ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words cant express my dependence on Maam Nirmala Kishore of Tulsi Vidya Niketan for her constant help, supervision and guidance in making my project. It was beyond my capacity to do this work without her help, she gave me constant ideas and useful suggestions throughout the project work.

Roopam ojha 12th B ROLL NO.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Miss Roopam Ojha, Std XII, section B,has completed this project of biology titled Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings and Related Disorders under my guidance & supervision in accordance with guidelines framed by C.B.S.E.. I further certify that this project work carried out by her is unique,

DR. NIRMALA KISHORE

Sexual Reproduction

INTRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is a process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. It occurs in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes in multicellular eukaryote organisms , an individual is created anew prokaryotes, the initial cell has additional or transformed genetic material. In a process called genetic recombination , genetic material (DNA) originating from two different (parents) join up so that homologous sequences are aligned with each other and this is followed by exchange of genetic information. After a new recombinant chromosomes is formed, it is passed on to progeny. Sexual reproduction is the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms, including almost all animals and plants. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction in eukaryotes: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the restoration of the original number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the chromosomes of each pair usually cross over to achieve homologous combination.

Human Male Reproductive system

The human male reproductive system consists of a number of sex organs that form a part of the human reproductive process. In this type of reproductive system, these sex organs are located outside the body, around the pelvic region. The main male sex organs are the penis and the testicles which produce semen and sperm ,which ,as part of sexual intercourse-fertile an ovum the females body; the fertilized ovum zygote develops into a fetus, which is later born as a child.

External Genital Organ Penis

: The penis is the male copulatory organ. It has a long shaft and an

enlarged bulbous-shaped tip called the (glans penis), which supports and is protected by the fore skin. When the male becomes sexually aroused, the penis becomes erect and ready for sexual activity. Erection occurs because sinuses within the erectile tissue of the penis become filled with blood. The arteries of the penis are dilated while the veins are passively compressed so that blood flows into the erectile cartilage under pressure.

Scrotum : The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that hangs behind the penis.
It holds and protects the testes. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal. (The spermatic cord, formed from spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissue passes into the testis through inguinal canal.)

Internal Genital Organ Epididymis : The epididymis, a whitish mass of tightly coiled tubes cupped
against the testicles, acts as a maturation and storage for sperm before they pass into the vas deferens, that carry sperm to the ampullary gland and prostatic - ducts.

Vas deferens : The vas deferens, also known as the sperm duct, is a thin
tube approximately 30 centimetres (0.98 ft) long that starts from the epididymis to the pelvic cavity.

Accessory glands : Three accessory glands provide fluids that lubricate

the duct system and nourish the sperm cells. They are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bul bourethral glands (Cowper glands).

Seminal Vesicles : Seminal vesicles are sac-like structures attached to

the vas deferens at one side of the bladder. They produce a sticky, yellowish fluid that contains fructose. This fluid provides sperm cells energy and aids in their motility. 70% of the semen.

Prostate gland : The prostate gland surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the
base of the male urethra, just below the bladder. The prostate gland is responsible for the proof semen, a liquid mixture of sperm cells, prostate fluid and seminal fluid. This gland is also responsible for making the semen milky in appearance by mixing calcium to the semen coming from seminal vesicle (semen coming from the seminal vesicle is yellowish in color); the semen remains cloudy and clumpy until the prostatic profibrinolysin is formed into fibrinolysin and lysis of the fibrinogen from the seminal vesicle fluids occurs.

Bulbourethral glands : The bulbourethral glands, or Cowpers glands,

are pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.

Human Female Reproductive System

The human female reproductive system (or female genital system) contains two main parts: the uterus, which hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes the males sperm through to the fallopian tubes; and the ovaries, which produce the females egg cells. These parts are internal; the vagina meets the external organs at the vulva, which includes the labia, clitoris and urethra. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus. If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. During the reproductive process, the egg releases certain molecules that are essential to guiding the sperm and these allow the surface of the egg to attach to the sperms surface then the egg can absorb the sperm and fertilization begins .The fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then implants itself in the wall of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and morphogenesis. When developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the fetus through the birth canal, which is the vagina. The ova are larger than sperm and have formed by the time a female is born. Approximately every month, a process of oogenesis matures one ovum to be sent down the Fallopian tube attached to its ovary in anticipation of fertilization: If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation.

