indirectly heated system, the drying is accomplished with hot air or steam that passes through the outer wall of the dryer or the inner central shaft. If contamination caused by direct contact with the flue gases is a problem, the indirectly heated system is preferable. A picture of a rotary drum reactor appears in Figure 6.41 The rotary drums can be divided according to their structure into single-pass and triplepass dryers. In the single-pass rotary dryer, all the material remains inside s single cylinder. The triple-pass dryer is a design modified to allow three passes of air and material. Because of the plugging risk, the triple-pass dryer is most suitable for material smaller than one inch. Single-pass dryers can be used to heat larger material. In the triple-pass dryer, the material first enters the inner cylinder with hot air, where smaller or drier material is blown into the larger concentric cylinder. After the second pass, the air and material moves to the third outermost cylinder, where the material then leaves the system. There is also a hybrid direct/indirect rotary dryer, where hot flue gases pass through the central shaft (where it heats the material by conduction); these same gases from the shaft then come into direct contact with the heated material.41 The most commonly used dryer is the directly heated single-pass rotary dryer. The rotating drum promotes heat and mass transfer by lifting the solids in the dryer and causing the particles to tumble through hot gases. In the dryer, biomass and hot air can flow cocurrently or in opposite directions inside the reactor. With the co-current flow, the hottest gases contact the wettest material first. The driest solids can be exposed directly to the hottest gases with the opposite direction flow, if the high temperature is not a concern. The direct exposure to high flue gas temperatures dries the most thoroughly, but the risk of fire increases.41

15

Figure 6. Drawing of a rotary drum reactor.45 5.1.4 Fixed-bed reactors Fixed-bed reactors are divided into counter-current (updraft) and co-current (downdraft) systems, depending on the directions in which the fuel bed moves relative to the gas. Both of the systems appear in Figure 7. Both systems typically consist of four different zones (drying, distillation, reduction and hearth) through which the biomass passes. First, the biomass is dried in the drying zone before entering the distillation zone, where the biomass decomposes and is converted to volatile gases and char. In the reduction zone, the gases and char will be converted to CO and H2, but some of the remaining char passes through the reduction zone, where it can be combusted to generate heat in the hearth zone.4, 6 In the counter-current system, the fuel bed moves downwards, and the gas upwards. The hot gas provides energy for heating, drying and pyrolysis of the biomass. The entering air or oxygen is at temperatures as high as 1200C when it reacts with the char in the combustion zone. In the pyrolysis zone, these same gases are at temperatures ranging from 400C to 800C when they come into contact with the dry biomass. Counter-current systems can accept very moist biomass (up to 60% moisture content), but using moist biomass increases the tar content of the gases that leave the reactor near the pyrolysis zone. Above the pyrolysis zone, the entering biomass is dried. The updraft system requires control of the feedstock particle size to secure a fixed bed of uniform space between the packed feedstock.4, 6 The co-current system can serve to dry wet fuels and can be used with various particle sizes. In the co-current system, the fuel bed and gas flow in the same direction. The gases leave the reactor near the hottest zone. The advantage of this system is that it requires far fewer organic components than does the counter-current system, because the volatiles enter the high-temperature combustion zone. The feedstock must be uniform in size with few fines. The problem with both systems is the slagging of ash in different parts of the system.46, 47

