The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the Bodhisattva-rvaka Opposition Author(s): Jeffrey Samuels

Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Jul., 1997), pp. 399-415 Published by: University of Hawai'i Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399912 . Accessed: 26/10/2013 16:10
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of Hawai'i Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Philosophy East and West.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVADA BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE: A REEVALUATION OF THE BODHISATTVA-SRAVAKA OPPOSITION

Samuels Jeffrey

theterms inthe In theacademicstudy of Buddhism student "Mahayana"and "Hina- Graduate of in are often set contradiction to each and the two vehicles Department Religious other, yana" attheUniversity are described as having different and practices. Studies aspirations, teachings, ofVirginia The distinctions made between theMahayana and theHinayana, howtheschoolsintoneat,isolated, and independent ever,force categories undermine thecomplexities that often that exist their beliefs, concerning and ideologies, practices. Whilesomeofthecategories usedtodifferentiate theMahayana and the Hinayana are helpful in thestudy and interpretation of Buddhism, must be reviewed. thesedistinctions Thisarticle to continually attempts review one suchdistinction: thecommonly heldtheoretical modelthat thegoal ofMahayana that is to becomebuddhas postulates practitioners of the the bodhisattva whereas the byfollowing path (bodhisattva-yana), is to becomearahants the goal of HTnayana practitioners by following Hearer or of the the Buddha's In demonpath disciples(riavaka-yina). the oversimplifications inherent in thismodel,thisarticle will strating the and of the bodhisattva in ideal Theravada investigate presence scope and practice. Buddhist theory issuessurrounding theMahdyana-Hinayana By raising opposition, I am not suggesting thatdistinctions cannotbe made behowever, tweenthetwovehicles, noram I proposing to do awaywith theterms in exploring theoversimplifica"Mahayana"and "Hinayana."Rather, tionsinherent intheMahayana-HTnayana itis myintention dichotomy, to replacethetheoretical modelthatidentifies (1) MahayanaBuddhism with thebodhisattva-yana and (2) HTnayana Buddhism with thesravakawith a model that is more of the two vehicles.In yina representative ofthis as isJohn Holt's ofthe article, doingso, theimplied purpose study ofAvalokiteivara inSriLanka, isto "raisequestions place and relevance of Buddhism the veryutility of the terms among students regarding historical constructs"' added). (emphasis Before to thepresence and scope ofthebodhisattva ideal in turning Theravada Buddhism schoolofHTnayana it (theonlyextant Buddhism), be beneficial to the sources that the may investigate briefly identify withMahayanaBuddhism and the?ravaka-yana with bodhisattva-yana
Mahayana ... and Theravada as designating whollydistinctive religio-

Volume 3 47, Number 1997 July

399-415

East & West Philosophy

HTnayana Buddhism. Instead of looking at how this model is appro- ? 1997 of three byUniversity priated by scholars of Buddhism,I will turnto the writings of Hawai'iPress in Buddhists which this bifurcation is suggested. Mahayana

399

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

threereasons. First, the dichotomy presentedby both Asanga and Candrakirti sets up an oppositionbetween an ideologyand an institutional affiliation. Rather than comparingan ideologywithan ideology(bodhiEast sattva and or a Buddhist school withanotherBuddhist drivaka) school, Philosophy &.West 400

One ofthefirst Buddhists who identifies thebodhisattvaMahayana with Buddhism the and withHTnayana yina Mahayana sravaka-yina Buddhism In his Precious is Nagarjuna. Garland ofAdvicefor theKing asks "Since all the (Rijaparikatha-ratnamilTh), Nagarjunarhetorically deeds and dedications of were in Bodhisattvas not aspirations, explained theHearers' how then could one become a Bodhisattva vehicle, through itspath?"2 writes that of Inanother "[IntheVehicle instance, Nagdrjuna the Hearers] Buddhadid notexplainthebases fora Bodhisattva's enWhile Nagarjuna the sravaka-yina withthe lightenment."3 compares in these two first he later states that "the bodhisattva-yana passages, based on the in deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentioned subjects the [HTnayanal third that satras."4 passage,then, Nagarjuna's suggests bodhisattvas are found in texts and subjects concerning only Mahayana areabsent from all Hinayana texts. Another to upholda Mah5ydna-Hinaydna disMahayanaBuddhist tinction basedon a bodhisattva-srivaka isAsaiga.As Richard opposition S. Cohen illustrates,5s in his that Asahiga posits, Mahjyinasotralamkinra, theGreat Vehicle and theHearers' Vehicle aremutually Their opposed.6 natureincludesintention, (i.e., contradictory teaching, employment is based entirely on merit and knowledge), and (which means), support the timethatit takesto reachthe goal.7 After discussesthe Asahiga of thesetwo vehicles, he thenidentifies the sravakaopposingnature as the lesser vehicle and remarks that the lesser vehicle yina (Hinayana), is notable to be thegreat vehicle(Mahayana).8 hTnam) (ydnam is yetanother who viewstheMahaCandrakTrti Mahayanathinker the as and Canyana opposed.LikeAsariga, HTnayana beingmutually drakirti uses the bodhisattva-gravaka distinction to separate Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism as well as to promote theMahayana tradition over and againstHTnayana In his Madhyamakivatira, Buddhism. for he remarks thatthe lesservehicle (HTnayana) is the path instance, reserved and solitary and that thegreater buddhas, solelyfordisciples vehicle(Mahayana)is the path reserved Not solelyforbodhisattvas. withMahayana associatethe bodhisattva-yina only does CandrakTrti he also clings to thebelief that theHinayana schoolsknow Buddhism, the of of the career of the perfect the future Buddha, nothing "stages virtues the resolutions or vows to save all the creatures, (paramiti), totheacquisition ofthequality ofBuddha, ofmerit [and]the application forCandrakTrti (as forNagarjuna), words, great compassion."'In other theHinayana tradition does notpresent a bodhisattva doctrine. The points are for raised these Buddhists by Mahayana problematic

