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Renewable Energy Sources

Topic: State of the Art


Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 11.04.2013
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
UCTE
NORDEL
UKTSOA
EES/VES
Power System in Europe
State of the Art 2
450 million people
Lines 220 kV 116547 km
Lines 400 kV 103553 km
Trafo 400/220 kV 301,8
GW
Max 391 GW
Min - 190 GW
Source: UCTE 2006
Power System in Europe
State of the Art 3
Power System in Europe
State of the Art 4
Power System in Europe
State of the Art 5
110 kV
380/220 kV
MV
Load
G
Grid
Grid
Loadflow
Direction
CIGRE: both are:
not centrally planned (dispersed)
not centrally dispatched
dependent on stoch.supply
Centr. PCC: RE > 100 MW
dispersed in Distrib. Grid
10 - 100 MW
1 - 10 MW
< 1 MW
central and dispersed cannot be
isolated: adequate Tasks and Interaction
wind-surplus
What does Implementation of DG
mean for the grid?
Dispersed and Renewable Electricity Generation
State of the Art 6
edis
on
Wind Park
Small Hydro-Electric Power Plants
Biomass
Wind
Small Producer
CHP-unit
Solar
Fuel Cell
Storage
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
Coupling Processes in
Industry and Trade
Electric Power Networks with Distributed
Innovative Systems
State of the Art 7
State of the Art 8
Phase Out Nuclear Power
3
Increase of Temperature Increase of CO
2
Emission
1
Source: UVS e.V.; Solarenergie fr Deutschland
Source: UVS e.V.; Solarenergie fr Deutschland
Finiteness of Fossil Fuels
2
Source: www.german-renewable-energy.com
Development Reasons of RES
Renewables State of the Art I
State of the Art 10
Renewables State of the Art II
State of the Art 11
Promotion measures of RES in Germany:
Support through programs of Federal Government:
100.000 Roofs program (PV) 1999-2003; 300 MW; 1 billion
100 MW Wind program (WT) 1989-1991; 4 ct/kWh
250 MW Wind program (WT) 1991-193; 1.467 wind turbines
Tax reduction for biofuels
Support through establishment of federal laws:
Electricity Feed-In Act (1991) Electric utility purchase/payment
energy from RES
Renewable Energy Law (2000) payment between 5-50 ct/kWh
Combined Heat and Power Law payment < 0.2 ct/kWh
Renewables State of the Art III
German Renewable Energy Policies:
Ecological tax reform
Support for development and expansion of RE technologies under
the new EEG (Renewable Energy Law)
Market incentive program (200 mln EUR/a)
Tax exemption for biogenic fuels
Legal Foundations of EEG :
EEG is the federal law and is the further development of Power
Feed-In Law of 1991
Priority for feed-in of renewables
Extensive regulation for grid access
Legally regulated payment rates
State of the Art 12
Feed-In Rate under the EEG for 2005
Renewables State of the Art IV
State of the Art 13
State of the Art 14
Renewables State of the Art V
Structure of Primary Energy
Consumption in Germany (2011)
State of the Art 15
Renewables State of the Art V
Structure of Electricity Generation From
Renewable Energy Sources (2011)
Wind Turbine Development in Germany
State of the Art 16
April 2013
32 GW (peak)
22.800 turbines
Advantages of Repowering:
higher energy yield from identical area
better nature conservation and acceptance
better network connection
less wind turbines
lower costs
better look
Rotor Radius
H
u
b

H
i
g
h
t
Hub Hight
Rotor Radius
Rated Power
Ann. Energy Yield
S
o
u
r
c
e
:

B
u
n
d
e
s
v
e
r
b
a
n
d

W
i
n
d
e
n
e
r
g
i
e

e
.
V
.
Wind Energy Repowering
State of the Art 17
WT with DFIG
WT with converter driven SG
Source: www.enercon.de
Source: www.nordex.de
Mostly used WT Concepts
State of the Art 18
P
3
w
2
T Tur
c v R
2
1
P =
Mechanical Power of WT:
Pitch Angle
Increase
Stop of WT (Angle=90)
Control of Wind Turbines
State of the Art 19
Baltic Sea North Sea
Source: Bundesverband Windenergie e.V.
Offshore Projects in Germany
State of the Art 20
Super Grid on See
State of the Art 21
S
o
u
r
c
e
:

B
u
n
d
e
s
v
e
r
b
a
n
d

W
i
n
d
e
n
e
r
g
i
e

e
.
V
.
Total Development:
Wind Energy Development in
Germany
State of the Art 22
S
o
u
r
c
e
:

B
u
n
d
e
s
v
e
r
b
a
n
d

W
i
n
d
e
n
e
r
g
i
e

e
.
V
.
Electricity Costs from Wind Energy
State of the Art 23
S
Elbe
Leitungsverbindungen
380 kV
220 kV
HG
Stromrichterstationen
Umspannwerke
Stdte
1
3
4
2
3-phase Fault 380 kV
WT with 80-% low-voltage-protection
U < 80 %
U < 45 %
U < 25 %
U < 15 %
3.700 MW
80 %* wind power
= 3.700 MW is lost
more than UCTE-control reserve
* referring to installed wind power
of 4.600 MW, 30.06.03
Source: Vattenfal
Voltage Profile after 3-P Fault
State of the Art 24
S
Elbe
Leitungsverbindungen
380 kV
220 kV
HG
Stromrichterstationen
Umspannwerke
Stdte
1
3
4
2
2001 total wind power
of 2.700 MW is lost
Voltage Profile after 3-P Fault
State of the Art 25
Source: DENA Study
Required Network Reinforcement
State of the Art 26
Vattenfall
E.ON
EnBW
RWE
Erdgas
10%
Braunkohle
26%
Heizl
2%
Steinkohle
21%
Wasser
4,2%
Atomkraft
29%
Sonne/
Biomasse
3,3%
Wind 3,2%
Nuclear
Thermal
Pumpstorage
Windparks
2GW
Quelle:VDEW
120 GW (2005)
540 TWh (2005), Q: VDEW
Power Plants in Germany
State of the Art 27
Vattenfall
E.ON
EnBW
RWE
Time: 22:09
500
400
295
128
1
224
6
195
0
378
1
925
180
4
325
2
145
3
265
8
317
138
100
263
162
0
396
647
386
4
294
0
390
0
144
7
790
149
0
580
730
597
Load flow - planned
Load flow - real
Source: UCTE
Planning and real load flow at 4. November 2006
State of the Art 28
Source: UCTE - Final Report
Voltage - Phase Angle Difference at 4. November
2006
State of the Art 29
NO official value for installed power
Photon magazin: total installed
capacity: 1.364 kWp (end of
2004)
UVS/BSI: total installed capacity:
ca. 950 kWp (end of 2004)
Most installations are roof top
installed (in 2004 88%)
But: Trend to ground mounted system
is ongoing
PV: State of the Art in Germany
State of the Art 30
Renewable Energy Act (Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz)
No State subsidies
Guaranteed feed-in tariff for 20 years
For systems installed in 2006:
Ground mounted: 40,6 Cent/kWh
On buildings or noise barriers:
< 30 kWp: 51,80 Cent/kWh
< 100 kWp: 49,29 Cent/kWh
> 100 kWp: 48,78 Cent/kWh
Systems on facade plus 5 Cent/kWh
Tariff fixed for 20 years per plant, but decreasing every year for newly installed
plants by 5% (6,5 % for ground mounted systems)
PV - Supporting Tools
State of the Art 31
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year
I
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d

