Serial Murderers: The Construction Daniel Larson, University of Iowa Introduction The research question I have selected is:

What are the main sociological causes for deviant criminal behavior among serial illers!" I have chosen this question for my interest in the to#ic on the notion that criminology in whatever form seems to fascinate me$ The idea that there are #ersons out there who cannot only conceive of such malicious acts, but who can also act out on them with com#lete disregard for morality and consequence, has always bewildered me$ I do want to now what can #ossibly drive someone to such drastic measures, to go as far as illing another, to murder more than once, and sometimes to murder enough to fashion s ills for the tas with #assion and ease$ I have long nown that it would be dismissive to call a serial iller cra%y with evidence based only u#on the act of murdering itself, so there must be something dee#er$ I want to find out what those dee#er reasons are, maybe &ust so that I can relate myself in some way to the criminals$ 'ecause, if I now why the murders are committed, I can gain a better understanding of the world in which these deviants live$ (nd, for the rest of society, incite into the mind of a iller can bare great sociological significance$ If we as society now what causes the murders and why they occur, then our chances of nabbing the criminal much ahead of the game will surely increase$ )or, not only would it be #ossible to sto# the iller before the demise of many victims, but maybe, &ust maybe, these em#ty, aimless murders could even be #revented altogether$ (nd, before I can ma e a #ro#er analysis of e*isting theories, it will be necessary to define the serial murderer, and also to give a brief bac ground on the to#ic+s #revalence$ Defining the Serial Murderer The definition of serial murder is e*tremely s etchy$ ,any researchers of serial illing tend to define the offender on terms much too narrow for the #ur#oses of this #ro#osal$ (nd, it is im#ortant to note that these definitions arose at the time the idea of +serial murder+ was first coinedduring the ./01s$ Therefore, not only are these definitions lac ing a##lication to a diversity of illers, but they are outdated as well 23ager .//14$ )or this research #ro&ect, to include a larger number of sam#le sub&ects, the serial murderer is defined as someone, de#ending on the number of victims, #eriod of time, and reason for homicide, who ills more than four #eo#le in a seventy5two5 hour time frame 26en ins .//74$ This definition best suits a broad array of illers because it less5 readily classifies illers on the basis of motive and outcome$ (lso, because of the huge lac of information on serial murder 2which is also a good thing4, and because limited studies rarely reflect the #ro#er numbers and figures, larger sam#les would be much more hel#ful in order to reflect the entire genre as a whole$ This is, of course, the case in any study being conducted$ The Numbers The bac ground of serial murder is also ha%y$ 8ome theorists argue that serial murder was &ust as evidently an as#ect of the #ast as it is today, but that only recently has it become +larger than life+ because of the media+s #ortrayal 26en ins .//74$ 6en ins says 9(ll too often the most basic claims used to validate a #utative social #roblem rely on the historical amnesia of the assumed audience9 26en ins .//74$ :ere, 6en ins is showing that history is neglected because society would li e to believe that the #roblem of serial murder is new and threatening$ ;ther theorists, however, argue that serial murder is a more recent #henomenon$ :ere, 6en ins decides: 9In order for the cause of serial murder to be #laced on the shoulders of a changing society, it must be shown that the #roblem is recently in occurrence, an e#idemic$9 :e is right< a change in society cannot be blamed if

the #ractice of serial murder was also a thing of the #ast 26en ins .//74$ :ic ey states that since .//1, the last twenty years had seen a rise in murder and manslaughter rates of =11 #ercent$ :ic ey credits this rise mostly to domestic conflicts, but also notes that about one5third of all murders are committed by a stranger to the victim$ This stranger5to5stranger relationshi#, he says, can be attributed mostly to serial murder 2:ic ey .//.4$ 'ut, the li elihood of this can be dis#uted as well$ In contradiction, 6en ins finds that in any given year, serial murder accounts for only 1$1.> of total deaths in the United 8tates 26en ins .//74$ In account of these o##osing estimates, it seems li ely that a more accurate answer would fall somewhere closer to the figure 6en ins #rovides because stranger5to5stranger homicide can serve several a##licable motives$ (nd, according to the United 8tates government, the number of serial illers estimated to be o#erating at any one time in the U$8$ is =? 