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

this contrasts one ideology the opposition (arahantship through following an In institutional affiliation with sravaka-ydna) (MahayanaBuddhism). fora moreaccurate distinction to be constructed, we must order then, either thebodhisattva-yana with thesravaka-yina, or compare compare a Mahayana a HTnayana Buddhist schoolwith Buddhist school. with Another the ideas forth problem put by Nagarjuna, Asanhga, and CandrakTrti concerns their that statements and HTnayana Mahayana Buddhism are mutually and exclusive. These assertions contradictory undermine thefact that theterms and to "HTnayana" "Mahayana"refer numerous schoolsand thatthecategory of "Hinayana"includes even a number of "proto-Mahayana" schools (e.g., the Mahasafrghikas).10 theterms these Byusing "Mahayana"and "HTnayana" monolithically, thinkers of and that are the doctrines, ignore plurality goals, paths presentintheschools. The third inherent in thestatements of thesewriters, and problem whichwillbe thefocusof thisarticle, is that assumethatall folthey lowers ofthe Hinayana are sravakas to become arahants while striving all followers oftheMahayanaare bodhisattvas on thepathto buddhatheexample hood.As we shallsee through oftheonlyextant HTnayana thisis clearly notthecase. school,theTheravadin tradition, thebodhisattva-sravaka Before as it is preopposition reevaluating it is sentedby Nagarjuna, and first to necessary CandrakTrti, Asafiga, thepresence ascertain and scope ofthebodhisattva ideal inTheravada Buddhism. Thiswillbe accomplished at thepresence ofthe by looking ideal intheTheravada Buddhist as wellas byinvesPalicanon(theory) howthesame ideal permeates thelivesofTheravada Buddhists tigating (practice). Thepresence ofthebodhisattva idealintheTheravada Buddhist Pali restricted to GotamaBuddha.The use of the term canon is primarily "bodhisattva" occursina number ofthesottas (Skt: satra)intheMajjhiand where the Buddha is purported ma, Anguttara, Samyutta NikJyas to havesaid:"Monks, before and I while was my Awakening, yetmerely theBodhisatta notfully-awakened...."" In addition [Skt: bodhisattva], life ofGotama, to referring to thepresent theterm "bodhisattva" is also used in relation to thepenultimate life ofGotamainTusita (Pali:Tusita) as wellas hisconception and birth.12 heaven, In later canonicaltexts, the bodhisattva ideal is further developed and associatedwithnumerous These developments (which concepts. include theconcept ofa bodhisattva "into vow)maybe saidto introduce TheravadaBuddhism whatin Mahayanastudies has been called 'the

ideal.' "13 In the SuttaNip~ta,forexample, theterm"bodhiBodhisattva sattva" refers to the historicalBuddha priorto his enlightenment and a set on In the bodhisattva ideal addition, signifies being Buddhahood.14 Samuels in this text is also associated with the quality of compassion. This is Jeffrey

401

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

remark to Gotama's father (Suddhodana) exemplified bythesage Asita's "will that theyoung come to the fulfillment ofperfect bodhisattva-prince ... [and]willstart outofcomthewheelofTruth Enlightenment turning for the of passion well-being many."15 In yetanother canonicaltext, the Buddhavamsa, the bodhisattva the ideal ideal is developedto the greatest extent. bodhisattva Here, who makesa vow to becomea fully and refers to an ideal personage of buddha out (sammisambuddha) compassion completely enlightened for all sentient who performs various actsofmerit,17 and who beings,16 In the receives a prophecy ofhisfuture buddhahood.18 addition, bodhisattva in the Buddhavamsa makesa vow to becomea bodhidepicted is within sattva the attainment of arahantship reach.Thisis onlyafter in in While was lying the chronicle of Sumedha. Sumedha portrayed to walk on, the mudand offering his bodyto the BuddhaDTpankara here? Whatis the use whileI (remain) unknown of realizing dhamma with I will a in the world reached become Buddha omniscience, Having thedevas."19 Another idea that arisesinconjunction with thebodhisattva ideal is theneedtocomplete a number ofbodhisattva this (piramitj); perfections can be found in theBuddhavamsa mostclearly and theCariydpitaka.20 In thesetwo texts, ten perfections are delineated, as opposed to six in described certain texts perfections Mahayana (e.g.,theAstasJhasrikiandtheRatnagunasamcayagathd). TheBuddhavamsa Prajiap-ramitisOtra and the Cariyapitaka also discusshow each ofthetenperfections may a be practiced at three different levels:a regular degree, degree, higher ofcompletion. and an ultimate degree in theconceptof three of perfection is suggested Though degrees the Cariyapitaka the idea in moredetail, the Buddhavamsa,21 explores the with the of first (dana). To example especially paramitd-giving in the how the of was completed exemplify perfection giving(dana) we find ofhowthebodhisattva lowest stories gave peoplefood; degree, to mendicants; his own sandalsand shade; an elephant; wealth; gifts and even his memand own drink; beds, food, family clothing, offerings; inthemiddle To illustrate howthesame perfection was fulfilled bers.22 suchas we readhowthebodhisattva parts degree, gaveawayhisbodily ofgiving was hiseye.23 Andfinally, to demonstrate howtheperfection in the highest we find a story of how thebodhisattva fulfilled degree, whenhe was a hare.24 gave awayhisown life InthePalicanon,theterm "bodhisattva" is also used inreference to otherprevious in the Mahipadinasutta of the buddhas.Forinstance,
Sumedha thought: today. "lf I so wished I could burnup mydefilements

DTghaNikcya,the notionof past buddhas (and hence past bodhisattvas) is elucidated. In the beginningof this sutta,the six buddhas who preEast & West ceded Gotama are mentioned as well as their Philosophy names,theeons when they 402