P
o
w
e
r

i
n

M
W
/
a
Japan
Germany
USA
China
Spain
Italy
ES/I/USA
Source: Sarasin: Solarenergie 2005 - Im Spannungsfeld zwischen Rohstoffengpass und
Nachfrageboomk
PV - Market Prognosis
State of the Art 32
PV - Realizations
State of the Art 33
Electrical
Energy
Hydrogen Applications
Electrolysis
Converter
Hydrogen
Storage
Fuel Cell
Power Plant
Heating
Transportation
Regenerative
Energy
Sources
Transmission
Transmissi
on
Distribution
Source: IZE
Hydrogen versus Regenerative Energy
Sources
State of the Art 34
Actual Research Activities
Development of High Temperature (120 200C) PEMFC
systems
System optimization using
modeeling and simulation
Miniturization and system integration
(Micro Power Generation for Laptops, Mobile Phones)
Life time extension
Cost reduction
Actual Research Activities and
Future Trends
State of the Art 35
Stationary and residential
applications
Mobile and portable applications
Fuel Cell Applications
State of the Art 36
The transient behaviour of
PEMFC depends on the double
layer capacity.
The dynamic of PEMFC system
is limited by the gas supply to
the anode and cathode gas
Cdl,An Cdl,Ka Cdl,S
Rd,An Rd,S W
Z-plot
Fuel Cell Dynamic
State of the Art 37
Source: www.german-renewable-energy.com
Biomass Conversion Chains
State of the Art 38
Combustion
of Biomass
Biogas from Biomass
Cogeneration
with Biomass Biofuels
from Biomass
Biomass State of the Art
State of the Art 39
Source: www.german-renewable-energy.com
Biomass Resources
State of the Art 40
Source: www.german-renewable-energy.com
Biomass Power Plants in Germany
State of the Art 41
Planning of network
security management
system
Infeed from wind farm(synthetic, standardised)
Markov chain
Synthetic wind
1st order autoregressive model
Data
Monte-Carlo
Simulation
Non-Transportable Energy
Network Security Management I
State of the Art 42
Planning of network security management system
Active generation management - useful method to control the
operation security
Network Security Management II
State of the Art 43
Global Energy Scenario through
2050
State of the Art 44
Advantages of renewables:
no CO
2
emission
environmentally friendly
sustainable
can be used locally
German position in renewables
big wind power market in the world
big PV market in the world
big solar thermal market in Europe
research on the field biofuels and hydrogen
Positive economic aspects of renewables
creates new jobs
economic revival in weak regions
involves various sectors
Conclusions
State of the Art 45
Thank you for your attention
State of the Art 46
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Legal Issues
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 18.04.2013
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Structure
Energy Data of Germany
Laws: History and Contents
Certificates
Legal Issues 2
Energy Sources for Electricity in Germany
Nuclear
Energy
28%
Renewables
6%
Lignite
25%
Hard Coal
27%
Natural Gas
11%
Others & Fuel
Oil
3%
source: BMWi Consumption: 6 Mio HH: ca. 24 TWh
(25,3 TWh)
Legal Issues 3
Renewable Energies in Germany
Renewable Energy Sources [%]
81%
15%
4%
0%
Hydro Power Wind Energy Biomass PV
Generation RE [TWh]
15,8
3
0,879
0,011
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Hydro Power Wind Energy Biomass PV
[
T
W
h
]
Legal Issues 4
Green Power: Generation
Increase of 6,5 TWh = 25 TWh from RE (90 -> 98)
Decrease of CO
2
by 15,6 Mio t.
Today: Energy from RE-Sources 6% of Total Electricity
Generation
Objective:
Duplication of Green Current until 2010 52 TWh,
in 2050 50 % of Total Electricity Generation by RE in
Germany and Europe.
Legal Issues 5
Long Term Scenario (2050)
Potentials
RE 8700 PJ/a 60 % Primary Energy
Electricity: 525 TWh/a 100 % Brutto Electric Power Generation
today: 25,3 TWh/a 6%
Heat: 3600 PJ/a 70 % usable energy
today: 2%
Legal Issues 6
Result of Option Research
Admission RE
yes
maybe
no
Willingness to pay
yes
maybe
no
Realised members
yes
maybe
no
60 % - 80 % 50 % - 70 % 0 % - 3 %
Generation Capacities are to increase => legal general conditions are necessary
Legal Issues 7
Green Power: Trading
Lack of Competitive Capacity determines small Demand
only 1% of the HH are willing to pay +10 Pf/ kWh for Green
Power
Generation Capacities are to increase
=> legal general conditions are necessary
Legal Issues 8
1991: Electricity-Feed-Act
1997: Act on the EU-Single-Market
1998: Act on Power-Industry
1998: Industry-Union-Convention
1998: amending Act on Feeding in Electricity
2000: Renewable-Energy-Sources Act
History
Legal Issues 9
Liberalisierung
EnWG, 4/98
VV I
5/98
Grid Code
7/98
Distribution
Code, 7/98
Grid Code
2000
VV II
12/99
Lastprofile
2000
Metering Code
2000
Distribution
Code, 2000
VV II +
12/99
Standartvertrge
2000
Brse
2000
Markt fr
Systemdienstleistungen
2000
Preisangebote
im Internet
1\2002
History
Legal Issues 10
Electricity-Feed-Act
Motivation:
Sparing of Ressources
Protection of Environment
Compensation Rate for Energy
according to Economic Value
Expansion and Operation of RE by fixed
Minimum- Payment
Legal Issues 11
Electricity-Feed-Act
No Control of Economic Efficiency and no Time
Limit to avoid Expense in Administration
Contradiction Minimal Payment <-->Principle of
Unrestricted Formation of Prices was accepted on
Purpose
No Expectation of Effects on the Energy Price
Legal Issues 12
Further development
Increase RE 1,7 -> 6% of Total Electricity Production
1998: 5%- Restriction
-> Unsettling of the RE-Sector, Decrease of Investments
direct Coupling of Payment and Energy Prices
-> further Decrease of Investments
=> Necessity of amendment of the Act
Electricity-Feed-Act
Legal Issues 13
Act on the EU Single-Market
Purpose:
Increase of Availability of Power Supply
Increase of Competitive Ability of the europ.
Economy
Increase of Efficiency of Generation,
Transmission, Distribution
Ensuring of Environment Protection
Legal Issues 14
Act on the EU Single-Market
Essential Regulations:
Competition in Generation
Competition in Supply
Accounting Unbundling
Network Operator is responsible for Stability of the
System
step-by-step Opening of the Market
Legal Issues 15
Act on the EU Single-Market
Purpose:
Increase of Availability of Power Supply
Increase of Competitive Ability of the europ. Economy
Increase of Efficiency of Generation, Transmission, Distribution
Ensuring of Environment Protection
Essential Regulations:
Competition in Generation
Competition in Supply
Accounting Unbundling
Network Operator is responsible for Stability of the System
step-by-step Opening of the Market
Legal Issues 16
Act on Power Industry
Objective:
Amendment of national Act according to EU-Act
reliable, well-priced Energy-Supply / Environment-
Protection integrated in the Act
Competition in Generation and Distribution of
Electricity
total, fast and large Liberalisation of the Market
for ALL Customers
Legal Issues 17
Act on Power Industry
Main Points:
Third-Party-Access without any Discrimination
(NTPA / single buyer (05))
Economic Unbundling of Generation and Transmission
Installation of Power-Lines allowed for everybody
Abolition of exclusive Rights-of-Way of the Regional Energy
Company / Prohibition of Demarcation-contracts
Abolition of Investment- Supervision for Energy-Facilities
Anti-Competitive Regulations to Protect East-German Lignite
Legal Issues 18
Industry-Union-Convention I + II
Base for Negotiation for Access to the Network
(NTPA) and Payment for Utilization
Economic Model, Separation from Physics
II: No new Electricity Meter
II: No Dependency from Distance
Legal Issues 19
Industry-Union-Convention I + II
Problems:
Trading between Network Operators missed
Transborder- Third-party-access missed
complicated Account-System
no binding Tariffs for Network Utilization
very different prices for Network-Utilisation
unfair Charges for Changing Supplier
No Preference for Green Energy
=> Retardation of Third-party-access
Legal Issues 20
Energy Generation
Customer Network-Operator
Contract for Connection
Money for Transmision Supply contract
Money for
Current-delivery
Negotiated Third Party Access
Deregulation
Legal Issues 21
Sustainable Development of Energy Supply
Duplication of RE until 2010
Orientation on European and national objectives
RESA: Objectives
Contribution of RE in Germany
0
20
40
60
year
[
%
]
Contribution
[%]
4 4,3 4,7 5,2 4,6 4,9 6 12
Generation RE
[TWh]
18,8 19 21,1 23,8 21,7 23,8 25,3 52
90 91 92 93 94 95 97 98 99 ... 2010
Legal Issues 22
Contribution of Renewable Energies
Contribution of RE in Germany
0
20
40
60
year
[
%
]
Contribution
[%]
4 4,3 4,7 5,2 4,6 4,9 6 12
Generation RE
[TWh]
18,8 19 21,1 23,8 21,7 23,8 25,3 52
90 91 92 93 94 95 97 98 99 ... 2010
Legal Issues 23
RESA: Main Points
new: Consideration of Geothermal Energy and Mines
new: Biomass- Facilities < 20 MW
new: Consideration of Energy Companies
Fixed Payments [Pf/kWh] distinguished by Technologies for 20
Years
degressive payments depending on Age and Production of
Facilities
De-Coupling from average Energy-Price
Obligation of Reception and Payment in steps
national Equalisation of Payments
new: Consideration of Costs for the Network
Legal Issues 24
RESA: Main Points
new: Consideration of Geothermal Energy and Mines
new: Biomass- Facilities < 20 MW
new: Consideration of Energy Companies
Fixed Payments [Pf/kWh] distinguished by Technologies for 20 Years
degressive payments depending on Age and Producion of Facilities
De-Coupling fromaverage Energy-Price
Distinction between old and new Facilities
Obligation of Reception and Payment in steps
national Equalisation of Payments
new: Consideration of Costs for the Network
Legal Issues 25
RESA
1 Objective
2 Field of Appliance
3 Obligation of Reception and Payment
Payment for Energy from:
4 Hydro-Power, Waste-Site-Gas, Mines,
Gas from Purification-Plants
5 Biomass
6 Geothermal Energy
7 Windpower
8 Solare Energy
Legal Issues 26
RESA
9 Common Regulations
10 Costs for the Network
11 Regulation for Equalisation
12 Report
Appendix
Motivation
A: General Remarks
B: Specific Remarks
Legal Issues 27
RESA
1 Objective
Duplication of RE until 2010
2 Field of Appliance
Regulation for Reception and Payment of RE by
the Grid- Operator
Definition of Energy considered
Definition of New Facilities/ Old Facilities/
Renewed Facilities
Legal Issues 28
3, 11 Obligation of Reception and Payment
Grid operator has to buy RE from feeding Supplier
Upstream-Transmission Grid Operator (TGO) has to buy RE from
Network Operator.
Obligation to physical and financial Equalisation between German
Transmission Network Operators
Energy Company, who sells Energy to Customer has to buy RE from
TGO.
Exception: Energy Company sells > 50% RE
Legal Issues 29
3, 11 Obligation of Reception and Payment
Grid Operator has to buy RE from feeding Operator
Upstream-Transmission Grid Operator (TGO) has to buy RE from Grid
Operator.
Obligation to physical and financial Equalisation between German Transmission
Network Operators
Energy Company, who sells Energy to Customer has to buy RE from TGO.
Exception: Energy Company sells > 50% RE
Legal Issues 30
RESA, Payment
< 0,5 MW > 0,5 5 MW
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Water
Waste-Site-Gas
marshdamps
Gas from
Purification Plants
15,0 13,0
year 1 5 year 6 20
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Windpower
17,8 12,1
< 20 MW > 20 MW
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Geothermal
17,5 14,0
< 5 MW
Pf/ kWh
Solar Energy
99,0
< 0,5 MW 0,5 MW < Pel < 5 MW 5 MW < Pel < 20 MW
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Biomass
20,0 18,0 17,0
Legal Issues 31
RESA, Payment
< 0,5 MW > 0,5 5 MW
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Water
Waste-Site-Gas
marshdamps
Gas from
Purification Plants
15,0 13,0
year 1 5 year 6 20
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Windpower
17,8 12,1
< 20 MW > 20 MW
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Geothermal
17,5 14,0
< 5 MW
Pf/ kWh
Solar Energy
99,0
< 0,5 MW 0,5 MW < Pel < 5 MW 5 MW < Pel < 20 MW
Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh Pf/ kWh
Biomass
20,0 18,0 17,0
Legal Issues 32
RESA, Payments
Year Solar Energy WP Biomass
1996 17,21 17,21 15,30
1997 17,15 17,51 15,25
1998 16,52 16,52 16,69
1999 16,52 16,52 14,69
2000 16,10 16,10 14,31
EEG > 99 > 17,8 < 500 kW:
> 20