Embryonic Development Chromosome characteristics determine

the genetic sex of a fetus at conception. This is specifically based on the 23rd pair of chromosomes that is inherited. Since the mothers egg contains an X

chromosome and the fathers sperm contains either an X or Y chromosome, it is the male who determines the fetuss sex. If the fetus inherits the X chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a female.

Internal Reproductive System

The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and ovary.

Vagina: The vagina is a fibro-muscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to
the exterior of the body in female mammals, or to the cloaca in female birds and some reptiles. Female insects and other invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal part of the oviduct. The vagina is the place where semen from the male penis is deposited into the females body at the climax of sexual intercourse, a phenomenon commonly known as ejaculation. The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal.

Cervix :

The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins

with the top end of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible to the naked eye, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during delivery .The cervix is also named the neck of the uterus.

Uterus

: The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ of

humans. The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery). In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth. The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits its range of movement. The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ. Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of the uterus, a female begins menstruation.

Fallopian Tube :

The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are two tubes leading

from the ovaries of female mammals into the uterus. On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovarys wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is

fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of pregnancy.

Ovaries : The ovaries are small, paired organs that are located near the lateral
walls of the pelvic cavity. These organs are responsible for the production of the ova and the secretion of hormones. Ovaries are the place inside the female body where ova or eggs are produced. The process by which the ovum is released is called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual cycle. After ovulation, the ovum is captured by the oviduct, after traveling down the oviduct to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm, leading to pregnancy and the eventual birth of a new human being. The Fallopian tubes are often called the oviducts and they have small hairs (cilia) to help the egg cell travel.

External
The external components include the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholins glands, and clitoris.

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process by which spermatozoa are produced from male primordial germ cells through mitosis and meiosis. The initial cells in this pathway

are called spermatogonia, which yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte then completes meiosis as it divides into two spermatids. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells. Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa. Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually reproducing organisms. Thus, spermatogenesis is the male version of gametogenesis. In mammals it occurs in the male testes and epididymis in a stepwise fashion. It starts at puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death,although a slight decrease can be discerned in the quantity of produced sperm with increase in age ( Male infertility)

Spermatogonia :

A spermatogonium (plural: sperm atogonia) is an

undifferentiated male germ cell, originating in a seminiferous tubule and dividing into two primary spermatocytes (a kind of germ cell) in the production of spermatozoa. Each primary spermatocyte duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis l to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes. Each of the two secondary spermatocytes further undergo melosis II to produce two spermatids (haploid).

Spermatozoa : A spermatozoa is a motile sperm cell, or moving form of

the haploid cell that is the malegamete. A spermatozoon joins an ovum to form a zygote. (A zygote is a single cell, with a complete set of chromosomes, that normally develops into an embryo.) Sperm cells were first observed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1677.

Spermiogenesis : Spermiogenesis is the final stage of spermatogenesis,

which sees the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa. The spermatid is more or less circular cell containing a nucleus, Golgi apparatus, centriole and mitochondria. All these components take part in forming the spermatozoon.

Sertoli cells : A Sertoli cell (a kind of sustentacular cell) is a nurse cell of

the testes that is part of a seminiferous tubule. It is activated by follicle-stimulating hormone and has FSH-receptor on its membranes. It is specifically located in the convoluted seminiferous tubules (since this is the only place in the testes where the spermatozoa are produced).

Spermiation :

The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective

Sertoli cellsinto the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and a process called

spermiation then takes place, which removes the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles. The resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them sterile.The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction. Whilst in the epididymis, they acquire motility. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoons motility.

Luteinizing Hormone :

Luteinizing hormone (LH, also known as

lutropin and sometimes lutrophin is a hormone produced by gonadotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland. In females, an acute rise of LH (LH surge triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum. In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), it stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone. It acts synergistically with FSH.