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

and taught), became buddhas(i.e., whentheyattained enlightenment their life trees where attained entheir the their caste, clan, they span, the number of their their and attendants, disciples, personal lightenment, their the livesof thesesix buddhas, After parents.25 briefly outlining ofthefirst Gotamabegins an in-depth recollection from buddha, VipassT, inTusita he dispersed hismonks for thepurpose hislife heavenuntil of In this the the Buddha not refers to narration, only spreading teachings. as a bodhisattva,26 butalso takes thelife VipassT up to hisenlightenment events ofVipassi as theexample for all future bodhisattvas and buddhas, Gotamahimself.27 (retroactively) including Another sectionof the sutta-pitaka wherethe term "bodhisattva" to each ofthesixprevious buddhas is theSamyutta pertains Nikiya.For in thefourth ofthesecondbook,we find section thephrase instance, "To Vipassi, Exalted BuddhaSupreme, before brethren, One, Arahant, his enlightenment, while he was yet unenlightened and Bodhisat[ta], therecame thisthought...."Thissame phrase, then,is used in conwiththeother fiveprevious buddhasin thefollowing verses: junction and Sikhi, Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Kondgamana, Kassapa.28 Whilemost oftheuses oftheterm "bodhisattva" concern Gotama Buddhaand the numerous buddhaswho precededhim, there are also in the Pali canon to the possibility references of future buddhas(and hence bodhisattvas). For example,in the Cakkavatisrhanddasutta of the DTgha the Buddha foretells of the future when "an Exalted Nikiya, One namedMetteyya [Skt:Maitreya], Arahant, FullyAwakened[i.e., in wisdomand goodness, with sammdsambuddha], abounding happy, of the as a to mortals to worlds, knowledge unsurpassed guide willing be a teacher for and and Exalted a evenas I led, men, One, Buddha, gods am now,"willarise.29 is theonlyfuture buddhamentioned Though Maitreya specifically, thepossibility ofattaining buddhahood is notrestricted to him.In solely the SampasidanTyasutta of the DTghaNikiya, forinstance, is Sariputta "In to have said: the of the Exalted One have I heard professed presence in future timestherehave been, and will be otherSupreme Buddhas to himself in the matter of Thus, [i.e.,Gotama] equal Enlightenment."30 no longeris the term"bodhisattva" used solelyin conjunction with withother and withMaitreya; thebodhisattvaGotama, pastbuddhas, as a possible, albeitdifficult, who ydnais regarded pathopen to anyone desires buddhahood. This moreexpandeduse of the term"bodhisattva" is explicitly
him say and fromhim have received, that ... in times gone by and

expressed in the Khuddakapitha.In the eighthchapterof thiscanonical text(theNidhikandasutta), thegoal of buddhahood is presented as a goal thatshould be pursuedby certainexceptional beings.After demonstratSamuels ing the impermanenceand uselessness of accumulating and storing Jeffrey

403

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

material or treasures, the suttamentions another possessions typeof treasure is morepermanent that and whichfollows to from birth beings birth. Thistreasure results from abstinence (ddna), giving morality (sTla), and restraint This fulfills all treasure leadsto (dama). desires, (samryama), a rebirth in a beautiful one to become of a enables body, sovereign and a in realm and leads to rebirth the human country spouse, loving whichliberation is possible).Moreover, the qualities of charity, (from and restraint lead to thewisdom whichproduces the virtue, abstinence, or "blissof Extinguishment" ofeither comarahants, pratyekabuddhas, We read: buddhas. pletely enlightened theperfections ofa NobleDisrelease ofmind, Discriminating knowledge, the of a Silent Buddha a Buddha) (of [i.e., ciple Enlightenment sJvaka-paramr], andtherequisites for budBuddhahood [i.e., [i.e., (Supreme) paccekabodhi] Thereallthese canbe obtained (treasure).... dhabhomi], bythis (qualities) ofmeritorious fore wiseandeducated men the actions.31 praise acquisition and the pathto the thatthe goal of buddhahood Thissuttaillustrates withspeno associated are simply longer goal (i.e., bodhisattva-ydna) is one of buddhahood cificbuddhasof the past and future; rather, threepossiblegoals thatmay be pursuedby "wise and educated" people.32 folthe idea thatanyonemaybecome a buddhathrough Though in Theravada is the Buddhist the onlypresent lowing bodhisattva-yana to have been taken Pali canon in seed form, it appears,nonetheless, in is illustrated the livesof numerous Theravadins. This by seriously textual who have takenthe Theravadin and copyists kings,monks, to theeventual vow and arefollowing thebodhisattva-yina bodhisattva attainment ofbuddhahood. sourceinthe and bodhisattvas has its Therelationship between kings notonlyin his lifeas Prince bodhisattva careerofGotamaas depicted life but also in his penultimate Siddhartha (Pali: Siddhattha), earthly exthebodhisattva As King whenhe was King Vessantara. Vessantara, Forinstance, ofgiving. hiscompassion theperfection hibited byfulfilling to alleviatea we findthatthe bodhisattva gave away his elephant in his his and drought nearby Kaliniga, wealth, kingdom, his wifeand and was even willing to giveaway hisown lifeout of comchildren, other passionfor beings. theinstitubetween the for theclose association Though paradigm came from Gotamawhenhe was a tionof kingship and buddhahood itwas quickly bodhisattva, bythesecond kings adoptedbyTheravadin C.E.In the B.C.E. and fully after theeighth century century incorporated

early examples, we find the relationshipdrawn between kings and bodhisattvasin numerous,albeit tempered,ways. For instance, King East & West to enter exhibitedthe qualityof compassion by refusing Philosophy DuttagamanT