23ager .//14$ Thus, it seems that serial murder might not be on an e*treme incline$ 'ut, 3ager suggests also that murders of the #ast sometimes may have gone unnoticed, an e*am#le being that detectives may have been scattered over &urisdictions which were too large$ This creates the ambiguity in the numbers, but 3ager stresses that one thing is for sure: the number of +motiveless+ murders has gone u# indefinitely 23ager .//14$ The research that follows will focus on several theoretical influences 2e$g$, childhood4 and #ossible theories 2e$g$, the neutrali%ation theory4 that have been offered, with the ideal result being a cohesive guide to serial illers$ Research Raising a Killer 8ociali%ation is said to begin shortly after birth, as ty#ified by the wor of 8igmund )reud and @eorge :erbert ,ead$ These two men agree that early childhood e*#eriences bear a lasting im#ression on the individual unique #ersonalities that everyone develo#s 2'rym and Lie A11=4$ 8o, in accord with the theories of these two men, it is logical that studying the childhood of the serial murderer is of great, if not the greatest, significance$ The social learning theory, in s#ecific, is a theory that uses the childhood of serial offenders to identify the main, or only, reasons for causation$ The social learning theory e*amines the offender+s #ast for clues in e*#laining aggressive behavior$ The central theme of this theory is the relation of childhood victimi%ation or observation of violent acts to future activities in criminal behavior 2:ic ey .//.4$ (ccording to :ic ey, stress caused by childhood +traumati%ations+ may be a trigger to criminal behavior in adulthood$ It is im#ortant to understand that most #eo#le go through one or more of these traumati%ations with no lifelong effects$ :owever, in the future serial iller, the inability to co#e with the stress involved with these traumas leads to the offending acts$ :ic ey continues to say that the most common form of childhood traumati%ation is familial re&ection, while other traumas act as the icing on the ca ethey to# it off$ The claim that serial murder is a means to deal with the re&ection is the basis of :ic ey+s #ostulations 2:ic ey .//.4$ To #rove or dis#rove this theory, a study by )it%#atric and 'oldi%ar can be utili%ed$ The initial ob&ective of the study was to e*amine the relationshi# between e*#osure to violence in the community and #ost5traumatic stress disorder 2BT8D4$ Two hundred twenty5one low5income (frican5(merican youths between the ages of C and .0 were analy%ed who did not a##ear to have significant degrees in differences of e*#osure to violence$ Desults show that about AC> of these children met the diagnostic criteria required to be considered a sufferer of BT8D$ 'eing victimi%ed and witnessing violence were both shown to be significantly related to BT8D sym#toms, thus it can be argued that it is certainly #ossible that many serial murderers were e*#osed to or were victims of violence as youth in relation to stress itself 2)it%#atric and 'oldi%ar .//=4$ The #roblem with this study, however, is that the sam#le was non5random and largely s#ecific to the qualities each #artici#ant #ossessed$ This is a #roblem that cannot be overloo ed because, historically s#ea ing, serial murderers are #redominantly white males 2Tithecott .//C, 6en ins .//7, )o* and Levin .//7, @resswell .//7, :ic ey .//., and 3ager .//14$

The ne*t three studies e*amine how #hysical and se*ual abuse, or victimi%ation, #ossibly contribute to the cause of serial murder$ In a study underwent by 8wanston, et al$, signs of de#ression, low self5esteem, and #roblem behaviors were com#ared between children who were victims of se*ual abuse and non abused youths$ 8eventy5five children who had not ever been se*ually abused were evaluated then com#ared to si*ty5eight children who had been se*ually abused$ The abused were e*amined five years after their original investigations$ The results of the study showed that the #reviously abused children e*hibited much higher levels of behavioral #roblems and de#ression than the other, non abused, #artici#ants 28wanston, et al$ .//C4$ This result is consistent with the belief that serial murderers are more li ely to have been se*ually abused as children than the other children in their cohort$ The correlation e*ists because behavioral #roblems are fundamental in serial illers 2)o* and Levin .//74$ In the second study, se*ual abuse was also the ma&or focus$ This study was longitudinal and included AA7 males who rendered a history of se*ual abuse, the #ur#ose being to correlate se*ual abuse of children to the li elihood of se*ual abuse by the same children in adulthood$ The result showed that AE of the AA7 had committed se*ual offenses, and almost always toward children$ )urthermore, results show that most se*ually abused children do not become #edo#hiles, but that there is a relationshi# between childhood e*#erience and increased ris of becoming an abuser later in life 28alter, et al$, A11=4$ (s far as serial murder is concerned, the results are related, obviously, because +lust murderers+ are the e*treme cases of se*ual offenders 2:ic ey .