Essential Questions Sec 2-EOY (Brayden Leo) Land Supply Questions 1) Describe the reasons for the rising

demand for land. As population increases, more areas become developed to accomadate the increasing amount of people and results in the increase of population density of areas. This results in the need of a more comprehensive transport system to enable the movement of people & goods efficiently. Many countries often have close to 20% of land used for transportation. Singapore has 3,750m2 of roads and the remainder largely taken up by Changi Airport and Port of Singapore. With a larger population comes a larger need for housing, thus more land will have to be used for housing purposes. The increase in wealth also increases the land used and as people become wealthier and desire larger housing, accommodating more land per person, increasing the demand for housing. Only 16% of the earths surface is suitable for farming, making arable land very valuable & highly sought after. This is because a large majority of land are either infertile or of an unsuitable climate. With a larger population, much more food will also be needed to be produce food to feed people. Hence, more land will have to be used for agricultural purposes, resulting in higher demands for such land. With a growing population, more recreational spaces will have to be made to provide recreation. This includes swimming pools, parks and nature reserves. The increase in wealth also means more will be willing and want to spend money on such areas, therefore, further increasing the demands for recreational spaces. With a growing population, more jobs will have to be created. This is often made via industrialisation. This means the rate of land used would increase by the creation of jobs via the building of factories, for manufacturing industries or offices for the development of businesses, resulting in more land used. Currently 10.9% of the land in Singapore is used for such purposes to help keep the unemployment rate low at 2%. 2. Explain how increasing the price for land can Be used as a response to the rising demand. Increasing the price means when housing price is low, the government implements policies to bring the housing prices up. This high prices hence, discourages people from purchasing land. Rental prices in Tokyo for a single bedroom unit are even higher than $1600 due to the high

demand (needs: high population, wealth: wealth) and low supply. The high prices will hence reduce the number of people who desire to have bigger housing as it discourages people from using too much land due to prices, however, people who want housing as a need will not be deterred. 3. Evaluate the various responses of increasing the supply of land through reclamation. Reclamation can be done by landfills, which involves the draining the desired area (body of water) and filling it with material to create dry land. Example of such projects includes the Central Japanese airport & Singapores Jurong Island. This is an effective way of reclaiming land as it is of a lower cost when compared to methods such empoldering. However, Current technology only allows reclamation of land to up to 15m in dept. Despite this being able to largely increase land supply, however, there have been effects made to the environment such as affecting of growth of coral reefs & marine life. When countries surrounded by others, like Singapore do so, they are restricted from reclaiming too much land by sea routes & boundaries. Empoldering involves the draining out of large water bodies with the assistance of dikes to prevent water from coming in so as to achieve more land. It is usually carried out in low-lying coastal areas, however, it can also be carried out further inland in lakes. Successful projects include the Zuider Zee. The cost involved in this process are also high. This includes the construction of facilities like dikes, canals 7 pumps. The cost for maintenance to prevent re-flooding is also high. For instance, the Maeslantkering (a dyke in Netherlands, to prevent flooding) cost 660 million to built. One way to meet the demands is to increase supply to meet demands. It is a process whereby land is cleared by either: Demolishing old buildings or deforestation, resulting in empty plots of land which will be available for development or other sorts of land use.This method is quick and efficient. However, deforestation leads to the loss of habitats for animals & plants. This will lead to the death of animals & plants and might lead to endangerment or even extinction, having negative consequences to the whole food web. 4. Describe the process of landfill and empoldering.

Firstly, Piles(Columns of Sand) are forced into soft clay of the seabed. This is to help Stabalise the seabed. Secondly, A Sand wall will be built around area to be reclaimed, Sand is also to be loaded into sea outside the sand wall & stored there until needed. This keeps water out. Next, Sand previously stored outside sand wall sucked & pumped into enclosed area. Sand is also spread around with spreaders. This is done so additional Sand will raise the level of

seabed Then, Sand is then compressed. Granite wall is then built on sea facing side. Compacted sand reduces time needed for settling. The Granite wall also prevents erosion by sea waves Lastly, Trees & Vegetation will also be grown on reclaimed land, the land should be left to rest for up to 5 years. Vegetation will prevent soil erosion while it rests to stabilise itself 5. Describe how existing land uses can be maximized.

