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CHAPTER 5: BASIC CONCEPTS OF GRAPH THEORY

WILLIAM T. TROTTER AND MITCHEL T. KELLER Abstract. Graphs are perhaps the most basic and widely studied combinatorial structure, and they will be prominently featured in our course.

1. Basic Notation and Terminology for Graphs A graph G is a pair (V, E ) where V is a set (almost always nite) and E is a set of 2-element subsets of V . Elements of V are called vertices and elements of E are called edges. We call V the vertex set of G and E is the edge set. For convenience, it is customary to abbreviate the edge {x, y } as just xy . Remember though that xy E means exactly the same as yx E . If x and y are distinct vertices from V , x and y are adjacent when xy E ; else they are non-adjacent. We say the edge xy is incident to the vertices x and y . As is often the case in science and mathematics, dierent authors use slightly dierent notation and terminology for graphs. As an example, some use nodes and arcs rather than vertices and edges. Others refer to vertices as points and in this case, they often refer to lines rather than edges. We will try to stick to vertices and edges but confess that we may occasionally lapse into referring to vertices as points. Also, following the patterns of many others, we will also say that adjacent vertices are neighbors. And we will use the more or less standard terminology that the neighborhood of a vertex x is the set of vertices adjacent to x. Also, the degree of a vertex is then the number of vertices in its neighborhood, or equivalently, the number of edges incident to it. When G = (V, E ) and H = (W, F ) are graphs, we say H is a subgraph of G when W V and F E . We say H is an induced subgraph when W V and F = {xy E : x, y W }. A graph G = (V, E ) is called a complete graph when xy is an edge in G for every distinct pair x, y V . Conversely, G is an independent graph if xy E , for every distinct pair x, y V . It is customary to denote a complete graph on n vertices by Kn and an independent graph on n vertices by In .
Date : February 24, 2006.
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A graph G = (V, E ) on n 1 vertices is called a path when the elements of the vertex set can be labelled as {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } so that E = {xi xi+1 : 1 i < n}. Similarly, if n 3, G is called a cycle when E = {xi xi+1 : 1 i < n} {xn x1 }. It is customary to denote a path on n vertices by Pn , while Cn denotes a cycle on n vertices. The length of a path or a cycle is the number of edges it contains. Therefore, the length of Pn is n 1 and the length of Cn is n. If G = (V, E ) and H = (W, F ) are graphs, we say G is isomorphic 11 to H and write G W so = H when there exists a bijection f : V
onto

that x is adjacent to y in G if and only if f (x) is adjacent to f (y ) in H. Often writers will say that G contains H when there is a subgraph of G which is isomorphic to H. In particular, it is customary to say that G contains the cycle Cn (same for Pn and Kn ) when G contains a subgraph isomorphic to Cn . When x and y are vertices in a graph G = (V, E ), we call a sequence (u0 , u1 , . . . , ut ) of distinct vertices a path from x to y in G when u0 = x, ut = y and ui ui+1 E for all i = 0, 1, . . . , t 1. A graph G is connected when there is a path from x to y in G, for every x, y V ; else G is disconnected. A graph is acyclic when it does not contain any cycle on three or more vertices. Acyclic graphs are also called forests. A connected acyclic graph is called a tree. When G = (V, E ) is a connected graph, a subgraph H = (W, F ) of G is called a spanning tree when W = V and H is a tree. In Figure 1, we show a graph, a subgraph and an induced subgraph. In Figure 2, we show paths, cycles and complete graphs of small size. In Figure 3, we show a graph and one of its spanning trees. The following theorem is very elementary, and some authors refer to it as the rst theorem of graph theory. However, this basic result can be surprisingly useful.

b e a h

c i d l g f k j a b e h d c i a b e h

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Figure 1. A Graph, a Subgraph and an Induced Subgraph

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P1 P2 P3

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C3

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Figure 2. Paths, Cycles and Complete Graphs


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Figure 3. A Graph and a Spanning Tree Theorem 1. Let degG (v ) denote the degree of vertex v in graph G = (V, E ). Then degG (v ) = 2|E |. ()
v V

Proof. We consider how many times an edge e = vw E contributes to each side of (*). The degG (x) and degG (y ) terms on the left hand side each count e once, so e is counted twice on that side. On the right hand side, e is clearly counted twice. Therefore, we have the equality claimed. Corollary 2. For any graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is even. Exercise 1. For the Olympic Winter Games to be held in Vancouver in 2010, the organizers wish to expand the number of teams competing in curling. They wish to have 14 teams enter, divided into two pools