//.4$ The third study related to childhood victimi%ation deals with child abuse, neglect, family #roblems, and #revalence of de#ression, substance abuse, and behavioral disorders$ The ob&ective was to determine whether young violent offenders and young #ro#erty offenders would differ in the above5mentioned areas of interest$ The conclusion stated that the results yielded no dramatic differences in the childhood e*#eriences, family #roblems, and #sychiatric diagnoses between both grou#s of offenders$ :owever, when the study was com#ared to a similar one conducted by Lewis, et al$, both results were consistent by stating that in homicidal offenders, abuse and re&ection were strong indicators of later offense 2:aa#asalo and :amalainen .//E4$ Thus it can be said with confidence that there is some reci#rocal evidence that :ic ey+s claim of re&ection is a quality frequently attributed to the cause of serial murder 2:ic ey .//.4$ )inally, according to a different study conducted by Doeder, Lynch, and Fagin, child5rearing #ractices were related to future criminal behavior$ In the study, data collection began on 71= males from London in ./E.5./EA, when the #artici#ants were eight years of age$ The men were followed for AA years, and during that time =E> were convicted of at least one crime$ The average number of convictions for the men in that #ercentage was 7$7$ The main #ur#ose of this case5study was to relate latent traits to individual covariates$ In essence, ,offitt+s theory of crime and delinquency was tested$ ,offitt+s theory contests that there are two ty#es of criminals: adolescent5limited offenders, and life5course5#ersistent offenders$ The latter category being attributed to antisocial behavior which has its origins in childhood due to #arental failure to #ro#erly sociali%e a difficult child, and also a set of neurological abnormalities that are attributed to the longevity 2Doeder, et al$ .///4$ The results of this study not only show an integration of childhood e*#erience in serial murder, but also #sychological as#ects, which will be a focus of the ne*t discussion$ Psychological Contributions When researching the sociological causes of serial murder, an understanding of the #sychological causes is a #rerequisite$ :owever, this does not im#ly that sanity is always at

question$ ;n the contrary, )o* and Levin find that serial illers 9 now right from wrong, now e*actly what they are doing, and can control their desire to ill, but choose not to do so$ They are more cruel than cra%y9 2)o* and Levin .//74$ Instead of the insanity #lea, it is found that serial murderers tend to be more socio#athic than anything$ 8ocio#aths, or #sycho#aths, are classified more as #eo#le with a disorder of character rather than the mind, and it is understood that an estimated => of all males in our society are considered socio#athic$ ,oreover, it is found that the insane are ty#ically not mentally able to carry out the act of murder let alone #lan one 2)o* and Levin .//74$ In fact, a #sychiatric assessment of nearly two thousand #ersons arrested for homicide between ./E7 and ./C=, only .> of that sam#le was considered to be insane 2:ic ey .//.4$ Thus, an e*amination of socio#athic behavior, or antisocial disorder, is a better a##roach to answer the #ro#osed sociological question rather than an overview of #sychoses$ The study of em#hasis here will be that of Lundy, Bfohl, and Gu#erman on one hundred and seventy #re adolescent children 2of which .=0 were male and =A were female4 admitted to the University of Iowa Bsychiatric :os#ital between ./C1 and ./0=$ The #ur#ose of the study was to determine if assaultive behavior in childhood could be #redicted by adult im#risonment and criminality in a biological #arent$ The results showed that A= individuals had #rison records during the follow5u# in .//1$ The more interesting as#ect of the results was that of these A= individuals, nineteen were diagnosed as having a #ersonality disorder$ (nd, of these nineteen, fifteen were noted to have antisocial #ersonality disorder, the remaining four sub&ects were described as having +mi*ed #ersonality disorder$+ (ll other #ersons having incarceration records demonstrated a diagnosis of substance abuse$ ;verall, among the #artici#ants, male gender, violence, and #arental criminality identified #ersons who were at ris for adult im#risonment$ ( ris factor for adult disturbance, including socio#athy, was #sychiatric hos#itali%ation in childhood 2Lundy, et al$ .