Legal Issues 33
RESA
Payment for Current from:
4 Hydro-Power, Waste-Site-Gas, Mines, Gas from
Purification Plants
> 15 Pf/ kWh
(> 500 kW: 500 [kW] / Power of the System [kW].)
otherwise: 13 Pf/ kWh
Legal Issues 34
EEG
5 Biomass
P
el
< 500 kW: > 20 Pf / kWh
500 kW< P
el
< 5 MW : > 18 Pf / kWh
P
el
> 5 MW > 17 Pf/ kWh
New Installations as of 2002: annual Reduction of Payment by 1%
6 Geothermal Energy
P
el
< 20 MW: > 17,5 Pf / kWh
P
el
> 20 MW > 14 Pf / kWh
Legal Issues 35
RESA
5 Biomass
P
el
< 500 kW: > 20 Pf / kWh
500 kW< P
el
< 5 MW : > 18 Pf / kWh
P
el
> 5 MW > 17 Pf/ kWh
New Installations as of 2002: annual Reduction of Payment by 1%
6 Geothermal Energy
P
el
< 20 MW: > 17,5 Pf / kWh
P
el
> 20 MW > 14 Pf / kWh
Legal Issues 36
RESA
7 Windpower
year 1-5 : Payment > 17,8 Pf/kWh
Differentiation according to
Age / Type
Energy Production
Location
Inclusion of Offshore-Anlagen
New Installations as of 2002: annual Reduction of Payment by 1,5 %.
Legal Issues 37
RESA
7 Windpower
year 1-5 : Payment > 17,8 Pf/kWh
Differentiation according to
Age / Type
Energy Production
Location
Inclusion of Offshore-Anlagen
New Installations as of 2002: annual Reduction of Payment by 1,5 %.
Legal Issues 38
RESA
8 Solar Energy
> 99 Pf / kWh
New Installations as of 2002: annual Reduction of Payment by 5%.
Payment stops 1 year after the Installation of 350 MW, payed by
the REL.
New Law will be legislated then
Legal Issues 39
RESA
8 Solar Energy
> 99 Pf / kWh
New Installations as of 2002: annual Reduction of Payment by 5%.
Payment stops 1 year after the Installation of 350 MW, payed by
the REL.
New Law will be legislated then
Legal Issues 40
EEG
9 Gemeinsame Vorschriften
Mindestvergtungen gem. 4-8 fr Neuanlagen gelten 20
Jahre, auer bei Wasserkraft. Fr Altanlagen gilt 2000 als
Inbetriebnahmejahr.
Wird reg. Strom ber gemeinsame Messeinrichtung abgerechnet,
ist P
max
zur Vergtungsberechnung wichtig. (bei WEA kumulierte
Leistung)
Legal Issues 41
RESA
10 Costs for the Grid
Cost for Connection to the Grid is financed by the Carrier of the
Renewable Energy System
Extension of the Grid is financed by the Grid Operator
A Clearingstation is established by the BMWi
Legal Issues 42
EEG
12 Erfahrungsbericht
BMWi berichtet alle 2 Jahre damit Vergtung und Fristen
regelmig angepat werden knnen
Anhang
Definition Referenzanlage (WEA), Referenzertrag, WEA-Typ,
Referenzstandort, Leistungskennlinie, Berechtigung zur Ermittlung
R-Ertrge
Legal Issues 43
Motivation, General Remarks
Objective:
Duplication of RE until 2010;
Reduction of Greenhouse Gas by 21 % until 2010,
CO
2
-Reduction by 25% referring to 1990
Reduction of Dependency of Imports
Creation of New Jobs
Expansion of ALL RE
Division of Payment fromaverage Energy Price
Allocation of external Costs
Legal Issues 44
Motivation, General Remarks
Objective:
Duplication of RE until 2010;
Reduction of Greenhouse Gas by 21 % until 2010,
CO
2
-Reduction by 25% referring to 1990
Reduction of Dependency of Imports
Creation of New Jobs
Expansion of ALL RE
Division of Payment fromaverage Energy Price
Allocation of external Costs
Legal Issues 45
Certification
Homogeneity of Electrical Energy
Variety of Products
Consumers Inexpertness with different Energy-Products
Green Energy is a matter of Confidence
Green Energy is susceptible for Misapplication and Mistrust
Variety of Offerers
Development of the Market is just beginning
Legal Issues 46
Certification: different Interests
RE Producers
Green Energy Trader
Consumer Council
Environment Council
Government
Legal Issues 47
Certification
What has to be certified?
What is Green Power?
Is Relief of the Environment a Criterion?
Which Delimination exists to other RE-
supporting Instruments?
How is the Certificate configurated?
Legal Issues 48
Greenpeace
Criteria
Grner Strom
Label
ko-Institut Blauer Engel TV
Criteria
published:
10/98 7/99 8/99 10/99 12/98
What is
evaluated?
Product Product + Trader Product Product Product
Number of
Certificates
1 2 2 1 1
Mixture 50% RE
50% KWK
Gold 100% RE,
Silver 50/50
RE, KWK
reg: 100% RE
effective:
50/50
RE/KWK
50/50
RE/KWK
100% RE
Is Solar Energy
included?
YES,
> 1%
YES,
> 1%
YES,
> 1%
voluntary
1%
NO
Regulation for
Decrease of CO2
2/3 Reduction, max
230g CO2/kWh
no specification reg: 75%
effektiv:
50%
no specification no specification
Regulation for
Building new
Generation
Facilities
100% within 2-3
Years
yealy rate:
10% of previous
year
> 25% RE New
Facilities
yealy rate:
10% of previous
year
no specification
Control of
Traders ability to
guarantee the
total Energy
supply?
YES NO NO YES On Demand
Control of
Double-Selling of
kWh?
YES YES YES YES YES
Import
permitted??
NO Only if certification
is assured
Only if certification
is assured
YES no specification
Certification by Comparison
Legal Issues 49
Offerer of Green Power
Company Field of Activity Mixture Extra Charge
[Pf/kWh]
Tariff /
Donation
ARES nati onal WP 8 T
Elektrizittswerke Schnau nati onal BTPS, PV 8 D
EWE Naturwatt GmbH EWE Water, WP Current Rate 30
Pf/kWh +
Basic Rate 66 DM /a
T
Grner Strom AG nati onal all RE 8
NaturEnergi e AG BW PV, Water, WP 6,9 T
Naturstrom AG nati onal all RE 8 D
Naturstrom Rhei nl and-Pfalz KEVAG Bi omass, PV, Water, WP 7
Nevag AG nati onal BTPS, WP - T
newpower nati onal all RE 9,2
Nord-strom GmbH nati onal Water, WP -
kostrom Handels AG Hamburg, SH BTPS, all RE Current Rate 30
Pf/kWh +
Basic Rate 66 DM /a
Plambeck
Neue Energien AG
?? Biomass, WP - T
Revian GmbH - WP -
Sol arstrombrse Dr. Reinhard
Jahraus
regional PV 1,8 DM/kWh (priv.)
1,55 DM/kWh
(commercial.)
Vasa Energy nati onal BTPS, all RE - T
WRE Stromvertrieb GmbH nati onal Water, WP 10 T
Legal Issues 50
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: H
2
World and Fuel Cells
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 25.04.2013
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Energy Sources
Energy problems
Solutions
Hydrogen Production and Storage
Fuel Cells
History
Functional principle
Fuel cell types
PEMFC in detail
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 2
Structure
Energy Sources
Renewable energies
Solar power (photovoltaics, solar heat)
Wind
Biomass
Water
Geothermal power
Gravity power
Tidal range
Source: Lena-Pres., March 2007
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 3
Energy Sources
Fossil
Coal (hard coal, lignite coal)
Natural gas
Oil
Nuclear power
other
Source:www.nrec.eu
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 4
Energy Sources
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 5
Energy Sources
world energy demand will grow about 60%
energy demand can only be satisfied by oil for a short time
Source: yalibnan.com
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 6
Energy Sources
Oil peak around 2037, U.S. Global Survey (USGS)
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 7
Energy Sources
Kyoto protocol (12/1997)
Climate change caused by fossil fuel burning
Image created by Robert A. Rohde / Global Warming Art
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 8
Energy Sources
Carbon Dioxide & Temperature Past 410,000 Years Source: EPICA dataset
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 9
Energy Sources
Distribution of electricity production in 2020 (Germany)
Source: bee-ev.de
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 10
Energy Sources
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 11
Energy Sources
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 12
Hydrogen Production and Storage
For future energy system solutions hydrogen and fuel
cells could be reliable technologies.
Important objectives are:
Greenhouse gas emission reduction
Clean Air (eliminates NO
x
, SO
x
, CO, particulates)
Energy Diversification
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 13
Hydrogen - Properties
Simple atom: 1 proton, 1 electron
Deposited molecularly in clean form
Most frequently element in the universe, but often
chemical bounded
Uncoloured and odorless gas
Flammable
Important chemical raw material
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 14
Hydrogen - Production
Excess from chemical processes
Electrolysis (renewable energy sources)
H
2
O + Energy H
2
+ O
2
Steam Reforming (natural gas)
CH
4
+ H
2
O CO + 3H
2
CO + H
2
O CO
2
+ H
2
Biomass gasification
Biological processes (bacteria, plants)
other
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 15
PV
Solar thermal power plants
train
1)
Source:IEA-statistics 2001-
2002
2)
Exploitable in EU
Fuel
consumption
(Transport
2002)
1)
Inland navigation
Civil navigation
Traffic
Marine energy
Geoth. energy
Wind onshore
Wind offshore
Hydraulic
power
)
CGH
2
LH
2
min max min max
Technical potencials
to generate hydrogen
from renewables
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 16
0
25
50
75
100
125
lignite coil hard coil propane butane natural
gas
petrol diesel fuel hydrogen
M
J
/
k
g
Calorific value per kg
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 17
0
10
20
30
40
M
J
/
l
Calorific value per liter
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 18
Specific energy density of fuel (without container) in Wh/kg
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 19
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 20
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 21
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 22
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 23
Source: www.dwv-info.de
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 24
More than 200 hydrogen stations worldwide
production based on electrolysis and reforming of natural gas
Unterschleiheim (near Munich) Source: www.dwv-info.de
Hydrogen Production and Storage
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 25
Fuel Cells - History
1838 priniciple of the fuel cell founded by Christian
Friedrich Schnbein
1839 first fuel cells constructed by Sir Wilhelm Grove
Composed of two platinum electrodes and sulphuric acid
Less developments in the early 20th century
Unsolvable material problems
Lack of describtion
of the chemical processes
Source:
FZ Jlich
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 26
Fuel Cells - History
Renaissance in the Apollo program (started 1961)
First mobile applications in the 90th (NECAR,
buses,..)
Source: wikipedia.org Source: wikipedia.org
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 27
Fuel Cells - Functional principle
Separated partial reaction of hydrogen and oxygen
Cold burning
Electron mitigation used as electrical energy
Chemical
Energy
Thermal
Energy
Mechanical
Energy
Electrical
Energy
Fuel Cell
Power plant
max
min
C
T
T
= 1
H
S
T
FC

= 1
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 28
Fuel Cells - Functional principle
Reaction:
a A + b B + c C + d D +
Nernst-Equation:
U
0
~ reversible cell voltage
R ~ general gas constant
F ~ Faraday constant
n ~ number of electrons
a ~ activity of the species

+ =
... a a
... a a
ln
nF
RT
U U
d
D
c
C
b
B
a
A
cell
0
Unconsumed
air/oxygen,
products
Unconsumed
Fuel, products
Ions
Electrolyt
Anode Cathode
Load
e
-
e
-
Fuel Air/Oxygen
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 29
Fuel Cells - Types
Operation
temperature
Electrolyte Fuel Oxidant
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 50-90C Lime potash
(30% KOH)
Hydrogen Oxygen
Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC)
60-90C Solid polymer Hydrogen,
synthesis gas,
methanol
Oxygen/
Air
Phosphor Acid Fuel Cell
(PAFC)
200C Phosphor
Acid
Hydrogen,
synthesis gas
Air
Molten Carbonite Fuel
Cell (MCFC)
650C Calcium
carbonate
Hydrogen,
methane
Air
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
(SOFC)
850-1000C Zirconium
oxide
Hydrogen,
methane, coal
gas
Air
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 30
Fuel Cells - Types
Ballard: ca. 1kW
el
-PEMFC
SMART-FuelCell: ca. 1kW
el
DMFC
Source: www.dwv-info.de
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 31
Fuel Cells - Types
ONSI: 200kW
el
-PAFC
Sulzer-HEXIS: 1kW
el
-SOFC
Source: www.dwv-info.de
Source:
www.hexis.com
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 32
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
PEMFC Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
Typ: low temperature fuel cell
Electrolyte: polymer membrane
Operation temperatur: 60-90C
Fuel: hydrogen
Oxidant: oxygen (air)
Open circuit voltage: about 1,0V (oxidant: air)
Advantage
high power density (1000W/kg)
Disadvantages
CO sensibility
humidification of the membrane
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 33
Hydrogen
Load
Oxygen
or air
H
+
: protons
e
-
: electrons
Electrolyte
Electrodes and
catalyst
Bipolar plate
Water vapour
(unconsumed air)
Cathode Anode
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
Anode: H
2
2H
+
+2e
-
Cathode: 2H
+
+ O
2
+2e
-
H
2
O
Total reaction: H
2
+ O
2
H
2
O
Efficiency:
50-68% (single cell),
load-dependent
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 34
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 35
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
Double layer
Phase interface between
electrode and electrolyte
Charges stored
Parallel plate type capacitor
(Helmholtz model)
C
D
depends on:
Electrolyt concentration
Surface properties
Type of electrode
d
C
R
D

=
0
Electrode
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 36
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
Electrode
Triple phase boundary
layer
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 37
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
Nafion: Perflourinated sulfonted membrane
Conductive for hydrogen ions
(depends on humidification)
Non-conductive for oxygen and hydrogen
Porous polymer electrolyte
membrane
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 38
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
I ~ Activation overpotential
II ~ Ohmic losses
III ~ Concentration overpotential
V 23 , 1
F z
G
U
R 0
=

=

O H
O H
cell
p
p p
ln
F z
T R
U U
2
2 2
2
1
0

+ =
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 39
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
0,0 0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
U

i
n

V
J in A/cm 100mbar
300mbar
0,0 0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
U

i
n

V
J in A/cm
40C
50C
60C
Static measurements
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 40
I

i
n

A
U

i
n

V
t in s
5
10
15
20
3,25
3,5
3,75
4
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25
U

i
n

V
I

i
n

A
t in s
40C
50C
40C
60C
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
Dynamic measurements
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 41
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
Single cells combined to
a stack (series connection)
Differentiation in size of
active surface
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 42
monopolar
bipolar
Voltage = 1 * 1,0V Voltage = 4 * 1,0V
Negative electrode
separator
positive electrode
positive electrode
separator
Negative electrode
bipolar separating plate (composite material)
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 43
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
PEMFC-Stack produced by SGL
Anode: hydrogen
Cathode: air
14 single cells
Max. 80A at 7,5V
150cm active surface
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 44
Source: ZBT Duisburg
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
High temperature PEMFC
New concept to minimize the disadvantage
Temperatures at about 160C
Membran consists of PBI (Polybenzimidazol)
and phosphoric acid as electrolyt
Lower CO sensitivity
No humidification necessary
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 45
Transport mechanism via short time
connections with water molecules
Humidification necessary
Transport mechanism via short time
connections with phosphoric acid
molecules
No Humidification
Source: ZBT
Duisburg
Fuel Cells - PEMFC
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 46
Thus we live, thus we live, thus we live all days long
H
2
World and Fuel Cells 47
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Fuel Cell Modelling
Speaker: P. Bernstein
Date: 02.05.2013
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Fuel Cell Modelling
Electrical modelling
Thermal modelling
Electrochemical modelling
Fuel Cell Controlling
Single cell voltage measurement
Current density measurement
Humidity measurement
Fuel cell cooling
Fuel Cell Modelling 2
Structure
Fuel Cell Modelling
Modelling fundamentals
description of reality through models by
Balance equations
Mass
Charge
Impulse
Energy
Boundary and transition conditions
Source and drain terms
Complex geometry
Fuel Cell Modelling 3
ions
electrolyte
anode cathode
load
e
-
e
-
fuel air/oxygen
C
A,C
- capacity of anode and cathode
Z
A,C
- impedance of anode and cathode
R
el
- resistance of electrolyte
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrical
equivalent circuit of a single cell
Fuel Cell Modelling 4
F z
G
U
R