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of seven teams each. Right now, theyre thinking of requiring that in preliminary play each team will play seven games against distinct opponents. Five of the opponents will come from their own pool and two of the opponents will come from the other pool. Theyre having trouble setting up such a schedule, so theyve come to you. By using an appropriate graph-theoretic model, either argue that they cannot use their current plan or devise a way for them to do so. 2. Multigraphs: Loops and Multiple Edges Consider a graph in which the vertices represent cities and the edges represent highways. Certain pairs of cities are joined by an edge while other pairs are not. The graph may or may not be connected (although a disconnected graph is likely to result in disgruntled commuters). However, certain aspects of real highway networks are not captured by this model. First, between two nearby cities, there can actually been several interconnecting highways, and traveling on one of them is fundamentally dierent from traveling on another. This leads to the concept of multiple edges, i.e., allowing for more than one edge between two adjacent vertices. Also, we could have a highway which leaves a city, goes through the nearby countryside and the returns to the same city where it originated. This leads to the concept of a loop, i.e., an edge with both end points being the same vertex. Also, we can allow for more than one loop with the same end point. Accordingly, authors frequently lead o a discussion on a graph theory topic with a sentence or two like: (1) In this paper, all graphs will be simple, i.e., we will not allow loops or multiple edges. (2) In this paper, graphs can have loops and multiple edges. The terminology is far from standard, but in our course, a graph will always be a simple graph, i.e., no loops or multiple edges. When we want to allow for loops and multiple edges, we will use the term multigraph. This begs the question of what we would call a graph if it is allowed to have loops but not multiple edges, or if multiple edges are allowed but not loops. If we really needed to talk about such graphs, then the English language comes to our rescue, and we just state the restriction explcitly! 3. Eulerian and Hamiltonian Graphs Graph theory traces its origins to a problem in K onigsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). The river Pregel passes through the city, and there are two large islands in the middle of the channel. These

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islands were connected to the mainland by seven bridges as indicated in Figure 4 below. It is said that the citizens of K onigsberg often wondered if it was possible for one to leave his home, walk through the city in such a way that he crossed each bridge precisely one time, and end up at home again. Leonhard Euler settled this problem in 1736 by using graph theory in the form of Theorem 3 below.

nigsberg Figure 4. The bridges of Ko A graph G is eulerian if there is a sequence (x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ) of vertices from G, with repetition allowed, so that (1) x0 = xt ; (2) for every i = 0, 1, . . . t 1, xi xi+1 is an edge of G; (3) for every edge e E , there is a unique integer i with 0 i < t for which f = xi xi+1 . When G is eulerian, a sequence satisfying these three conditions is called an eulerian circuit. A sequence (x0 , x1 , . . . , xt ) is called a circuit when it satises only the rst two of these conditions. Note that a sequence consisting of a single vertex is a circuit. The following elementary theorem completely characterizes eulerian graphs. It comes with an algorithmic proof, one that is easily implemented. Theorem 3. A connected graph G is eulerian if and only if every vertex has even degree. Proof. We give a deterministic procedure, starting from a specied vertex x0 . We assume that the vertices have been labeled with positive integers (or some other linear order) so that we can consider the neighbors in order. We launch our algorithm with a trivial circuit C consisting of just the vertex x0 . Thereafter suppose that we have a partial circuit C dened by a sequence (x0 , x1 , . . . , xt ). The edges of the form xi xi+1 have been traversed, while the remaining edges in G (if any) have not. If the third condition for an euler circuit is satised, we are done, so we assume it does not hold.

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We then choose the least integer i for which there is an edge incident with xi that has not already been traversed. If there is no such integer, then it is easy to see that the graph is disconnected. On the other hand, if there is such an edge and it is incident with xi , we simply follow this edge and at the other endpoint, choose another edge that we have not already traversed. If there is no such edge, then we have found a vertex of odd degree. Repeat until you come to a vertex where there are no additional edges to traverse. This must occur at xi . Then expand the single vertex xi in the old circuit C by replacing xi with the string of vertices encountered in this new walk. Consider the graph G shown in Figure 5. Evidently, this graph is connected and all vertices have even degree. Here is the sequence of circuits starting with the trivial circuit C consisting only of the vertex 1. C = (1) = (1, 2, 4, 3, 1) start next from 2 = (1, 2, 5, 8, 2, 4, 3, 1) start next from 4 = (1, 2, 5, 8, 2, 4, 6, 7, 4, 9, 6, 10, 4, 3, 1) start next from 7 = (1, 2, 5, 8, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 7, 4, 9, 6, 10, 4, 3, 1) Done!!
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Figure 5. An Eulerian Graph You should note that Theorem 3 holds for loopless graphs in which multiple edges are allowed. Euler used his theorem to show that the graph of K onigsberg shown in Figure 6, in which each land mass is a vertex and each bridge is an edge, is not eulerian, and thus the citizens could not nd the route they desired. (Note that in Figure 6 there are multiple edges between the same pair of vertices. A graph G = (V, E ) is said to be hamiltonian if there exists a sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) so that