//=4$ This outcome very clearly illustrates the fact that the socio#athic state ty#ically accrues criminal behavior$ 8o, s#ecifically related to the serial iller-the ing of criminals-socio#athy would a##ear to be a suitable attribution to these offenders$ With a different a##roach, a study by Deid, et al$ can be incor#orated$ The intention of this study was to identify demogra#hic, clinical, and forensic characteristics of adolescent 2./ years old and younger4 mass murderers-sub&ects who illed three or more victims in one event$ The method for research involved a set of criteria that each sub&ect was to follow$ (nd, the sub&ects were obtained by searching criminal com#uter databases to identify cases meeting the criteria$ The results of the case5study show that =7 sub&ects 2meeting the criteria4 committed AC mass murders between ./?0 and .///$ These results show also that all sub&ects were male with a median age resting at .C years$ ;ther observations were as follows: many were described as +loners,+ ty#ically having antisocial disorder, almost half were bullied, and alcohol and drug abuse among the sub&ects was common$ It is also interesting to note that less than a quarter of these young men had a #sychiatric history, and only E> were &udged to have been #sychotic at the time 2,eloy, et al$ .//.4$ These results are re#resentative of only adolescent mass murderers< however, they indicate what qualities and characteristics are frequent of illers in general, es#ecially when one considers the wor s of )reud and ,ead and their theories of childhood sociali%ation 2'rym and Lie A11=4$ )urther, the outcome does reflect a the same trend as the study by Lundy, Bfohl, and Gu#erman, that is socio#athy is evident in most murderers$ Serial Murder and the Social Control Theory (ccording to social control theorists, #eo#le do not commit crimes 2i$e$, murder4 because of their fear of #unishment< thus, #unishment, they believe, is a deterrent to committing crimes$ 'ut, fear of #unishment alone is not enough to deter criminal behavior$ It is believed that a sense of

belonging to society, family, and education aid in abstaining from deviance$ :owever, there is also a belief that youth can become either 9isolated or insulated from criminal influences through what are termed +containments+ including a #ositive self5image, ego strength, high frustration tolerance, goal orientation, a sense of belongingness, consistent moral front, reinforcements of norms, goals, and values, effective su#ervision, disci#line, and meaningful social role9 2:ic ey .//.4$ In ./E/ the social control theory was e*#anded to introduce four elements of social bonds which are attachment, commitment, belief, and involvement$ These are bonds that individuals can strengthen or wea en in relationshi# to society$ )or serial illers, it is said that they do not e*hibit these requisite ties to #eers, family, and community 2:ic ey .//.4$ ( study by Gier us and 'aer e*amined the attachment element of social bonds associated with social control theory$ ( sam#le of .,0/. children from the #rovince of ;ntario was e*amined to determine if the #arental attachment com#onent of social control theory could e*#lain the relationshi# between delinquency and family structure$ ( limitation of the data source was ac nowledged because a s#lit sam#le technique was utili%ed so that certain questions o#erationali%ed ey variables$ ( random half of the total was administered the o#erationali%ed test$ The findings show that family structure can be a significant #redictor of delinquency and that the #arental attachment com#onent of social control theory can #rovide a reasonable e*#lanation for why certain familial structures are related to delinquent behavior 2Gier us and 'aer A11A4$ These results, li e those discussed in the research on childhood, dis#lay that children who do not e*#erience attachment to their #arents, or are re&ected by their #arents, are highly more li ely to become criminals than those children who have e*#erienced #arental attachment$ The Neutralization Theory and the Desire to Kill The neutrali%ation theory is the homeostasis of #ersonal attitudes and values between conventional behavior and illegitimate behavior$ It suggests that #eo#le such as serial murderers occasionally drift toward illegal behavior and occasionally the o##osing direction-toward conventional behavior$ In order for murderers to rationali%e their moving toward violent actions they are required to a##ly their learned ways of neutrali%ation$ The techniques that illers use include denial-both of in&ury and of the victim, condemnation of the condemners, and the a##eal to higher loyalties$ 3ssentially, the techniques involved describe dehumani%ation, which is often re#resentative of serial offenders$ Though, there has been a basic #roblem with the neutrali%ation theory$ The #roblem is that it is e*tremely difficult to verify because one would have to be able to assert that the murderer neutrali%ed his moral beliefs before acting in a violent manner$ 'ut, the way it seems now, serial offenders who rationali%e their behavior tend to do it e* #ost facto, or after the fact that the deaths have already occurred 2:ic ey .