=

0
I ~ activation overpotential U
act
II ~ ohmic losses U
ohm
III ~ concentration overpotential U
conc
|
|

\
|
=
0
j
j
lg b U
act
j r U
ohm
=
|
|

\
|

=
L
conc
j
j
ln
F n
T R
U 1
Parameter TAFEL b
ce tan resis related area r
density current inal arg m j
density current exchange j
L
=
=
=
=
0
conc ohm act cell
U U U U U =
0
reversible cell voltage
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrical
Fuel Cell Modelling 5
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrical
0
0
R
A
Konz
R
Mem R
A
Akt
C
A
DK
U
A
GF
R
K
Konz
R
K
Akt
C
K
DK
U
K
GF
U
BZ
C
Mem
R
Last
I
BZ
0
for dynamic simulations
extended equivalent circuit of a single cell
Fuel Cell Modelling 6
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrical
parameterization of a stationary empirical equivalent model
Model reduced to cathode reaction because of main voltage drop
Reference fuel cell stack or single fuel cell
Constant conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity)
Reference characteristic
Approximation and determination of the parameters
R
i1
=R
K
act
: non-linear activation loss resistance at cathode
R
i2
=R
mem
: linear membrane resistance
C
mem
=0
C
K
DK
=0
Stationary equivalent model
Fuel Cell Modelling 7
c= experimental constant
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrical
Fuel Cell Modelling 8
( )
cell cell cell
U V 48 . 1 I Q =
&
Fuel Cell Modelling - Thermal
Fuel Cell Modelling 9
Fuel Cell Modelling - Thermal
( )
in , H H , B in , H in , H
h H m H
2 2 2 2
+ =
&
&
( )
) g ( O H in , air air in , air in , air
h x h m H
2
+ =
&
&
1000

=
i
i i Z FC
i
z F
M n I
m
&
( )
amb O O loss
T T A Q =
&
O H , evap FC cooling O H
Q ) T ( Q Q
2 2
& & &
+ =
Fuel Cell Modelling 10
measured temperature distribution at anode side
Fuel Cell Modelling - Thermal
Fuel Cell Modelling 11
Fuel Cell Modelling - Thermal
external cooling of fuel cell by a fan and heat exchanger
Fuel Cell Modelling 12
temperature distribution of a fuel cell (five cells), T
H2O
=60C
Fuel Cell Modelling - Thermal
Fuel Cell Modelling 13
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrochemical
electrochemical double layer
E - electric field
- potential
Helmholtz Stern Gouy-Chapman
Fuel Cell Modelling 14
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrochemical
( )
( ) ( )
)
`


=
reverse forward
U U
T R
F z
exp U U
T R
F z
exp j A j
0 0
0
1
Butler-Volmer-equation
changing of an electrochemical current depending on changing electrode potential
reaction velocity controlled by electrical charge transfer
Modeling of the U-j-characteristic of a transfer limited electrode reaction
j - current density
j
0
- exchange current density
- symmetry factor
z - transferred electrons
F - Faraday Constant
R - ideal gas constant
T - temperature
U - voltage
cathode anode
Fuel Cell Modelling 15
TAFEL-equation
coherence between fuel cell voltage drop and exchange current at
given load current
exchange current depends on efficiency of the used catalyst
reverse reaction negligible (high over potential)
linear U-j-characteristic
I
I
ln
F z
T R
U
0


=
current exchange I
factor symmetry
=
=
0
anode
I
I
ln
F z ) 1 (
T R
U
0


= cathode
Fuel Cell Modelling - Electrochemical
Fuel Cell Modelling 16
Fuel Cell Controlling
Main control parameters
Voltage
Single cell voltage
Stack voltage
Current density
Total current
Current density distribution across active surface
Humidity
Humidification of the membrane
Humidification of the gases (hydrogen and oxygen)
Temperature
Pressure
Fuel Cell Modelling 17
temperature
humidity
pressure
current density
voltage
current
Fuel Cell Controlling
Main control parameters
Fuel Cell Modelling 18
Fuel Cell Controlling
2008
FC-control
diagnostics integration
2007 2005
FC-system
FC-lab
FC-test systems (0,25-5kW)
single-cell measurement
2001
2010-2011
current density
measurement
2009
singel-cell
measurement in
Commercial FC
FC-APU
2001-2002
electrolyzer
equipment systems
2003-2004
material- and
probetesting
Fuel Cell Modelling 19
Fuel Cell Controlling
hydrogen tank storage 5 kW fuel cell system 300 W fuel cell test systems
Fuel Cell Modelling 20
Fuel Cell Controlling - Voltage
Selected cell voltages of a stack with 69 cells in two operating points
point 1:
I
stack
=40A
U
stack
=52V
T=60C;
point 2:
I
stack
=100A
U
stack
=44V
T=60C
Fuel Cell Modelling 21
Fuel Cell Controlling - Voltage
protection of voltage drops requires measurement
bipolar interconnecting of a fuel cell with two cells
Fuel Cell Modelling 22
Fuel Cell Controlling - Voltage
Fuel Cell Modelling 23
Fuel Cell Controlling - Voltage
Measuring points 32 Interface RS232
Voltage range 1.024V Voltage supply 4 26 VDC
Solution 10bit Minima number 3x Umin
Sampling rate 10Hz@32 cells Display 4x20 symbols
Fuel Cell Modelling 24
i ... 1 n , m j
A
I
j
i
1
n , m
mem
FC
= = =
Fuel Cell Controlling - Current Density
Measuring of the current production at the membrane surface
Integration of a current density device into the fuel cell
Local current production depends on many parameters Measuring
Fuel Cell Modelling 25
Source: T.Chikahisa
Why current density measurements?
Identification of dry areas
Prevention of dry-out conditions
Controlling of the volume flows to improve the fuel cell efficiency and
the life-time
Fuel Cell Controlling - Current Density
Fuel Cell Modelling 26
j
nom
>j
krit
?
gas inlet
flow field channel
local stress local stress
Fuel Cell Controlling - Current Density
nondeterministic voltage drops at difference cells
electrical output power reduction by I
FC
=const.
Fuel Cell Modelling 27
Current density measurement methods
Masking method
Measurement of local bounded segments of the MEA
Segmentation method (modified MEA)
Sub-cells
Segmentation of the flow field and the electrodes
Usage of a constant current source
Segmentation method (non-modified MEA)
a. Magnetic loops (current collector board)
Modified flow fields
b. Ohmic resistance
Non invasive method
Fuel Cell Controlling - Current Density
Fuel Cell Modelling 28
Current collector board with 121 segments scheme of the integrated shunt within the collector board
Fuel Cell Controlling - Current Density
Segmentation method with shunts (non-modified MEA)
Fuel Cell Modelling 29
Fuel Cell Controlling - Current Density
current density distribution during the starting phase of a fuel cell
Fuel Cell Modelling 30
Absolute humidity
Relative humidity
membrane humidity
i
o
n

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

[
S
/
c
m

]
Source: Cleghorn, Kolde, Liu
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
Fuel Cell Modelling 31
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
behavior of a dry (I) and humidified
(II) PEM membrane during the
supply with hydrogen
Fuel Cell Modelling 32
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
Humidity of gases and membrane influence the U-j- curve
Fuel Cell Modelling 33
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
Pro:
Good control of humidity in a wide range
Low pressure drop
Used for test bench mainly
Con:
External supply of temperature and liquid water
Water treatment (ion-exchange) required
Complex setup and controlling needed
Additional parasitic losses
No freezing resistance
Fuel Cell Modelling 34
Pro:
Low parasitic losses
Autarkic system, no external supply required
Water is taken from stack exhaust directly
Easy installation and working principle
Con:
Performance (efficiency and pressure drop)
depends on operation conditions
Design must be adapted to FC system
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
Fuel Cell Modelling 35
Microcontroller
Atmega168
1
Programming
2
Sensirion
SHT75
4
rF/TSensor
3
User input
Dallas Sem.
DS18B20
Tair
5
Display
6
RS232
Digital Datas
D/A-converter
rF TS Tair Tdewpoint
Current source
U
I
7
8
9
Analog Datas Human Interface
1
2
4
3
5
6
7
8
9
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
humidity board for signal processing
Fuel Cell Modelling 36
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
humidity measurement device
Fuel Cell Modelling 37
1 11 1
3 33 3
2 22 2
4 44 4
5 55 5
6 66 6
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
humidity test bench
Humidity chamber
Reference measurement
LENA-humidity device
Membrane humidifier
Salt humidifier
Mass flow measurement
Fuel Cell Modelling 38
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
rH Sollwert [%rH]
r
H

M
e
s
s
w
e
r
t

[
%
r
H
]
Vaisala SHT75 Linear (SHT75)
set point relative humidity in %
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
u
m
i
d
i
t
y

i
n

%
Fuel Cell Controlling - Humidity
Fuel Cell Modelling 39
weight
volume
Heat dissipation
Power consumption
Water cooling Air cooling
high
low
low
low
high
high
very good
average
Fuel Cell Controlling - Cooling
fuel cell cooling Pth,FC> Pth,losses at nominal power
fuel cell heating Pth,FC< Pth,losses at partial power
Cooling strategy technology comparison
Source: Laing
Fuel Cell Modelling 40
Temperature control---
Regulation algorithm
Adjustment
PWM_pump
Adjustment
temperature
FC,in
Adjustment
PWM_fan
Adjustment
temperature
FC,out
:2
+
-
+
+
T
FC,in
T
FC,out
T
FC,middle
dT
FC
+
-
-
+
PWM
fan
PWM
pump
T
Fc,set
dT
FC,set
e
FC,L
e
FC,P
I
P
P
I
u
i , L
u
p , L
u
i , L
u
p , L
+
+
+
+
Fuel Cell Controlling - Cooling
example for temperature control
Fuel Cell Modelling 41
T
35min
=60C, at 2kW
el
T
10min
=60C, at 4kW
el
Fuel Cell Controlling - Cooling
temperature controlling of the fuel cell during start up phase
Fuel Cell Modelling 42
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Fuel Cell Application
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 16.05.2013
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Fuel Cell Application 2
Structure
Introduction
Stationary
Portable
Mobile
Stationary
Fuel Cell Application 3
PEMFC airplane
Rapid 200-FC
PEMFC ship
Alsterwasser
PEMFC truck
Hytruck
PEMFC vehicle
F-Cell (Daimler)
PEMFC bike
Swarthmore College
Application Operating Hours/
Calendar Life
Challenges
Automotive 5.000h/5 years (vehicle, bus)
increasing reliability
5.000h (vehicle & bus) reached;
Portable 1.500h/2 years
partially commercialized
(EFOY-System)
Stationary
40.000h/5 years
Target: U
drop
3,5V/h
power degradation &
aging mechanism
Introduction
Stationary
Fuel Cell Application 4
Natural gas
Electrical energy
PEM-FC
CO
2
, H
2
O, exhaust steam
Hot water tank
heating
Stationary
Single family house
The fuel cell system supply
the house with heat and
deliver up to 75% of the
electrical energy
Fuel Cell Application 5
Stationary
5kWSystem for group of buildings
for buildings with year-round
heat demand
Heat demand > 34.000 kWh/a
Electricity > 18.000 kWh/a
apartment building
gastronomy, hotel
business
indoor pools, hospital
Fuel Cell Application 6
Stationary
5kWSystem for group of buildings
Fuel Cell Application 7
Study: inecs Klassifizierung von Wohngebuden
fr den Einsatz von Brennstoffzellensystemen
Stationary
System components
Fuel cell stack (PEMFC, SOFC,)
Hydrogen supply
pure hydrogen (electrolyzer) or hydrogen produced
by steam reforming (natural gas)
Oxygen supply
compressed air
Cooling circuit
Electrical components
sensors (pressure, temperature, voltage, current,)
Net connection (DC/AC) and security devices
Fuel Cell Application 8
Stationary
test system
average single cell voltage after
400hours within two years and
discontinuous operation mode
no ageing of fuel cell detected
long time test for different operation modes
and scenarios
Fuel Cell Application 9
Stationary
Technical data:
electrical power: 1,5 kW
thermal power (KWK1): 3,0 kW
system efficiency (KWK1): > 80%
electrical connection: 230V/50Hz
size (BxTxH): ca. 1,0 x 0,73 x 1,85 m
1KWK CHP
Fuel Cell Application 10
250 KW Fuel-Cell-Application
MTU CFC Solutions GmbH
Stationary
electrical power: 245 kW
electrical efficiency: 47 %
thermal power: 180 kW
thermal efficiency: 35 %
US department of energy
Outage costs in sensitive industry:
telecommunication industry: 41 TUSD/h
telephone ticket sale: 72 TUSD/h
flight reservation: 90 TUSD/h
credit card business: 2,6 MUSD/h
bourse business: 6,5 MUSD/h
Fuel Cell Application 11
Stationary
Fuel Cell Application 12
Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
back up power for
telecommunication
server rooms
traffic lights
hospitals
UPS-System from ZSW Germany
Stationary
Fuel Cell Application 13
Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
Concept for an UPS-System
Thermodynamic efficiency:
H
G
rev

