Management Information System

Unit 14

Unit 14

Database Management Systems

Structure: 14.1 Introduction Objectives 14.2 Types of Database Users Database administrator Database designers End users System analyst and application programmers DBMS system designers and implementers Tool developers Operators and maintenance personnel 14.3 Types of Databases 14.4 Database Management Systems (DBMS) Functions Advantages Disadvantages 14.5 Designing of DBMS Data, information and its structure Entity, instance and attributes Data and mapping Database architecture Database languages and interfaces 14.6 Data Warehouse and Data Mining 14.7 Summary 14.8 Glossary 14.9 Terminal Questions 14.10 Answers 14.11 Case Let

14.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you have learnt about the evolution of the information systems function and the various roles and challenges faced by a CIO. In this unit you will learn about the Database Management Systems (DBMS) that are essential for the maintenance of information and that help in accessing the information for analysis purpose.
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Table 14.1 depicts the concepts of DBMS.

Table 14.1: Concepts of DBMS Data DBMS(Database Management System) What does it consist of? Data is a raw fact that can be recorded and has specific meaning. Software programme which effectively controls the creation, maintenance and use databases in the business. Collection of related data. Set of programmes to access those data. A complete definition or description of the database structures and constraints. All areas where computers are used, including business, engineering, law, education, banking, hotel and airline reservation. Multimedia databases can store pictures, video clips and sound messages. Geographic information system can store and analyse maps, weather data and satellite images.

Where is DBMS used? Examples of DBMS

Objectives: After studying this unit, you should be able to: evaluate the types of database users explain database management systems describe the designing of DBMS describe data warehouse and data mining

14.2 Types of Database Users

Different persons involved in the design, use and maintenance of a large database are: Database Administrator (DBA) Database Designers (DBD) End users System analysts and application programmers DBMS designers and implementers Tool developers

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14.2.1 Database Administrator (DBA) Database is one of the primary resources used by employees of a business unit to make sense of the business. Since it is used by many, it has to be protected from unintentional deletion of data, non-authorised use and duplicate data. Database Administrator (DBA) is specialist who is employed to maintain, develop and secure the organisations database using standard rules. Following are a few responsibilities of a DBA: DBA is authorised to monitor and access the databases. DBA is responsible for producing, executing changing and maintaining the database. DBA allows database to be utilised by the users. DBA defines the systematic procedure to recover lost data. 14.2.2 Database designers (DBD) A DBD designs the database structure to meet the requirements of the organisation. 14.2.3 End users End users are those who access the database, query and update the database and generate various reports. The database primarily exists for their use. End users are of two types: o Casual users They are the users accessing the DBMS with Structured Query language SQL queries. o Uninstructed users They are the users accessing the DBMS through menus. 14.2.4 System analysts and application programmers System analysts gather information regarding the requirements of the end users and make specifications for already worked out transactions. The specifications of the application programmes are developed by the system analyst. The system analysts are mainly responsible for debugging, testing, and maintaining the developed programmes. 14.2.5 DBMS system designers and implementers Implementers implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software package.
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System designers The system designers design the DBMS application programmes. The designs are done according to the requirements of the organisation. The data are fed in the designed application program by the staff and it is retrieved by the management so as to take decision on the information obtained through the DBMS. If any new type of data has to be included the designers of DBMS will restructure it by a simply adding a column. 14.2.6 Tool developers Tools are the optional packages of the software usually belonging to the third party. They include packages for design, monitoring the performance including the graphical interface of the database. The software tools are developed by the vendors and sold in the marketplace. The vendors are usually called as tool developers. 14.2.7 Operators and maintenance personnel They are system administration personnel who are responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and software environment for the smooth working of the DB system.

14.3 Types of Databases

The following databases are commonly used in the organisation. Flat File Hierarchical database Relational database Operational database Distributed database External database Object oriented database Flat File Flat files consist of set of strings in one or more files that can be taken apart to get the information. The data can be separated by a simple comma for a small data store and or by a tab if the data is complex. The locking mechanism can detect when a file is deleted or modified. For instance, a flat model database containing only zip codes. Within the database, there will only be one column and each new row will contain a new zip code.