404

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

so that life as an ascetic(simanera) after hisprevious theheavenly realm ofSriLanka theregional rulers as a prince and unite he couldbe reborn as wellas helpdevelopthesangha andtheBuddha's teaching.33 Though in a the he is not referred to as bodhisattva Mahavamsa, DuttagamanT a as bodhito demonstrate certain bodhisattvic Just qualities. appears of an arahant so thathe could be renounces theenlightenment sattva in world out countless times this of impermanence and suffering reborn renounce ofcompassion for all beings, the so,too,did King DuttagamanT ofthedevasinorder to return tothis world ofsuffering for thesake world oftheBuddhist and outofcompassion for all inhabitants on the doctrine island ofSriLanka. Similar are exhibited examplesof bodhisattva-like compassion by who is said to have risked his life to save the KingSirisamnghabodhi, a devastating inhabitants of Sri Lankafrom and who even drought34 hisown head in order to divert a potential Budoffered war;35by King dhadasa,who created"happiness by everymeansforthe inhabitants ... endowedwith virtue thetenqualities ofkings [i.e.,theten [i.e.,sTla],
of the island ... [and who was] giftedwith wisdom [i.e., panf-ld] and rajadhammas],... [and] lived openly before the people the life that

bodhisattas for(all) beingsas a father lead and had pity (has pity for) his children";36 and especially who fulfilled theten by KingUpatissa, bodhisattva hisreign.37 during perfections the the between theinstitution C.E., amalgamation By eighth century ofkingship At and bodhisattvas becameevenstronger. this we find time, inSriLanka, evidenceofcertain Theravadin and Thailand Burma, kings who openlydeclared themselves to be bodhisattvas. Forexample, King Malla "I that NiSSanka states (1187-1196 C.E.)of Polonnaruva, Ceylon, willshowmyselfin my[true] benevolent bodywhichis endowedwith for and attachment tothevirtuous ofa bodhisattva regard qualities king, who likea parent, In the world and the other protects religion."38 epithereis a reference to KingParakramabahu VI as graphical markings, "Bodhisatva the conflation of kings [sic] Parakrama Bahu."39Finally, and bodhisattvas on theislandofSriLankais established most strongly Mahinda who not to himself referred as a bodhisattva as IV, King by only a result of his bodhisattva-like resolute butwho even determination,40 went so far as to proclaim that "nonebutthebodhisattas wouldbecome ofprosperous Lanikd."41 kings In Burma, therelationship and bodhisattvas between is exemkings with claimed himself who to be "the bodhisatva plified Kyanzittha, King become a Buddhathatsaves (and) redeems all [sic],who shall verily

all beingsat all times... beings,who is greatin love (and) compassionfor who the who is to become a true was foretold Lord Buddha, by [and] Buddha."42 In anotherinstance,KingAlaungsithu wrotethathe would Samuels liketo build a causeway to help all beings reach "The Blessed City[i.e., Jeffrey

405

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in the future so that he will complete the ten bodhisattvaperfections the become a buddha and liberate"the whole worldwithitsgods from & West East ... [and] guide themto the most excellent Philosophy bondage of repeated births

SriTribhuvanaditya, Finally, kings Marh, nirvana]."43 Thiluiri CafisOI, and Natonfmyd all referred tothemselves as bodhisattvas.44 In Thailand, a similar connection is drawn. One exampleofa Thai is Lu T'ai of who Sukhothai "wishedto become a bodhisattva-king Buddhato helpall beings... leavebehind thesufferings oftransmigration."45The relation betweenKingLu T'ai and bodhisattvahood is also manifested at hisordination that bytheevents ceremony occurring in the careerof a weresimilar to "theordinary courseof happenings Bodhisattva.''46 Whileitmaybyargued that thesebodhisattva wereinfluenced kings whentheyappropriated certain bodhiby certain Mahayanadoctrines the this sattvic or took bodhisattva does not invalidate the vow, qualities in between and bodhisattvas Theravada Buddhism. relationship kingship a link between thesebodhisattva and maybe established kings Though this that does notdismiss thefact thebodhisattva Buddhism, Mahayana or thatthe bodhisattva ideal was takenseriously by Theravadin kings Buddhist and idealhas a place inTheravada Moreover, theory practice. while it maybe possibleto positthatthesekings were influenced by it is impossible to demonstrate thatthese kings Mahayanaconcepts, wereonlyinfluenced Buddhism; justbecausea king may byMahayana not that have been influenced ideas does mean certain by Mahayana the ideas of a bodhisattva as foundin the Theravada ideas,including and Cariyapitaka, werenotequallyinfluential. Buddhavamsa is also The presence ofa bodhisattva ideal inTheravada Buddhism who the of other Theravadins have numerous by examples represented as eitherreferred to themselves or have been referred to by others forexample, bodhisattvas. The celebrated commentator Buddhaghosa, of the Anuradhapura as being, was viewedby the monks monastery of Metteyya.47 Thereare even some without doubt,an incarnation their desireto become instances of Theravadin monks who expressed For the buddhas. bhikkhu, instance, twentieth-century fully enlightened of Sri Lanka(ca. 1900), after of beingdeemed worthy Doratiydveye his meditation refused certain secret teacher, receiving teachings by to practice suchtechniques because he felt thatitwouldcause himto inthis thelevelofarahant lifetime orwithin enter on thePathand attain a sottipanna). Thiswas unacceptable to sevenlives(i.e., by becoming who had he saw himself as a bodhisattva because already Doratiy~veye inthefuture.48 madea vowto attain buddhahood Theravadin Thevowto becomea buddhawas also taken bycertain of the on textual and authors. The author IJtaka commentary the copyists concludeshis workwiththevow to (the1Jtakattakath3), forexample,