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Figure 7. Diagram of a counter-current and co-current fixed bed reactor.39 5.1.5 Fluidised bed systems In the fluidised bed system, heat is transferred to the biomass through a bed of noncombustible material, such as sand, that remains in a fluidised action with air flowing from the bottom of the combustion chamber.48 The system is divided into the fluid bed zone and the freeboard zone. In the bottom zone, the velocity (volume/unit cross-sectional area) of the gas is controlled to keep the bed in a fluidised state. In the upper zone, the particles return to the bed when the cross-sectional area of the system is increased to produce a gas velocity below the fluidisation velocity. The biomass is then fed into the system with a feed chute above the bed or with an auger extending into the bed.46 The fed biomass then mixes with the sand and begins heating up. The sand serves as a heat reservoir that maintains a constant mean temperature in the beds during the process. The overall complex, circulating flow provides good mixing behaviour for the bed. As the particles pyrolyse, they simultaneously eject product gases and form char. The product gases first mix with the fluidisation gases before they are removed from the system and cooled, so they can be collected (e.g., for condensable tars). The particles in the remaining char erode to smaller particle sizes and are removed with the flow gas from the system. The automatically self-cleaning system makes the fluidised bed reactors suitable for continuous processing.49 Depending on the air velocity they use, fluidised-bed reactors can be divided into circulating fluidised-bed (CFB) or bubbling fluidised-bed (BFB) systems. Both systems appear in Figures 8 and 9. The CFB system is always built to recirculate particles, and the turbulent mixing in CFB systems is more intensive than in BFB systems, due to the high velocity. CFB also exchanges heat more efficiently than does BFB.47, 48

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Figure 8. Simplified diagram of the bubbling fluidised bed process.44 The advantages of fluidised-bed reactors include the flexibility of the fuel size, shape and properties they can use. The reactor can also be used with very moist fuel (up to 60% moisture content) and has a high ash content (up to 50%).48 The mixing action in fluidised beds provides efficient temperature control, as well as heat and mass transfer between the gas and the particles. These factors make the fluidised-bed interesting for biomass combustion. Despite their compact construction, fluidised-bed systems can achieve higher heat transfer and reaction rates than can fixed-bed systems.48 Fluidised-bed reactors are also more suitable for large-scale applications (over 30 MWth) than are fixed-bed reactors.47, 50 Adjusting the particle size, reaction temperature and gas flow rate through the fluidised bed can change the product distribution. The high flow rates and short residence times of the fluidised bed might be expected to produce different kinds of biocoal than would slow pyrolysis.51

Figure 9. Simplified diagram of the circulating fluidised bed process.44

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5.1.6 Screw conveyor The auger or screw reactor is a mechanical biomass-mixing reactor. The vessel itself does not rotate, but mixing devices rotate inside a stationary horizontal reaction vessel.52 Inside the reactor, the rotating screw moves the biomass forward. Screw-type reactors can be heated externally or directly with a heat carrier such as sand.51 The heat carrier is normally heated independently and then mixed with the biomass before entering the reactor. The operating temperature can be adjusted with the heat carrier. Pressure differences draw the resultant gaseous products out of the reactor from the open ends. The solid material, including the resultant biocoal and the heat carrier, exits from the end of the reactor. Based on the particle size and density difference, a solid separator device serves to remove the biocoal from the heat carrier material.52 The auger system can consist of a single or several auger units. The benefit of the screw conveyor is that the system can operate in a relatively small space.51 Mechanical wear can become a problem in the system.52 A simplified picture of the screw conveyor appears in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Simplified diagram of the screw conveyor process.44 5.1.7 Microwave Conventional heating processes transfer energy to materials through conduction, convection, and radiation. Heat is transferred from the outside to the inside of the material. One option besides conventional heating that is used in biocoal production is microwavebased heating. Microwaves deliver energy directly to the materials through molecular interaction within the electromagnetic field and instead of via thermal transfer; this electromagnetic energy then turns into thermal energy.53 The interaction reactions between microwaves and materials can be divided into three types; reflective (conductors), transparent (insulators) and absorptive (dielectrics).53 The advantages of microwaves over conventional heating are a uniform, selective and high heating rate, and effective control of the heating process without direct contact.54 The adjustable parameters that affect the process are the microwave power level, processing time, water content and particle size.53 Luque et al.55 listed the advantages and disadvantages of microwave-assisted pyrolysis. The main advantages of the process were its flexibility in using various feedstocks, energy savings from using the process, and the range and quality of the end products. The disadvantages include the difficulty in precisely measuring the temperature during the 19