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Hierarchical database Hierarchical database resembles a tree structure. In this database, each link is nested in order to keep the data organised in a particular order on a same level list. For instance, a hierarchal database of sales may list each days sales as a separate file. Within this nested file all of the sales for the day are stored. Relational database The relational database represents the database as a collection of relations having a set of rows and columns, each of which is assigned a unique name. Relation consists of a relational schema (structure of table) and relational instance (data in a table at the particular time). There is a close correspondence between the concept of table and the mathematical concept of relation. In relational model we use certain conventions. For instance, a row is called a tuple and a column is termed as an attribute. The domain of a relational schema is a pool of legal values. Student (Register No, Name, Add, Phone, D.O.B, GPA) In this example, Student is a relation and the attributes (columns) are Register No, Name, Add, Phone and D.O.B. A possible tuple for the Student relation is (MBA02C1101', ' Nupur Rastogi, '440, 1-main, 2nd cross, Airport Road, Kodenahalli, Bangalore-560008', 25256789, 11-Jan-1986). The domain of each attribute is as follows: Register no. : Name Add Phone D.O.B : : : : Alphanumeric characters Characters Alphanumeric characters Limit set to 13 digits Date, month, year

Characteristics of relation are: An attribute structure containing many data in relation with them need not be ordered. Each attribute in the relation is an entity.

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Operational database As the name suggests it supports the business operations of the organisation, by storing all the details of current business transactions. For example a customer data base contains all information pertaining to name, products purchased, address, date of purchase and loyalty programs enrolled to etc. Other examples are employee database, physical assets database and inventory database. These databases could be built using Microsoft Access DBMS or Oracle DBMS or MySql DBMS. The other names of this database are transaction database, production database and Subject Area Database (SADB). Distributed Database A distributed database allows parts of it to be duplicated and circulated to network servers called nodes at different locations. The network servers could be on the extranet, intranet or the internet network. A distributed database could be an operational or a hypermedia database (explained below) The advantage of this distribution is that branches, or subsidiaries or workgroups can view and edit only those databases that pertain to their scope of operations. Also breaking the database into parts enables faster retrieval, lower storage requirements and update operations to the database of the node. The main advantage of this database is that if one of the nodes shut down the business remains unaffected and continues to provide services to stakeholders. Similarly when disasters occur due to natural or unnatural causes the data loss in the distributed database is minimised as data from multiple locations can be consolidated to build database. But the main challenge data accuracy. Changes made to one database must be updated to other locations wherever applicable to reflect the latest data. This issue can be solved by replication or duplication. In replication special software is used compare the various interrelated databases at different locations and find if any changes have been made. The changes are then updated into each related databases. The complexity and time taken increases as the number and size of the distributed databases increases.

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In duplication, one database is considered as the master database. The contents of this database are periodically copied into other locations. All changes have to be made to the master database. External Databases External databases refer to the wealth of information available for free or for payment on the internet. It could be statistical information from government portals or newspapers, magazines, scholarly articles and full text databases. To search for information on these databases you use search engines like Google or Bing or Yahoo. Object oriented database (OODB) An object oriented database incorporates all objects. It is also referred to Object database management System (ODBMS). Objects consists the following: Attributes: These are the data that defines the objects characteristics. The data are very simple and may be numbers, strings, and integers etc. for referring an object. Methods: This defines the object behaviour and is also referred to as procedures. For example if you have created a Car Object with name, manufacturer and year of make. You can create a procedure to that requires you to make entry to all 3 characteristics of the object. o Hypermedia Database A hypermedia database is an OODB of hyperlinked multimedia content such as video, audio, photographs, text and graphics. For example a website is a hypermedia database as it contains interrelated content of webpages written in HTML, images, audio and video. The DBMS is webserver software which responds to your browser requests for files or webpages. Software such as ColdFusion can be used to create such a database Self Assessments Questions 1. A _______ could be a relational or a hypermedia database. 2. The ______________model represents the database as a collection of relations having a set of rows and columns, each of which is assigned a unique name.
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Activity 1: Create an Excel sheet for accepting data for the following fields S. No., Name, Address, Pin Code, and Phone No. Date of birth, Occupation, Remarks. Enter your friends particulars for the above fields and find out as to how this simple exercise is useful in understanding the concept of a database. Hint: Open an Excel sheet types the headings in the cells of row1 column 1 and type the related data in the respective cells according to the heading written. Continue feeding row 2 column 2 and under these type the details.

