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Theatre is generally seen as a universal phenomenon- no matter where one goes in the world, theatre will exist in some

form. While theatre is generally seen across the globe as a form of entertainment, it is also seen as a platform for political and social commentary. This is another universal feature of theatre. Even in countries where freedom of speech may not be promoted or even respected, this reactionary aspect of theatre still exists. In these countries, artists use theatre to speak out when they can t do so otherwise. In the !iddle East, where theatre is developing towards Western standards by leaps and bounds under sometimes oppressive governments, this use of theatre for commentary is still able to exist. The history of modern "rabic drama is traced independently to #yria $present-day %ebanon&, where it was introduced by !arun al-'a((ash in )*+,, and Egypt, where -a (ub #annu brought the form in )*,.. /oth men were influenced by Italian opera, and 0rench comedy in particular. 1owever, the "rab world has its own traditional forms of drama, which can be traced back as early as the tenth century. 2ne form of early play is the 3assion 3lay, which is linked to #hia !uslims and commemorates the massacre of al1usayn, son of the fourth 4aliph, and his family.) These are seen as extensions of religious rituals, and are in fact very similar to European medieval mystery plays, which depicted various stories from the /ible. "nother early form of "rabic drama is the shadow play. These are plays where the action is represented by shadows cast on a screen by flat, leather puppets. This is considered a sophisticated art form, which used comedy to make commentary on society

!uhammad !ustafa /adawi, !odern "rabic drama in Egypt. 'ew -ork5 4ambridge 6niversity 3ress, 7..8. )

at the time.7 The use of puppets was seen particularly in ancient Egypt, where puppets were used to depict religious stories.9 While modern "rabic drama is considered to have really started in the ):9. s, there was a ma;or revival in the late fifties and sixties, where the use of theatre for commentary exploded. The use of collo(uial "rabic $the language of everyday speech& became very widespread in drama, and young writers were eager to experiment with language and form.+ This time was also important for the development of creative theatre which could fly under the radar of censorship in various countries. Especially in Egypt, where political parties were banned by the regime in power, theatre became an outlet for artists to express their political ideas and share them with the general population.8 Even from the beginnings of modern "rabic drama, there were ma;or influences from European playwrights, including /ertolt /recht, Eugene Ionesco, #amuel /eckett, <ohn 2sborne, %uigi 3irandello, and others. /recht, a writer, director, and theorist, developed what is known as alienation theory, the point of which is to make the audience aware that they re watching a play. "lienation serves to remove the audience from the emotions of the play in order to make the audience think rationally about what they ve ;ust seen. This effect is obtained through various elements, such as visible theatre e(uipment such as lights and wires hanging onstage, and literally describing the action through pro;ections on the stage. #amuel /eckett is considered the founder of what came to be known as =theatre of the absurd>, which is related to existentialist philosophy. 2ther playwrights writing in
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/adawi, !odern 7 4airo 3uppet Theatre + /adawi, !odern )+. 8 !uhammad !ustafa /adawi, Introduction, !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology. @oger "llen and #alma Ahadra <ayyusi, ed. Indianapolis5 Indiana 6niversity 3ress, )::8. B

this style include Eugene Ionesco and 1arold 3inter. It generally promotes the belief that life is meaningless and doesn t make any sense. 2ften, speech in the play breaks down or otherwise doesn t make sense. This theatrical practice, along with /recht s theories, was very popular throughout Europe in the mid-):.. s and spread into the "rab world. These European influences are clearly expressed in many "rab plays. These include Isam !ahfuC s The 4hina Tree, #a dallah Wannus s The Aing is the Aing, and #trangers ?on t ?rink 4offee, by !ahmud ?iyab. !ahfuC s play, on a topical level, follows a young man named #a dun as he goes through trial for a crime he may or may not have committed. In one of the courtroom scenes, the general proceeds to give a speech detailing why #a dun is guilty5 If he weren t guilty, he wouldn t be here. If he weren t here, I wouldn t be here either. "nd if I weren t here, none of you would be here either. "nd if I weren t here, the 4lerk and the witnesses wouldn t be here either. "nd if we weren t here, none of you would be needed here. "nd if that were the case, none of this would exist... /ut it s impossible that nothing at all has happened.B The general continues to say that #a dun is guilty because he is on a list. This, and the preceding logic, is clearly following a faulty form of logic. This type of absurd thinking shows the influence of /eckett on !ahfuC. #a dallah Wannus also shows European influence in his play The Aing is the Aing, this time displaying /rechtian influence. "t the beginning of each scene, a poster is displayed on stage, detailing the action of the upcoming scene., This is one of the ma;or elements of /recht s epic theatre and alienation effect. ?isplaying the upcoming action removes any element of surprise from the play, which allows the audience to think