//.4$ In a study by Landsheer, :art, and Go*, A,E// children and young adults 2.A5A?4 were administered questionnaires via #en5and5#a#er, and via oral e*amination$ The #ur#ose was to determine how delinquents and non delinquents would rationali%e criminal behavior on various levels of severity$ The results #ro&ected that both delinquents and non delinquents saw damage to a familiar victim or an acquaintance as im#ermissible, while only delinquents find that harming an un nown victim is #ermissible$ Thus, it was concluded that delinquents are influenced only by #ersonal reasoning and rationali%ation 2Landsheer, et al$ .//74$ This outcome shows that delinquents may commonly use the neutrali%ation theory to rationali%e their own im#ro#er behaviors$ :ence, serial illers, who are most certainly delinquents, may also ty#ically use the neutrali%ation theory to &ustify their actions$ The Labeling Theory: Social Cause

3rving @offman founded the labeling theory in ./E.$ (ccording to him, the labeling theory is considered to be a stigma attached to #ersons who have s#ent time in an institution such as a #sychiatric facility or #rison$ Labeling theorists consider the original deviant act to be the +#rimary deviance+ 2:ic ey .//.4$ The +secondary deviance+ is said to be any acts which result in the #erson falling victim to the label society #uts on him for his first deviance 2Lovaglia A11=4$ (ccordingly, being initially labeled a deviant, the offender is 9carried along in a societal #rocess of negative social sanctions that inevitably engender hostility and resentment in the offender9 2:ic ey .//.4$ :ic ey says that labels are most often a##lied to minorities and the #oor, but the fact that most serial illers are of at least middle5class socioeconomic standings and are white does not mean that the labeling theory can be dis#roved as causation for serial murder$ It is #lausible that negative labels created to differentiate between the rich and #oor, #owerful and the #owerless, and white and nonwhite have affected serial murderers$ It is unli ely that all serial illers destroy human life due to the labels they are stigmati%ed with$ :owever, labeling can create #sychological dis#arities between individuals$ 8tress and an*iety are the #sychological effects of labeling, which in turn feed the need to right the wrongs and restore balance$ Thus, 9labeling theory is not concerned with the origins of serial illers+ behavior but with the formation of the illers+ status as the result of e*#eriencing traumatic events during their formative years9 2:ic ey .//.4$ The results of a study conducted by (nderson and Walsh can be used to relate the labeling theory to serial murder$ In the study, .A. &uvenile offenders were #sychologically assessed between ./C/ and ./07 with a series of tests$ The children were .A5.? years old, including 07 males and =C females$ (fter /$/ years, all .A. &uveniles were followed u# and classified as either guilty of a serious offense, or not guilty of a serious offense as an adult$ The results show that E. of the sub&ects were guilty, and E1 were not guilty$ This means that &ust over half of the children were convicted of a serious offense as an adult after being a &uvenile offender$ This outcome can be related-even if only remotely-to the labeling theory because it identifies that more than ?1> of &uvenile delinquents #reviously labeled as offenders as children due to their #rimary deviance, later went on to commit a secondary deviant act 2(nderson and Walsh .//04$ :owever, it must be considered that the attribution of the secondary offense to the #rimary offense is definitely indirect$ The study would have needed to e*amine the reasons for which a second offense occurred in order to #rom#t a direct relationshi#$ 'ut, overall, it can, with some certainty, be said that the labeling theory correctly identifies the motives of at least some offenders$ Unfortunately, in s#ecific relation to serial murder, the labeling theory can neither be #roved nor dis#roved with these results$ Syndrome !: Theory Too !m"hatic#