Structure and parts of Sperm

The term sperm refers to the male reproductive cells and is derived from the Greek word sperma (meaning seed). A uniflagellar sperm cell that is motile is referred

to as a spermatozoon, whereas a non-motile sperm cell is referred to as a spermatium. Sperm cells cannot divide and have a limited life span, but after fusion with egg cells during fertilization, a new organism begins developing, starting as a totipotent zygote. The human sperm cell is haploid, so that its 23 chromosomes can join the 23 chromosomes of the female egg to form a diploid cell.

Anatomy : The mammalian sperm cell consists of a head, a midpiece and a

tail. The head contains the nucleus with densely coiled chromatin fibres, surrounded anteriorly by an acrosome, which contains enzymes used for penetrating the female egg. The midpiece has a central filamentous core with many mitochondria spiralled around it, used for ATP production for the journey through the female cervix, uterus and uterine tubes. The tail or flagellum executes the lashing movements that propel the spermatocyte.

Oogenesis
Oogenesis, ovogenesis or oogenesis is the creation of an (egg cell). It is the female form of gametogenesis; the male equivalent is spermatogenesis. It involves the development of the various stages of the immature ovum

Oogenesis in Mammals :

In mammals, the first part of oogenesis

starts in the germinal pithelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles, the functional unit of the ovary. Oogenesis consists of several subprocesses: oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form an ovum (oogenesis proper).

Oogonia : The creation of oogonia traditionally doesnt belong to oogenesis

proper but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis, which in the female human begins with the processes of folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis.

Antrum : The secondary follicle soon transforms into tertiary follicle which is
characterized by a fluid filled cavity called antrum.

Oocyte : An oocyte, oocyte, ovocyte ,or rarely ocyte, is a female gametocyte

or germ cell involved in reproduction. In other words, it is an immature ovum, or gg cell. An oocyte is produced in the ovary during female gametogenesis. The female germ cells produce a primordial germ cell (PGC) which undergoes mitosis to form an oogonium. During oogenesis the oogonium becomes a primary oocyte.

Graafian follicles :

Ovarian follicles are the basic units of female

reproductive biology, each of which is composed of roughly spherical aggregations of cells found in the ovary. They contain a single oocyte (immature ovum or egg). These structures are periodically initiated to grow and develop, culminating in ovulation of usually a single competent oocyte in humans. These eggs/ova are developed only once every menstrul cycle (e.g. once a month in humans).

Zona pellucida :

The zona pellucida (plural zonae pellucidae, also egg

coat or pellucid zone) is a glycoprotein membrane surrounding the plasma membrane of an oocyte. It is a vital constitutive part of the oocyte, external but of essential importance to it. The zona pellucida first appears in unilaminar primary oocytes. It is secreted by both the oocyte and the follicular cells. This structure binds spermatozoa, and is required to initiate the acrosome reaction.The zona pellucida is essential for oocyte death and fertilization.

Ovulation : Ovulation is the phase of a females menstrual cycle in which a

partially mature ovum that has yet to complete Meiosis II is released from the into the oviduct. After ovulation, during the luteal phase the egg will be available to be

fertilized by sperm. Concomitantly, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.

Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual cycle is the cycle of changes that occurs in the uterus and ovary for the purpose of sexual reproduction. It is essential for the production of eggs and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. The menstrual cycle occurs only in fertile female humans and other female primates

. In humans, the length of a menstrual cycle varies greatly among women (ranging from 25 to 35 days), with 28 days designated as the average length. Each cycle can be divided into three phases based on events in the ovary (ovarian cycle) or in the uterus (uterine cycle). The ovarian cycle consists of the fbllicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle is divided into menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. Both cycles are controlled by the endocrine system and the normal hormonal changes that occur can be interfered with usinghormonal contraception to prevent reproduction.

