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Contents

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VII

Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XI

Unit conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XVII

PART 1
PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND RELATIONS WITH PETROLOGY
Chapter 1-1

Calculation of Fluid Volumes In Situ (Accumulations):

Static Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-1.1 Porosity, Mineralogy of the Solid Phase and Compressibility . . . . . . . . . .

1-1.1.1 Porosity: definitions (connected, occluded, effective porosity, etc.) . . . . . . .
1-1.1.2 Porosity measurement principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.1.3 Clay porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.1.4 Order of magnitude of porosity in geomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.1.5 Solid phase density and mineralogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.1.6 Effect of stresses on porosity, Compressibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2 Capillary Pressure in Case of Perfect Wettability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2.1 Definition of perfect wettability and capillary pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2.2 Capillary pressure curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2.3 Capillary phenomena in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
3
5
12
20
26
39
52
53
56
64

1-1.2.4 Capillary pressure curve measurement principle:

Restored states, Centrifuge, Mercury Porosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2.5 Processing of capillary pressure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2.6 Location of fluids in oil and gas reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1.2.7 Capillary rise: Hirschwald coefficient, Apparent radius of capillary rise . . .
1-1.2.8 Overview on three-phase capillary equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73
94
102
113
121

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Contents

Chapter 1-2

Fluid Recovery and Modelling: Dynamic Properties . . . . .

123

1-2.1 Intrinsic Permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-2.1.1 Definitions and Darcys law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.1.2 Intrinsic permeability measurement principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.1.3 Geometric parameters affecting permeability and simple models . . . . . . . . .
1-2.1.4 Porosity/Permeability relations in rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.1.5 Effects of stress and temperature on the intrinsic permeability . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.2 Wettability of Reservoir Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.2.1 Definition and measurement of intermediate wettability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.2.2 Wettability of reservoir rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.3 Relative Permeability and End Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123
123
128
138
144
163
167
167
173
179
179

1-2.3.2 Tentative simplification: search for the most important points on the relative
permeability curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.3.3 More information about the End Points, wettability effects . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2.3.4 Relative permeability measurement principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

184
186
191

Chapter 1-3

Log and Geophysical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

199

1-3.1 Electrical Properties: Estimation of Hydrocarbon Saturation . . . . . . . . . .

1-3.1.1 Resistivity of rocks saturated with electrolyte: Formation factor . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.1.2 Resistivity of porous media saturated with a two-phase mixture . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.1.3 The special case of clay media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.1.4 Effect of pressure and temperature on electrical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.2 Seismic Properties: Effect of Porosity, Lithology and Nature of the
Saturating Fluids on the Elastic Wave Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.2.1 Simplified definitions: moduli, P and S waves, velocities, attenuations . . . . .

199
199
208
213
220

1-3.2.2 Scale effect: Ultrasonic, Sonic, Seismic frequency bands.

Static properties, dynamic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.2.3 Laboratory velocity measurement principle and path dispersion problem . .
1-3.2.4 Effect of differential pressure on velocities: Hertz coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.2.5 Effect of the saturating fluid:
Gassmann equation and its linear approximation as a function of Kfl . . . . . .
1-3.2.6 Porosity/lithology/velocity empirical relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-3.3 Petrophysical Applications of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-3.3.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), general principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3.3.2 Potential applications to petrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

221
222
227
230
233
236
239
248
248
254

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Contents

XXI

PART 2
SCALE CHANGES AND CHARACTERISATION OF POROUS MEDIA:
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Chapter 2-1

Measurement Representativeness and Reservoir

Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

265

2-1.1 Overview on the Effect of Damage, Stress and Temperature Variations

on Petrophysical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.1.1 Damage to laboratory samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.1.2 Influence of stresses and temperature on petrophysical characteristics . . . . .
2-1.2 Representative Elementary Volume, Homogeneity, Isotropy. . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.2.1 Definition of Representative Elementary Volume (REV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.2.2 Homogeneity and Isotropy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.2.3 Continuously variable REV: self similarity and fractal object . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.3 Scale Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.3.1 From plug to core and well logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.3.2 From core to well test (bulk and matrix property) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.4 Rock Typing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.4.1 Rock Typing, description and terminology difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.4.2 Core Rock Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1.4.3 Log Rock Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

265
265
266
272
272
281
288
293
294
311
317
317
318
322

Chapter 2-2

Porous Network Observation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

325

2-2.1 Thin Sections and Epoxy Pore Casts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2-2.1.1 Impregnation of porous networks by resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.1.2 Observation of thin sections under optical microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.1.3 Observation under Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.2 Visualisation of Fluid Location in Pores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.2.1 Direct observations of natural fluids: Cryo-scanning electron microscopy . .
2-2.2.2 Indirect observations using polymerisable liquids or fusible metal . . . . . . . .
2-2.3 X-Ray Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.3.1 The medical scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.3.2 Microtomography devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.4 Mineralogical Analysis Applied to Petrophysics:
X-Ray Diffraction and Fluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.4.1 Some reminders about mineralogy/crystallography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.4.2 Laboratory techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

325
325
327
330
333
334
336
342
344
347

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

357

Porosity Terms Glossary-Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

365

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

371

Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

381

349
350
351