In the past, cities were planned based on zones whereby different areas on a piece of land were assigned a specific example. However, people had to travel long distances to move from one zone to another. This will allow for land to meet the needs of more users as mixed landuse often takes place where shopping malls, offices, housing and hotels are in an area. This are closely packed and are linked via walkways and escalators. Some are even in a same building linked by lifts. This adds convinces to residence having not need to travel to have a meal or shop. Example of such land use include Suntec City in Singapore. Another way that existing land uses can be maximized is through high density building. technological advances have enabled taller buildings to be constructed such as buildings like Taipei 101 (101 storeys) in areas where land is scarce but in high demand, usually in cities like Shanghai and Singapore. These areas are described as high density areas where many people work and live per unit area. In Singapore, the HDB has planned to build flats 30 storeys or more. Many of these flats will be located in the more established housing estates such as Bishan and Toa Payoh, or areas with the vicinity to the city Tanjong Pagar. A clear example woul be the pinicale @ duxton, which is located in Tanjong Paga.

6.

Evaluate the various responses of maximizing the existing use of land.

Irrigation is a way used to maximize use of land. Irrigation involves the watering of crops via artificial means such as irrigation pipes channeled from water sources to farms. This allows farmers to grow crops in areas that experience water shortage to ensure their crops receive the right amount of water. 68% of irrigation are found in Asia. This method ensures a regular supply of water, allowing farmers to grow a greater variety and amounts of crops. Land previously not suitable for agriculture due to a lack of water are now made available. However, if this is not properly mainatained, it can be breeding sites for bacteria, mosquitoes while maintaining and building such systems are also of high costs. Terracing is another way of maximizing land use. Terracing involve the creating flat strips of land made via cutting of hill steps from slopes. This prevents water from running off so quickly and

cause a lack of water. This hence enables hilly slopes to be made available for cultivation of crops. Low walls, bunds made are to be built at the end of every step to slow down the runoff. This method is also inexpensive as the strips of flat land used can enable modern machinery to be used thus, saving on labour. However, although being inexpensive, in requires a lot of time and energy. Maintaining terraces are also a challenge as if bunds are damaged, soil may be washed off, causing soil erosion. Soil-less farming is also another way whereby land use is maximized. This involves crops growing close together hence, enabling them to get placed in optimum conditions. This can be done through hydroponic or aeroponics. Crops grown by such allow crops to ge grown close to each other maximizing landuse. It also is effective in increasing outputs of crops, since, they are in controlled conditions, preventing growth of weeds and insects. However, this methods involves a high capital as equipment needed are of high cost, 30 million was the cost of starting Singapores first aeroponics farm. Water Questions: 7. Describe the reasons for the increasing demand for water.

Growth of agriculture has resulted in an increase in the demand of water. As the population increases more food will have to be needed, to feed the growing population. In fact, 1000-3000 litres of water are needed to produce one kilo of rice. Wealth has also increased, causing people to seek food of better quality and seek more food (quantity). The increase in population has also resulted in GM crop making so crops can be grown faster, healthier and also better, which also utilizes more water in crop growing and Research & Development of crops. Growth of Industries also contributes to the increasing demand of water. With a growing population, more jobs will have to be created. This is often made via industrialization, which involves making of factories. There will also be a higher demand for goods through growing population and wealth, this means, more factories will have to be made to meet such demands. This results in an increase in the use of water via the need for water to be used to clean and cool machineries. Changes in lifestyles also contribute to the increasing demand of water. Many countries have been developing due to the universal increase in wealth as presented via the rapid development of countries such as: China & India. When this takes place, people would inevitably get richer and will start to adopt modern lifestyles & can afford to buy items which will provide greater convenience and comfort. For instance, only 35 per cent of households installed air conditioners

in 1992, the proportion almost doubled to 68 per cent a decade later in 2003. More recreational spaces such as Pools, Water theme parks will be built, further increasing demand for water

8.