406

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

ofa Theravadin author Another who and tranquil Nibbdna."49 example is the the bodhisattva-ydna wishedto become a buddhaby following In histwelfth-century SriLanrkan monkMaha-Tipitaka subCOlabhaya. of King he "wrotein thecoloon the Questions Milinda, commentary phon at the end of the workthathe wishedto become a buddha: BuddhoBhaveyyam "50 'May I becomea Buddha.' A Reevaluation oftheBodhisattva-Srjvaka Opposition While manycanonical uses of the term"bodhisattva" refer to Gotamaprior to hisattainment ofbuddhahood, inother canonicaltexts the term a beingwho, out of (such as the Buddhavamsa), designates forother vows to become a fully and completely compassion beings, buddha various actsofmerit, enlightened performs (sammrsambuddha), renounces the enlightenment of arahants, receivesa prophecy of his future and fulfills or the ten bodhisattva buddhahood, completes perfecInaddition, tions. thebodhisattva idealwas also developed interms ofits Notonly doestheword "bodhisattva" toGotama and application. pertain all previous buddhasbefore their it also to enlightenment, applies any thepathto perfect buddhahood. Thisnew beingwho wishesto pursue in resulted a more adherence to theidealbynumerdevelopment general ous Theravadin textual and even laypeople.51 monks, scholars, kings, The presence and scope ofthebodhisattva ideal inTheravada Buddhist and to belie then, theory practice, appears Nagarjuna's, Asafiga's, and CandrakTrti's claimsnotonlythat the"subjects based on thedeeds of Bodhisattvas werenotmentioned inthe [HTnaydnal butalso satras," thatthe lesservehicle(HTnayana) knowsnothing of the "stagesof the careerof the future the perfect virtues the resoBuddha,52 (piramiti), lutions or vows to save all creatures, the application of merit to the of the quality of Buddha,[and] the greatcompassion." In acquisition thepresence ofa developedbodhisattva doctrine in the Budaddition, and the Cariyapitaka also calls intoquestion thecommonly dhavamrsa held belief that thebodhisattva ideal underwent doctrinal develmajor in earlyMahayanaBuddhism; there are numerous similarities opments betweenthe bodhisattva ideal as foundin the Buddhavamsa and as in certain found Buddhist texts such as the early Mahayana RatnagunaBothofthesetexts, forinstance, the need for samcayagithi.53 express the completion of certain the importance of bodhisattva perfections, a vow to become a buddha,the notion of accumulating and making fortheattainment merit of buddhahood, the roleof compasapplying of certain bodhisattva sion,and theimplicit presence stages.

Even thoughthe bodhisattvaideal did not undergosubstantial doctrinaldevelopmentsbetween the latercanonical textsand certainearly of itsapplication. Whereas Mahayanatexts,itwas developedin terms Samuels the goal of becoming a buddha becomes the focus of the Mahayana Jeffrey 407

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

thisgoal remains in theTheravadin tradition. tradition, de-emphasized In other the in bodhisattva ideal Buddhism words, although Mahayana becomesa goal that is appliedtoeveryone, thesameidealinTheravada is reserved for Buddhism theexceptional Thisdistinction is deperson. scribed Rahula: byWalpola the Theravadins believe that canbecome a bodhisattva, anyone Though they or insist that become isnot do not must a bodhisattva-this stipulate everyone considered tobe reasonable. todecide which to individual Itisuptothe path of of that the that of the or that the take, Sravaka, Pratyekabuddha, Samyaksambuddha [i.e.,sammisambuddha].54

In The stateof buddhahoodis highly praisedin bothtraditions. thispraise for and focuson theidealofbuddhaMahayanaBuddhism, in a vastamount of literature centered on thebodhihood has resulted on the other sattvaideal. In the Theravadin tradition, hand,the high for has never led to a universal ofthe buddhahood application regard in whichthe in a vast amountof literature goal, nor has it resulted is As K. R. "The Budbodhisattva delineated. Norman concept posits: is therefore a Bodhisattva but doctrine, itwas not developed dhavarmsa in even the Abhidharma."55 further, developed Theseabove-mentioned differences between thetwotraditions are from essential and are a useful meansto distinguish Theravada MahaRather thansimplyidentifying the bodhisattva-yana yana Buddhism. withthe variousMahayanaschools and the sravaka-yfna withthe schools(as does theold model, which the numerous illustrates HTnaydna ideas put forth and CandrakTrti), the revised Asanrga, by Nagarjuna, that theoretical modelmaymore thedifferences exist accurately portray thetwoydnas to Buddhism as a vehicle between byreferringMahayana inwhich thebodhisattva idealis moreuniversally andtoTheraapplied, vida Buddhism as a vehiclein whichthebodhisattva ideal is reserved forand appropriated by certainexceptional people. Put somewhat the the while and differently, bodhisattva-ydna goal of buddhahood continues to be acceptedas one of three possiblegoals by followers of Theravada thissame goal becomesviewedas the only Buddhism, ofMahayanaBuddhism. Hence,itshould acceptable goal byfollowers the is not be stressed that thechangeintroduced traditions by Mahayana butrather so much an invention ofa newtype ofsaint ora newideology, itinto a taking ofan exceptional idealand bringing prominence.56 NOTES An earlier of thisarticle at theAmerican Acadversion was presented West East & in 1995. Plains of Mountains-Great Philosophy Region, April emy Religion, Rocky 408

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in itscompletion. I wouldlike Numerous peoplehavebeen instrumental and to thank Robert JoseCabez6n, Lester, ReginaldRay forreading on how it might be the rough and making valuablesuggestions drafts fortheir I also wish to thank the two anonymous readers improved. I would like to thankmy wife, comments and suggestions. Finally, in all stagesoftheproF. Bossut, forherdirect involvement Benedicte for her duction ofthis editorial article, errors, especially suggestions. Any that theresponand inaccuracies aresolely remain, however, oversights, oftheauthor. sibility 1 - John in theBuddhist C. Holt,Buddhain theCrown: Avalokitesvara Traditions ofSriLanka(New York: Oxford Press, 1991), University viii-ix. pp. 2 - Nagdrjuna, Precious Garland ofAdvice for theKing and theSongof theFourMindfulnesses, trans. and LatiRimpoche, Jeffrey Hopkins The Wisdomof TibetSeries,no. 2 (London:GeorgeAllenand Unwin, 1975),v. 390. 3 -Ibid., v. 391.
4 - Ibid.,v. 393.