The idea 98yndrome 39 attem#ts to e*#lain the correlation between the reason for which grou#s of common men ill innocent #eo#le, and disorders of the frontal brain$ ,oreover, it is an attem#t to e*#lain the conce#t of men remaining mentally sound as they become dulled ra#idly to the atrocities they commit during war or in civil and ethical conflicts$ The methods of forming the hy#othesis of 98yndrome 39 and #roving its e*istence lies in #ast research gathered from such grou#s as World War II @erman Bolice and the 8tandford Brison 3*#eriment$ (naly%ing the facts of such #ast instances shows that men between the ages of .? and ?1 years old are at high ris for the sym#toms described under the new term 98yndrome 3$9 8uch sym#toms include e*cessive ideation, re#etitive acts of violence 2the most #revalent4, ra#id desensiti%ation to violence, diminished affective reactivity, hy#er arousal, environmental de#endency, grou# contagion, and failure to ada#t to changing stimulus5reinforcement situations$ The #hysical evidence reflected by the brains of the #atients with 98yndrome 39 is similar in structure to the brains of individuals with obsessive5 com#ulsive disorder 2;HD4$ Desults from studies on World War II @erman Bolice show that 01> of these men became illers of women and children, suggesting that these men bear sym#toms of

98yndrome 39< on the other hand, only .15A1> of these men evaded active #artici#ation in the illing of these innocent victims 2)ried .//C4$ These results are im#ortant when attem#ting to answer the question of what the sociological causes for serial murders are, because 98yndrome 39 tends to #rovide a connection between the environmental and biological factors contributing to the deviant act coined serial murder$ The theory of 98yndrome 39 itself, however, is very s#ecific to serial murderers who usually commit their atrocities under the authority of a higher #ower$ 'ut, that is not to say that other illers-more commonly nown under the definition of the serial murdererdo not #ossess the qualities described by )ried here$ ;ther studies would be necessary to #rove or dis#rove the correlation of the theory of 98yndrome 39 with all serial murderers, but these studies have not been conducted$ Summary and Explanation The two sociological #ers#ectives that were used to conduct research and e*amine the results were symbolic interaction and functionalism because they both e*hibit fundamentals that can best answer the #ro#osed: 9What are the main sociological causes of deviant criminal behavior among serial illers!9 8ymbolic interaction would tend to focus on the symbolic meanings and reasons for which murder occurs$ ;ne a##roving of symbolic interaction might say that an unsteady relationshi# between two #eo#le or among a grou# of a few more #eo#le is the cause attached to the action of murder$ This means that the events leading to serial murder and how it is #erceived by the iller are the focal #oint for understanding criminal behavior$ 8ymbolic interaction also would suggest that the deviant himIherself creates the circumstances to which she or he must react$ This im#lies that after social 2or environmental4 factors are accounted for, the actual occurrence of murder is the result of a #sychological 2or biological4 decision: the sole decision of the individual to act out on internal aggression$ Therefore, symbolic interaction can be &ustified as a mi*ture of the two com#onents of the age5old question of Jnature vs$ nurtureK 2'rym and Lie A11=4$ When searching for the sociological causes for deviant criminal behavior, functionalism can also be an effective #ers#ective for conducting research$ The functionalist theory would li ely tend to e*amine how society wor s together to continue its survival, but also how individuals are commonly affected by becoming outcasts to the structural norm$ )unctionalism would suggest that society is maintained by the coo#eration of its individuals, but that any individual uncertain of hisIher own status and role may tend to deviate from what is considered socially acce#table$ (nalogous to how a criminal might deviate from the larger grou# of moral beings is the e*am#le of DF( transcri#tion$ (s DF( co#ies itself to #roduce new strands with the ultimate goal of ase*ual re#roduction, there are an uns#ecific number of strands that will contain mutations, or, deviations, if you will$ These mutations re#resent the criminals in the arbitrary Jdouble5heli*K world whereas serial illers re#resent criminals of the Jreal,K or sociological, world$ (nd, though DF( mutations are usually attributed to biological error, this is certainly not true of the criminal mind which is determined also by environmental factors-society, more than less 2'rym and Lie A11=4$ With these two #ers#ectives, many different as#ects of the cause of serial murder have been illustrated, including the childhood, the #sychological contributions, social control theory, neutrali%ation theory, labeling theory, and 98yndrome 3$9 The research in childhood showed that there is high li elihood that childhood victimi%ation andIor e*#osure to violence is #revalent in serial murderers 28alter, et al$ A11=, Doeder, et al$, .///, 8wanston, et al$ .//C, :aa#asalo and :amalainen .//E, and )it%#atric and 'oldi%ar .//=4$ The e*amination of the #sychological contributions to serial murder revealed that most serial illers are not #sychotic, but are usually considered socio#athic, or have antisocial disorder 2(nderson and Walsh .//0 and ,eloy, et al$ .//.4$ The results of the study on the attachment com#onent of social control theory made evident that familial