Evaluate the various responses to the rising demand for water.

A way to respond to rising demands for water is by increasing Water Catchment Areas. Catchment areas are areas in which when rain falls, water will be collected. In modern areas, artificial lakes are made to collect run offs. An increase in the amount of such areas will result in an increase of water collected. Examples include the Central Catchment Area, which consists of forests around 4 Major reservoirs. Nature Reserves are often used as catchment areas as forests can help retain a fresh supply of water. This is because rainwater will be intercepted by trees and plants and get absorbed by soil layers of the ground. This water will then flow into reservoirs for storage. Helps keep cost of water treatment down as rainwater is cleaner than used or sea water making it easier & cheaper to purify. When water bodies are set aside for such, forests are also conserved through the process. Due to population increase, needs for lands for housing & economics. In Singapore 1/2 of the land is already used for such. In times of Drought or little rainfall, such places become ineffective. International agreements are another way where water supply can be obtained. Many rivers flow across political boundaries thus countries need to cooperate on the sharing of water in these rivers via international agreements regarding how the river will be used to ensure a country does not take advanatage over other by building dams etc. Since 1957, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam have been cooperating within the framework of the Mekong River Commission. Countries may also obtain part of their water supply from neighboring counties. An international agreement will be signed. Countries will discuss and negotiate terms on sharing of water resources such as price and amount of water sent. The Country purchasing water will not need to set aside too much of its land as water catchment areas. It is also convenient should the water sent be treated. However, this is not sustainable in the long run as international agreements do not last forever, when such agreements expire, terms will have to be renegotiated. Water supply will also be affected by the avability of water in the other country or even diplomatic relations Using of technology can also be a response to demands for water. This includes recycling water. Used Water can be converted into usable water again. Used water is first collected from households & factories, such water are channeled to water reclamination plants. Impurities are removed from the water and water can be further treated at industrial works, to produce industrial water. They are then supplied to factories for purposes like washing or cooling of machinery. One such example is NEwater. NEwater, mainly used for industrial water use is crucial as the non-domestic water use, which accounted for 55% of water demand in 2010 and is expected to

account for 70% of demand in 2060. Another method is desalination, which is the process of removing salt from seawater. This is mainly used in areas which are dry or when water supply is contaminated. Examples include Saudi Arabia, which has the worlds largest desalination plant. Producing up to 12 million gallons of fresh water daily. It can be broken down into distillation which is similar to the water cycle. While the other is reverse osmosis. Where pressure is applied to water through a membrane, which acts as a filter. This method is very sustainable and there are not many factors affecting the production of such. It is very costly and requires large amount of energy. The SingSpring desalination plant in Tuas cost $200 to build. Minerals in the water are also removed through such processes. People may not get used to such water. Conserving water can also be a response to demands for water. Conserving water can reduce the demand for water through conservation; this can be achieved through efforts made by governments in Public Campaigns & Water rationing, thus raising awareness. People would then play their role by showing awareness, practicing water conservation habits. If water is conserved, less money spent on purchase, treatment, transport and maintenance. However, this requires cooperation from everyone, which is difficult to achieve.

9.

Describe the process of Desilsation and Recycling Water

Water recycling involves the conversion of used water into usable water. At the start, used water is collected from households and factories and channeled to water recycling plants or reclamation plants, where the impurities are being removed. It will become recycled water at the end of the process. Water passed through a process of microfiltration first, where larger particles and bacteria are being removed. Secondly, it is followed by the process of reverse osmosis where pressure is applied to the water to force it through a special membrane. This process removes very small particles, like small bacteria & dissolved salts. Lastly, water is disinfected via ultraviolet radiation. Desalination is the removal of dissolved salts from seawater, highly mineralized groundwaters and wastewaters such that it is made drinkable. There are 2 ways of doing so. Firstly, distillation. Distillation is where seawater is heated and water vapour from the water is then collected and condensed as pure water. Seawater is used to cool the condensers in each evaporator, saving energy. Reverse Osmosis is the second way, where pressure is applied to force the water through a special membrane; this prevents small particles like bacteria & dissolved salts from passing through. 10. Describe the methods by which Singapore increases its supply of water

