THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

Av
Arima valley
In this case study:
Section 1
In this section:
• Northern Range watershed area: contribution to Trinidad’s freshwater resources
• Ecosystems: forests, freshwater and biodiversity

In 1952 William Beebe undertook a study on the Arima Valley . His studies yielded very important information
on the ecology and ecosystems in the area, and are still extensively used in work on the Arima Valley.1
Many of the descriptions provided in the sections on Location and Topography, Climate, Vegetation,
and Fauna, are drawn from this study.

Location & Topography

The Arima Valley lies parallel and midway between approximately fifteen valleys that transect the southern side
of the Northern Range. All of these valleys are oriented north-south. The Arima Valley is located north of the
town of Arima, and extends from the foothills of the Northern Range to the ridge of the Northern Range for a
distance of about 8.45km along the ground. More specifically, the Valley is located between 10o37’ and 10o43’
N latitude and 61o16’ and 61o18’ W longitude. The Valley rises to a height of about 840m, with steep hillside
gradients of 1:3 in some areas.

! !

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!

Figure
! 1: Map of Arima Valley Source: Ordnance Survey (1930)

1
William Beebe, “ Introduction to the Ecology of the Arima Valley”, Zoologica 37 (1952)
Climate
Rainfall
Rainfall in the Arima Valley is influenced by two distinct seasons: the wet season (from June to December) and
the dry season (from January to May). The pattern of the wet and dry seasons is determined by the movement
of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – a global weather system that influences the climate of many
areas. The average annual rainfall ranges between 2000 and 2400mm. Approximately 70% to 80% of all
precipitation occurs in the rainy season, with a major contribution of this from the ITCZ. 2

Orographic rainfall generated from the upward movement of the Northeast Trade Winds on contact with the
Northern Range also contributes to rainfall in the Valley, and is more significant in the dry season.

!"#$!%
&!''()%
!

!Figure 2: Isohyetal Map of the Northern Region of Trinidad Source: Piarco Meterological Office
(unpublished; pers comm.. 2004) in NRA (2005)

Temperature
Temperature varies along the valley, usually decreasing from the valley bottom to the top of the valley.
This temperature change is caused by adiabatic cooling due to the differences in elevation of the land.
Temperature in the Valley averages between 18 – 30oC but can fall as low as 17 oC at higher elevations
in the Valley.

Humidity and Winds

Humidity in the Arima Valley also varies with a direct relationship to temperature. Humidity in the Valley
is usually in the upper 70s or lower 80s. The prevailing winds are the Northeast Trades, which generally
blow in a south-west direction. Note that winds are named after the direction from which they blow.

EMA, “State of the Environment Report”, 1998.

Geology & Soils
The formation of the Andean mountain chain occurred in the middle of the Miocene period.3 The tectonic
forces building the Andean mountain chain were also influencing the northern part of Trinidad. Trinidad became
highly disturbed by the compressional and tangential tectonic movements, leading to the formation of all types
of structures including simple anticlinal mountains like those of the Northern Range. 4 Two geological rock
formations are found in the Arima Valley: the Mayaro formation and the Maracas formation. The rocks that
make up these formations are comprised of quartzites, hard massive limestones, marbles, schists, sandstones,
sands and clays. 5 The hard massive limestones are extensively mined in the Arima Valley, and several other
valleys of the Northern Range. 6

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Source: Brown and Bally (1966) in NRA (2005)

! Figure 3: Geology of the Northern Range
The soil type varies within the Valley because of differences in parent materials and situation in the Valley.
The Diego Martin soil series overlies much of the steeper areas of the Arima Valley. 7 These soils are coarse,
loamy and carbonatic with good internal drainage. Erosion is a potential problem with these soils, primarily
because of the steep slopes on which they are situated. The soils in the valley bottom comprise colluvial and
alluvial deposits and are also freely drained. These soils tend to be quite fertile and are good for agriculture.

3
A.G.A. Sutton, “Report on the general geology of Trinidad to accompany Geological map”, (Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1955).
4
Ibid
5
Hans G. Kugler, “Treatise on the Geology of Trinidad Part 4: The Paleocene to Holocene Formations”, H.M. Bolli and M. Knappertsbusch, (Basel: The Museum of
Natural History).
6
NRA, “Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago”, Environmental Management Authority 2005.
7
Ibid
Drainage Area & Water Resources
The Arima Valley is part of the larger Western Peninsula Caroni watershed, but forms a watershed or catchment
area of its own. The Arima River flows through the Arima Valley, and drains the majority of the water captured
in the Arima Valley catchment southwards into the Caroni River. The Arima River also contributes to water
recharge in the Northern Range.
!