By convention, menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) slow then stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones, and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant (non-dominant follicles atrophy and die). Approximately mid- cycle, 2436 hours after the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovum, or egg, in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. The hormone drop causes the uterus to shed its lining and egg in a process termed menstruation. In the menstrual cycle, changes occur in the female reproductive system as well as other systems (which lead to breast tenderness or mood changes, for example). A womans first menstruation is termed menarche, and occurs typically around age 12-13. The end of a womans reproductive phase is called the menopause, which commonly occurs somewhere between the ages of 45 and 55.

Menarche :

Menarche is the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual

bleeding, in female humans. From both social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility.

Menopause :

Menopause refers to the time of cessation of a womans

reproductive ability.Menopause literally means the end of monthly cycles (the end of monthly periods or menstruation), from the Greek word pausis (cessation) and the rootmen- (month). Menopause is an event that typically occurs in women in midlife, during their late 40s or early 50s, and it signals the end of the fertile phase of a womans life.

Cycle and phases :

Follicular

Phases :

The follicular

phase is the first part of ovarian cycle . During this phase, the ovarian follicles mature and get ready to release an egg. Through the influence of a rise in FSH during the first days of the cycle, one dominant follicle that reaches maturity contains the ovum and is called Graffian follicle.

Ovulation:
Ovulation : Ovulation is the second phase of the ovarian cycle in which a mature egg is released from the ovarian follicles into the oviduct. During the follicular phase, estradiol suppresses production of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland. When the egg has nearly matured, levels of estradiol reach a threshold above which this effect is reversed and estrogen actually stimulates the

production of a large amount of LH. This process, known as the LH surge, starts around day 12 of the average cycle and may last 48 hours. Occasionally, both ovaries will release an egg; if both eggs are fertilized, the result is fraternal twins. After being released from the ovary, the egg is swept into the fallopian tube by the fimbria, which is a fringe of tissue at the end of each fallopian tube. After about a day, an unfertilized egg will disintegrate or dissolve in the fallopian tube. Fertilization by a spermatozoon, when it occurs, usually takes place in the ampulla, the widest section of the fallopian tubes. A fertilized egg immediately begins the process of embryogenesis, or development. The developing embryo takes about three days to reach the uterus and another three days to implant into the endometrium. It has usually reached the blastocyst stage at the time of implantation. In some women, ovulation features a characteristic pain called mittelschmerz (German term meaning middle pain). The sudden change in hormones at the time of ovulation sometimes also causes light mid-cycle blood flow.

Luteal Phase :

weeks, with 14 days considered normal. For an individual

woman, the follicular phase often varies in length from cycle to cycle; by contrast, the length of her luteal phase will be fairly consistent from The luteal phase is the final phase of the ovarian cycle and it corresponds to the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. During the luteal phase, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle to transform into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. The increased progesterone in the adrenals starts to induce the production of estrogen. The hormones produced by the corpus luteum also suppress production of the FSH and LH that the corpus luteum needs to

maintain itself. Consequently, the level of FSH and LH fall quickly over time, and the corpus luteum subsequently atrophies. Falling levels of progesterone trigger menstruation and the beginning of the next cycle. From the time of ovulation until progesterone withdrawal has caused menstruation to begin, the process typically takes about two cycle to cycle.

Corpus Luteum Phase : The corpus luteum (Latin for yellow body)
(plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female mammals that is involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone and moderate levels of estradiol and inhibin to inhibit further release of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Folliclestimulating hormone (FSH).

Development and structure : The corpus luteum develops from an

ovarian follicle during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, following the release of a secondary oocyte from the follicle during ovulation. While the oocyte (later the zygote if fertilization occurs) traverses the Fallopian tube into the uterus, the corpus luteum remains in the ovary.

Function : The corpus luteum is essential for establishing and maintaining

pregnancy in females. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is a steroid hormone responsible for the decidualization of the endometrium (its development) and maintenance, respectively.

Hormones responsible for Menstrual cycle .