Singapore increased local catchment areas to increase water supply. Singapore had only 3 reservoirs. However, 11 more reservoirs were constructed. Many of these reservoirs were created by building dams across rivers or along the coastlines, storm water collection pools have also been constructed in some housing estates. These ponds collect rainwater and channel the water to various reservoirs. The Marina reservoir, completed in 2010 when all salt in the water was removed now accounts for 10% of Singapores water supply. Another way in which Singapore increases their water supply is when it buys water from neighboring countries. Singapore has been purchasing water from the state of Johor in Malaysia since 1927. Currently, following the expiring of the 2011 agreement, another agreement has been in place for Johor to import water to Singapore but at a much higher price when compared to the old agreement. Another way in which Singapore increases their water supply is via Water reclamation. More specifically, NEwater. Singapore uses this advance membrane technology making it possible to treat used water. NEWater is of a very high quality water and has surpassed international water standards. It is mainly supplied for non-domestic, industrial water use, which accounts for 55% of Singapores water expenditure. Additionally, a small amount of NEWater is mixed with rainwater that is stored in reservoirs before it is sent for treatment at the water works. The treated water is then supplied tohouseholds for consumption. Singapore also uses desalinated water to increase water supply. Singapore carries out desalination of seawater as part of their water supply. The SingSpring desilation plant was opened in Tuas in 2005. The cost of this project was $200 million and the maintance cost is also very high. This plan utilizes the reverse osmosis method to convert seawater to drinkable water. It, in time to come will be able to provide 10% of Singapores water needs. 11. What are the causes of air/land/water pollution? Air Pollution Industries are also another cause of air pollution. This is caused by the growth of wealth where many can now afford more items, more factories are then present to make such giving out such substanes. Items like air conditioning also takes up a lot power, which is from power stations, which burn fossil fuels When fossil fuels are burnt in power stations, dust soot, as well as poisonous gases like sulfur dioxide. Through industrialisation, machines like cars are produced quickly and are of low cost. This

means it is now made cheaper. This will enable more people to purchase such machines and thus causes an increased production of carbon monoxide & nitrogen oxides. This is often the greatest culprit of air pollution in urban areas. It is estimated that up to 90 % of such are caused by motor vehicles. Through rapid industrilisation, many areas are developed at a very quick paced. A lot of lands in urban areas are often occupied by construction sites developing the area. When strong winds blow, such particles are hence, carried in the air, even to nearby residential areas. For an example, along Bukit Timah Rd, current construction of the Downtown Line is being consucted, residential buildings are severely affected by such as people living nearby breathe in such particles. Water Pollution Oil Spills occur when the hull of an oil tanker is torn by sharp rocks, icebergs or collision with others. It may occur via oil drilling rigs as well through leakages. This causes oil to spill out into the sea, forming a layer on water surface. If not treated quickly, would worsen very drastically as oils would drift around in the ocean, following ocean currents, causing more harm to aquatic animals & hindering cleanup. Examples Include the Oil Spill at the Gulf of Mexico caused by an oil drilling rig run by BP. It is the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, spilling up to 4.9 million barrels, 780,000 cubic meters of Oil. two Years from the incident today, there are still large amount of oils at the bottom of the sea. There are 2 types of improper waste disposal: Domestic & Industrial Improper disposal of domestic Waste occurs when the country is poor; apart from the capital of the country, it does not have access to safe drinking water nor proper sewage. Domestic Waste including faeces, is hence, able to be discharged directly into water bodies without getting treated by treatment plants. The other, improper disposal of industrial waste occurs when Industries generate large amounts of toxic waste such as lead & mercury, which are of heavy metal contents, non-biodegradable detergents are also dumped into sea. This usually occurs due to illegal dumping or the lack of legislation to control the disposal of waste. Examples include Minamata bay where Mercury produced were dumped into. In modern agricultural areas, large amounts of pesticide, herbicides & chemical fertilizers are used in farming, to increase crop yield by preventing insects from feeding off them. They are then washed into seas via surface runoffs. They can also dissolve into water during precipitation and seep into groundwater, polluting them, groundwater may also be a source of rivers which may flow into seas, oceans.