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!

Figure 4: Northern Range Major Water-catchment areas Source: NRA (2005)

Figure 5: Arima Valley

On its way to the Caroni River, the Arima River flows over and recharges the Arima Gravels aquifer located
along the southern foot of the Northern Range. The Arima Gravels aquifer is a part of the larger Northern
Gravels aquifer.
The Northern Gravels is a major aquifer in the Northern
Range, and consists of wedge-shaped alluvial deposits and
gravel fans along the southern foot of the Northern Range.
These extend from east Port of Spain to approximately three
8
EMA 1998 kilometres east and southward to the Caroni Plains. 8
The Arima River and other surface rivers in the Northern Range have been identified as major sources
of water for human use.9 Of the surface water exploited in Trinidad and Tobago by the Water and Sewage
Authority (WASA), 80% originates within the Northern Range. 10 However the water quality in many of the
rivers in the Northern Range – including the Arima River - is being degraded. The water quality of the Arima
River has declined since the 1970s due to the impacts of pollution.11

Some existing and potential sources of pollution to the Arima River:

Domestic refuse - includes garbage and leachates from solid waste disposal sites
Domestic sewage - includes seepage from cesspools and pit latrines
Farm wastes - waste water from animal farms, runoff of fertilisers and pesticides
Industrial effluents including wash waters from quarries12
Currently, water is not extracted directly from the Arima River by WASA for public consumption. However, the
Arima River contributes to the water that flows into the Caroni-Arena Water Treatment Plant which is
used for public consumption.13

Vegetation
Information for this section is drawn from William Beebe’s study in 1952. 14
A detailed classification of the vegetation of Arima Valley was done by J.S. Beard in 1946 and later by William
Beebe in 1952. Since then no such detailed classification has been undertaken and we still rely on data obtained
from their studies. This highlights a need for new studies of this kind particularly because the Northern Range
vegetation (mainly forests) harbour large stores of biodiversity, and also because these forests play a key role
in water recharge and freshwater provision. The Asa Wright Nature Centre (AWNC) continues to play a key
role in the conservation of existing forests in the Arima Valley: this will be discussed later when we look at
conservation efforts in the Arima Valley.
The vegetation in Arima Valley changes from the base of the valley to the top of valley as a result of
changing abiotic conditions like soil, temperature, rainfall and slope.
At the base of the valley on the foothills of the Northern Range, the vegetation type is secondary seasonal
evergreen forest comprising some prolific survivors of the original seasonal evergreen forest like cocorite palms.
This original forest is thought to have been a climax community. A list of trees found in the seasonal evergreen
forest formation is provided in Appendix A. Higher up the valley the vegetation transitions to a deciduous sea-
sonal forest. Lower montane forest occupies most of the valley northward of the deciduous seasonal forest. A
list of trees found in the lower montane forests in provided in Appendix A. On the highest slopes and ridges true
montane forest occurs in small areas.

Figure 6: Lower Montane Forest in Arima Valley

9
Ibid
10
NRA 2005
11
EMA 1998
12
Ibid
13
NRA 2005
14
Beebe 1952
Fauna
Information for this section is drawn from William Beebe’s study in 1952. 15

The forests and freshwater ecosystems found in the Arima Valley provide general and specialized habitats and
a variety of food sources, for the large diversity of fauna that it supports.

Fish found in the Arima River

Frogs and toads - 16 species of frogs and toads were recorded by Beebe.
Lacertian species - 15 of the known lacertilian species were recorded by Beebe.
Iguanas and Tegu lizards are common reptile species found in Arima Valley.
Snakes - of Trinidad’s 38 species of snakes, 27 had been found in the Arima Valley by Beebe.
Birds - 164 species of birds were observed by Beebe and 170 species noted by Garraway et al.16
Two common species observed at AWNC are manakins and wattled bell birds.
Thirteen species of hummingbirds have been recorded at AWNC. An oilbird colony lives in the Arima
Valley.