5 - RichardS. Cohen, "DiscontentedCategories:HTnayanaand of theAmerican Journal Mahayanain IndianBuddhist History," of 63 2-3. (1) (1995): Academy Religion pp. 6 - Asanrga, trans. Surekha BibMahjyanasCitralamrnkra, VijayLimaye, liothecaIndo-Buddhica PubSeries,no. 94 (Delhi: Sri Satguru lications, 1992),1 :9.
7 - Ibid., 1 : 10.

8 - YanamhTnam hTnam eva tatna tanMahjydnam bhavitum arhati Theidentification oftheHTnayana schoolsofBuddhism with (ibid.). the?ravaka-yina madebyAsariga hasbeenadopted certain later by Forinstance, HarDayal makes scholars. this same identification as follows: to thesethreekindsof bodhi,there are "Corresponding threeyanasor "Ways,"whichlead an aspirant to the goal. The third called the bodhisattva-yana, but it was ydna was at first The re-named other two subsequently mahd-yina. yanas(i.e.,the the and werespoken ofas the sravaka-yina pratyekabuddha-yjna) Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Liter(The Bodhisattva hTna-yana" ature[Delhi:Motilal The identification 11). Banarsidass, 1975], p. of HTnayana withthe sravaka-yana Buddhism is also made by in scholars likeLeonHurvitz, Scripture oftheLotus Blossom ofthe
Fine Dharma (New York:Columbia University Press,1976), p. 116, and M. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,1990), p. 1097.

Samuels Jeffrey 409

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

9 - Louis de La Vallie Poussin, in Encyclopaedia of "Bodhisattva," and Ethics York: Charles Scribner's (New Sons, 1913), Religion 8:334. 10 - AndreBareau,Les Sectes Bouddhiques du PetitV6hicule (Paris: Ecole Franpaise 1955). D'Extreme-Orient, 11 - "Pubbeva me,bhikkhave, anabhisambuddhassa bodhisambodhi, in whichtheword"bodhisattassa sato,edad ahosi." The suttas thisprelude sattva" follows are: Majjhima 1:17, 92, 114, Nikdya 163, 240; 2:93, 211; 3:157; Anguttara Nikiya3:240; 4:302, 438; and Samyutta 2:4; 3:27; 4:233; 5:281, 316. Unless Nikdya otherwise to theP5licanon are from the all references indicated, of the Text translation Pali Society. English 12 - Majjhima 2:108. 3:119-120, and DighaNikiya Nikdya 13 - Richard of Former Buddhasin the "The Significance Gombrich, in Theravadin Buddhist Studies Honourof Walpola Tradition," et al. (London: GordonFraser Rahula,ed. Somaratna Balasooriya 68. 1980), p. Gallery, The Sutta-Nipata 14 - H. Saddhatissa, (London:CurzonPress, trans., v. 683. 1985),
15 - Ibid.,v. 693.

thequalities ofmental 16 - Thevowto becomea buddhaincludes both determination and (i.e., manopanidhi) aspiration (abhinfharakatoattain buddhahood: toengageinthelongand arduous rana) path to complete and perfect (i.e., enlightenment sammrsambuddha). determination to becomea buddhais made Whereasthe mental to oneself and is analogousto the Mahayanaconceptof silently theaspiration is usually or "thought of Enlightenment," bodhicitta buddha.Though the mental made in the presence of an existing to becomea buddhaoccursonlyonce, theaspiradetermination in the presenceof mustbe repeated tionto attainbuddhahood to theBuddhaall subsequent buddhas(I. B. Horner, introduction oftheBuddha], SacredBooksoftheBuddhists, vamsa[Chronicles Theclearest vol. 31 [London: PaliTextSociety, 1975],pp. xiv-xv). 2A: 56 ff., in of a vow is found bodhisattva Buddhavamsa example thebodhisattva where Sumedha thought: ofmy is theuse ofmycrossing overalone,being a manaware What
I willcausetheworld with reached omniscience, together strength? Having of thedevasto crossover.Cutting the stream through shattering sarmsara, I willcause the in theshipof Dhamma, thethree becomings, embarking with over. world thedevasto cross

& West East Philosophy 410

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

17 - A list ofthevarious meritorious actsperformed to each byGotama ofthetwenty-four buddhas is delineated B. previous by I. Horner, in herintroduction to theBuddhavamsa, One example pp. xlixff. of a meritorious act performed fora Buddhacan be foundin the chronicle of Sumedha.When Sumedhaheardthatthe then buddha-DTpahkara-wasto pass along a road,he, as an act of to cleara section ofthepath: offered merit, I heard When zestaroseimmediately. Bud"Buddha," "Buddha, Saying there in mind, I dha" I expressed stirred elated, myhappiness. Standing "HerewillI sowseeds[ofmerit]; letnotthemoment indeed, reasoned, I myself for a Buddha, meonesection. will pass!Ifyouareclearing give the 2A:42 ff.). the direct androad" alsoclear (Buddhavamsa way, path was able to finish thesection oftheroadallotted Before Sumedha to him, arrived four hundred thousand accompanied by DTpahkara As a result ofnothaving finished histaskofpreparing the arahants. inthemudand offered hisbody himself road,Sumedha prostrated for on to DTpahkara (2A: 52-53). walking 2A: 61 ff.These developments 18 - See, forinstance, Buddhavamsa on thewaysinwhich theterm is havea great affect "bodhisattva" future Buddhais a Bodhisattva used.As Gombrich posits, "Any (by one formally but withthe appearanceof thistheory definition), a vow inthepresence ofa Budbecomesa Bodhisattva bytaking his prediction" of dha and receiving ("The Significance Former Buddhas," p. 68).
19 - Buddhavamsa2A: 54-55.

intheBuddhanumerous times are mentioned 20 - The tenperfections 2A: 117 for Buddhavamsa vamsa.See, ff., 4:14, 5:20, example, and 6:14. 1: 76-77, Sdriputta 21 - In Buddhavamsa asks the Buddhaabout his how thetenperfections. and he fulfilled He of process Awakening wiseone, leaderoftheworld, wereyour then asks:"Of whatkind, howthe How werethehigher tenperfections? fulfilled, perfections ultimate perfections?" 1 :1-1 :8 and 1 :9. 22 - Cariyapitaka
23 - Ibid., 1:8:2-3.