14.4 Database Management System (DBMS)

In the previous section, you learnt about various types of databases. You will now learn about DBMS. 14.4.1 Functions The basic functions of DBMS in addition to centralised databases are: 1. Distributed query processing: Distributed query processing is referred to the capability to access the remote sites and transmit queries and data between the other sites through the communication network. 2. Data tracing: DBMS should have the capability to keep track of the distribution of data, and replication by maintaining DBMS catalogue. 3. Distributed transaction management: DBMS transactions access data from more than one site and synchronise the access to distributed data and maintain integrity of the overall database. 4. Distributed database recovery: The capability to recover from other site crashes and from new failures. 5. Security: Security must be in line with security policy that the management formulates. 6. Distributed directory management: A directory contains information (metadata) about data in the database. The directory may be global for the entire DB or local for each site. These functions increase the complexity of a DBMS over a centralised DBMS.

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Functions of centralised database Following are the functions of the system of centralised database: It provides a complete view of the data. It is easier to manage a centralised database than several distributed databases. 14.4.2 Advantages The following are the advantages of DBMS: 1. Redundancy is minimised. 2. The server in which the data is stored, shared by the clients. Integrity (accuracy) can be maintained. 3. Security features protect the data from unauthorised access 4. Modern DBMS support internet based application. 5. The structure and data application are independent in DBMS. Consistency of data is maintained. 6. DBMS supports multiple views. The users can manipulate any data or any part of the database as per their requirements and purposes. 14.4.3 Disadvantages The following are the disadvantages of DBMS: 1. It requires more time to design as the database is complex. 2. It includes the hardware and software start-up costs. 3. The DBMS may collapse or damage all other programme applications. 4. There may be extensive conversion costs migrating form a file based system to a database system. 5. Training is absolutely required at initial stage. Self Assessments Questions 3. The advantage of a DBMS includes the server in which the data is stored, shared by the clients. (True/False) 4. Distributed DBMS transactions accesses data only from one site. (True/False) 5. DBMS supports multiple views. (True/False)

14.5 Designing of DBMS

In the previous section, you learnt about DBMS. You will now learn about designing of DBMS.
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14.5.1 Data, information and its structure MIS is an important resource required to execute the operations of the business unit. Business decision to be taken by the managers depends on the valuable insight from companys data through MIS. The formats have been changed but the managers still rely on these systems to perform their day-to-day activities. MIS managers are in charge of the systems development within the firm. Data and information Usually people use data and information as a synonym of each other but they actually convey very distinct meaning. The following provides a brief explanation on data and information. Data is a raw fact which has been collected for a specific purpose. Data can be anything from binary digits to a combination of alphabets and numeric characters. Data can be any of these following forms:

Linguistic expressions (e.g., name, age, address, date, ownership) Symbolic expressions (e.g., traffic signs) Mathematical expressions (e.g., E = mc2) Signals (e.g., electromagnetic waves)

For example, the data name, age, address, date, ownership, traffic signs, equations (e.g., E=mc2), electromagnetic waves, etc. are collected for a specific purpose which may serve one or more activities of the same domain. The fact describes the elements such as opinions, comments or description of an event or object. When this data is processed it becomes a meaningful piece of data which can be used for further action. Data that has been processed is referred to as information. Information helps in analysis and decision making. It is observed that information is obtained from the data but not all data produce useful information. Information is useful when it is relevant, reliable, accurate, up-to-date, timely, complete, intelligent, consistent and convenient to the recipient. An information system is designed in a way to process data to a meaningful form, i.e., to accept input, manipulate it in some way and produce output. DBMS helps in gathering and providing reports. The set of data that is stored in row and columns to perform a specific task is referred to as DBMS.
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The main function of the information systems is to convert data into information. Figure 14.1 depicts how data is converted into information using the intermediate processes. The information systems can perform its function only with the proper organisation and structure to convert data into information. Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.