The nocturnal oil bird is the only nocturnal, fruit-eating bird in the world. It is found in northern parts of
South America and in Trinidad. The oil birds live in caves often in precarious steep cliffs. Several caves in
the Northern Range have colonies including in Dunston Cave in Arima Valley and Cumaca Caves.
Contributions have been made by the World Wildlife Fund for protection on the colony at AWNC.17

Mammals - Beebe recorded a large diversity of mammals in the Arima Valley. A list of these is provided in
Appendix A. No research or studies have been undertaken to determine if these species are still
present in the Arima Valley. However, Garraway et al notes that some of these species can be
observed at AWNC including ocelots, brocket deer, agouti, paca or lappe, and nine-banded
armadillo or tattoo.

Some of the activities currently occurring in the Valley have the potential to alter the forest and freshwater
ecosystems there and as a result may alter or destroy habitats. For example, the increased turbidity of the Arima
River as a result of upstream quarrying activities reduces the quality of the habitat of freshwater organisms.
Although AWNC protects large areas of the Arima Valley through its conservation efforts, some parts of the
Valley are still subject to some human activities and are potential threats to the fauna and flora in the Valley.
We will discuss conservation efforts in the Arima Valley in greater detail in the following sections.

15
Beebe 1952
16
Jasmin Garraway, Carol James and Howard Nelson, “Ecotourism as a Strategy for Sustainable Development: The Experience of the Asa Wright Centre Trinidad and
Tobago”, (UNDP Trinidad and Tobago, 1999).
17
AWNC, “Asa Wright Nature Centre” http://www.asawright.org/
 Section 2
Topics covered in this section: :
• Conflicting human uses and impacts on ecosystem services
• Land-use planning as a management option

This section will focus on the varying types of land-use that occurs in the Arima Valley, and how the impacts
of these land uses on each other create challenges for management. This is only a glimpse into the issues that
surround land-use management.

Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo of the Life Sciences Department of the University of the West Indies developed
case studies for use in courses at the University. Among these was a case study on the Arima Valley.
Section 2 draws heavily on the information from this case study on Arima Valley. 18

Land Use
There are four main categories of land use activities occurring in the Arima Valley: residence or settlement;
quarrying; agriculture; and conservation/ research/ ecotourism/ recreation. In the following sub-sections, each
of these categories of land use is described. How these land use activities interact is explored in the final
sub-section.

Residence or Settlement
Residential settlement occurs mostly in the lower parts of the Arima Valley: from the town of Arima up to the
2 mile mark along the Arima-Blanchisseuse Road. Two other pockets of settlement occur at Temple Village and
Verdant Vale at the 4 mile mark and 4.5 mile mark respectively along the Arima-Blanchisseuse Road.
The majority of land in the Arima Valley is state-owned. When residential structures are built on state land
without the permission of the government, the housing structures are illegal and the residents are described as
“squatters”. In 1998 the government attempted to protect squatters on statelands through the passing of The
State Land (Regularisation of Tenure) Bill.

The State Land (Regularisation of Tenure) Bill, 1998 is an act of Parliament to protect squatters in
certain areas from ejection from state land through acquisition of a leasehold title by squatters.
The Arima Valley was not one of the areas originally designated for protection of squatters. However,
an amendment to the act provides the opportunity for squatters living outside the designated areas to
become regularised.

Small-scale farming also occurs alongside residences. These include chicken farms, as well as christophene
(Sechium edule) and banana cultivation. The runoff from these farms, can introduce mainly nutrients
and faecal coliform into the groundwater and Arima River. Pit latrines are also common in some of these
residences, and these also have the potential to pollute the groundwater and Arima River with faecal coliform.

18 Mary Alkins-Koo, “Case Study - Arima Valley”, (Dept. of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, 2003-2007).
Agriculture
Agriculture in the Arima Valley occurs in the lower valley adjacent to residential settlements up to Verdant Vale
higher up in the Valley. Hillside slash-and-burn agriculture is practised in relatively small plots by small agricul-
tural-squatters. The major problem with this type of agriculture is that it weakens the slope stability making it
highly susceptible to wind and water erosion.
At the 6.5 mile mark along the Arima-Blanchisseuse Road, there is an extensive christophene farm.