Land Pollution In modern agricultural areas, large amounts of pesticide, herbicides & chemical fertilizers are used in farming, to increase crop yield by killing pests that crops & killing weeds which will compete for nutrients with crops. Pests often develop resistance against such overtime. Farmers then resort to using more, worsening situation. Furthermore, it can cause pesticide drift. Pesticide drift is the movement of pesticides away from the intended application site. Pesticide dust or droplets can be carried away by wind and other factors. It can cause accidental exposures to people, plants & animals. 98% of pesticides & 95% of herbicides are sprayed off target. Mostly at the ground nearby the plants. Modern technology like aerial spraying worsens the pollution further.

Improper Disposal exists in 3 types: Domestic, Minning & Industrial This could be caused by the lack of Suitable Place for waste disposal. Insufficient controls over where the waste should be disposed. Mining produces large amounts of chemical &hard wastes. This includes toxic chemicals, metals. Industries also produce lots of chemicals & hard wastes. This includes Nuclear Waste, where simply being in close proximity could affect ones health in the long run. Theses wastes may not be disposed properly, even if their buried and some of its contents may appear nearby due to precipitations which seeped into grounds. Such chemicals were mixed with water and appeared at various places & came into close proximity with people, plants, animals. Homes, agricultural sites can grow over, near such places, theses toxic substances can hence come into contact with others or simply affect people nearby. For Example: No regulations on how waste should be disposed appropriately. 20,000 tons of industrial waste including waste such as Lead was dumped and simply covered in Soil without linings. Due to precipitations which seeped into grounds. Such chemicals were mixed with water and appeared at grounds at schools, basements of houses etc.

12. What are the effects of air/land/water pollution? Air Pollution Environmental problems can be effects of air pollution. In some cities, air pollution results in acid rain, this destroys forests, kills fish in rivers due to the unsuitable pH levels as well as corrodes buildings. Acid rain is a common effect in places where there are many heavy industries. For example, in chemical industries, large amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air as the chemicals are being processed. These chemicals will mix with the water vapour in the air which condenses into clouds and eventually, acid rain.

Dust and smoke can cause breathing difficulties. When people are exposed to such for long durations of time, respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma form. When cities experience smogs, gases like carbon monoxide are present and can cause serious health problems and even death. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are also found in smoke can attack a persons respiratory system, increasing the risk of developing lung and heart diseases and even cancer. Lifespan of humans may be shortened by 1 to 2 years because of air pollution Water Pollution Layer of Oil forms on water surface preventing air, oxygen from entering. This causes a lack of oxygen, animals, therefore have to swim away or face the possibility of suffocation. Oil blocks of sunlight, preventing plants from photosynthesizing Oil might come into contact with Mammals and cause them freeze to death from cold as oil prevents air from being trapped between fur & bodies to act as insulation. When Oils come into contact with sea birds, they might get weighed down, preventing them from flying, eventually, drowning them, livelihood will also affected For Example: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. The Exon Valdez collided near Alaska after hitting a reef.Though it did not spill a lot of crude oil (41,00 to 119,000m3), it caused worse environmental problems. This was because of the crash sites remote location. The area is a habitat for salmon, otters, seals, seabird. Theses toxic chemicals and waste may destroy Aquatic Life. Around 5million people suffer & die from waterborne diseases like cholera, bilharzias. Aquatic Plants & Animals would hence be exposed to such chemicals & waste and such chemicals accumulate in their bodies. When humans consume them, they bring about health hazards such as birth deformities, nervous system breakdowns etc. Environment affected, since many fishes die, thee is loss of livelihood of fishermen. Clean up will also be costly. For instance, Mimata Bay. In which a Japanese Chemical Factory, dumped mercury into the bay. Mecury then accumulated in the bodies of fishes and shellfishes in the bay which, when eaten by the people living around the bay, gave rise to Minamata Disease In which, more than 10,000 people were affected. Land Pollution Heavy Metal Wastes may also be produced and people who are constantly exposed to them may face health hazards like central nervous system breakdown, kidney, liver failures, skin, nones, teeth disorders Industry. Theses waste includes radioactive materials which may thousands of years (nuclear fuels etc.) Health hazards could also occur when in close proximity or consumed. Crops grown on such land may be contaminated and when consumed by humans may build in in humans bodies causing all sorts of health problems, such as Cancer, birth disorders.