Fig. 14.1: The Process of Changing Data into Information (Organisation structure Source: http://Ih6.ggpht.com

E.g.: It is raining. Here information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, like cause and effect. E.g.: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining. Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and provides a high level of predictability as to what is described or what will happen next. E.g.: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially, the atmosphere will hold the moisture so it rains.

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Wisdom represents understanding of fundamental principles personified within the knowledge that is the basis for the knowledge being what it is. Wisdom is essentially systemic. E. g.: It rains because it rains. And this includes an understanding of all the interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients, changes and raining. Figure 14.2 depicts the diagrammatic representation of data to information, to knowledge and to wisdom.

Fig. 14.2: Transition of Data to Information, Knowledge and Wisdom. Source: http://peterjamesthomas.com

14.5.2 Entity, instance and attributes Entity An entity is something that has a distinct, separate existence, though it need not be of a material existence. (e.g., Employee record) Attribute The property that describes an entity is an attribute. It is a characteristic or property of an object, such as weight, size, and colour. Relationship It describes the relationship between two or more entities.

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Schemas The database description refers to defining the name, data type, size of a column in a table and database (actual data in the table) itself. The database description is called Meta data.The database description is specified during the designing stage of the database and is not frequently changed. Instances The collection of data stored in the database at a particular moment is a database instance or database state or snapshot. These changes occur very frequently due to addition, deletion and modification. 14.5.3 Data and mapping Data mapping is also referred as database mapping. Data mapping is used as a first step for a wide variety of data integration tasks including data transformation between a data source and a destination. An attribute will map to zero or more columns in a relational database. You must also remember while mapping that all attributes are not persistent, some are used for temporary calculations. For example, a student object may have an average mark attribute that is needed within your application but isnt saved to the database because it is calculated by the application. Because some attributes of an object are objects in their own right, a customer object has an address object as an attribute this really reflects an association between the two classes that would need to be mapped, and the attributes of the address class itself will have to be mapped. The important thing is that this process is repeated again and again. At some point the attribute will be mapped to zero or more columns. The easiest mapping among all is the property mapping of a single attribute to a single column. It is even simpler when each has the same basic types, for example, theyre both dates, the attribute is a string and the column is a char, or the attribute is a number and the column is a float. Data mapping is used as the first step for a wide variety of data integration tasks. That means data transformation, identification of data relationships and detection of hidden sensitive data and consolidation of multiple databases.

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14.5.4 Database architecture The architecture followed in the database design is three-tier-architecture. The three schema architecture has three levels of architecture, an internal level, a conceptual level and an external level. The three schema architecture is also referred as client server architecture. In this architecture, the major advantage is, the division of the architecture into levels that allows both developers and users to work on their own levels. They do not need to know the details of the other levels and they do not have to know anything about changes in the other levels. Figure 14.3 depicts the diagrammatic representation of three schema architecture. Note that each of these schemas represents only the data descriptions which are available in physical stage. 1. Internal level This is a database with the physical storage structure. Operations performed here are translated into modifications of the contents and structure of the files. It has an internal schema. It describes the complete details of the stored records and access methods used to achieve efficient access to the data. 2. Conceptual level This concentrates on the entities description and hides the details of the physical storage structures. This level is independent of both software and hardware. 3. External level or view level This is the outermost layer. This layer is closest to the users. The data viewed by the individual users is called external level.