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nigsbergs bridges Figure 6. The graph of Ko (1) every vertex of G appears exactly once in the sequence; (2) x1 xn is an edge of G; and (3) for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1, xi xi+1 is an edge in G. The rst graph shown in Figure 7 both eulerian and hamiltonian. The second is hamiltonian but not eulerian.
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Figure 7. Eulerian and Hamiltonian Graphs In Figure 8, we show a famous graph known as the Petersen graph. It is not hamiltonian. Unlike the situation with eulerian cycles, there is no known method for quickly determining whether a graph is hamiltonian. However, there are a number of interesting conditions which are sucient. Here is one quite well known example, due to Dirac. Theorem 4. If G is a graph on n vertices and each vertex in G has at least n neighbors, then G is hamiltonian. 2

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Figure 8. The Petersen Graph 4. Graph Coloring When G = (V, E ) is a graph and C is a set of elements called colors, a map : V C is called a proper coloring of G if (x) = (y ) whenever xy is an edge in G. The least t for which G has a proper coloring using a set C of t colors is called the chromatic number of G and is denoted (G). In Figure 9, we show a proper coloring of a graph using 5 colors. However, it is easy to see that this graph has chromatic number 4.

Figure 9. A Graph with Chromatic Number 4

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The maximum clique size of a graph G, denoted (G) is the largest t for which there exists a set K of t vertices in G so that every pair of vertices from K is adjacent in G. For example, the graph in Figure 11 has maximum clique size 2. For every graph G, it is obvious that (G) (G). On the other hand, the inequality may be far from tight. In fact, we have the following elementary result. Proposition 5. For every t 3, there exists a graph Gt so that (Gt ) = 2 and (Gt ) = t. Proof. We proceed by induction on t. For t = 3, we take G3 to be the cycle C5 on ve vertices. Now assume that for some t 3, we have determined the graph Gt . Suppose that Gt has nt vertices. Label the vertices of Gt as x1 , x2 , . . . , xnt . Construct Gt+1 as follows. Begin with an independent set I of cardinality t(nt 1) + 1. For every subset S of I with |S | = nt , label the elements of S as y1 , y2 , . . . , ynt . For this particular nt -element subset attach a copy of Gt with yi adjacent to xi for i = 1, 2, . . . , nt . Vertices in copies of Gt for distinct nt -element subsets of I are nonadjacent, and a vertex in I has at most one neighbor in a particular copy of Gt . To see that (Gt+1 ) = 2, it will suce to argue that Gt+1 contains no triangle (K3 ). Since Gt is triangle-free, any triangle in Gt+1 must contain a vertex of I . Since none of the vertices of I are adjacent, any triangle in Gt+1 contains only one point of I . Since each vertex of I is adjacent to at most one vertex of any xed copy of Gt , if y I is part of a triangle, the other two vertices must come from distinct copies of Gt . However, vertices in dierent copies of Gt are not adjacent, so (Gt+1 ) = 2. Notice that t (Gt+1 ) since Gt+1 contains Gt . On the other hand, (Gt+1 ) t + 1 since we may use t colors on the copies of Gt and a new color on the independent set I . To see that (Gt+1 ) = t +1, observe that if we use only t colors, then by the Pigeon Hole Principle, there is an nt -element subset of I in which all vertices have the same color. Then this color cannot be used in the copy of Gt which is attached to that nt -element subset. Here is another argument for the same theorem. Proof. We again start with G3 as the cycle C5 . As before we assume that we have constructed for some t 3 a graph Gt with (Gt ) = 2 and (Gt ) = t. Again, label the vertices of Gt as x1 , x2 , . . . , xnt . To construct Gt+1 , we now start with an independent set I , but now I has only nt points, which we label as y1 , y2 , . . . , yt . We then add a copy of