Soil may become contaminated causing water pollution during perceptions. The Drift may also affect plants & animals as the chemicals may come into contact with the non-intended. Pesticides like DDT may pass poison to insects & pests like mice which eat them, this poison may then be passed on. This could affect the ecosystem as theses chemicals may have other effects (Agent Orange). Humans may come into contact with such and Health Hazards such as Cancer, Birth defects, skin problems may arise.

13. Evaluate the various measures taken to reduce air/land/water pollution at different levels(individual, national, international) Making Simple Day to day decisions and raising awareness This includes reduce the amount of polluting materials e.g. disposal products such as paper and cups, pesticides used on land; reuse. Reuse domestic waste by using plastic bags again. Recycling wastes. Stay informed by learning about the environment & how you can play your part (supporting green activities & not supporting products which are not environmentally friendly( Styrofoam).This can be easily Implemented as people just need to be to be informed to do their part. However, they cannot be enforced and can only be encourages to comply Use Landfills & Incineration to prevent pollution caused by improper waste disposal. Waste materials are hence incinerated to remove toxic materials and reduce volume. Waste is also buried instead of shoved onto landfills to further prevent unsightliness. Governments also constantly monitor landfills to make sure no toxic materials seep into environment. Measures can be enforced by laws and non-compliance could be met with penalties. However, their actions are affected by political aspect. Measures may affect industries and they might choose to locate elsewhere, affecting economy. In the international field, International committees can organise treaties to get countries to take action against water pollution like prevent dumping of oil to seas. They help get awareness to countries so they can make laws to try to adhere to promises., If all countries comply, and carry them out it would be very good as there is a wide outreach reaching out to many counties. Countries however, are not enforced to sign the treaty, they will also face no punishments if they fail to meet the treaty. Global warming Questions: 14. Explain the greenhouse effect.

- The Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon whereby gases which make up the atmosphere trap heat for the sun, warming the Earths surface & lower atmosphere. This occurs because some, solar energy from the sun, passes through the atmosphere while some energy are reflected. The Earths surface is heated by the sun & radiates the heat back out towards space. However, greenhouse gases and water vapours absorb some of such energy and radiates them back into the Earth, warming it. When it original amounts such gases help regulate temperature, lest, the Earths temperature would drop by some 33C, however, when more of such of gases are present, more heat is trapped causing a rise in the Earths average temperature.

15. Describe the causes of global warming. A cause is Agriculture. With an increase in the population, more food will need to be produced. This not only results in more farms causing deforestation as stated above but this also means more cows and rice fields as more farms will be started up. All theses produces Methane. Furthermore people are also getting wealthier, this will cause more people to seek more and better food. This means we can expect to see more of such farms. Also, more farms & higher demands of food would lead to increases in usage of chemical fertilisers. Chemical fertilisers allow nitrous oxide to escape from the ground, and thus allowing more greenhouse gases to be trapped within the atmosphere. Without widespread alternative energy sources, we are highly dependent on burning coal for our personal and commercial electrical supply. Emission the burning of fossil fuels accounts for 20% of GHG emissions. This is also likely to increase as there is large power demands from countries like China & India largely due to their growing economy & population which hence, causes more and wealthier people. Also, many countries are starting to develop and many start to move to houses which is electrically powered, this will again increase the demand for energy, resulting in more fuels being burned again. Also, the process of getting fossil fuels such as coal, mines, would be dug, In this process methane underground would be released further trapping heat.