=
G = Gibbs free energy
H = reaction enthalpy
U
DC
FC
H
P

=
Fuel cell efficiency:
P
DC
= generated electrical DC Power
H
U
= heat of combustion of hydrogen
Stationary
System efficiency
Fuel Cell Application 14
Hydrogen generation efficiency:
( )
( )
fuel
U
H
U
FP
H
H

=
2
(H
U
)
H
2
= heat of combustion of hydrogen
after reformer
(H
U
)
fuel
= heat of combustion of the natural
gas before reformer
DC
AC
PC
P
P
=
Converter efficiency:
P
AC
= converted electrical AC Power
P
DC
= supplied electrical DC Power
Stationary
System efficiency
Fuel Cell Application 15
Gross system efficiency:
( )
fuel
U
AC
sys
H
P
el

=
P
AC
= supplied electrical AC Power
(H
U
)
fuel
= heat of combustion of the natural
gas before reformer
fuel U
loss AC
eff
) H (
P P


=
Net system efficiency:
( )
fuel
U
AC
sys
H
heat P

+
=
combined heat and power
P
AC
= supplied electrical AC Power
(H
U
)
fuel
= heat of combustion of the natural
gas before reformer
P
loss
= Power loss
Stationary
System efficiency
Fuel Cell Application 16
Product Company Fuel cell type Power
sys
el

sys
Inhouse
5000
Schalt- und
Regeltechnik
PEMFC 5 kW
el
30% 90%
HotModule CFC Solutions MCFC 280kW 47% 90%
Siemens
Westinghouse
SOFC 100kW 46% 80%
Stationary
Fuel Cell Application 17
Stationary
Stationary fuel cell applications improve the efficiency and the supply guarantee and
preserve the resources and the environment
Fuel cell combined heat and power produce
electrical energy and heat up to a electrical
efficiency of 50%.
A high efficiency in local applications reduce
the fuel consumption and the import dependency
Fuel cell combined heat and power application
reduce the CO2 emissions and avoid it over all
with renewable energies
FC improve the local emissions and because of
this they can used in urban city's
Fuel Cell Application 18
Intrinsic features
of portable fuel
cell systems
High efficiency energy converters (el. conversion efficiency up to 50%) resulting in high
power density systems
With hydrogen fuel only electricity, heat and humidified air are products during energy
conversion
Uncertainties
Competitiveness with existing batteries in terms of:
cost, reliability, safety, conversion efficiency of total
system, consumer acceptance, etc.
Fuel infrastructure not clear and thus, not installed yet
How to finance the fuel cell systems and fuel infrastructure
Portable
Fuel Cell Application 19
Portable
Design criteria for fuel cells systems
Point of Operation of stack and overall system
Pressure level and pressure drop in case of hydrogen
Hydrogen or reforming of hydrocarbons or alcohols
Water management, recycling of water in case of alcohols
Heat management, cooling, co-generation of heat and power
System dynamics, quick-start, cold-start capability
BoP: valves, vents, compressors, pressure reducers, pumps, etc.
Power conditioning, high-effic. DC/DC conversion, DSP proc.
Cost-effective production of stack, peripherals, system integr.
Fuel Cell Application 20
Portable
Fuel choice determined by
Energy density (volume & weight) of fuel
Fuel distribution infrastructure
Volume & weight of fuel container and fuel processing
Reversibility of chemical reaction for chemical hydrides
Conversion efficiency: chemical energy to electricity
Cost of fuel, container, refilling
Lifetime of fuel container (recycling)
Safety of fuel, container, refueling, recycling
Safety of fuel transportation
Fuel Cell Application 21
Portable
Possibilities for energy conversion with fuel cells
higher power density of a PEMFC
energy density depends on the hydrogen
Storage - availability / handling of hydrogen
lower power density of a DMFC
toxicity of methanol
higher energy density of the methanol tank
handling of methanol
Fuel Cell Application 22
+ higher power density
of a PEMFC
+ higher energy density
of the methanol tank
+ availability / handling
of methanol
- complexity of the system
+ higher power density
of a PEMFC
+ higher energy density
of the methanol tank
+ handling of methanol
- high complexity of the
system
Portable
Fuel Cell Application 23
Portable
Fuel cell systems for mobile phones and PDAs
about 1 Wel power
most times external systems for recharging
the device integrated battery
market players are
Casio, Hitachi,
Manhattan Scientifics,
Medis, Motorola,
MTI Micro Fuel Cells,
NEC, NTT DoCoMo,
Samsung, Toshiba
Fuel Cell Application 24
Portable
Fuel cell systems for laptops
10 to 15 Wel power
most times external systems for
recharging the device integrated battery
connected to the laptop like a docking station
market players are
Antig, Casio, LG
Chem, NEC, PolyFuel,
Samsung, Sanyo,
Toshiba, UltraCell
Fuel Cell Application 25
Portable
Fuel cell systems for military applications
10 to 50 Wel power
most times external systems for
recharging purposes
operation time for a 3 day mission
market players are
Ball Aerospace,
Idatech, Medis,
MTI Micro Fuel Cells,
Neah Power, Protonex,
Smart Fuel Cell,
UltraCell, QinetiQ
Fuel Cell Application 26
Portable
Fuel cell systems for early markets
5 to 250 Wel power
applications are bicycles, wheel
chairs, scooters, camping, outdoor
power, ind. devices, boats
market players are
Angstrom, Avista,
Ballard, Cellkraft,
Flexiva, Gaskatel,
Masterflex, Palcan,
Smart Fuel Cell,
Voller Energy
Fuel Cell Application 27
Fuel cell systems in mobile applications
Power Unit (PU) Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Delphi's SOFC APU
Ballard Mark 902
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 28
Applications for APUs
Mobile
Car
in-vehicle network
higher electric power for more components
lower fuel consumption
Truck & Bus
no idle mode
better durability of the combustion engine
lower fuel consumption
Airplane
supply with electric power
lower fuel consumption
Military
lower emissions
lower fuel consumption
Fuel Cell Application 29
G
DC
AC
generator battery
DC
DC
in-vehicle
network
12V
FC
A K
air
H
2
standard in-vehicle network
Auxiliary Power Unit
>12V
load
Schematic of a in-vehicle network with FC-APU
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 30
Ballard Shows How a Fuel Cell Works in a Vehicle
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 31
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/651-ballard-shows-how-a-
fuel-cell-works-video.htm
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
current [A]
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
system efficiency stack efficiency
using the energy storage
charge the energy storage
basic
load
fuel cell turn off
using the battery for a better fuel cell durability
optimal area
P2
P1
Optimal operation area of a PEM-FC
for a higher efficiency a energy management is needed
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 32
Mobile
Fuel cells in automotive applications come more important in the next
years
To validate the simulation results a test bench is needed
Energy management
important for load flow control
important for optimal system design
Higher durability and a better efficiency of the components by a
efficintly managemen
Fuel Cell Application 33
Fuel cell vehicles of daimler
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 34
Control electronics
Power electronics
Fuel cell (80kW)
System module
Coolant pump
Mobile
Fuel cell system from Ballard for the A-class
Fuel Cell Application 35
battery
Hydrogen tank
Fuel cell stack
Electric motor
System module
cooling
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 36
Fuel cell stack
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 37
Packaging of Fuel cell
System in Mercedes
F-Cell
Hannover Fair 2013
Freeze start is a MUST for automotive applications
The standard automotive requirement is to start and operate
at ambient temperatures of:
- 40C .... + 50C
The F-Cells, Ford Focus and CUTE buses are already
operated at winter conditions
The main missing functionality is:
Challenges: Freezing
The challenge:
PEM fuel cells need water for operation, so that it
cannot be avoided
water will freeze !
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 38
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 39
fuel cell bus with ballard stack
Source: fuel cell today and ballard
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 40
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 41
Energy consumption and CO
2
emission of vehicle
H2 from renewable sources in FC vehicles: no emission
H2 from natural gas: 30% CO
2
emission reduction
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 42
high energy efficiency: lower primary energy demand
the high efficiency of the fuel cell drive compensate the energy losses of the hydrogen production
Efficiency of different drives
Tank-to-Wheel (TTW)
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 43
Electro-Hybrid drives
Fuel saving versus costs
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 44
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 45
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 46
Carb Report 2007
Fuel cells in mobile operation
Mobile
Fuel Cell Application 47
Mobile
Fuel cells in mobile operation
Carb Report 2007
Fuel Cell Application 48
Mobile
cost reduction of stack is not enough
Fuel Cell Application 49
Automotive fuel cell technology is on the way but is not yet proven for a commercially use.
Technological and engineering advancements have improved, simplified and even eliminated components
of the fuel cell system.
The Balance of Plant has a reduced number of components and now uses some parts that
are of automotive quality and cost.
The fuel cell system has a reduced start time and in-vehicle start-up from a frozen condition has been
demonstrated.
Great strides have been made in the science of materials and operating characteristics of fuel cells.
This increase in fundamental understanding shows promise for solving life, abuse and durability issues
for fuel cell systems.
The consensus among the majority of fuel cell system developers is that in order to achieve
commercialization there are simultaneous requirements for:
1) Higher MEA power per unit area of fuel cell electrodes (goal of 0.8 to 1.0 W/cm)
2) Reduced MEA catalyst cost (goal of total MEA catalyst loading <0.1 to 0.5 mg Pt/cm)
3) Longer fuel cell system operating life and increased durability (goal of >5000 hours of
customer use)
4) Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) materials that are stable and can operate at a
higher temperature (above 100 C)
5) Engineering advances
Fuel Cell Application 50
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Wind Power - Introduction
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 23.05.2013
History
Wind Energy Use
Mechanism of Wind Formation
Physics of Wind Energy Use
Wind Power - Introduction 2
Structure
Literature
www.windpower.org
Gasch R. Wind Power Plants.
Fundamentals, Design, Construction and
Operation
Lubosny Z. Wind Turbine Operation in
Electric Power Systems
Hau E. - Windkraftanlagen
Wind Power - Introduction 3
Transmission
Distribution
L
o
a
d

F
l
o
w
Power Plant
Transformer
Transmission
220/380 kV
Research, Large Industry
Railway
Industry, Office,
Trade
Residential Buidings
Small Firms, Agriculture, Houses
Conventional Power System
Wind Power - Introduction 4
Quelle: Vdn-Berlin
Power Plant
Transformer
Transmission
220/380 kV
Research, Large Industry
Railway
Industry, Office,
Trade
Residential Buidings
Small Firms, Agriculture, Houses
L
o
a
d

F
l
o
w
Transmission
Distribution
Current Power System
Wind Power - Introduction 5
First wind turbines from 7th century (with vertical axis)
Application of wind wheels for irrigation of fields and as
mills
First units with horizontal axis in 12th century in England
In Germany there was about 18.000 units in year 1900
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 6
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

A
x
i
s
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

A
x
i
s
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 7
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