24 - Ibid.,1 :10:9, 1 :10:22-23.

25 - DTghaNikiya 2:1-7. when as a Bodhi26 - For instance,we find:"Now VipassT,brethren, sat[ta],he ceased to belong to the hostsof the heaven of Delight, descended into his mother'swomb mindfuland self-possessed" Samuels Jeffrey (DrghaNik;ya 2 :12). 411

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

27 - In manyof the following forinstance, we findthe paragraphs, "It is the ettha that...." (Ayam dhammati) rule,brethren, phrase usedto refer totheparadigm setbyVipassT. 28 - Samyutta 2:4 ff. Thesixprevious buddhas inthe mentioned Nikiya and are increased to and Samyutta Nikjyas Digha twenty-four even in to twenty-sevenlater texts suchas theBuddhavamsa. canonical Inyeta later canonical theApadjnaoftheKhuddaka-Nikiya, text, thenumber ofprevious buddhas increases to more than thirty-five. 29 - DighaNikjya3:76. 30 - Ibid., 3 :114. Though thepossibility for theexistence ofother future buddhasbeside Metteyya in is mentioned the Pali only briefly in other there are more Theravadin canon, texts, post-canonical specific references tofuture in bodhisattvas and buddhas. Forinstance, the Dasabodhisattuppattikathd, the Dasabodhisattaddesa, and in one recension oftheAnigatavamrsa Desand,theninebodhisattvas who willfollow inone recenare mentioned. Moreover, Maitreya sion ofthe Dasabodhisattuppattikathi, theplaces of we even find residence ofsevenofthetenbodhisattvas: Rama, Pasena, Metteyya, and Vibhbti are presently in heaven and Tusita Subhoti, residing are now in Tdvatimsa heaven.Thus, it N5lgiri, and Parileyya theTheravadin that tradition certain "celesappears acknowledges tial" bodhisattvas who are currently in various residing heavenly realms and notthat theonlyrecognized inTheravada bodhisattva Buddhism is Maitreya Yearsof Buddhist (Edward Conze, Thirty Studies: SelectedEssays Conze [Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, byEdward 1967],p. 38).
31 - Khuddakapitha8:15-16.

32 - Though theaccessibility ofthesethree goals to all beingsis only in mentioned the in the Upjsakajanjlainbriefly Khuddakapitha, with text all kara(a twelfth-century Pali ethics), dealing layBuddhist three of liberation are admitted ways clearly (HajimeNakamura, Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Notes[Osaka:Kufs Bibliographical Publication, 1980],p. 119).
33 - Mahjvamsa 22:25-41.

34 - Ibid., 36: 76. Thereis a remarkable between Sirisamparallel King who risked his life to a avert and ghabodhi, devastating drought, who his to avert a Vessantara, gave away King precious elephant in drought Kalifga.
35 - Mahavamsa 36:91 ff. The willingness to offer his own lifeto avert the potential of his to suffering subjectsappears have some originin West East & life the of who was willingto offer his lifeto fulfill Philosophy KingVessantara,

412

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

theperfection ofgiving. After on thebodhisattva-like commenting Holt ofKing nature John argues: "By hisactions, Sirisamghabodhi, of an the earthly, royal Sirisanghabodhi veryclearlycuts figure and almost a Mahayana at that"(Buddha bodhisattva bodhisattva, in theCrown, p. 59). 37:106 ff. 36 - Cilavamrsa, 37:180. 37 - Ibid.,
38 - Epigraphia Zeylanica, 2 : 76.

on pages68-69 ofthesame 39 - Ibid., 3:67. Thispassageis translated volume.

40 - Ibid., 1 :227. 41 - Ibid., 1 : 240. 42 - Epigraphia Burmanica,1 :146. 43 - P. M. Tin, "The ShwegugyiPagoda Inscriptions, Pagan 1141 A.D.,"

The oftheBurma Research Society 10 (2) (1920): 72. Journal

44 - T. Tun, "Religion in Burma,A.D. 100-1300," The Journalof the

42 (1959): 53. Burma Research Society

45 - E. Sarkisyanz, Buddhist of the Burmese Revolution Backgrounds 47. (TheHague:Martinus 1965), Nijhoff, p. intheReign 46 - B. W. Andaya, "Statecraft ofLuT'ai ofSukhodaya," in and Power in of ed. Thailand, Laos, Burma, Religion Legitimation Barwell L.Smith Associates, 1978), (Chambersburg: Conocosheague p. 13. 47 - CIlavamsa 37:242. In commenting on this story, Holt posits: to be associatedwithvisionsof perfected but he also kingship, seemsto have been continuously associated withthe ideal ofthe monk"(Buddhain theCrown, Budperfected p. 8). Eventhough was as an incarnation of he dhaghosa depicted being Metteyya, is neverdescribed as taking a bodhisattva vow and as practicing certain bodhisattva perfections. 48 - F. L. Woodward, A Manual of a Mystic: trans., Beinga Translationfrom thePaliand SinhaleseWork Entitled "The Yogavachara's Manual"(London: Oxford Press, 1916),pp. xvii-xviii. University
49 - H. Saddhatissa, The Birth-Stories of the Ten Bodhisattasand the Sacred Books of the Buddhists, vol. 29 Dasabodhisattuppattikatha, Samuels Text (London: Pali Jeffrey Society,1975), pp. 38-39. come "What this... seem[s] to suggestis thatnotonlydid Maitreya