process and scaling up the system. A picture of the Rotawave microwave system appears in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Picture of a Rotawave microwave reactor.56 5.1.8 Multiple-hearth Furnace The multiple-hearth Furnace design is normally a vertical cylinder-modelled steel shell furnace. The biomass enters the hearth from the top and flows downward on 6 to 12 horizontal hearths. A rotating shaft with rabble arms in the centre of the furnace sweeps the biomass in a spiral motion. The biomass changes direction as it moves from the centre of the furnace to the outer border and switches between the hearths. The rabble motion breaks up the solid material for better surface contact with heat and oxygen. The residence time varies from 0.5 to 3 h depending on the number of hearths and shaft speed.57 The combustion air flows from the bottom to the top counter-current to the incoming solids. The multiple-hearth furnace can be operated continuously or intermittently, but the continuous process is preferable, because of its high start-up and standby costs.58 According to Dangtran et al.,57 the multiple hearth is divided into three different zones. The upper hearths comprise the drying zone (temperature between approximately 420C and 540C), where the heated material loses its water and some organic compounds through evaporation. The middle hearths constitute the combustion zone (temperature between approximately 815C and 930C), where the material is exposed to high temperatures; the residence time in the combustion zone is usually short. The lower hearths form the cooling zone (temperature between approximately 175C and 205C), where the remaining material, such as ash, cools as its heat transfers to the incoming combustion air. A simplified picture of a multiple-hearth furnace appears in Figure 12.

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Figure 12. A simplified diagram of a continuous multiple-hearth furnace.59 5.1.9 Belt reactors The belt conveyors serve to move biomass through a heated reaction zone. A picture of the system appears in Figure 13. Previously, the belt reactors have been used mainly for drying purposes. When the belt reactor has been used for biocoal production, the process temperature has been in the torrefaction temperature range. Single or multiple belts can adjust the heating in different belts. The belts use oscillation to mix the biomass. In belt conveyor-type reactors, the biomass is a thin layer on a horizontal belt that is then heated with air or combustion products. The residence time and peak temperature can be adjusted easily. Normally the drying of the biomass is uniform, since the biomass band is usually in the range of 2 to 15 cm. A small particle size is normally required, especially for continuous operation.60

Figure 13. Diagramof an oscillating belt reactor.45 21

5.1.10 Compact moving bed The Compact moving bed consists of a reactor in which biomass is fed from the top of the system, where it is then allowed to gradually fall, while the heat-carrying gaseous medium enters from the bottom of the reactor. A picture of the system appears in Figure 14. The solid products are removed from the bottom, as are gaseous products from the top of the reactor. A typical reaction time in the Compact Moving bed is 30-40 min at a temperature of approximately 300C. ECN in Holland have used the compact moving bed to produce biocoal. The operating temperatures have varied in the temperature zone typically used for torrefaction.61 As a benefit, the reactor has no moving parts inside it, so wear will not pose a problem. The problems result mainly from the biomass mixing poorly during the process, which leads to a non-uniform end product. Uneven feedstock particle size may also lead to un-even heat treatment across the diameter of the reactor.62

Figure 14. Diagram of a compact moving bed reactor.62

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Current biocoal production systems and technology developers

Biocoal production technology is still evolving and new projects related to it are in constant development. The conversation about biocoal production is presently very active. Several different technologies have been tested in demonstration or pilot-sized production facilities. One of the main problems in technical development is to find a reactor technology that would enable one to optimise and adjust the process conditions in order to maximise the yield and product quality with various feedstocks. Optimising for different feedstocks should be easy, fast and economically viable. Efficient process performance and a desirable end product distribution rely on the control of the main process parameters and the varying quality of the feedstock. Although much talk and plans have focused on commercial scale biocoal production plants, no markets currently exist for trading biocoal, and no widely proven technological applications are able to produce it. This paper presents only some of the potential technology suppliers and currently ongoing development projects in the world. These descriptions aim to provide a general impression of the related companies, technology applications and size of the ongoing initiatives. Table 4 at the end of this section presents a list of development projects that are currently ongoing or are planned. Most development projects have made or plan to build a pilot-size production plant. Some of the initiatives have also claimed the end product with their own trademark name. The reader should not get confused by the various names companies may give to biocoal, because in the end, the actual product falls under the same umbrella concept presented in the beginning of this report. The differences between companies and their trademark products stem from the technology used and the slightly varying process conditions. For more information about the companies listed, the reader may visit the website of the company in question. 6.1 Global initiatives

6.1.1 Andritz ACB technology and Moving bed technology - Rotary drum and Moving bed reactor Andritz uses two technological platforms in their biocoal production systems: the moving bed reactor and the rotary drum reactor. The rotary drum reactor is called ACB (Accelerated Carbonised Biomass) technology. The ACB system is offered as an integrated solution with their turnkey production unit, which has process steps for densifying, waste gas utilisation and thermal energy production. The company claims a single-line production unit has a commercial production capacity of 50,000 tons annually. The technology is based on their indirectly heated rotarydrum technology. The design and manufacturing expertise is based on the Andritz DDS (drum drying system), which dries municipal, industrial and agricultural sludge. The reactor can process different-sized particles.63 The pressurised moving bed reactor is a co-operation project with the Energy Research Center of the Netherlands (ECN). The reactor will be located in Standerup, Denmark. In the project, Andritz has licensed key technology from ECN, and the system uses moving bed reactor technology from ECN. The system is pressurised for more effective heat 23

transfer due to higher gas flows, lower velocities and pressure drops for increased capacity.64 6.1.2 Wyssmount (US) - Turbo-dryer (Multiple-hearth furnace) The Wyssmount Turbo-Dryer is a multiple-hearth furnace-type reactor. The Turbo-Dryer consists of a reactor, which houses several slowly moving rotating circular trays. The biomass is fed from the top of the reactor and is then wiped through the trays, which are heated with air or gas circulated by fans. The temperature can be adjusted in each zone or the entire reactor can have a uniform internal temperature. The drying conditions can be adjusted automatically, and the residual time adjusted precisely.65 6.1.3 Stramproy Green Investments (NL) Oscillating belt reactor The Stramproy green investment biocoal production plant is located in Steenwijk, Netherlands. The company has a CHP station with two biocoal production lines in a single factory. According to Stramproy, the two production lines when combined can produce approximately 90,000 tons of biocoal annually. The residual heat of the CHP is used in the drying phase of the biocoal production process. Stamproy uses oscillating belt reactor technology for their biocoal production.66 6.1.4 Topell energy (NL) - Torbed reactor Topell energy is a privately funded clean technology company in Duiven, Netherlands, which has developed a process for biocoal production. The reactor Topell uses is called the Torbed reactor system. The reactor was developed by a company called Torftech Ltd. in 1998. Topell energy claim the system can produce 60,000 tons annually. The system applies fluidised-bed technology, but the biomass itself rather than a separate material forms the actual bed. The reactor consists of an empty cylindrical reactor chamber where the biomass comes into contact with a high-speed flow of process gas. The high velocity gas suspends the biomass in a fluid-like state. Contact with the hot process gases and the biomass yields a high heat and mass transfer. The high velocity allows the use of0 a broad range of particle sizes in the process. The reactor has no internal moving parts, so the performance and maintenance costs should be low.67 6.1.5 Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (NL) PATRIG (Moving bed reactor) As part of the TorTech project, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) designed, constructed and commissioned, a pilot-scale biocoal production plant called PATRIG. The reactor design is based on moving bed technology that uses recycled product gas (torgas) to directly heat the biomass. The recycled product gas is then collected during the process and later circulated and heated with an electrically heated thermal oil system. The input scale has been set to 50-100 kg/hour depending on the biomass used. The gas-solid contact allows effective temperature control inside the reactor.61

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6.1.6 AREVA Thermya TORSPYD (Moving bed reactor) The AREVA company announced the acquisition of Thermya technology, thereby enabling them to produce biocoal.68 Areva are now using Thermya TORSPYD technology for biocoal production. The TORSPYD process is a soft thermal treatment of biomass based on the moving bed reactor application. The biomass is in the continuous circulation of two air flows moving in opposite directions.69 Among the benefits of the process, Thermya listed its ability to convert all kinds of lingocellulosic biomass into their solid product called BioCoal. The solid organic particle introduced into the system moves down inside the TORSPYD reactor, where the temperature rises progressively. During the process, the biomass gradually loses its moisture content and organic content. Thermya promises that their BioCoal contains less than 1% moisture, retains 95% of its initial biomass energy and more than 90% of its initial dry mass.70 The products are homogenous, and the quality is consistent.71 6.1.7 Biolake (NL) Screw conveyer reactor Biolake is a young enterprise established by ATO together with five entrepreneurs located in North Holland. The company uses screw dryers for biocoal production. The biomass is heated from outside the reactor, which contains several different screws with different operating temperatures. The biocoal manufacturing process operates between 260C and 350C. The system collects the by-product gases and burns them in a boiler. The heat is then used in the reactor to dry the biomass. Testing of the system is currently underway.53 6.1.8 Rotawave (UK) Targeted Intelligent Energy System (Microwave) Rotawave Ltd. have developed a microwave process called Targeted Intelligent Energy System that transforms biomass into biocoal. The system allows the conversion of biomass to biocoal, ranging from torrefied biomass to charcoal.56 Rotawave list among the benefits of their system its high thermal energy conductivity, which generates high calorific values and solids yields. Because of the microwaves direct interaction with the molecular structure, the particle size has no influence on the reaction time or on the degree of pyrolysis.72

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Table 4. Overview of initiatives seeking to produce biocoal.40, 63, 73-75 Developer

Topell Energy Integro Earth Fuels Stramproy Green 4Energy Invest

Reactor type
Torbed Turbo-Dryer Belt conveyor Rotary drum

Location
Duiven, Netherlands Roxboro, USA Steenwijk, Netherlands Amel, Belgium Crockett, USA Vanderhoof, Canada Columbia, USA North Holland Dilsen Stokkem, Belgium Winschoten, Netherlands O-vik, Sweden San Sebastian, Spain Graz, Austria Standerup, Denmark Laramie, WY, USA

Zilkha Biomass Energy Unknown Torrsys Agri-tech Biolake Torr-Coal Fox Coal BioEnergy Inc AREVA (Thermya) Andritz Andritz River Basin Energy Wyssmont Moving bed Screw conveyor Screw conveyor Rotary drum Screw conveyor Rotary drum Moving bed ACB technology Moving bed Fluidised bed

Multiple-hearth furnace USA

6.2

Initiatives in the Baltic area

Currently, no commercial biocoal production plants exist in Finland, although there are some demonstration-size biocoal production facilities. The most promising biocoal initiative in Finland is probably that of the Biosaimaa cluster, which Miktech co-ordinates. The Biosaimaa cluster is planning to launch a biocoal pilot plant at the end of 2012, which would be located in Pursiala, Mikkeli.76 Plans also aim to build a large-scale biocoal production plant by 2015. In Latvia, several producers of biocoal exist, but the production capacities are rather small. The technological applications used in Latvia are tried and tested technologies. The authors found no plans or ongoing initiatives in Latvia to build a modern biocoal production facility. The best-known ongoing and most promising future initiatives in the Baltic Sea region are described below. 6.2.1 Miktech Ltd. / Biosaimaa cluster (Finland) The project in the Biosaimaa cluster coordinated by Miktech Ltd. probably represents the most promising initiative to build a biocoal production facility in Finland. The project 26