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Fig. 14.3: The Three Schema Architecture Source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/

14.5.5 Database languages and interfaces To support each and every user groups the DBMS should have interfaces and languages. DBMS Languages The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used by the Database administrator and the database designers and other users to define the conceptual and internal schemas. The DDL complier of DBMS processes the DDL statements to find the description of schema constructs and store the description in the DBMS catalogue. DDL defines the conceptual (description of relations/tables in the database) and external schema (specification of views). The internal schema (how will data be stored and retrieved) is specified by combinations and specification related to storage Data Manipulation Languages (DMLs) DML is a used by database users to retrieve, insert, delete and update data in a database. DML and DDL are components of Structured Query Language (SQL) which is used to retrieve and manipulate data in a relational database.

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DMLs have their functional capability organised by the initial word in a statement, which is almost always a verb. In the case of SQL, these verbs are "select", "insert", "update" and "delete". DMLs tend to have many different "flavours" and capabilities between database vendors. There has been a standard established for SQL by American National Standard Institute (ANSI) but vendors still "exceed" the standard and provide their own extensions. There are two types of DML: High level High level can be used to specify complex database operations. DML statements can be entered through a graphical user interface or embedded a programming language. The statements are extracted through the pre compiler and processed by the DBMS. Referred to set-at- a-time as it can retrieve many rows of data from the database Low level / Non- procedural Embedded in a general purpose programming language. This low level is also referred as record at a time DMLS. As it retrieves one row at a time from the database. DBMS interfaces DBMS are provided to nave users of the database like general managers. Menu Interface Presents the users with menus to send queries to the database. Queries are composed in a step by step manner by choosing the right menu items from the menu Pull down menus are used for web based interface which allow the user to view the data in an exploratory and unstructured manner. Forms- based interfaces. It will display a form for every user.
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In the form, the user can enter the data to form a new row in the table of the database or change particular rows or delete rows. Graphical user interfaces A schema will be displayed to the user in the form of a diagram in the graphical user interface. The queries specified by the user through manipulating the diagram. Natural language interfaces Natural language interfaces accept the requests in written English or any other language The natural language request will handled by the interface as it has the dictionary consisting of important words. Interfaces for parametric users: Allow repetitive operations to be performed by parametric users like bank tellers. Programmers specify a short cut key or function key to access menu items or buttons on the forms. This enables the parametric user to quickly perform operations like balance enquiries or deposit and withdrawals. Interfaces for the DBA Such interfaces allow the DBA staff to create new account/user, grants rights to users, set system parameters and change schema. Activity 2: Take two different samples of medical bills issued by two medical stores and find out the striking similarity in the fields and note down the difference if any in the data fields and structure. Self Assessment Questions 6. The property that describes an entity is a ___________. 7. An attribute will map to zero or more columns in a _____________. 8. The three schema architecture is also referred as _______________.

14.6 Data Warehouse and Data Mining

In the previous section, you learnt about designing of DBMS. You will now learn about data warehouse and data mining.
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Data Warehouse A data warehouse is a large data storehouse containing the historical data of the organisation collected from various operational, external and other databases for the purpose of business analysis. All the data undergoes the process of extraction, transformation and loading (ETL) before being stored in the database. This is done to ensure that all the data integrity violations, data redundancy and other inconsistencies in the data remain at a minimum level. A data warehouse is different from an operational database in the following ways In the data warehouse historical data is stored whereas in a transactional database data pertaining to the current financial year is stored. The data in the data warehouse is static (records are not updated) but in an operational database the data records can be updated. Data in the data warehouse can be aggregated on many dimensions. Whereas in the operational database the data is maintained at the atomic level as aggregation increases its size and consumes time in preparing reports.