Figure 7: Christophene farm in Arima Valley

The christophene is cultivated on steep slopes, and looks like a smooth green sheet covering the hills.
The precise area of the farm is not known, but aerial photos suggest that the cultivated area is expanding.19
Large quantities of manure are used for fertilising and conditioning the soil, erosion control appears to be non-
existent, and the Arima-Blanchisseuse Road is in danger of landslips in critical areas around the christophene
farm. Water for irrigation is drawn from a small adjacent tributary through a complex network of pipes which is
visible from the road. A number of problems may arise from this type of cultivation.
• Erosion of the hillside is possible with cultivation on such steep slopes. The lack of ground cover and
root networks that help to bind the soil may help to increase soil erosion. The problem is compounded
if the eroded material gets into the Arima River, increases the turbidity and decreases the overall water
quality of the river. Alternatively, the cover of the christophene plantation may act as a forest canopy,
and protect the soil from the rain splash erosion. Rain splash erosion is caused by the impact of
rainwater striking the soil surface, and dislodging soil particles.
• Misuse or overuse of fertilizers can introduce nutrients and pollutants to the groundwater and
subsequently to the Arima River.
• With such a large cultivation in the middle of what used to be lower montane forest, the problem of
habitat fragmentation arises. This can further lead to loss of biodiversity in the Arima Valley, particularly
for mammals.
Tree crop cultivation of cocoa was extensive in the past, but many estates are now abandoned. Some cultivation
of citrus and anthuriums still occurs

19
Garraway et al. 1999
Quarrying
There are three active quarries in the Verdant Vale area extracting limestone. In the section on Geology and
Soils, massive limestone was noted as one of the minerals comprising the rock formations underlying the Arima
Valley. This limestone exists in a band across the Northern Range: its quarrying is not limited to the Arima
Valley but takes place in other Northern Range valleys. The limestone is high quality blue limestone and is used
for road and building construction, and blue limestone products like paving tiles.

Figure 8: One of the quarries in Arima Valley

The quarrying process for limestone includes blasting to weaken the rock structure and to separate the mas-
sive limestone rock into blocks; and excavation of blocks from the rock face. Washing is not part of the quarry
production process in the Arima Valley so quarry effluents are not a major problem. However, there have been
several problems that may be linked. These include:
Noise and Vibrations – The AWNC is concerned that the noise associated with blasting activities at the quarry
may disturb the oilbird colony and other organisms located in the forests surrounding the AWNC. Residents
lower in the valley have complained that the vibrations from the blasting activities may be causing cracks in
their walls.
Dust – Dust from the quarries is particularly visible
on the vegetation that grows alongside the Arima-
Blanchisseuse Road. No studies have been done to
determine the effects of the quarry-dust on plants,
human well-being, or on the water quality of the
Arima River.

Quarry-floor runoff – During rainfall events runoff

from quarries enters the surface water sources in
the area and may decrease the water quality.

Figure 9: Dust from quarries on vegetation

Conservation, Research, Ecotourism, Recreation
The AWNC is responsible for major conservation efforts in the Arima Valley.

Figure 10: Ducks at Asa Wright Nature Centre

AWNC was first purchased by Joseph Holmas from the government in 1934, and resold to Dr. Newcome
Wright and his wife Asa in 1946. The William Beebe Tropical Research Station – run by Dr. William
Beebe – was also located in the Arima Valley in close proximity to the Wright property.
By the 1960s the Wrights were accommodating birdwatchers and naturalists who came to visit the
research station. In 1967, the property was sold and in that same year the Asa Wright Nature Centre was
established as a non-profit trust. With closure of the research station in 1970,
the research facility was handed over to AWNC as a gift in 1974.
AWNC’s overarching goal is natural resource conservation in the Arima Valley and other areas
of Trinidad and Tobago. AWNC has maintained its ability to accommodate visitors to the valley,
and is currently recognised as one of the best ecotourist lodges in the world.
One of its priority issues is conservation of the rare oilbird.

In 1995, the government leased 250 acres of forest reserve to AWNC, specifically for management of the forest
ecosystem of the lands surrounding AWNC. Through donations of land, the current area managed by AWNC is
735 acres. By channelling most of its efforts towards conservation and management of this forest ecosystem, the
AWNC has been successful at protecting a number of species of flora and fauna in the Arima Valley.
Conservation of the forest ecosystem also maintains the crucial services provided by forests which include
freshwater recharge, water purification and soil stability.