Progestogen : Progestogens (also sometimes spelled progestagens or gestagens) are a group of hormones including progesterone.. The progestogens are one of the five major classes of steroid hormones, in addition to the estrogens,androgens, mineralocorticois, and glucocorticoids. Progestogens are named for their function in maintaining pregnancy (progestational), although they are also present at other phases of the estrous and menstrual cycles. The progestogen class of hormones includes all steroids with a pregnane skeleton, that is, both naturally occurring and synthetic ones. Exogenous or synthetic hormones are usually referred to as progestin.

Fertilization
Fertilisation (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy) is the fusion of gametes to initiate the development of a new individual organism. In animals, the process involves the fusion of an ovum with a sperm, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo. Depending on the animal species, the process can occur within the body of the female in internal fertilisation, or outside (external fertilisation). The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called reproduction. A male and female copulate, the male inseminating the female. The spermatozoon fertilizes an ovum or various ova in the uterus or fallopian tubes, and this result in one or multiple zygotes. Sometimes, a zygote can be created by humans outside of the animals body in the artificial process of in -vitro fertilization. After fertilization, the newly formed zygote then begins to divide through mitosis, forming an embryo, which implants in the females endometrium. At this time, the embryo usually consists of 50 cells

The zona pellucida, a thick layer of extracellular matrix that surrounds the egg is responsible for egg/sperm adhesion. In mammals, the binding of the spermatozoon to the GaIT initiates the acrosome reaction. This process releases the hyaluronidase

that digests the matrix of hyaluronic acid in the vestments around the oocyte. Fusion between the oocyte plasma membranes and sperm follows and allows the sperm nucleus, centriole and flagellum, but not the mitochondria, to enter the oocyte. This process ultimately leads to the formation of a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote divides to form a blastocyst and, upon entering the uterus ,implants in the endometrium, beginning pregnancy. Embryonic implantation not in the uterine wall results in an ectopic pregnancy that can kill the mother. The term conception commonly refers to fertilisation, which is the successful fusion of gametes to form a new organism. Its use conception by some to refer to implantation makes it a subject of semantic arguments about the beginning of pregnancy, typically in the context of the abortion debate.

Internal vs. external

Consideration as to whether an animal (more specifically a vertebrate) uses internal or external fertilization is often dependent on the method of birth. Oviparous animals laying eggs with thick calcium shells, such as chickens, or thick leathery shells generally reproduce via internal fertilisation so that the sperm fertilises the egg without having to pass through the thick, protective, tertiary layer of the egg. Ovoviviparous and viviparous animals also use internal fertilisation. It is important to note that although some organisms reproduce via amplexus, they may still use internal fertilisation, as with some salamanders. Advantages to internal fertilisation include: minimal waste of gametes; greater chance of individual egg fertilisation, relatively longer time period of eggprotection, and selective fertilisation; many females have the ability to store sperm for extended periods of time and can fertilise their eggs at their own desire.

Oviparous animals producing eggs with thin tertiary membranes or no membranes at all, on the other hand, use external fertilisation methods. Advantages to external fertilisation include: minimal contact and transmission of bodily fluids; decreasing the risk of disease transmission, and greater genetic variation (especially during broadcast spawning external fertilisation methods).

Implantation (Human embryo)

In humans (as in all other mammals, except for monotremes), implantation is the very early stage of pregnancy at which the embryo adheres to the wall of the uterus. At this stage of prenatal development, the embryo is a blastocyst. It is by this adhesion that the foetus receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother to be able to grow. In humans, implantation of a fertilized ovum is most likely to occur about 9 days after ovulation, ranging between 6 and 12 days.

Fertilization:

Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm, usually occurring in the ampulla of the uterine tube. The result of this union is the production of a Zygote, or fertilized egg, initiating prenatal developmet. Scientists discovered the dynamics of human fertilization in the nineteenth century. The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum. The most common sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation, follows with ovulation, and finishes with fertilization. Various exceptions to this sequence are possible, including artificial insemination, In vitro fertilization, external ejaculation without copulation, or copulation shortly after ovulation. Upon encountering the secondary oocyte, the acrosome of the sperm produces enzymes which allow it to burrow through the outer jelly coat of the egg. The sperm plasma then fuses with the eggs plasma membrane, the sperm head disconnects from its flagellum and the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process by which egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb, in vitro.