A
x
i
s
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

A
x
i
s
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 8
www.ullesthorpewindmill.org.uk
Iranian
Wind Catcher
This unique nest of ancient Iranian windmills
Vertical Axis Persian Windmill
Wind Power - Introduction 9
http://museumtechnologymozambique.blogspot.com/2005/07/windmills-to-drive-generators-it-is.html
Vertical Axis China Windmill
Wind Power - Introduction 10
http://scienceservice.si.edu/pages/100001.htm
www4.architektur.tu-
darmstadt.de/powerhouse/db/248,id_108
0,s_Terms.fb15
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/525828/1384/A-Savonius-rotor
Vertical Axis Savonius Rotor
Wind Power - Introduction 11
www.windturbine-analysis.netfirms.com/index-intro.htm
Vertical Axis Darrieus Rotor
Wind Power - Introduction 12
www.eolecapchat.com
Vertical Axis OLE Canada
Wind Power - Introduction 13
Part of the massive wooden frame and
wooden cap The brakewheel and wallower
www.ullesthorpewindmill.org.uk
Windmills - Equipment
The 3 pairs of stone 2 French burr
and one peakstone, bottom right
Wooden gearing on the stone floor
Wind Power - Introduction 14
Tower mill with sails
dated back to the 1200
used for watering
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 15
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 16
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 17
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 18
Wind Energy - History
Wind Power - Introduction 19
Assembly of Rotor Blades
Wind Power - Introduction 20
Wind Turbines - Manufacturing
Wind Power - Introduction 21
Wind Turbines - Installation
Wind Power - Introduction 22
Wind Turbines - Installation
Wind Power - Introduction 23
Wind Turbines - Installation
Wind Power - Introduction 24
Wind Turbines - Installation
Wind Power - Introduction 25
Wind Turbines - Installation
Wind Power - Introduction 26
Wind Energy Use - Motivation
Wind Power - Introduction 27
The sun radiate 1,5 * 1018x10
18
kWh energy to the Earth for
a year
The total energy demand of people: 91 * 1012x10
12
kWh for
a year
0,006% of the radiated energy would be enough
2% of the solar energy is the flow energy
worldwide wind energy potential = 30 * 1015x10
15
kWh
but useable only about 3% (Heights, Distances between units
10-40 times the rotor radius) = 0,9 * 1015x10
15
kWh
Wind Energy Use - Motivation
Wind Power - Introduction 28
European Wind Resources
Wind Power - Introduction 29
Wind Resources in Poland
Wind Turbine Installations
State: 2003
Source: www.elektrownie.tanio.net
Zones:
-Extraordinary good
-Very good
-Good
-Unfavourable
-Not good
Wind Energy in Poland
Wind Power - Introduction 30
Climatic Layer - Lorenc, H., 2000
Wind Energy in Poland
Wind Power - Introduction 31
Assumption:
in 10m height V
WIND
= 4 m/s (constant),
in Germany theoret. energy E= 2000 TWh/a.
But:
due to geographic conditions the potential is lower
Wind Turbines 600 ... 1500 kW:
techn. useable potential = ca. 117...128 TWh/a
electr. demand of Germany: 2001 ~ 500 TWh,
Potential ~ 23...26% of the energy demand
Annual mean
wind speed
Wind Energy in Germany
Wind Power - Introduction 32
Source: DEWI (2007)
Wind Energy in Germany 2007
Wind Power - Introduction 33
Source: DEWI (2009)
Wind Energy in Germany 2008
Wind Power - Introduction 34
Wind Turbine Installations
Worldwide 2003 / 2006
Source: DEWI (2007)
Wind Power - Introduction 35
Wind Turbine Installations Worldwide
Source: EWEA (2009)
Wind Power - Introduction 36
Source: DEWI Magazin 34 (2009)
Wind Energy Use in kW/km
2
Wind Turbine Installations Worldwide
Wind Power - Introduction 37
Wind Turbine Installations
Worldwide
Source: DEWI Magazin 34 (2009)
Wind Energy - Forecast Wind Energy WT Size
Wind Power - Introduction 38
Source: www.ewea.org
Installed Wind Capacity:
EU over 48 GW (end 2006)
Germany over 21 GW (end 2007)
Spain over 11.6 GW (end 2006)
USA over 11.6 GW (end 2006)
Source: www.ewea.org
Source: www.ewea.org
Wind Power Today and
the Future
Wind Power - Introduction 39
Wind Power - Introduction 40
Wind Power - Introduction 41
Borkum Riffgat (44/220)
Bard Offshore NL 1 (80/400)
XY (number of WTs/MW)
Austerngrund (80/400)
Deutsche Bucht (80/400)
VentoTech Nord 1 (50/150)
VentoTech Nord 2 (50/150)
He Dreiht (119/536)
H2 20 (400/3000)
Weisse Bank (80/280)
Uthland (80/400)
?? (??/??)
?? (??/??)
Authorization in progress
Sum (1063/5936 MW)
Borkum IV ?
Borkum West?
Wind Power - Introduction 42
Offshore Northsea Windpower (48/240)
XY (number of WTs/MW)
Bard Offshore I (80/k.A.)
Amrumbank West (80/400)
Global Tech 1 (80/360)
Hochseewindpark Nordsee (80/400)
DanTysk (80/280)
Sandbank 24 (80/400)
Borkum Riffgrund West (80/400)
Borkum Riffgrund (77/231)
Nrdlicher Grund (80/400)
Offshore Windpark Butendiek
(80/240)
Nordsee Ost/ Amrumbank
(80/400)
Meerwind Sd & Ost
(80/400)
Offshore Windpark Borkum West
= Alpha Ventus (12/60)
Godewind (80/400)
Authorized
Sum (1097/4611 MW)
Sum (1063/5936 MW)
Total (2160/10547 MW)
Borkum Cluster ?
Wind Power - Introduction 43
Wind Power - Introduction 44
Wind Power - Introduction 45
Source: DEWI Magazin 34 (2009)
Wind Turbine Offshore Foundations
Wind Power - Introduction 46
Offshore Power System
(OPS)
B
Source: Siemens.com
Vision 20??
Wind Power - Introduction 47
Offshore Power System Greenpeace Studie
OPS Vision Nordsee
Wind Power - Introduction 48
Source: Wind Force 12 (2003)
World Energy Demand (TWh)
Wind Energy Production (TWh)
Forecast of Wind Energy Development
Wind Power - Introduction 49
Source: Wind Force 12 (2003)
Wind Energy Share in Energy Demand Worldwide
Wind Power - Introduction 50
Mechanisms of Wind Formation
Wind Power - Introduction 51
Wind is the movement of the air masses
in respect to the Earth surface.
Temperature difference as a motor for air circulation:
Temperature differences evoke the pressure differences, which are then compensated
by the air flows.
The Sun (Main factor driving wind formation) is the energy source,
whose time-varying and spatial-varying irradiation, because of the
different angles of the sun-rays, causes an unequal warming of the air
masses.
Wind Origin
Wind Power - Introduction 52
Surface temperature of the seas
Warm air is lighter than cold air and therefore climbs at equator to the altitude of about 10
km and propagates in the north and south direction
Wind Formation
Wind Power - Introduction 53
During the propagation in the direction of horse latitudes the air masses will be colder
Wind Formation
Wind Power - Introduction 54
Due to the Coriolis Force the air masses flow will be disturbed and redirected.
Surface temperature of the seas
Wind Formation
Wind Power - Introduction 55
Global winds (geostrophic) are generally evoked by the temperature differences and
pressure differences and are not influenced by the Earth surface. The global winds
propagate at the altitude of over 1000 meters.
Surface temperature of the seas
Wind Formation
Wind Power - Introduction 56
Global winds (geostrophic) are generally evoked by the temperature differences and
pressure differences and are not influenced by the Earth surface. The global winds
propagate at the altitude of over 1000 meters.
Hadley circulation
evoked by hot air, that climbs
at Equator
Rossby circulation
in north and south area
of the globe. Reason: Temp. differences
between 30 and 70 degree of latitude
Wind Formation Global Winds
Wind Power - Introduction 57
There are following local winds:
Sea winds
Katabatic (mountain) winds
Seawind:
During the day land get warm much faster than sea. The air climbs on land and
propagate in the sea direction. At the evening, when the temperatures of land and
sea are equal there is a calm (no wind). In the night the wind blows from the sea to
the land, because land get colder much faster than sea.
Local Winds - Mechanisms
Wind Power - Introduction 58
Local Winds - Mechanisms
Water
Cold air
Warm air
Land-sea wind system during day
Wind Power - Introduction 59
Land-sea wind system during night
Cold air
Warm air
Water
Local Winds - Mechanisms
Wind Power - Introduction 60
Kabatic (mountain) winds:
Southern slope will be warmed up during the day and therefore the
air climbs to the mountain top.
During the night the wind direction changes.
Source: www.windpower.org
Source: www.wikipedia.de
Local Winds - Mechanisms
Wind Power - Introduction 61
Schema of the boundary layer:
Between the geostrophic wind and ground
there is a strong varying and turbulent wind.
The reason is the surface roughness.
Within boundary layer energy is transferred
through eddies from the undisturbed high-
energy stream of the geostrophic wind to the
layers below.
Wind flow near to ground is turbulent.
Influence on turbulences have:
Orography
Surface roughness
Local shadow effects
geostrophic wind
hardly any
turbulences
boundary layer near
the ground
high turbulences
ground
Surface Winds
Wind Power - Introduction 62
Sea
Coast
City
Height [m]
Source: Crome H.
Surface Winds Wind Speed Profile
Wind Power - Introduction 63
Different v
Wind
for each altitude
up to rotor position different wind speeds
mechanical loading of the wind turbine
Mean Wind Speed [m/s]
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

[
m
]
( ) m/s
10
h
v v
*
g
N
10 N

(

=
Vertical wind speed gradient:
v
N
... mean wind speed
in hub height in m/s
v
10
... mean wind speed
at 10m in m/s
h
N
... Hub height in m
g* ... Hellmann-Exponent
dependent on roughness
Surface Winds
Wind Speed Profile
Wind Power - Introduction 64
Luv-Site Lee-Site
Surface Winds
Obstacles on the Ground
Wind Power - Introduction 65
With increasing distance from the sea there is displacement of higher
wind speeds into the higher altitudes.
North-Sea
Wind Profile in Germany
North-South Cross Section
Wind Power - Introduction 66
Measurement Equipment:
Cup anemometer
Vane anemometer
Hot-wire anemometer
Ultrasonic anemometer
Laser anemometer
Wind Speed Measurement
Wind Power - Introduction 67
Wind Speed Measurement
Evaluation
Histogram development
Wind Power - Introduction 68
The energy yield in the defined time period T of some wind turbine with
given power curve P
i
(v) can be calculated on the basis of energy yields of
the individual wind speed classes using following relationship:
E
i
= h
i
P
i
T with h
i
= t
i
/T
Wind Speed Measurement
Energy Yield
Wind Power - Introduction 69
Through the summation of
individual E
i
-values the
overall energy yield is:
E
ges
= E
i
= h
i
P
i
T
Wind Speed Measurement
Energy Yield
Wind Power - Introduction 70
Relative frequency can be in a very precise way approximated by the
Rayleigh distribution
( )
2

R
e
v 2

=
With:
h
R
... frequency of a wind speed
v ... considered wind speed in m/s
... mean value of wind speed in m/s v
v
v
=
mit
Wind Speed Measurement
Rayleigh Distribution
Wind Power - Introduction 71
( )
2

R
e
v 2

=
v
v
=
mit
Wind Speed Measurement
Rayleigh Distribution
Wind Power - Introduction 72
k shape factor that describes the form of the distribution curve, it means it defines if
the higher or lower wind speeds are present at the analyzed site more frequently.
Moreover, it defines how steep or flat is the curve. The larger the k the lower is the
turbulence.
k
A
v
-
W
e h
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
) 1 (k
A
v
A
k
Wind Speed Measurement
Weibull Distribution
A is the scale factor in m/s.
Rayleigh-distribution corresponds to the Weibull-distribution with k = 2.
Wind Power - Introduction 73
Physics of Wind Energy Use
Wind Power - Introduction 74
E mv =
1
2

v F
dt
dx
F m = =
&
Wind Power = kinetic Energy of air masses, which pass through the area F in a specific
time period.
with mass flow rate:
v F
2

v m
2
1
E P
Wind
= = =
&
&
the resulting wind power:
where:
...air density [kg/m3]
F ...area [m
2
]
v ...wind speed [m/s]
Power of the Wind
Wind Power - Introduction 75
Maximal energy yield exists with:
The power of the wind is transformed into
mechanical energy of the WT-rotor through
the deceleration (braking) of the air
masses.
Then wind speed in rotor plane is:
1 2
v
3
2
v =
The resulting power is:
P Fv c
Betz p Betz
=

2

.
1 3
v
3
1
v =
Power of the Wind
Wind Power - Introduction 76
Maximal power coefficient is:
59 , 0
27
16
c
Betz p
= =
In the best case only 59% of the wind power
can be used by wind turbines.
It is calculated from:
c
v
v
v
v
P
= +
|
\

|
|
\

|
|
\

|
|
1
2
1 1
3
1
3
1
2
where:
v
3
...wind speed behind rotor plane
v
1
...wind speed before rotor plane
Power of the Wind
- Efficiency
Wind Power - Introduction 77
The power included in wind P
wind
is converted into the rotor movement in the
wind turbine
P c P M
p Wind
= =
where c
m
... Torque coefficient
R ... Rotor radius
R c v F M with
m
2
2
:

=
n/60s 2 f 2 = =
Power of the Wind Turbine
Wind Power - Introduction 78
The relationship between c
P
and c
m
is:
1
v
R
c c
m p
=
Speed Wind
Speed Tip Blade
v
R
c
c
m
p
= = =

The ratio of both factors is the tip speed ratio - and is defined as:
Tip Speed Ratio
Wind Power - Introduction 79
Tip Speed Ratio
P
o
w
e
r

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

c
P
< 3 : Low-speed rotors
> 3: High-speed rotors
Tip Speed Ratio for
Different WTs
Wind Power - Introduction 80
Vertical Axis WT OLE Canada
Wind Power - Introduction 81
M=f(n) characteristic for different wind speeds v
Wind
:
< 3 : Low-speed rotors: high starting torques, narrow operational range
> 3: High-speed rotors: lower starting torques, wide operational range
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l

T
o
r
q
u
e

M
Rotational Speed n
Low-speed rotors
High-speed rotors
Mechanical Characteristic
of WTs
Wind Power - Introduction 82
In order to transform the energy included in the flowing air masses
(movement energy) into mechanical rotation energy two physical
principles can be applied:
Drag principle
Lift Principle
Conversion Principles
Wind Power - Introduction 83
F
W
(force) exsists, if the area F is perpendicular () to the flowing air masses.
|F
W
| ~ to the kinetic energy density of the medium (dynamic pressure).
~ to the area F, which is perpendicular to the flow direction.