AWNC also manages the William Beebe Tropical Research Station at Simla, where numerous studies were
conducted on the natural history of Trinidad’s flora and fauna. Scientific groups use the station on a regular
basis for biological and ecological studies.
The Arima River is also extensively used for recreation. For example, Manette’s Ranch – at the 1.5 mile mark
along the Arima-Blanchisseuse Road – is used for picnics and other recreational activities. 20

Mary Alkins-Koo, “Environmental, Evaluation and Impact Assessment”, (Dept. of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, 2007).
20
 Land-Use Planning in The Arima Valley as a Management Option
One aspect of land-use planning involves coordinating different land-use activities to minimize conflicts
between these activities, and to reduce the impacts these activities may have on each other. A land-use manage-
ment plan acts as a guide. There are a number of factors which a land-use plan must incorporate. These include:

Land characteristics – these include soil type, drainage area, topography, area of land,
geology and vegetation.

Potential impacts of – these include both the positive and negative impacts of the activities on the land area.
activities Positive . Negative
may include the degradation of land by the activity.

Potential impacts of – Activities can have a positive, negative or neutral impact on each other.
activities on each other For example, where commercial activity is situated near to residences,
the commercial activity may provide employment for nearby residents, and the
residential area in turn may provide labour for the commercial area: that’s a positive
impact. If factories are situated near to residences, pollution from the factory may
cause people in nearby residences to become ill: that’s a negative impact.

It , to discuss
plan. Instead, we will look at one of the factors used to create a management plan: potential impacts of activities
on each other. Using the information from the above sections, we will create an activity-conflict matrix.
This matrix will help us to identify the impacts of various activities on each other. It can also help to prioritize
the impacts of activities, and think about the tradeoffs of reducing or stopping certain activities in favour of
others.

A tradeoff is a situation that involves losing one aspect of something in order to gain another aspect.
For example, the government may use a parcel of land – previously used for recreation activities -
to build houses. The tradeoff in this case is recreation for housing.
Using the matrix
• The vertical column of activities impacts on the horizontal row of activities, and impacts are not
interchangeable. For example, the impact of quarrying on agriculture is not the same as the impact of
agriculture on quarrying.
• The impacts can be described as high, medium or low, and positive or negative.
• The reason for the impact should be described.
• It is possible for multiple impacts of one activity on another, and these should be included in the matrix.
• After the matrix is complete the impacts should be prioritized to determine which is most important to
deal with with. Students should be encouraged to think of ways to reduce impacts according to priority.
 Discussion Questions
Table 1: Some ecosystem services provided by the Arima Valley 21

Source: NRA (2005)

• How do any the activities – conservation, recreation, agriculture, residential settlement -
affect the services provided by the Arima Valley? (See Table 1)
• Do any of the ecosystem services provided by the Arima Valley have substitutes or alternatives?
• Is sustainable quarrying possible?
• How is noise considered a pollutant under these circumstances and what regulations exist to prevent
excessive impacts of noise?

Suggested Learning Activities

(See Generic Learning Activities)
• SWOT Analysis and Strategic Matrix
• Leopold Matrix
• Five Whys

Suggested Fieldwork
(See Sampling Methodologies)
• Slope Angle and Gradient
• Water quality testing – total suspended solids; turbidity;
phosphates; nitrates; faecal coliform; dissolved oxygen
• Stream depth, velocity and stream flow

21
NRA 2005.

Bibliography
Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2003-2007. Case Study – Arima
Valley. BIOL 2461, Dept. Of Life Sciences, Univer-
sity of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and
Tobago.
Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2005. Ecological Assessment
and Human Impacts. BIOL 2461, Dept. Of Life Sci-
ences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,
Trinidad and Tobago.
Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2007. Environmental Evaluation
& Impact Assessment. BIOL 2461, Dept. Of Life
Sciences, University of the West Indies, St. Augus-
tine, Trinidad and Tobago.
Anderson, Edric J. M. 1989. Real Estate
Development in the Northern Range A developer’s
Viewpoint. The Ministry of Environment and
National Service, Trinidad and Tobago.
Asa Wright Nature Centre (AWNC). (undated)
Asa Wright Nature Centre.
http://www.asawright.org/
(Accessed March 16, 2009)
Beebe, William. 1952. Introduction to the Ecology
of the Arima Valley. Zoologica 37:157-183.
EMA. 1998. Trinidad and Tobago State of the
Environment Report 1998. Environmental
Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago.
Garraway, Jasmin, Carol James and
Howard Nelson. 1999. Ecotourism as a Strategy for
Sustainable Development: The Experience of the
Asa Wright Centre Trinidad and Tobago. UNDP,
Trinidad and Tobago.
Google Earth. 2009.
Kugler, Hans G. 2001. Treatise on the Geology
of Trinidad Part 4: The Paleocene to Holocen
Formations. Edited by H.M. Bolli and
M. Knappertsbusch. Basel:
The Museum of Natural History.
Northern Range Assessment (NRA). 2005.
Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range,
Trinidad and Tobago: People and the Northern
Range. State of the Environment Report 2004.
Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad
and Tobago. 184pp.
Northstone Ltd. Quarrying Process and Quarry
Products. http://www.northstone-ni.co.uk/about-
us/education/quarrying-process-and-quarry-
products/
Sutton, A.G.A. 1955. Report on the general geology
of Trinidad to accompany Geological map.
Trinidad: Government Printing Office.
Ritter, Michael. E. 2006. The Physical Environ-
ment: an Introduction to Physical Geography.
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/
textbook/title_page.html
(Accessed March 27, 2009)
The Cropper Foundation (TCF). 2009.
Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts:
A Reference for Teachers and Students.
Port of Spain, Trinidad.
Trinidad and Tobago. Town and Country Planning
Division. 1982. The National Physical Development
Plan Trinidad and Tobago. Volume 1 Survey and
Analysis. Ministry of Finance and Planning.
APPENDIX A: Flora and Fauna in Arima Valley
Table 1: List of Trees Found in the Seasonal Forest