413

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

50 - MilindaTfTk (PaliTextSociety), p. 73; quotedinWalpolaRahula, du bodhisattva le dans et le Mahayana," Theravada "L'ideal JournalAsiatique, 1971,p. 69. 51 - Thereis evidence that that certain in Sri suggests laypeople living Lankatookbodhisattva vows to attain buddhahood. Forexample, we find that twoSriLankans, after their children and wives freeing from dedicated the merit derived from these actions "for slavery, thebenefit ofall beings"(Epigraphia 4:133, nos. 1-4) Zeylanica, as well as to their own attainment of "Buddhahood as desired" a similar wishmade by a (ibid.,4:133, nos. 2-3). We also find who livedbetween thefifth and eighth centuries and "lay" person who sculpted orcommissioned thesculpting ofa rockintheshape of a stopa.The person thendedicated themerit accruedfrom his for of for of the benefit all and his attainment undertaking beings buddhahood. He writes: I be able,inevery torelive all the rebirth, merit, Bythis may succeeding oftheworld andtobestow [onhumanity]. complete happiness suffering I alsoalways] befull offorbearance andcompassion. [May attained tothat of state ofBuddhahood, hand I,with may my great supreme deliver from theextensive of compassion, suffering humanity quagmire nor the brackets the aremine). 3:161; neither samsira (ibid., ellipses One cautionary theseexamplesmustbe made. note concerning is evidence SriLankans Whilethere that certain tooka bodhisattva not that there is sufficient evidence to thesepeople vow, suggest Theravidins. were,infact, 52 While the conceptof the bodhisattva destages is not overtly in the Buddhavamsa, lineated it is implicit in thetext. The stages foundin the Buddhavamsa, the four though, closely resemble in outlined one section of the not the and tradiMahivastu, bhQmi ten in the tional stages found Sitra.Thesefour stages DasabhQmika intheMahivastu outlined are:(a) thenatural career (1 : 1 and46 ff.) in whicha bodhisattva a acquiresmerit (prakrti-caryi), by living alms to the and the buddhas; life, righteous giving sangha, honoring in whicha bodhisattva (b) theresolving stage(pranidhana-caryi), makes a vow to attainbuddhahood;(c) the conforming stage in whicha bodhisattva advancesto his goal by (anuloma-caryd), theperfections and finally, (d) the preserving fulfilling (piramitd); a is destined bodhisattva to bewhereby stage(anivartana-caryi), turn tobuddhahood. comea buddha andcannot backfrom thepath
East& West Philosophy 414 In the Buddhavamsa, these four stages are implicitin the an chronicleof Sumedha. For example, Sumedha first performed in the mud act of merit to the Buddha Diparnkara (natural by lying the foes,Mara ... and sin; and having By thismerit, may I vanquish

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

he thenmadea mental resolution to becomea buddhain career); the future he then examined (and workedon (resolving stage); thetenperfections he completing) (conforming stage);and finally, of buddhahood became assuredof the attainment by receiving from and by the occurrences a prediction of certain DTpanrkara that him to to events caused resolve attain buddhasupernatural totheMahdvastu, all of hood (preserving however, Contrary stage). in the are in thefour reached each Buddhavamsa implicit stages of lifetime of Gotama'sbodhisattva career and notovera number lifetimes. fourof my M.A. 53 - This pointis morefully developedin chapter WithSpecial "Bodhisattva Ideal in TheravadaBuddhism: thesis, of to the Stitra-Pitaka" Reference (University Colorado,1995). It contains the that whiletheBuddhavamsa however, maybe argued, associatedwiththe bodhisattva central doctrines ideal, thistext schoolsof influenced was heavily MahayanaBuddhist by certain is asserted this idea sometimes While (E. J.Thomas,The thought. and KeganPaul, of Buddhist [London: Routledge Thought History Infact, theoppo1953],pp. 147-148), ithas notbeen confirmed. made. This be also be site assertion may supported by the may a is For the of texts. example, though Buddhavamsa reladating Pali to certain scholars to the late addition canon,according tively "TheSignificance ofFormer Buddhas," p. 68, and (e.g.,Gombrich, A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism [Delhi:Motilal 19911, Banarsidass, the third to the second be from this text dated century may p. 298), that there Thisapproximate date is also supported B.C.E. bythefact whichhas been ofthis textin theMahivastu, is a parallel version of Indian B.C.E. datedto thefirst (Etienne Lamotte, History century totheSaka Era, trans. SaraWebb-Boin theOrigins From Buddhism: Orientaliste de Louvain, [Paris:L'Institute 1988], p. 158). Hence, theearliest theBuddhavamsa text, Mahayana mayactually precede the Ratnagunasamcayagithi (whichhas been datedby Conze to the first B.C.E.), century by at least one hundredyears. dans le Theravada et le 54 - Walpola Rahula,"L'ideal du bodhisattva Journal 1971,p. 69. Asiatique, Mahayana," in theCanonicalLiterature PaliLiterature: 55 - K. R. Norman, Including A of of All the Schools and Sanskrit Prakrit Buddhism, Hinayana OttoHarvol. 7, fasc.2 (Wiesbaden: of IndianLiterature, History 94. 1983), rassowitz, p.
Saints in India: A Studyof BuddhistValues 56 - ReginaldRay, Buddhist and Orientations (London: OxfordUniversity Press,1994), p. 251.

Samuels Jeffrey 415

This content downloaded from 193.2.8.229 on Sat, 26 Oct 2013 16:10:14 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions