Problem Set 5 Solutions

Math 4613, Modern Algebra I Fall 2003

Problems 4.3.6, 4.3.8, 4.3.21, 4.3.22, 4.4.2, 4.4.5, 4.4.8, 4.5.1, 4.5.3 4.3.6 Let V be the group of vectors in the plane, with vector addition as the binary operation. Show that the vectors that issue from the origin and have endpoints on a xed line through the origin form a subgroup. What are the cosets relative to this subgroup? Proof: The vectors that issue from the origin and have endpoints on a xed line are all multiples of one of the nonzero vectors on the line. Pick one vector and call it v. Then the subset is S = {av | a F}. Then av + bv = (a + b)v S , and (av) = (a)v S , so S is a subgroup. The cosets of S = {av | a R} are the sets S + w = {av + w | a F}. This is a line parallel to S , passing through w. 4.3.8 Show that the elements of nite order in any abelian group form a subgroup. Proof: Let G be an abelian group and H the subset consisting of all elements of nite order. Then let a, b H , and suppose o(a) = m and o(b) = n. Then (ab)mn = (ab)(ab) (ab) (mn times), and since G is abelian, we may simplify this to (ab)mn = amn bmn = (am )n (bn )m = e. Therefore, ab has nite order, so ab H . Also let a H with order m. Then am = 1, so 1 = (am )1 = am = (a1 )m . This shows that a1 has nite order, so a1 H . Thus H is a subgroup. 4.3.21 Let S be a nonempty subset of a group G, and let C (S ) = {x G | xs = sx, s S }. Show that C (S ) is a subgroup of G. What is C (G)? Solution: This is answered in the back of the book. 4.3.22 Find the centralizer of each of the following subsets of S3 : (a) {(1 2 3)} Solution: We write C ( ) for C ({ }), where the set S = { } contains a single element. In this case, note that if = (1 2 3), then commutes with itself, with 2 , and with the identity. However, (1 2 3)(1 2) = (1 3), but (1 2)(1 2 3) = (2 3) = (1 3). So, does not commute with the transposition (1 2), and similarly it does not commute with the other transpositions. We conclude that C ( ) = {1, , 2 } = {(1), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}. 1

(b) {(1 2)} Solution: Let = (1 2). Notice that (1 2)(1 3) = (1 3 2), but (1 3)(1 2) = (1 2 3) = (1 3 2). Similarly, does not commute with the other transposition, and we saw in part (a) that does not commute with the 3-cycles or 2 . So, C ( ) = {1, } = {(1), (1 2)}. (c) {(1 2 3), (1 2)} Solution: Before answering this question, we note that C (S1 S2 ) = C (S1 ) C (S2 ), since g C (S1 S2 ) if and only if gs = sg for all s S1 S2 , so if and only if g C (S1 ) and g C (S2 ). So, the answers to parts (a) and (b) imply that C ({, }) = C ( ) C ( ) = {1}. 4.4.2 Find all possible sets of generators of the subgroups of orders 3, 4, and 12 of Z12 . Solution: We note that Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, , 11}. Since subgroups of any given order are unique, we may list the subgroups in question. The subgroup of order 3 is H = {0, 4, 8}, and it is generated by either 4 or 8, so H = [4] = [8]. The subgroup of order 4 is K = {0, 3, 6, 9}, and it may be generated by 3 or 9, so K = [3] = [9]. The subgroup of order 12 is the full group Z12 , and all elements n relatively prime to 12 are generators of Z12 . These are 1, 5, 7, and 11. 4.4.5 Show that a group G has no proper subgroups if and only if it is cyclic of prime order (or G = {1}). Proof: First, assume that G is cyclic, of prime order, so G = Zp , where p is prime. Suppose H is a subgroup of G that contains some a = 1. Then o(a)|p, and o(a) = 1, so o(a) = p. But then, the cyclic subgroup generated by a is contained in H , that is, [a] < H . Therefore H contains at least p elements. But there are at most p elements in G itself. This shows that H = G, so G has no proper subgroups. (It is obvious that the group G = {1} has no proper subgroups.) Now assume that G has no proper subgroups. We consider the case when G = {1} (the other being trivial). Let a G, a = 1. Now, [a], the cyclic group generated by a, is a subgroup of G. Since G has no proper subgroups, we must have that G = [a], that is, G is cyclic. So either G is isomorphic to Z, or G is isomorphic to Zn for some n. Now, Z has proper subgroups such as 5Z, etc. So G = Z, so G = Zn for some n. If n is composite, then n = pq for some integers p and q , 1 < p < n. In this case, a has order n in G, and so ap has order q since (ap )q = an = 1 and no smaller power of ap can equal 1. Therefore, the cyclic subgroup generated by ap , or [ap ], is a proper subgroup of G. This is a contradiction. We have shown that n cannot be composite so, as n > 1, n is prime. This shows that G is cyclic of prime order. 4.4.8 Show that Z Z is not cyclic. Proof: Suppose Z Z were cyclic. We would then have Z Z = [] for some element = (a, b) Z Z. But then every element in Z Z is an integral multiple of = (a, b). 2