2
c

=
W W
F c F c
2
with c
W
... Drag coefficient
...... Air density
c .... Air velocity at the plate
F.... Area of the plate
Conversion - Drag Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 84
Drag coefficient c
W
describes the aerodynamic performance of the body.
c
W
has lower value, if the aerodynamic drag of the body is lower.
Body c
W

Round plate 1,11
Square plate 1,10
Hemisphere, konvex 0,34
Hemisphere, konkav 1,33
Conversion - Drag Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 85
Reference Values:
For square plate it results to:
c
P, max
= 0,16
with
opt
= 0,35 und
max
= 1
c
P
= f (c
W
)
Krper c
p

opt

max

Quadratplatte 0,16 0,35 1
Schalenkreuz 0,08 0,16 0,34

Body
Square plate
Anemometer
Conversion - Drag Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 86
The air velocity at the plate is c=v-u, a composition of wind speed v
and the blade-tip speed u=R
M
of the intercepting area at a mean
radius R
M
.
F
W
F
W
= f (R
m
)
Drag Force:
Conversion - Drag Principle
Example: persian (or china) Wind wheel:
W
2
W
2
W
c F u) (v
2

c F c
2

F = =
Wind Power - Introduction 87

\
|
= =
v
u
v
u
1 c v F
2

u F P
2
W
3
W W
The mean driving power is:
) ( c v F
2

P
p
3
W
=
W
2
W
2
W
c F u) (v
2

c F c
2

F = =
Conversion - Drag Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 88
Power coefficient as function of tip-speed ratio for square plate
) ( c v F
2

P
p
3
W
=
c
P, max
= 0,16
with
opt
= 0,35 und
max
= 1
Conversion - Drag Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 89
driving force:
and
braking force:
2 2
W A
u) (v F
2

1.33 c F
2

c F = =
2 2
W B
u) (v F
2

0,33 c F
2

c F + = =
Conversion - Drag Principle
Example: Anemometer
Wind Power - Introduction 90
Power: { } ) 3,32 (1 v F
2

u ) F - F ( P
2 3
B A A
+ = =
c
P
- curve for cup anemometer:
c
P
c
P, max
= 0,08
with
opt
= 0,16 und
max
= 0,33
Conversion - Drag Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 91
Lift force at the profile:
Lift: asymmetric flow at a body (profile)
=> flow velocity different at both profile sides
=> at one-side lower pressure
=> lift force F
A
is perpendicular to the flow direction.
Conversion - Lift Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 92
F
A
F
W
F c F c
A A
=

2

mit c
A
... Lift coefficient
c ... Air velocity at profile
F c F c
W W
=

2

former:
Dynamic pressure
Conversion - Lift Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 93
F
W
F
A
F
A, S
F
A, T
V
wind
V
U
V
Res
Resulting air velocity at profile and forces:
Specific for WT with horizontal axis, which operates according to lift-principle is:
the lift-effect (force) survive even if the blades rotate faster than wind speed v
Wind
,
in other cases the body moving faster than ambient mediumwill be slow down.
Conversion - Lift Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 94
c
A
c
W
2
A
c ~
F ~ F
c
A
= 0 for <0 . At
A
= 0 there exists already F
A
F
A
F
W
Conversion - Lift Principle
Depending on type:
F
A
= 20...100 * F
W
for > 15 is the drag force
gradually higher.
Wind Power - Introduction 95
c
P
- curve as f ()
WT with 3 blades rotor,
Parameter = angle of
attack
c
A
, c
W
= f()
=> c
P
= f()

Angle of attack
Rotation plane
Tip-speed ratio
P
o
w
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

c
P
Conversion - Lift Principle
Wind Power - Introduction 96
C
Pmax
= 0,50 (0,59 max.) C
Pmax
= 0,16
F
W
F
A
c > v
c < v
The resulting air force is significantly higher for the lift-based converters as in case of drag-based
converters with the same area F.
Conversion Principles
Comparison
Wind Power - Introduction 97
Conversion Principles
Comparison
Wind Power - Introduction 98
http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/renewable/wind/
Airfoil Theorie: Drag vs. Lift
Wind Power - Introduction 99
http://www.globalelectricity.org/projects/fiji/Wind-Energy_fichiers/2-1-2%20Basic%20Principles.pdf
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Wind Power - Modeling
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Speaker: M. Sc. N. Moskalenko
Date: 30.05.2013
Wind Power - Modeling 2
Structure
Modeling
Wind Turbines
Turbine
Generator
Control System Modeling
Power System Limitation
Maximizing of Energy Yield
Grid Coupling
Modeling of Wind Turbines
Wind Power - Modeling 3
Fixed Speed
DFIG
Converter
Connected
SG
Stall Active Stall
Pitch Pitch Pitch
Variable Speed
Wind Turbine
Concepts
SCIG
Wind Turbine Technology
Wind Power - Modeling 4
Constant Speed WT with Squirrel Cage
Induction Generator
Variable Speed WT with Doubly Fed
Induction Generator
Variable Speed WT with Converter
Driven Synchronous Generator
Wind Turbine Technologies
Wind Power - Modeling 5
, pitch
Wind Turbine
Wind Speed
Profile
Output of WT
Model
Pmech, Mmech
State Variables
of WT
Rotor Geometry
WT Specific Variables
R, Coefficients of cp-Characteristic Diagram
Air Density
Generator
Pel,
Block Diagram Wind Turbine Model
Wind Power - Modeling 6
Complexity of the WT - Model
Propeller
Characteristic
v
w
T
mech


PCC
P
st
P
grd,
Q
grd
Q
st
Pitch
Controller
Frequency Converters
Source: Rudion; EUROSIM, Ljubljana 2007
Controller
U
DC
Q
grd
Modelling Issues
Wind Power - Modeling 7
Propeller
Kennfeld
Converter System according to DigSILENT
Structure of WT with SG
Wind Power - Modeling 8
Modeling of the Turbine
Wind Power - Modeling 9
Analytical Description of Cp:
) c exp( ) c c c (c c ) , ( c
6 5

4 3 2 1 p
=
c
1
=0,5
c
2
=116/
i
c
3
=0,4
1
0,035
0,08
1

1
3
i
+

+
=
Coefficients:
c
4
=0
c
5
=5
c
6
=21/
i
Modelling Aerodynamic Turbine
Wind Power - Modeling 10
C
pmax
=0.41

opt
=7.95
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Lambda
C
p
Cp Diagram GE Measured
C
pmax
=0.518

opt
=8.8
From analytic calculation
From Measurement
CP - Characteristic
Wind Power - Modeling 11
) c exp( ) c c c (c c ) , ( c
6 5

4 3 2 1 p
=
C
pmax
=0.41

opt
=7.95
CP - Characteristic
Wind Power - Modeling 12
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Lambda
C
p
Cp Diagram GE Measured
C
pmax
=0.518

opt
=8.8
CP - Characteristic
Wind Power - Modeling 13
) c exp( ) c c c (c c ) , ( c
6 5

4 3 2 1 p
=
2. Look-Up Table Definition:
(from Measurement)
1. Analytic Calculation:
c
1
=0,5
c
2
=116/
i
c
3
=0,4
1
0,035
0,08
1

1
3
i
+

+
=
Values of Coefficients:
c
4
=0
c
5
=5
c
6
=21/
i
Wind Power - Modeling 14
Modeling of the Generator
Wind Power - Modeling 15
dt
d
I R V
dS
qS S dS S dS
+ =
dt
d
I R V
qS
dS S qS S qS
+ + =
dt
d
s I R V
dR
qR S dR R dR
+ =
dt
d
s I R V
qR
dR S qR R qR
+ + =
E M
S
T T
dt
d
J + =
dt
d
I R V
E
E E E
+ =
dt
d
I R 0
D
D D
+ =
dt
d
I R 0
Q
Q Q
+ =
DFIG Mathematical Model SG Mathematical Model
Stator Equations:
Rotor Equations:
Equation of Motion:
Stator Equations:
Rotor Equations:
dt
d
I R V
dS
qS S dS S dS
+ =
dt
d
I R V
qS
dS S qS S qS
+ + =
Modelling - Generator
Wind Power - Modeling 16
abc r qd0 qd0
f ) ( T f =
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
)
3
2
sin( )
3
2
sin( ) sin(
)
3
2
cos( )
3
2
cos( ) cos(
3
2
) ( T
r r r
r r r
r qd0
(0) dt
r
t
0
r r
+ =

Park Transformation
Transformation matrix
Modelling SG Generator
Wind Power - Modeling 17
dt
d
i r v
dt
d

dt
d
i r v
dt
d

dt
d
i r v
0
0 s 0
r
q
d
d s d
r
d
q
q s q
+ =
+ =
+ + =
kq kqkq g mq q mq kq
kq mq g gg q mq g
kd kdkd f md d md kd
f ff kd md d md f
0 ls 0
kd md f md d d d
kq mq g mq q q q
i' L' i' L i L
i' L i' L' i L
i' L' i' L i L
i' L' i' L i L
i L
i' L i' L i L
i' L i' L i L
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
=
+ + =
+ + =
'
'
'
'

dt
' d
i' r' v'
dt
' d
i' r' v'
dt
' d
i' r' v'
dt
' d
i' r' v'
dt
kq
kq kq kq
g
g g g
kd
kd kd kd
f
f f f
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Voltage Equations
Flux Linkages
Modeling SG Generator
Wind Power - Modeling 18
) i u i (u
2
3
Q
) i u i (u
2
3
P
q d d q
q q d d
=
+ =
) i i (
2
p
2
3
T
d q q d
f
em
=
dt
d
J T T T
rm
damp mech em
= +
Generator Power Electromagnetic Torque
Equation of Motion
Modeling SG Generator
Wind Power - Modeling 19
) , ( c v R
2

P
P
3
w
2
T M
=
Mechanical Power of WT:
dt
d
I R V
dS
qS S dS S dS
+ =
dt
d
I R V
qS
dS S qS S qS
+ + =
dt
d
s I R V
dR
qR S dR R dR
+ =
dt
d
s I R V
qR
dR S qR R qR
+ + =
E M
S
T T
dt
d
J + =
DFIG Mathematical Model
Stator Equations:
Rotor Equations:
Equation of Motion:
WT Mathematical Model
Drive Train Model
WT Controllers
M
S M M
2H
K T
dt
d
=
G
E S G
2H
T - K
dt
d
=
) ( f 2
dt
d
G M
=

Pitch Controller
Machine-Side Converter Controller
Grid-Side Converter Controller
Source: Rudion; NETMOD, Germany 2007
Model of WT with DFIG
Wind Power - Modeling 20
Control System Modeling
Power Limitation
Wind Power - Modeling 21
) , ( c v R
2
1
P
P
3
w
2
T Tur
=
C
P


Stop of WT (Angle=90 )
Pitch Angle
Increase
Power Limitation Pitch Control
Wind Power - Modeling 22
Calculation of pitch angle reference value
Model of pitch drive
Power Limitation Pitch Control
Wind Power - Modeling 23
Power Limitation Simulations
Wind Power - Modeling 24
Control System Modeling
Maximizing of Energy Yield
Wind Power - Modeling 25
Power Optimization:
) , ( c v R
2
1
P
P
3
w
2
T Tur
=
C
P