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Isam !ahfuC, =The 4hina Tree.> !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology. +B #a dallah Wannus, =The Aing is the Aing.> !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology. *7

about what is happening in the play in a context of social or political commentary, and discourages the audience from getting caught up in the action. #trangers ?on t ?rink 4offee by !ahmud ?iyab reflects a striking similarity to 1arold 3inter s play The /irthday 3arty. /oth plays leave the audience with a sense of horror, although it is not apparent through much of the action why this is so. In ?iyab s play, the strangers who enter the house of the !an are very nondescript people, which add to the sense of horror and disturbance that on the surface seems to not actually exist. !any "rab playwrights discuss issues of politics and society in a theatrical context, especially in recent years. Two of the ma;or players in this field currently are 'abil #awalha and 1isham -aness, <ordanian playwrights. 0or #awalha and 1isham, the way to comment on politics and society is to make fun of it. They infuse controversial topics with humor and present them to the public, often making fun of worldwide political figures, including <ordan s Aing 1ussein. "s #awalha explains, they =;ust get up on stage and say what everybody has been saying in the privacy of their bathrooms for years.>* While certain playwrights are influential in the arena of political and social commentary, some only express their ideas in certain plays. 2ne of those plays is #ix "ctors in #earch of a 3lot, by !uhammad "hmed Daher. This play, created for 3eace 4hild Israel, a youth theatre organiCation, is based on %uigi 3irandello s #ix 4haracters in #earch of an "uthor. In 3irandello s play, the 4haracters interrupt a rehearsal, looking for an author to tell their story and each character demanding to be heard. In Daher s version, the actors try to be heard as individuals but they also try to agree on a plot. The play explores the relationship between <ews and "rab 3alestinians, and created
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#tephanie Eenkin, =Taking the Taboos.> The !iddle East, )::+.

controversy, both in the audience and in the cast. The play comments mostly on the history of the Israeli-3alestinian conflict, and according to director /illy -alowitC, one of the ob;ectives is to show =how both sides use their respective histories as weapons, and that as long as they wield these stories of how their people have suffered to ;ustify their claims to the land, they will remain at an impasse.>: Tawfi( al-1akim, a noted Egyptian playwright, was the first one to attempt a ma;or reworking of #ophocles 2edipus the Aing. al-1akim s play Aing 2edipus, published in ):+:, has been noted by critics to contain specific political commentary. #ami !unir, an Egyptian critic, theoriCed that al-1akim s Aing 2edipus was an allegory specifically referring to the events of 0ebruary ):+7, when /ritish troops manipulated the Egyptian king into appointing a pro-/ritish prime minister. !unir comments that the /ritish manipulation of the Wafd party, which served in the government, is related in the play through Tiresias s manipulation of 2edipus, who is a corrupt individual, different from the original Ereek play.). "li "hmed /akathir is another playwright who reworked the tale of 2edipus, this time clearly creating political commentary in his reworking. 1is version, entitled The Tragedy of 2edipus, was directly inspired by the ):+* defeat of "rab armies in 3alestine. /akathir, a strong supporter of both Islam and "rab nationalism, displays the importance of both in his play. 1e makes a very strong commentary about religion in his play, especially about those who use religion to manipulate and control people, regardless of how that may affect others.