In particular, (1, 0) = m(a, b) for some m, so we see that ma = 1, so a|1, so a = 1. Also, (0, 1) = n(1, b), and so b = 1, similarly. But then, (0, 1) = n(1, 1), so 0 = n(1), so we must have n = 0. This contradicts the fact that 1 = n(1). Therefore it is impossible for both (1, 0) and (0, 1) to be multiples of the same element (a, b), so Z Z is not cyclic. 4.5.1 Find all subgroups of S3 and S4 . Solution: The proper subgroups of S3 are given in the back of the book. There are 28 proper subgroups of S4 , making the total number of subgroups, including the trivial ones, equal to 30. The elements in S4 are of four sorts: Cycle structure how many 4-cycle (a b c d) 6 8 3-cycle (a b c) 6 2-cycle (a b) 3 (a b)(c d) order 4 3 2 2

The subgroups of S4 are of several types. First, any element S4 generates a cyclic subgroup [ ] with o( ) elements. There are 16 such subgroups, 3 of order 4, 4 of order 3, and 9 of order 2. There is a subgroup of order 12 consisting of all even permutations. (Each group Sn contains such a subgroup, called An , the alternating group on n letters, and with n!/2 elements.) There are four 6-element subgroups in S4 which are isomorphic to S3 , consisting of those permutations xing the integer j for j = 1, 2, 3, or 4. There are also 3 8-element subgroups isomorphic to D4 which can be constructed as symmetries of a square. These are generated by a 4-cycle (a b c d) and a transposition (a c). (You can construct these directly as symmetries of a square if you number the vertices 1, 2, 3, 4 in dierent ways.) There are also four subgroups isomorphic to the Klein 4-group. Three of these take the form {(1), (a b), (c d), (a b)(c d)}, and one is of the form {(1), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}. Thats it! Subgroup type {(1)} S4 [ ], 4-cycle [ ], 3-cycle [ ], of order 2 S3 D4 A4 K , Klein 4-group number of elements 1 24 4 3 2 6 8 12 4 how many subgroups 1 1 3 4 9 4 3 1 4

4.5.3 Show that |Z (Dn )| = 1 or 2 according to whether n is even or odd. Proof: We recall, using notation from class, that the group of planar symmetries of a regular n-gon centered at (0, 0) is Dn = {1, r, r2 , , rn1 , m, mr, mr2 , , mrn1 }, 3

where r is counterclockwise rotation through angle 2/n and m is a vertical reection. This implies that rn = m2 = 1. We also note that rm = mrn1 , giving rise to the rule that rj m = mrnj . (1)

Now, in computing Z (Dn ) we see that, if n is even, then rn/2 (rotation through angle ) satises that rn/2 m = mrn/2 , so rn/2 commutes with m. Since any element of any group also commutes with any power of itself, r commutes with all powers of r, so with all reections mrj , so it commutes with all elements of G. So {1, rn/2 } Z (Dn ). Note that equation (1) shows that no other power of r commutes with m, so no other power of r can be in Z (Dn ), and m is not in Z (Dn ), since it does not commute with r. In fact, r(mrj ) = (rm)rj = mrn1 rj = mrj (rn1 ), so any reection mrj does not commute with r either. So no reection mrj is in Z (Dn ). This shows that, when n is even, Z (Dn ) = {1, rn/2 } exactly. When n is odd, there is no element rn/2 in Dn . The rest of the arguement above applies to show that only 1 commutes with all elements of Dn , so Z (Dn ) = {1} when n is odd.