Corona radiata
The sperm bind through the corona radiata, a layer of follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte. Fertilization occurs when the nuclei of a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell, known as zygote. The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism.

Sperm preparation

Acrosome reaction
At the beginning of the process, the sperm undergoes a series of changes, as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize. The sperm must undergo capacitation in the females reproductive tract over several hours, which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane, preparing it for the acrosome reaction, the enzymatic penetration of the eggs tough membrane, the zona pellucida, which surrounds the oocyte.

Zona pellucida
After binding to the corona radiata the sperm reaches the zona pellucida, which is an extra-cellular matrix of glycoproteins. This binding triggers the acrosome to burst, releasing enzymes that help the sperm get through the zona pellucida. Some sperm cells consume their acrosome prematurely on the surface of the egg cell, facilitating the penetration by other sperm cells. As a population, sperm cells have on average 50% genome similarity so the premature acrosomal reactions aid fertilization by a member of the same cohort. It may be regarded as a mechanism of kin selection. Recent studies have shown that the egg is not passive during this process.

Cortical reaction
Once the sperm cells find their way past the zona pellucida, the cortical reaction occurs. This prevents fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. The cortical reaction and acrosome reaction are both essential to ensure that only one sperm will fertilize an egg.

The oocyte now undergoes its second meiotic division producing the haploid ovum and releasing a polar body. The sperm nucleus then fuses with the ovum, enabling fusion of their genetic material. Cell membranes: The cell membranes of the secondary oocyte and sperm fuse. In preparation for the fusion of their genetic material both the oocyte and the sperm undergo transformations as a reaction to the fusion of cell membranes. The oocyte completes its second meiotic division. This results in a mature ovum. The nucleus of the oocyte is called a pronucleus in this process, to distinguish it from the nuclei that are the result of fertilization. The sperms tail and mitochondria degenerate with the formation of the male pronucleus. This is why all mitochondria in humans are of maternal origin. Still, a considerable amount of RNA from the sperm is delivered to the resulting embryo and likely influences embryo development and the phenotype of the offspring. The male and female pronuclel dont fuse, although their genetic material do. Instead, their membranes dissolve, leaving no barriers between the male and female chromosomes Polar Body: When certain diploid cells in animals undergo cytokinesis after meiosis to produce egg cells, they sometimes divide unevenly. Most of the cytoplasm is segregated into one daughter cell, which becomes the egg or ovum. The other,

smaller cells are called polar bodies. They frequently die (apoptose) and disappear, but in some cases they remain and can be important in the life cycle of the organism.

Trophoblast:
Trophoblasts (from Greek trephein: to feed, and blastos: germinator) are cells forming the outer layer of a blastocyst, which provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta. They are formed during the first stage of pregnancy and are the first cells to differentiate from the fertilized egg. This layer of trophoblasts is also collectively referred to as the trophoblast, or, after gastrulation, the trophectoderm, as it is then contiguous with the ectoderm of the embryo.

Function of Trophoblast:
Trophoblasts are specialized cells of the placenta that play an important role in embryo implantation and interaction with the decidualised maternal uterus. The core of placental villi contain mesenchymal cells and placental blood vessels that are directly connected to the fetal circulation via the umbilical cord.

Gastrulation:
Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic development of most animals, during which the single-layered blastula is reorganized into a trilaminal (threelayered) structure known as the gastrula. These three germ layers are known as the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Gastrulation takes place after cleavage and the formation of the blastula and primitive streak. Gastrulation is followed by organogenesis, when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers. Each layer gives rise to specific tissues and organs in the developing embryo. The molecular mechanism and timing of gastrulation is different in different organisms. However, some common features of gastrulation across triploblastic organisms include: (1) A change in the topological structure of the embryo, from a simply connected surface (sphere-like), to a non-simply connected surface (toruslike); (2) The differentiation of cells into one of three types (endodermal, mesodermal, and ectodermal); and (3) the digestive function of a large number of endodermal cells. Lewis Wolpert, pioneering developmental biologist in the field, has been credited for noting that It is not birth, marriage, or death, but gastrulation, which is truly the most important time in your life. The terms gastrula and gastrulation were coined by Ernst Haeckel, in his 1872.