!elissa ?ribben, =3alestinian and <ew seek insight on stage.> 3eace 4hild Israel. !arvin 4arlson, ed. The "rab 2edipus5 0our 3lays. 'ew -ork5 !artin E. #egal Theatre 4enter 3ublications, 7..8. ,
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In /akathir s Tragedy of 2edipus, the seer Tiresias is a priest who is thrown out of the circle of priests by the corrupt 1igh 3riest, and who goes to the atheistic 2edipus to give him guidance during his time of trouble. Tiresias was thrown out of the priesthood by the 1igh 3riest because he did not agree with the corruption, and in fact spoke out against it. /ecause of that, the 1igh 3riest condemned him as an atheist, successfully scaring the population from talking to him. %ater in the play, Tiresias brings the truth about the 1igh 3riest out to the people, who had perpetuated the cycle of action that caused 2edipus to kill his father and marry his mother5 ...you continued creating the tragedy... It is enough for the people of Thebes, of 1ellas, no, it is enough for humanity to have one man who excels in this art as this priest does, to fill the earth with evil, tragedies and crises that would rend the heart, shake the body and fill the heavens and earth with uproar. I will reveal to you the secret so that no one after you will be deceived by a charlatan like him who abuses the sacred and trades on the faith of believers and uses Eod s love, which is one of the noblest feelings, as a tool to manipulate people to commit the worst of crimes and the most horrible sins.)) /akathir, at this point, wants to inform people of the corruption that he sees in his current situation. While he is placing it in the context of an ancient Ereek tragedy, he is making it relevant to current events and current situations affecting audience members. "li #alim s play The 4omedy of 2edipus5 -ou re the 2ne Who Ailled the /east, tackles a number of issues affecting the population at the time #alim was writing, particularly the moderniCation of the !iddle East, artistic censorship, and complete reliance on the high leadership figure, in a comedic manner. #alim s 4omedy of 2edipus is set a long time ago, but portrays many (ualities of modern times. "t one point in the play, there is an amusing and also important scene between "walih, the 4hief of 3olice in Thebes, and #enefru, a Theban playwright. "t this point, "walih is trying to explain to
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"li "hmed /akathir =The Tragedy of 2edipus> The "rab 2edipus5 0our 3lays. 7+B

2edipus how the city of Thebes is very open and promotes freedom of speech. When "walih asks #enefru to back him up by giving an example of one of his plays, #enefru responds =Which playF The one you banned...F>)7 While it is an amusing scene, it also reflects the current $at the time of writing& situation surrounding censorship. 2n one end, the government is trying to portray an environment of free speech and openness, but on the other end that same government is attempting to prevent playwrights from speaking their minds. The play also comments on the moderniCation of the !iddle East. " short time after the scene with "walih and #enefru, 2edipus proclaims that he will save the city from its troubles by =...putGtingH it forward by five thousand years.>)9 2edipus succeeds in doing so, bringing along the telephone, television, and various other inventions. #alim is trying to comment here about the rush of moderniCation that was occurring in the !iddle East at that time. While moderniCation necessarily isn t a bad thing, the (uick rush to produce everything at once isn t beneficial to the largest amount of people. The last ma;or comment #alim makes in his play is the huge reliance on a single leadership figure. This play was published in ):,., the same year that Eamal "bdel 'asser, 3resident of Egypt, died. #alim comments on the Egyptian people s complete reliance on 'asser as leader through the metaphor of =the city> relying on =the king.>)+ #alim makes numerous references to this idea throughout the play. Iery early in the play, Tiresias $acting as the same persona as in the Ereek original& comments on the city s total reliance on 2edipus to kill the beast that is threatening the city, crafting a very effective speech, as though directly spoken from the playwright himself5
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"li #alim =The 4omedy of 2edipus5 -ou re the 2ne Who Ailled the /east.> The "rab 2edipus5 0our 3lays, 7:,. )9 #alim 9.) )+ @oger "llen, ed. !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology, 98+.