For the purpose of analysis specific data from the data warehouse can be stored in data marts or analytical data store. These are small in size when compared to the data warehouse and easier to build. The subsets of the data warehouse pertaining to the needs of various functions like marketing, accounting and sales can be stored in the data mart or analytical storehouse. To perform the analysis different analytical tools like querying, OLAP and data mining are used. The analysis can be performed through a desktop interface or through a web interface. Data Mining Data Mining is used to expose unseen relationships and trends in the data warehouse. This aids the organisation in gaining competitive advantage and formulating strategy. A brute force approach (using recognition algorithms, mathematical and statistical techniques) is used in data mining to analyse all possible combinations of data to find patterns. The analyst then interprets
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the result of this analysis. The patterns identified in data mining are: Associations: occur when one event connects with another event. For example, most men buy soft drinks and chips during the IPL cricket season. Sequences occur when one event leads to another. For example, purchase of tea is followed by purchase of sugar cubes. Classification patterns are found by categorising data. For example classify customers as most profitable, profitable and not profitable. Forecasting uncovers patterns to predict future trends. For example, predicting advertising campaign response rates. Clustering: Finding similar groups of customers or data or facts based on certain criteria. Finding documents that matches the search criteria. Self Assessment Questions 9. A __________is a large data storehouse containing the historical data of the organisation collected from various operational, external and other databases for the purpose of business analysis. 10. _________ is used to expose unseen relationships and trends in the data warehouse.

14.7 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things. Information is a data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to a recipient and helps in analysis and decision making. An entity is something that has a distinct and separate existence. The property that describes an entity is an attribute. It is a characteristic or property of an object, such as weight, size or colour. The data definition language is used by the database designers and database administrators in order to define the external and conceptual schemas. The three tier architecture has three levels, first one is an internal, second one is external and the last one is conceptual. The three schema architecture is also referred as client server architecture.
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Nave users of the database can use various DBMS interfaces like form based interfaces, web based interfaces, interface for parametric users and natural language interfaces. DML statements allow the entry of data into the database. A brute force approach (using recognition algorithms, mathematical and statistical techniques) is used in data mining to analyse all possible combinations of data to find patterns. A data warehouse is a large data storehouse containing the historical data of the organisation collected from various operational, external and other databases for the purpose of business analysis.

14.8 Glossary
Data Mapping: It is the process of constructing data element mappings, among two different models. Schema: logical view of the relationships between the data in the database. View: a way by which different users of the database to see portions of the database in different ways.

14.9 Terminal Questions

1. Explain different types of database users. 2. Explain the three-tier architecture with a neat diagram. 3. Explain database interfaces.

14.10 Answers
Self Assessment Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Distributed Relational True False True Attribute Relational database Client Server Architecture Data warehouse Data mining
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Terminal Questions 1. There are many types of database users namely, DBA, DBD, end users. For more details refer 14.2. 2. The client server model, entity, instance, attributes, etc. for more details refer 14.5.4. 3. DDL, DML, DBMS, Data base language and interfaces.For more details refer 14.5.5.

14.11 Case Let Collection and segregation:

Some people are having this habit of collecting things. Let us consider that you are collect books, stamps, toys, coins, pictures, etc. You store each of these items in different boxes. Also since you are and IS professional you create a database to document your collection according to boxes and further segregate them item wise and category wise. As and when you get new items you add it into the appropriate box and update the database. Discussion Questions: How will you organise items of your collection into a database Hint: Think in terms of designing a DBMS Let us say a local museum wishing to procure your coin collection ask for the list of all items in it. Hint: Think in terms of database languages How will you find that you don`t have the other item collections? References: Josheph, S. J. and Mohapatra, Management Information System in Knowledge Economy, Prentice Hall. Ken, L. Jane, L. and Rajanish, D. Management Information System, Managing the Digital Firm, Pearson Education. Obrien, A, J, Management Information System, Galkotia Publications. New Delhi. Sadagopan, S. Management Information Systems, Prentice Hall.

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Robert, S, and Mary, S. Management Information Systems The Managers View, Tata McGraw Hill. Elmasri, R. (2008), Fundamentals of Database Systems, Pearson Education.

E-References: http://washingtontechnology.com/articles/2011/11/14/strategy-cio-roleevolves.aspx http://www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/EDUCAUSEQuarterly MagazineVolum/TheCorporateCIOModelandtheHigh/157433 http://attainableutopias.org/tiki/AckoffDataInformationKnowledgeWisdom www.mhhe.com/business/mis/obrien www.net.educause.edu www.idealware.org http://peterjamesthomas.com http://Ih6.ggphy.com http://lh4.ggpht.com/ http:/www.comptechdoc.org

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