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Gt with yi adjacent to xj if and only if xi is adjacent to xj . Finally, attach a new vertex z adjacent to all vertices in I . By Exercise 2 below, (Gt+1 ) t + 1. We claim that in fact (Gt+1 ) = t +1. Suppose not. Then since Gt+1 contains Gt , (Gt+1 ) = t. Let be a proper coloring of Gt+1 . Without loss of generality, uses the colors in {1, 2, . . . , t} and assigns color t to z . Then consider the nonempty set S of vertices in the copy of Gt to which assigns color t. For each xi in S , change the color on xi so that it matches the color assigned to yi by , which cannot be t, asz is colored t. What results is a proper coloring of the copy of Gt with only t 1 colors since xi and yi are adjacent to the same vertices of the copy of Gt . The contradiction shows that (Gt+1 ) = t + 1, as claimed. Exercise 2. Find a proper (t + 1)-coloring of the graph Gt+1 in the proof above. This establishes that (Gt+1 ) t + 1. As an illustration of the construction in this second proof, we again refer to Figure 9. The graph shown is G4 . Later in the course, we will see several other proofs of the same result. As we shall see, in general determining either the maximum clique size of a graph or its chromatic number are (apparently) very dicult problemsand students are reminded that if they ever gure out an easy way to do either of these two problems, they should tell us rst!! Guaranteed grade of A + + will result. A very na ve algorithmic way to approach graph coloring is the First Fit, or greedy, algorithm. For this algorithm, we take a xed ordering of the vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , . . . vn } and dene the coloring function one vertex at a time in increasing order of subscript. We begin with (v1 ) = 1 and then we dene (vi+1 ) (assuming vertices v1 , v2 , . . . , vi have been colored) to be the least positive integer color that has not already been used on any of its neighbors in the set {v1 , . . . vi }. Exercise 3. Use the First Fit algorithm to color the graph in Figure 10 using the two dierent orderings of the vertex set shown in Figure 10. v1 v3 v5 v7 v2 v4 v6 v8 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8

Figure 10. Two orderings of the vertices of a bipartite graph.

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As the exercise above shows, the ordering of V is vital to the ability of this algorithm to color G using (G) colors. In general, nding an optimal ordering is just as dicult as coloring G. However, for some classes of graphs, there is a natural ordering that leads to optimal performance of First Fit. Here is one such exampleone that we studied in the last chapter in a dierent context. Given an indexed family of sets F = {S : V }, we associate with F a graph G dened as follows. The vertex set of G is the set V and vertices x and y in V are adjacent in G if and only if Sx Sy = . We call G an intersection graph. It is easy to see that every graph is an intersection graph (why? ), so it makes sense to restrict the sets which belong to F . For example, we call G an interval graph if it is the intersection graph of a family of closed intervals of the real line R. Theorem 6. If G is an interval graph, then (G) = (G). Proof. For each x X , let I (x) = [ax , bx ] be a closed interval of the real line so that xy is an edge in G if and only if I (x) I (y ) = . Dene a poset P with ground set equal to the vertex set of G by setting x < y in P if and only if bx < ay in R. Then width(P) = (G). By Dilworths theorem, P has a partition into width(P) chains. But each of these chains is an independent set in G. A graph G is said to be perfect if (H) = (H) for every induced subgraph H. Since an induced subgraph of an interval graph is an interval graph, Theorem 6 shows interval graphs are perfect. The study of perfect graphs originated in connection with the theory of communications networks and has proved to be a major area of research in graph theory for some time now. 5. A Digression into Complexity Theory In this section, we give a very informal discussion of some relevant topics from computational complexity. You might call it Complexity for Dummies. Some combinatorial problems can be solved in a number of steps which can be bounded by a polynomial of the input size. For example, consider the following situation. You are given a graph on n vertices and asked whether or not the graph is connected. Notice that in this case, a positive answer can be justied by providing a spanning tree. On the other hand, a negative answer can be justied by providing a partition of the vertex sets V = V1 V2 with V1 and V2 non-empty subsets and having no edges with one end-point in V1 and the other in V2 .

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Here is another example. If you are asked whether a connected graph is eulerian, then a positive answer can be justied by producing the appropriate sequence. A negative answer can be justied by producing a vertex of odd degree. On the other hand, if you are asked whether a graph is hamiltonian, the situation appears to be quite dierent. A positive answer can be justied by providing the sequence of vertices which forms a hamiltonian cycle. But no one knows how to justify a negative answerat least not in the general case. And again, if you gure out a simple way to determine whether a graph is hamiltoian, the same guaranteed A + + rule applies! Informally, we consider the class P of problems, which when posed as a yesno question, can be answered in time which is polynomial in the input size. Also, we consider the class NP which consists of those problems for which it is possible to justify a yes answer with a certicate, and the correctness of the certicate can be checked in polynomial time. For example, if you give a yes answer to whether a graph is hamiltonian, then you can simply give the sequence of vertices which forms the cycle. The correctness of your cycle can be readily checked. However, you do not have to explain how you were able to nd this cycle. Perhaps the most famous problem in all of combinatorial mathematics and theoretical computer science is to resolve whether the classes P and NP aret the same. It is easy to see that P is a subset of NP, and most experts believe that there are problems in NP which are not in P. Butno one has been able to settle this problem, and many, many top researchers have worked very hard on it.
School of Mathematics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, U.S.A. E-mail address : trotter@math.gatech.edu School of Mathematics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, U.S.A. E-mail address : keller@math.gatech.edu

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