Germinal Layer:

A germ layer, is a primary layer of cells that form during embryogenesis. The three germ layers in vertebrates are particularly pronounced; however, all eumetazoans, (animals more complex than the sponge) produce two or three primary germ layers. Animals with radial symmetry, like cnidarians, produce two germ layers (the ectoderm and endoderm) making them diploblastic. Animals with bilateral symmetry produce a third layer (the mesoderm), between these two layers. making them triploblastic. Germ layers eventually give rise to all of an animals tissues and organs through the process of organogenesis. Development: Fertilization leads to the formation of a zygote. During the next stage, cleavage, mitotic cell divisions transform the zygote into a hollow ball of cells, a blastula. This early embryonic form undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with either two or three layers (the germ layers). In all vertebrates, these prOgenitor cells differentiate into all adult tissues and organs. In humans, after about three days, the zygote forms a solid mass of cells by mitotic division, called a morula. This then changes to a blastocyst, consisting of an outer layer called a trophoblast, and an inner cell mass called the embryoblast. Filled with uterine fluid, the blastocyst breaks out of thezona pellucida and undergoes implantation. The inner cell mass initially has two layers:the hypoblast and epiblast

Pregnancy:

Pregnancy is the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as an embryo or fetus, in a womans uterus. It is the common name for in humans. A multiple pregnancy involves more than one embryo or fetus a single pregnancy, such as with twins. Childbirth usually occurs about 38 weeks after conception; in women who have a menstrual cycle length of four weeks, this is approximately 40 weeks from the start of the last normal menstrual period (LNMP). In many societies medical or legal definitions, human pregnancy is somewhat arbitrarily divided into three trimester periods, as a means to simplify reference to the different stages of prenatal development. The first trimester carries the highest risk of miscarriage (natural death of embryo or fetus). During the second trimester, the development of the fetus can be more easily monitored and diagnosed. The beginning of the third trimester often approximates the point of viability, or the ability of the fetus to survive, with or without medical help, outside of the uterus.

Placenta:

The placenta is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mothers blood supply. Placentas are a defining characteristic of eutheri an or placental mammals, but are also found in some non-mammals with varying levels of development. Prototherial (egg-laying) and metatherial (marsupial) mammals produce a choriovitelline placenta that, while connected to the uterine wall, provides nutrients mainly derived from the egg sac.

Structure of Placenta:
In humans, the placenta averages 22 cm (9 inch) in length and 2 2.5 cm (0.8 1 inch) in thickness, with the center being the thickest, and the edges being the thinnest. It typically weighs approximately 500 grams (1 Ib). It has a dark reddishblue or crimson color. It connects to the fetus by an umbilical cord of approximately 5560 cm (2224 inch) in length, which contains two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein. The placenta grows throughout pregnancy. Development of the maternal blood supply to the placenta is complete by the end of the first trimester of pregnancy (approximately 1213 weeks).

Parturition:
Birth, also known as parturition, is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring. In mammals, the process is initiated by hormones which cause the muscular walls of the uterus to contract, expelling the foetus at a developmental stage where it can feed and breathe.

Human Birth:

The mothers body is prepared for birth by hormones produced by the pituitary gland, the ovary and the placenta. The total gestation period fromfertilization to birth is about 38 weeks (birth usually occurring 40 weeks after the last menstrual period). The normal process of giving birth starts with a series of involuntary contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus. The contractions get stronger and increase in frequency and the head (or the buttocks in a breech birth) of the baby is pushed against the cervix. The cervix gradually dilates, a process that may take many hours, especially in a woman bearing her first child. At some stage, the amniotic sac bursts and the amniotic fluid escapes. When the cervix is fully dilated, further strong contractions of the uterus push the baby out through the vagina and the baby is born with umbilical cord attached. Further contractions expel the placenta, amniotic sac, and the remaining portion of the umbilical cord, usually

within a few minutes.