Another reason is deforestation. Forests are cleared to make ways for industrial parks, buildings. Every hour, at least 4,500 acres of forest fall. This, when translated to annual deforestation is 7.3 million hectares per year. Clearing of forests by burning produces greenhouse gases, like CO2. This is made worse when there are fewer trees to remove CO2 by photosynthesis. Industries

may be built upon them and theses land and hence produce even more CO2

16. Describe the consequences of global warming. Floods will also occur more often at other parts of the world, more severely. Due to the higher temperature, causing higher evaporation rates, it results in higher rainfall. Areas prone to floods have lots of water vapour in the air, and due to a further increase in evaporation, it can only get worse. Thus, people there can expect even heavier rainfall. If certain areas are already suffering from floods, this problem could worsen. This includes places like Beijing, in which on July 22 2012, experienced their heaviest rainfall in the last 60 years. Also countries like Bangladesh which has been well known of floods. Also, diseases like cholera will be rampant as there poor conditions during such. Droughts will also occur. Due to the higher temperature that results in higher evaporation rates places which are dry will tend to dry up faster. These longer and drier droughts will have major consequences for water supply, agriculture and wildlife. Droughts could cause famines because crops grown would have inadequate water to carry out photosynthesis, causing them to die. Heat waves, would also be more frequent An example of droughts as a result of global warming are the droughts in Africa. For example Since mid-July 2011, a severe drought has been affecting the entire of East Africa. The drought has also resulted in food shortages across East Africa, in counties like Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia. This was the worst drought in Africa for 60 years, threatening the livelihood of 9.5 million. Environmental refugees from southern Somalia fled to Kenya & Ethiopia as a result. Another consequence is the migration of disease carrying pests. Warmer climates will encourage migration of disease-bearing insects like mosquitoes and pests, which thrive in warmer climates, allowing them to carry diseases to other parts of the world. Malaria is already appearing in places it has been eradicated from or have never been seen before like the U.S.. The maximum altitude for mosquitoes to breed is increasing as a result of warmer climates, the dengue fever season has also lengthened. Furthermore evaporation is caused by the heat, which will result in more rain, this means there are more breeding spots for mosquitoes, further enhancing the mosquitoes population. 17.Evaluate the measures to reduce the impact of global warming (individual, national and international). Individual level is a way to reduce the impact of global warming. Individuals can help by doing small day to day actions. They can help by taking public transport or by walking, cycling from place

to place, if necessary for personal transport, carpool. They can also follow the 3Rs:Reuse, Reduce Recycle.Reducing the amount of polluting materials e.g. disposal products such as paper and cups, pesticides used on land. Reusing materials such as plastic bags, waste materials from forests and factories and Recycling materials into new forms e.g. plastics made into furniture and newspapers recycled into new paper products and the using energy efficient appliances, which reduce electricity used, reducing amount of fossil fuels burned. National level is a way to reduce the impact of global warming. Governments can ban and encourage the people. The Government can use laws & Policies to control Greenhouse gases emissions. This involves the imposing of laws to restrict the amount of emissions per factory. The government although cannot force the factory to emit less greenhouse gases, and can impose heavy fines for going against such laws. Restrictions have already been in placed in countries such as India. They can encourage the purchase Green Cars over normal petrol-powered ones. In urbanised environments like Europe, Cars contribute a large percentage of total emissions of CO2. In Singapore, increasing COE prices such that fewer people can purchase cars has been put in place. International level is a way to reduce the impact of global warming. International bodies can set a cap for greenhouse emissions per capita in each country or seek a decrease in the countries greenhouse emissions. This would significantly reduce greenhouse emissions as after setting this international rule, countries may implement laws themselves & improve their energy generating facilities in order to hit the criteria set by international bodies such as the UN. For instance, the Kyoto Protocol was launched in 1997. Majority of the World Leaders agreed to sign the protocol to reduce greenhouse emission from their 1990 greenhouse production by 2010. In 2005, this protocol came into effect and all signatories have to cut greenhouse gas production by 2012 from 2008. Governments are most powerful when it comes to reducing the impact of global warming. This is because they can use laws to control the extent global warming which involves people of that country to adhere to if not, face punishments such as fines. While for individuals, their efforts are small scale and have little bargaining power.In the agreed on. International level, treaties signed are voluntary and they cannot do anything should a signatory fail to meet the standard which they