structures are related to delinquent behavior, and thus serial murder 2Gier us and 'aer A11A4$ The neutrali%ation theory suggested that many serial offenders move bac and fourth between conventional and illegitimate behavior while &ustifying their criminal actions by su##lementing dehumani%ation 2Landsheer, et al$ .//74$ The labeling theory study found that many &uvenile criminals 2about ?1>4 will commit crimes later in life, which can #artly be attributed to the stigma each &uvenile receives as a first5time offender 2(nderson and Walsh .//04$ )inally, 98yndrome 39 tries to e*#lain serial murder by lin ing biological and environmental factors that influence causation of the act 2)ried .//C4$ Thus, the research so far has incor#orated several different theories which all contribute to answering the #ro#osed sociological question$ (nd, because none of the #ro#osed theories have been dis#roved, it a##ears that all of them could be considered the correct answer to what causes serial murder$ :owever, it would be un&ust to #ic and choose among the to#ics discussed on the basis that e*clusion would result in failure to correctly analy%e the matter$ 8o, a guide to understanding the sociological causation of serial murder lies in the combination of several theories, as :ic ey states here: 98erial illers are influenced by many factors, not one, which snow5ball to create his or her e*istence9 2:ic ey .//.4$ To further e*amine the causes of serial murder, more research needs to be conducted in the field as the current resources have been e*hausted$ New Research The body of nowledge on serial murder is much too limited-but, in consideration, this is not a bad thing$ (s society we certainly do not want serial murder to occur more frequently, nor do we want it to occur at all$ 'ut, it does, and we need to ta e advantage of what we do now to bring us closer to a +cure$+ Thus far, information on serial murder has been more limited to s#ecific theories due to the lac of available research$ Desearch on serial murder needs to be e*tended in all areas in order for a better understanding to be gained on the causation of serial murder$ 8#ecific areas which I have found to be most incom#lete include a##licable research on the neutrali%ation theory, studies on the labeling theory in relation to serial murder, and the relevance of 98yndrome 39 as a cause$ Though, arguably enough, the lin to childhood e*#erience, #sychological contributions, and the social conflict theory could all be e*#anded as well$ This general lac of nowledge shows us that finding a cure to serial murder is unli ely, or very distant at best$ 3ach new study and new #iece of literature on the to#ic must then be ta en with a grain of salt to com#ensate for the uncertainty in such low numbers of offenders$ I would #articularly li e to see research that incor#orates several different theories on serial murder rather than &ust one or two$ I feel that each new theory added to the list should be tested with other e*isting theories to #rove or dis#rove whether it is a #lausible reason for serial offense$ Then, overall, the causes can be #in#ointed with much more accuracy$ (gain, current research has failed to #rovide the means by which to do this with any sense of conviction$ Annotated Biblio raphy (nderson, Laurence 3$ and 6ames ($ Walsh$ .//0$ 9Brediction of (dult Hriminal 8tatus from 6uvenile Bsychological (ssessment$9 Criminal $ustice and %eha&ior A?:AAE5A71$ This article hel#ed me to attem#t to #rove or dis#rove the labeling theory with res#ect to &uveniles who were found to have committed later offenses$ 'rym, Dobert 6$ and 6ohn Lie$ A11=$ Sociology 'our Com"ass for a Ne( )orld$ Hanada: Thomson Learning Inc$ This te*t hel#ed me a##ly the wor of 8igmund )reud and @eorge :erbert ,ead to