It may well be that 2edipus will solve the riddle and settle the problem of the best. /ut what of the beast within youF Who is going to kill that- that stupid beast that makes you forever wait for the one who will solve your problems for you, in return for which you will concede him anythingF)8 Tiresias, acting as the voice of reason, tries to convince the people to think for themselves and to find solutions themselves, instead of relying on a single figure that might not always be there to fix the problems. 2edipus, along with Tiresias, tries to discourage the people from placing all of their faith in one man. 1e even tries to get the people to stop placing total reliance on him, by reminding them that he is, in fact, only human and not a god, as some people had portrayed him to be.)B 2edipus realiCes the danger in relying on only one man to run and save a country, and tries to explain that to the people he serves. 1owever, since they have blind faith in him, they will not listen. #alim, through the characters of Tiresias, and later 2edipus, is relating to the audience the dangers of total reliance on one person. Through the speeches of Tiresias and 2edipus, he is trying to reach out to the audience in light of 'asser s death, reminding them that they shouldn t place all of their faith in one man, and in fact can t do that anymore. They must find the way themselves. The Aing is the Aing, written by #a dallah Wannus, is another play that uses comedy to address a serious political issue. "s in The 4omedy of 2edipus, Wannus warns of the dangers of one man controlling everything in the country. Towards the beginning of the play, the young man 6bayd tells a story about a long time ago- once upon a time. 1e tells a tale of a community that shared everything, until one day a stronger man decided to break up the community and control everything. This man, who became the landlord, then king, created a system of using masks to hide who people
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#alim 9.9 #alim 99*

really are. 6bayd ends the story by saying that the system that this strong man created once upon a time.), 6bayd s story warns of the dangers of placing power in the hands of one man. It upsets the natural balance of things, and can only be restored by revolt. While many plays deal with political issues, not all of them do. !any others deal with social issues, including !amduh 6dwan s play That s %ife and ?arkness, a devised piece by the /alalin 4ompany of <erusalem. /oth of these plays deal with the treatment of women in "rab culture. That s %ife is a single, long monologue given by the husband of a woman who has recently died. The piece starts of in a moment of reminiscing, but (uickly turns angry and resentful. The husband is angry with his wife for leaving him behind, and he expresses his anger in various speeches. In one speech, he reflects on the cultural idea of beating one s wife. 1e says, =#o what if I used to beat youF I m your husband and your master. I could beat you till you were black and blue...> %ater, he also states that =Even the 1oly Jur an has advised us to beat our wives.>)* 6dwan is reflecting on the social norms of that area, where beating one s wife is a normal, understandable occurrence. ?arkness also deals with the issue of the treatment of women, but in a completely different manner. In this play, a theatre group is trying to put on a show when the lights go out. 'obody in the audience has the knowledge to help, except 'adia, a young woman with a degree in electrical engineering. When she tries to help, she is prevented by her fiancK 1ani, who has a somewhat traditional view of what a woman s role should be. L"dil, a fellow audience member, chastises 1ani for his limited views, telling him that his responsibility for getting the electricity back on was very large- that without him

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Wannus :* !amduh 6dwan =That s %ife.> !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology B+-8.