Source: Beebe (1952)

Table 2: List of Trees Found in the Lower Montane Forest

Source: Beebe (1952)

Table 3: List of Animals Found in the Arima Valley

Source: Beebe (1952); Garraway et al (1999)

Note that these were undertaken by William Beebe in 1952 - it is possible that some
species no longer exist in the Valley while new ones may have been introduced.
APPENDIX B: Acronyms used in this case study

AWNC Asa Wright Nature Centre

EMA Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

NRA Northern Range Assessment

WASA The Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

WRA Water Resources Agency

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Adiabatic cooling When a parcel of air rises it expands as a result of reduced atmospheric pressure.
As it expands it cools at a rate of 0.65 oC decrease in temperature for every 100m rise
in elevation.
Alluvial deposits Sediment deposited by flowing water, as in a riverbed, flood plain, or delta.

Anticlinal Ridges formed by a convex curve, turn or fold of the existing strata.
mountains

Aquifer An underground bed or layer of earth, gravel, or porous stone that yields water.

Catchment area The area drained by a river or body of water.

Climax community When the vegetation of an area over time has reached a steady state and is composed
of species best adapted to the conditions of the area.

Colluvial deposits A loose deposit of rock debris accumulated through the action of gravity at the base
of a cliff or slope

Community An assemblage of species occurring the same space and/or time, and is often linked
(ecological) by biotic interactions such as competition or predation.

Deciduous This forest is typical of environments that are warm and receive high overall rainfall,
Seasonal Forest such as in the tropics. These forests are considered deciduous because the trees drop
their leaves during in the dry season.

Ecosystem services These are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. They include provisioning
services such as food and water; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and
cultural benefits; and regulating and supporting services such as flood and disease
control; nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. The concept
of “ecosystem goods and services” is synonymous with ecosystem services.

Environmental The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation in the atmosphere.

lapse rate This rate is usually taken as 0.65 oC decrease in temperature for every 100m rise in
elevation.
Gravel fan A deposit of materials (mainly gravel) from a river at the base of a valley.
The gravel deposit spreads out from the base of the valley in a fan-like shape.

Lacertian Of or related to the suborder Lacertilia, which is a group of reptiles with overlapping
scales. This suborder includes lizards but not snakes.

Miocene 23.03 to 5.33 million years ago

Montane Forest Forest that grows on mountains and above an altitude of 1,006 metres.

Precipitation Any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, which falls to the earth’s surface.

Quartzites Hard metamorphic rock which was originally sandstone. Sandstone is converted
into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic compression
between belts.

Orographic Rainfall resulting from the vertical movement of moist air that is enforced by a
rainfall mountain barrier in the air stream.

Rock formation A formation consists of a number of rock strata that have similar lithology or
properties.

Soil series A family of soils having similar profiles, and developing from similar original
materials under the influence of similar climate and vegetation.

Strata The layers or beds found in sedimentary rock. Also refers to the different height
(stratum sing.) groupings of trees in a forest.

Tectonic forces Forces which cause deformation or structural changes of the earth’s crust.
These forces may originate from igneous activity or from movement of the plates that
comprise the earth’s crust.

Watershed An area of land that catches precipitation and drains or seeps into a marsh, river,
stream, lake or groundwater.