my discussion on childhood$ (lso, this te*t hel#ed me use two sociological #ers#ectives in conducting my research$ 3ager, 8teven ($< Dichard :$ Doney< David ($ )ord< 3ric W$ :ic ey< Genna Giger< and :arold Letter$ .//1$ Serial Murder n !lusi&e Phenomenon$ Few Mor , Few Mor : Braeger Bublishers$ This reference was es#ecially hel#ful in defining and researching the bac ground of serial murder$ )it%#atric , Gevin ,$ and 6anet B$ 'oldi%ar$ .//=$ 9The Brevalence and Honsequences of 3*#osure to Liolence among (frican5(merican Mouth$9 $ournal of the merican cademy of Child and dolescent Psychiatry =A:7A757=.$ This study related #ost5traumatic stress disorder to e*#osure to criminal violence, and was im#ortant because stress-or the inability to co#e with it-is said to be one of the causes of serial murder$ )o*, 6ames (lan and 6ac Levin$ .//7$ *&er+ill Mass Murder and Serial Killing !,"osed$ Few Mor , Few Mor : Blenum Bublishing Hor#oration$ This reference was im#ortant to my studies because it aided in understanding the #sychological contributions to the cause of serial murder$ )ried, It%ha $ .//C$ 98yndrome 3$9 The Lancet =?1:.07?5.070$ This article used a #ro#osed theory called 98yndrome 39 to e*#lain the cause of some serial murders$ The theory is certainly im#ortant to consider because it has not yet been dis#roved$ @resswell, David ,$ .//7$ 9,ulti#le ,urder: ( Deview$9 %ritish $ournal of Criminology =7:.5 .7$ This article hel#ed me to de#ict a more accurate #rofile of the multi#le murderer and also im#lemented many of the environmental, or sociological, reasons for which #eo#le ill$ :aa#asalo, 6aana and Tiina :amalainen$ .//E$ 9Hhildhood )amily Broblems and Hurrent Bsychiatric Broblems (mong Moung Liolent and Bro#erty ;ffenders$9 $ournal of the merican cademy of Child and dolescent Psychiatry =?:.=/75.71A$ This article allowed me to draw strong conclusions about the relationshi# between homicidal offenders and childhood abuse and neglect$ :ic ey, 3ric W$ .//.$ Serial Murderers and Their -ictims$ 'elmont, Halifornia: 'roo sIHole Bublishing Hom#any$ This was an e*tremely hel#ful reference$ It hel#ed me to identify different social theories which can be a##lied to serial murder$ 6en ins, Bhili#$ .//7$ .sing Murder The Social Construction of Serial /omicide$ Few Mor , Few Mor : (ldine de @ruyter$ 6en ins+ boo was a necessity in trying to establish the history of serial murder and the reasons for which I chose research on this to#ic$ Gier us, Hhristo#her ($ and Douglas 'aer$ A11A$ 9( 8ocial Hontrol 3*#lanation of the Delationshi# 'etween )amily 8tructure and Delinquent 'ehavior$9 Canadian $ournal of Criminology 77:7A?5 7?/$ This study related the attachment com#onent of the social control theory to delinquent behavior and showed that family structure can #lay a ma&or role in the future delinquency of a child$ Landsheer, 6$ ($< :$ T$ :art< and W$ Go*$ .//7$ 9Delinquent Lalues and Lictim Damage< 3*#loring the Limits of Feutrali%ation Theory$9 %ritish $ournal of Criminology =7:775??$ This article guided me through the neutrali%ation theory and #rovided conclusions about the theory that were used to #rove its relevancy$

Lundy, ,ichael 8$< 'ruce ,$ Bfohl< and 8amuel Gu#erman$ .//=$ 9(dult Hriminality (mong )ormerly :os#itali%ed Hhild Bsychiatric Batients$9 $ournal of the merican cademy of Child and dolescent Psychiatry =A:?E05?CC$ This article aided me in determining the #sychological contributions to serial murder and socio#athic behavior$ ,eloy, 6$ Deid< (nthony @$ :em#el< Gris ,ohandie< (ndrew ($ 8hiva< and Thomas '$ @ray$ A11.$ 9;ffender and ;ffense Hharacteristics of a Fonrandom 8am#le of (dolescent ,ass ,urderers$9 $ournal of the merican cademy of Child and dolescent Psychiatry 71:C./$ This study was im#ortant to me because it identified several of the common characteristics of mass murderers and #rovided some numerical #ercentage on #sychological relevancy to this grou#$ Doeder, Gathryn< Gavin @$ Lynch< and Daniel 8$ Fagin$ .///$ 9,odeling Uncertainty in Latent Hlass ,embershi#: ( Hase 8tudy in Hriminology$9 $ournal of the merican Statistical ssociation /7:CEE$ The results of this study were im#ortant because they showed not only a relationshi# between childhood factors and serial murder, but also #sychological factors and serial murder$ 8alter, Daniel< Dean ,c,illan< ,ar Dichards< Tiffany Talbot< 6ill :odges< (rnon 'entovim< Dichard :astings< 6im 8tevenson< and David 8 use$ A11=$ 9Develo#ment of 8e*ually (busive 'ehavior in 8e*ually Lictimi%ed ,ales: ( Longitudinal 8tudy$9 The Lancet =E.:7C.$ This article revealed that there is a much higher li elihood that a child who has been se*ually abused will become a se*ual abuser as an adult than there is of a child who has not been abused$ These results, thus, were useful in correlating the childhood rearing #rocess to serial murder$ 8wanston, :eather M$< 6ennifer 8$ Tebbutt< 'rian I, ;+Toole< and D$ Gim ;ates$ .//C$ 98e*ually (bused Hhildren ? Mears (fter Bresentation: ( Hase5Hontrol 8tudy$9 Pediatrics .11:E115E1/$ The outcome of this study was im#ortant because it showed that behavioral #roblems and de#ression are more frequent in children who have been abused com#ared to children who have not been abused$ Tithecott, Dichard$ .//C$ *f Men and Monsters$ ,adison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Bress$ The wor of Tithecott was most useful to me in a mental way: I was able to com#rehend the individualism of serial murder with this boo $