giving permission to 'adia to help, they would all have to sit in the dark.): 1ani s subse(uent relenting to pressure and allowing 'adia to help shows the company s progressive views towards women. Iarious characters chastise 1ani until he relents, showing that none of the company members $since this is a created piece, created by all members of the company& agrees with 1ani s view on the proper role for women. The /ird 1as 0lown, a play by "bd al-"CiC al-#urayyi, discusses another social aspect- the cultural differences between !iddle Eastern and Western cultures, specifically referencing Auwait and /ritain. In this play, the 0ather s eldest son -usuf is moving to Auwait to be with his father, after being raised by his mother in /ritain. "fter -usuf arrives in Auwait, the cultural differences become apparent immediately. The final straw comes when it appears as though -usuf has had sex with his cousin #arah, who was supposed to be married to -usuf s half-brother #alem. -usuf, being raised in Western society, sees nothing wrong with this situation. 1is father, belonging to the traditional Auwaiti society, sees this event as a stain on his family, and insists that -usuf leaves, saying that the different cultures are too different to be in the same house.7. This shows that while some !iddle Eastern countries are trying to moderniCe and WesterniCe, there are some aspects of the culture that really can t be translated well into other areas of the world. Iarious issues are discussed in these diverse plays, and they are addressed in ;ust as many ways as there are issues. 3eace 4hild Israel s #ix "ctors in #earch of a 3lot addresses the Israeli-3alestinian conflict in a uni(ue way. They present the issues on the stage, and then provide a chance to talk after the performance. "fter every performance

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The /alalin 4ompany of <erusalem, =?arkness.> !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology ):*. "bd al-"CiC al-#urayyi, =The /ird 1as 0lown.> !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology 79:.

of this play, there is a discussion session moderated by either a psychologist or conflict resolution expert.7) This allows not only the actors, but also audience members to interact with the play and discuss it in a rational, controlled environment. The Aey is another play that addresses issues in a creative way. This play, which was based off of folklore, discussed the issue of security. The wife in the play, 1aira, wants to have a baby but her husband 1airan refuses to have one until he can be sure that his child can have a peaceful, secure life.77 Throughout the play, the couple runs into various problems while tracking down the pieces from the old story that they need to provide security for their child. When they return to the 1erdsman, who, like everyone else in the play, has a piece of the =puCCle> that they must solve, he describes how his farm has been destroyed. "t this point, stage directions dictate that =The Dionist attacks in 3alestine could be shown as a background to this scene... "lso scenes of imperialism and its agents in more than one of the liberated countries could be shown.>79 4learly, the playwright is making a point of the destruction that the attacks in 3alestine and imperialism in general have caused in the !iddle East. !any of these plays reflect the openness of the countries they were written in, and others reflect ways that playwrights in more restrictive countries have managed to express their ideas. 2ne play that clearly shows openness, at least in the country of <ordan, is 'abil #awalha and 1isham -aness s play ='ew World 2rder>. This play, produced in )::9 on the heels of the Eulf War, mocked every ma;or political figure involved in that war. #awalha and -aness believe that their work exceeds art, and that they in fact provide a signpost of <ordan s increasing liberalism since <ordan s ):*:
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?ribben -usuf al-"ni, =The Aey.> !odern "rabic ?rama5 "n "nthology 78,. 79 al-"ni 7,B

democratic reforms, allowing freedom of speech.7+ These laws have allowed these playwrights to openly create political commentary, expressing it to audiences within their country and encouraging others to do the same. %enin El-@amly is another playwright who has proven adept at gaining freedom of speech through his work. While a film he had written in ):,) had been re;ected at that time by the censorship in Egypt, in 7..7 it was finally produced.78 While it took over 9. years for his work to finally be free, it shows that over time, progress has been made towards freedom of artistic expression, and also freedom of speech. 1owever, some playwrights must deal with censorship. Those playwrights must be very skillful in how they go about dealing with the censorship while still expressing their ideas. #ome ways are through the use of symbolism and the historical archetype. "lso, scenic elements, which do not have to go through a censor, can be used to portray political or social commentary. If a playwright is creative enough, he or she can find ways to express ideas and share them with the public. Even though modern "rabic drama has only been in progress since the mid):.. s, it has made great progress towards becoming ;ust as open and free as Western theatre. !any aspects of Western theatre have been incorporated into "rabic theatre, and modern theatre in the "rab world has combined Western styles with some traditional aspects of "rab theatre. It has also allowed a vast number of people to express their ideas through the context of art and theatre, even though there may be restrictions for doing so. "rabic theatre has overcome many obstacles in the form of censorship, for the end purpose of simply allowing artists to express their ideas on political and social issues.

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Eenkin %enin El-@amly

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