aims to eventually build a commercial-scale production plant by 2015, but construction of a pilot plant should still be underway in 2012. The actual production plant is estimated to produce 200,000 tons of biocoal annually.76 Construction of a pilot plant is planned for Pursiala, Mikkeli, in Eastern Finland. The aim of the pilot plant is to gain more information about the use of raw materials, end products and the technique itself. Although construction of the pilot plant is already planned (Jartek Ltd. will provide the actual process technology, and Promicco Ltd. will provide the pelletising unit), the equipment and the supplier of the technology have not been finalized for upscaling to a commercial-size plant. Negotiations have been ongoing with two separate companies that would supply the biocoal production technology and a pelletising unit. The capacity of the pilot plant will be about 2900 tons annually. The pilot plant is planned to operate for two years, which includes the building and its actual operating costs. The end product will be tested in the Pursiala power plant of Etel-Savon Energia Ltd.76 6.2.2 Kymeenlaakso University of Applied Science / Biotuli demonstration plant (Finland) The Biotuli project is a Finnish innovation and development project co-ordinated by Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT). The project does research on new antibacterial products and the opportunities they offer for small- and medium-scale companies. The project aims to ease the entry of new firms into the biorefining sector. LUT is handling the project in co-operation with the Finnish innovation and development organisations of the area, local universities and professional companies in the field.77 During the project, Kymenlaakso University of Applied Sciences developed and manufactured a small-scale biocoal demonstration plant. The purpose of the demonstration plant is to carry out cost analyses of biomass use in biocoal production. The research also focuses on raw material properties and process adjustment. The demonstration equipment technology is based on three continuously operating linked screw conveyors. The residence time, flue gas temperature and flow rate, as well as the wood chips heating rate can be adjusted separately in the single-screw conveyors. The estimated biocoal production capacity is 25 kilos per hour. The actual process is divided into three phases: in the first phase, the woodchips are dried at temperatures ranging from 20C to 100C. In the second and third phases, the temperature is raised to the operating temperature (200 300C), where the woodchips remain.78 6.2.3 The city of Nurmes, Eastern Finland (Finland) The City of Nurmes and Feedstock Optimum Ltd. are planning to build a biocoal production facility. The aim is first to build a demonstration plant in 2014 and then to proceed to build a commercial-scale biocoal production plant in 2015 in Nurmes, Eastern Finland. The demonstration plant would produce approximately 5,000 tons of biocoal and 4,700 tons of wood oil annually. The actual commercial-size production facility is planned for 2015 and will produce approximately 100,000 tons each of biocoal and wood oil. The production facility would use about 800,000 cubic metres of woodchips. The demonstration plant will employ ten persons, and the actual production facility, 30 persons. The production is based on slow pyrolysis technology.79

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6.2.4 Fortum Ltd. and Metso Ltd. / Joensuu pyrolysis oil factory (Finland) Fortum Ltd. and Metso Ltd. have planned to launch in 2013 a fast pyrolysis unit in Joensuu that is capable of producing 50,000 tonnes of oil. Oil production requires approximately 250,000 solid cubic metres of wood. The production is based on a fluidised bed boiler. The factory will enrol ten supply chains and employ about 70 persons annually.80 Figure 15 presents a simplified diagram of the pyrolysis reactor. The reactor temperature is approximately 500C, and cyclones are used to separate charcoal from the pyrolysis gases. In this reactor, the char is redirected back to the fluidised bed boiler.80