Lactation
Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process occurs in all female mammals, although it predates mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is called breastfeeding or nursing.

In most species milk comes out of the mothers nipples; however, the platypus (a non-placental mammal) releases milk through ducts in its abdomen. In only one species of mammal, the Dayak fruit bat, is milk production a normal male function. . This stage requires prolactin (PRL) and oxytocin. Newborn infants often produce some witchs milk.

Purpose of Lactation: The chief function of lactation is to provide nutrition and immune protection to the young after birth. In almost all mammals, lactation induces a period of infertility, which serves to provide the optimal birth spacing for survival of the offspring.

Hormonal influences:
From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy (the second and third trimesters), a womans body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the milk duct system in the breasts: Estrogen stimulates the milk duct system to grow and differentiate. Like progesterone, high levels of estrogen also inhibit lactation. Estrogen levels also drop at delivery and remain low for the first several months of breastfeeding .Breastfeeding mothers should avoid estrogen-based birth control methods, as a spike in estrogen levels may reduce a mothers milk supply. Prolactin contributes to the increased growth and differentiation of the alveoli, and also influences differentiation of ductal structures. High levels of prolactin

during pregnancy and breastfeeding also increase insulin resistance, increase growth factor levels (IGF-1) and modify lipid metabolism in preparation for breastfeeding. During lactation, prolactin is the main factor maintaining tight junctions of the ductal epithelium and regulating milk production through osmotic balance. Growth hormone is structurally very similar to prolactin and contributes to its galactopoietic function. ACTH (adreno-cortico-tropic hormone) and glucocorticoids have an important lactation inducing function. Oxytocin contracts the smooth muscle of the uterus during and after birth, and during orgasm(s). Oxytocin is necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or letdown to occur. Human placental lactogen (HPL) From the second month of pregnancy, the placenta releases large amounts of HPL. This hormone appears to be instrumental in breast, nipple, and areola growth before birth. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) By the fifth or sixth month of pregnancy, the breasts are ready to produce milk. It is also possible to induce lactation without pregnancy.

Development Disorder

Chorioamnionitis: It is an inflammation of the fetal membranes (amnion

and chorio) due to a bacterial infection. It typically results from bacteria ascending into the uterus from the vagina and is most often associated with prolonged labor. The fetal membranes consist of two parts: The outer membrane is the chorion. It is closest to the mother and physically supports the much thinner amnion. The inner membrane is the amnion. It is in direct contact with the amniotic fluid, which surrounds the fetus.

Abortion:
Abortion is the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced. The term abortion most commonly refers to the induced abortion of a human pregnancy. Abortion, when induced in the developed world in accordance with local law, is among the safest procedures in medicine. However, unsafe abortions result in approximately 70,000 maternal deaths and 5 million hospital admissions per year globally. An estimated 44 million abortions are performed globally each year, with slightly under half of those performed unsafely. The incidence of abortion has stabilized in recent years, having previously spent decades declining as access to family planning education and contraceptive services increased. Forty percent of the worlds women have access to legal induced abortions (within gestational limits).

Induced abortion has a long history and has been performed by various methods, including herbal abortifacients, the use of sharpened tools, physical trauma, and other traditional methods. Contemporary medicine utilizes medications and surgical procedures. The legality, prevalence, cultural and religious status of abortion vary substantially around the world. Its legality can depend on specific conditions, such as incest, rape, fetal defects, a high risk of disability, socioeconomic factors or the mothers health being at risk. In many parts of the world there is prominent and divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of abortion. Those who are against abortion generally posit that an embryo or fetus is a human with the right to life and may equate abortion with homicide, while proponents of abortion rights emphasize a womans right to decide about matters concerning her own body.

BIBLOGRAPHY

1.N.C.E.R.T. B1OLOGYSTDXII 2.A TEXT BOOK OF BIOLOGY STD XII SELINA PUBLICATUION 3.GOOGLE 4.WIKIPEDIA