Figure 15. Simplified diagram of the fast pyrolysis reactor by Fortum Ltd. and Metso Ltd.80 6.2.5 The Kouvola Region Vocational College / Biosampo initiative (Finland) The Kouvola Region Vocational College has an initiative called Biosampo which involces the construction of a small-scale slow pyrolysis plant. The main objective of the project is to promote and develop the environmental and bioenergy sectors of South-East Finland, and to improve the competitiveness of the local countryside. The project aims to research the effects of thermal treatment on wood.81 The reactor is designed so that the condensable products and biocoal can be collected from the different process phases. Wood can be heated in different phases to a maximum temperature of 400C. The reactor is a batch-type system where the raw material is loaded on top of the reactor and sealed into a gas-tight reactor. The inner wall of the reactor is ceramic, and the outer wall is made of stainless steel. The temperature can be adjusted to the desired operating temperature and kept constant.81

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6.2.6 Arheo Ltd. (Latvia) Arheo Ltd. produces biocoal in their system known asthe EURO Coal-burning kiln. The system consists of two kilns which are connected to each other. The system is a semicontinuous system, where the raw material is fed into two separate vessel trains. Both of the kilns can be loaded and discharged separately, one train at a time, each consisting of three vessels. The unit operates in two different phases simultaneously. In the other kiln, the raw material is first dried. When the raw material is completely dry, it is removed from the first kiln and moved to the second kiln for the pyrolysis process. The peak temperature in the process varies from 420C to 480C. The system uses the hot flue gases to heat the process itself and also collects condensable liquids from the bottom of the kiln. According to Arheo Ltd., the system is capable of producing 25-45 tons of biocoal per month.82 6.2.7 Livanu Karbons Ltd. and Balt Carbon Ltd. (Latvia) The Livanu Karbons operates in co-operation with a Latvian company called Balt Carbon Ltd. Balt Carbon is a company that only produces and installs SIFIC/CISR LAMBIOTTE reactors, which are from Belgium.83, 84 According to Domac et al.,9 the Lambiotte process is a continuous carbonisation process of wood. The wood is carbonised with a hot inert gas, which encounters the downward-moving raw material flow. The hot gas stream (around 900C) is produced by burning combustible gas in a stove connected to the middle of the reactor.8 The CISR Lambiotte is a modification of the SIFIC Lambiotte system. The main differences between these two systems is that the CISR system is smaller, and therefore a cheaper investment, though it is not equipped with a by-product recovery option like the SIFIC is.8, 9 Livanu Karbons is a company that produces and exports biocoal from Latvia. Livanu Karbons has two LAMBIOTTE CISR retorts, both of which are located at their production facility in Livani. Their annual production capacity is estimated to be 2,500 tons of biocoal per retort.83 In addition to the co-operation with Livanu Karbons Ltd., Balt Carbon Ltd. is also developing two biocoal production plants, which combine biocoal and electricity production, in Kaplava (Eastern Latvia) and Ugale (Western Latvia). The capacities of these plants are 2,000 tons and 8,000 tons of biocoal annually.84

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Development aspects in the production technology

Only a handful of initiatives in the world have produced larger amounts of biocoal. The main problems in upscaling is optimising the process on a large scale. Although biocoal has been successfully produced on a smaller scale, upscaling the process makes controlling the biocoal quality and process conditions more difficult, because the feedstock and process conditions inside the reactor may vary more than on a small scale. In addition to the upscaling problem is that the used technology should be highly energy efficient, and adjusting a proper heat integration system is crucial for making the process economically viable. The process should be able to easily separate the gaseous, liquid and solid products formed during the process. The end product obtained from the biocoal production process will differ in homogeneity with respect to the grade of charring, both between different particles as well as within even a single particle.19 The production technology should also be able to handle variation in different kinds of feedstock and also take into account variation in the chemical composition of the feedstock. For technology developers, the challenge is to produce large amounts of biocoal of a consistent quality. When material produced varies widely, the quality and specifications of the end product are difficult to determine. Consistent quality is needed to produce standard-quality end products, such as biocoal pellets for commercial purposes. Without product validation and a standard for needed quality, developing the technology and choosing between solutions will be difficult, and commercialisation will fail. When the product quality can be kept consistent enough, large-scale tests must be made in, for example, co-firing, storage, and other areas.

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8
1.

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