0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
Angular Speed [pu]
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

P
o
w
e
r

[
p
u
]
A B C D
W
T
v
R


=
Tip Speed Ratio:
T
W OPT
opt
R
v


=
Optimal C
P
:
Maximizing of
Energy Yield
Wind Power - Modeling 26
Wind Power - Modeling 27
Pitch Control
Prof. Dr. Martin Khn: Introduction to wind Energy: History, Technology, Market. Research Group: Wind Energy Systems University of Oldenburg.
speed control range
Maximizing of Energy Yield
Wind Power - Modeling 28
P
3
w
2
T Tur
c v R
2
1
P = Mechanical Power of Turbine
C
P_OPT

OPT
W
T
v
R


=
Tip Speed Ratio:
T
W OPT
opt
R
v


=
Optimal C
P
:
Maximizing of Energy Yield
Wind Power - Modeling 29
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
Angular Speed [pu]
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

P
o
w
e
r

[
p
u
]
A B C D
3
Turb Turb Ref
c P =
3
opt
p_otp
5
Turb

1
c R 0.5 c =
A-B: P
ref
=f(
3
) MPPT Curve
B-C: Linear Charact.
C-D: P
ref
=P
rat
A: Min. Angular Speed
D: Max. Angular Speed
Setpoint for Pitch Controller
Reference Power for Converter Controller in A-B Range:
Wind Power - Modeling 30
Optimal Speed in
Partial Load
Partial Load Operation
C
pmax
Control of the Speed
Optimal Speed in
Partial Load
Wind Power - Modeling 31
Grid Coupling
Frequency Converters
Wind Power - Modeling 32
DC
GEN
1
U
P
J =
DC
GRID
2
U
P
J =
| |d ) ( P ) ( P
C
2
(0) U (t) U
t
0
GRID GEN
DC
2
DC DC

+ =
DC Circuit Modeling
Wind Power - Modeling 33
Connection of WT to the Grid:
Grid Coupling of the WT Model
Wind Power - Modeling 34
Generator-side converter:
Model of WT with SG
Wind Power - Modeling 35
Grid-side converter:
Model of WT with SG
Wind Power - Modeling 36
Grid-side converter:
Model of WT with DFIG
Wind Power - Modeling 37
Generator-side converter:
Model of WT with DFIG
Wind Power - Modeling 38
V
w
=const.
Wind Direction: 0 360
Wake Wind Roses for:
Main Problems by System Analysis (2)
Mutual Interaction Wake Effects
Wind Power - Modeling 39
Wind Profile in Wake:
R W
R x k (x) R + =
( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
=
T
R
R
0 W
c 1- 1
R x k
R
1 v (x) v
2
Wake Expansion:
Quelle: VanLuvanee
Influence of k-Parameter on Wake-Expansion:
Onshore
k=0,075
Offshore
k=0,04
Wake Model by Jensen
Wind Power - Modeling 40
PCC
1 2 . n
1
2
3
m
OP1
OP2
Power Curve
Wake Effects in Park
Wind Power - Modeling 41
Leistungskennlinie einer pitchgeregelten Anlage
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 5 10 15 20
v [m/s]
P

[
k
W
]
OP1
OP2
V
w
=5
m
/
s
V
w
=9
m
/
s
V
w
=14
m
/
s
Gr. 1
Gr. 2
Gr. 3
Exemplary Farm
100%
v
v v
v
INF
WTj INF
DECj

=
Decrease of Input Wind
Speed
v
INF
Input Wind Speed
to Farm
v
WTj
Input Wind Speed
to each Turbine
Wind Speed Decrease due to Wake
Wind Power - Modeling 42
Thank You for Your Attention !
Wind Power - Modeling 43
Model of WT with SG in NETOMAC
Transient Mode
Wind Power - Modeling 44
WT with SG
WT with DFIG
WT Implementation in PSS
TM
NETOMAC
Wind Power - Modeling 45
Konverternachbildung:
Model of WT with SG in NETOMAC
Stability Mode
Wind Power - Modeling 46
Prat=1.5 MW
Simulation of WT with SG in NETOMAC - Stability Mode
Wind Power - Modeling 47
Prat=1.5 MW
Simulation of WT with SG in NETOMAC - Stability Mode
Wind Power - Modeling 48
Prat=1.5 MW
Simulation of WT with SG in NETOMAC - Stability Mode
Wind Power - Modeling 49
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Photovoltaics I
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 06.06.2013
Structure
Introduction
Definition of PV
PV- History and Timeline
Literature
PV-Energy Potential
Power of the Sun
Potential of PV World-Wide, Europe, Germany
Basics of PV
PV-Effect in p-n-Semiconductors
Solar Cells
PV System Design
Advantages and Problems of PV
Photovoltaics I 2
Introduction
3 Photovoltaics I
Definition of Photovoltaics
What is photovoltaics ?
The term photovoltaics (PV) derives from the Greek word phos" meaning light and
the word volt" (named by Alessanro Volta).
Photovoltaics is a science, which examines light-electricity conversion, respectively,
photon energy-electric current conversion. In other words it stands for light-current
conversion. Both direct and diffuse solar radiation take part of the process. The light
to current conversion takes place within solar cells, which can be amorphous,
polycrystalline or monocrystalline, according to their structure. In most cases they are
made of silicon.
Most common application of solar cells applies to pocket calculators power supply,
parking meters power supply and similar appliances.
Solar-modules consist of many solar cells, which are electrically connected and
placed between glass and tedlar plate, and framed by an (usually) aluminium frame.
A number of solar-modules and other components (batteries, charge regulators,
inverters...) can form photovoltaic systems and large PV plant up to many Megawatts.
4 Photovoltaics I
PV History
Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
(1820-1891)
1839 Discovery of photovoltaic effect
A physical phenomenon allowing light-electricity conversion - photovoltaic effect,
was discovered in 1839 by the French physicist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel.
Experimenting with metal electrodes and electrolyte he discovered that
conductance rises with illumination.
5 Photovoltaics I
PV Timeline
1839 Discovery of photovoltaic effect by Becquerel
First solar cells
1873 Willoughby Smith discovered photovoltaic effect in selenium
1876 With his student R. E. Day, William G. Adams discovered that illuminating a junction
between selenium and platinum also has a photovoltaic effect. These two
discoveries were a foundation for the first selenium solar cell construction, which
was built in 1877
1883 Charles Fritts described the first solar cell made from selenium wafers
1888 Edward Weston recieves first US patent for solar cell
Theoretical explanation of the photovoltaic effect
1905 Albert Einstein described the phenomenon in a theoretical work
1921 For his theoretical explanation he was awarded a Nobel Prize
The first silicon solar cells
1918 The Polish scientist Jan Czochralski discovered a method for monocrystalline silicon
production, which enabled monocrystalline solar cells production
1941 The first silicon monocrystalline solar cell was constructed
1954 Bell Laboratories discovered 4.5% efficient silicon solar cell
6 Photovoltaics I
Commercial solar age
1955 Western Electric sells commercial licenses for silicon PV technologies
1966 NASA launches Orbiting Astronomical Observatory with a 1-kW-PV-array
1970s Research drives PV costs down 80%, allowing for applications such as
offshore navigation warning lights and remote use
1980s Continued improvements in efficiency and costs enables PV to become a
popular power source for small consumer electronic devices (calculators,
watches, radios, ...)
1983 First PV plant > 1 MWp
1985 First Si-solar cell efficiency > 20%
1989 First tandem solar cell efficiency > 30%
Subsidies to speed the adoption of PV energy generation
1990 Germany launches the 1000 Solar Roofs Program
1994 Japan begins the 70,000 Solar Roofs PV subsidy program
2000 Renewable Energy Act in Germany, World solar cell production: 300 MWp
2007 World solar cell production: 4,300 MWp
2020 .... more than 50 GWp (!) expected
PV Timeline
7 Photovoltaics I
Internet newsletters and on-line news
http://www.pv-tech.org
http://www.iea-pvps.org/pvpower/index.htm
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com
http://www.eere.energy.gov/news
http://www.nrel.gov/news
Scientific Journals
Journal of Solar Energy Engineering (http://ojps.aip.org/ASMEJournals/Solar)
Progress in Photovoltaics
Solar Energy (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/se-online)
Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells
8
Literature
Photovoltaics I
Books
Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering,
ISBN-471491969, 2nd John Wiley & Sons (July 7, 2003) 2003
Roger A. Meenger & Jerry Ventre Photovoltaic Systems Engineering,
ISBN-849317932, 2nd. CRC Pres2004
Adolf Goetzberger, Volker U. Hoffmann Photovoltaic Solar Energy
Generation, (Springer Series in Optical Sciences), ISBN-3540236767,1st
Springer; 1 edition (May 15, 2006)
Literature
9 Photovoltaics I
Periodicals
Photon Magazine (http://www.photon-magazine.com)
Renewable Energy World (http://www.jxj.com/rew)
Photovoltaics International (http://www.pv-tech.org/subscribe)
Education & online courses
Photovoltaic Devices and Applications
(http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/online-course/pv-devices-and-apps/index.asp)
CREST Center for Renewable Energy Systems Technology
(http://crestdl.lboro.ac.uk)
10
Literature
Photovoltaics I
11
PV-Energy Potential
Photovoltaics I
Yearly irradiation of
the sun:
3,85*10
20
MJ
(107*10
12
GWh)
Coal Oil Gas Uran
Yearly energy consumption of the world
12
PV-Energy Potential
Photovoltaics I
Surface, which
would be
necessary for the
covering of the
electric energy
need in the
Germany with
solar power
A 800kmx800km
large surface in
Sahara is sufficient,
in order to cover
world requirements
of electric energy
only with the help
of the sun
13
PV-Energy Potential
Photovoltaics I
Atmosphere
Electromagnetic
radiation
Sun
Earth
14
PV-Power of the Sunlight
Photovoltaics I
Ecliptic
To the sky
north pole
152 Mio. km
147 Mio. km
21 March
23 September
21 June
21 December
2 June
Aphel
2 January
Perihel
15
PV-Power of the Sunlight
Photovoltaics I
1320
1340
1360
1380
1400
1420
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
F
e
b
r
u
a
r
y
M
a
r
c
h
A
p
r
i
l
M
a
i
J
u
n
e
J
u
l
y
A
u
g
u
s
t
S
e
p
t
e
m
b
e
r
O
c
t
o
b
e
r
N
o
v
e
m
b
e
r
D
e
c
e
m
b
e
r
S
o
l
a
r

C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

W
/
m
2
Annual Average Value
16
PV-Power of the Sunlight
Photovoltaics I
17 Photovoltaics I
PV-Power of the Sunlight
18 Photovoltaics I
PV-Power of the Sunlight
19
PV-Potential in Europe
Photovoltaics I
Source: DWD
Yearly sum of global radiation
in Germany 1999 [kWh/m]
20
PV-Potential in Germany
Photovoltaics I
Global irradiation =
diffuse+beam+albe
do
21 Photovoltaics I
PV- Global Irridation
22 Photovoltaics I
Basics of PV
Photovoltaic Effect - Definition
Generation of a potential difference (open circuit voltage) at
the terminals of an unbiased semiconductor diode (p-n
junction or metal-semiconductor) as a result of illumination
with light featuring energy higher than the energy gap (E
g
) of
semiconductor - fundation of the semiconductor solar cells
operation.
23 Photovoltaics I
PV- Effect
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gta2ICarDw
Table: Bandgaps of some semiconductors
Semiconductor Bandgap ( E) Wavelength (
grenz
)
Indiumantimonid
(InSb)
0,18 eV 6900 nm
Germanium (Ge) 0,66 eV 1878 nm
Silizium (Si) 1,11 eV 1117 nm
Indiumphosphid (InP) 1,26 eV 984 nm
Galliumarsenid (GaAs) 1,47 eV 843 nm
Cadmiumselenid
(CdSe)
1,60 eV 775 nm
24 Photovoltaics I
PV- Material Character
Two-terminal semiconductor device which converts solar light
into electric energy; requires presence of potential barrier
within semiconductor, which is typically accomplished by the
formation of a p-n junction (diode); potential barrier separates
holes and electrons generated by irradiation of semiconductor
establishing different potential at device terminals.
25 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell
Solar cells based on:
single-crystal Silicon (sc-Si)
multi-crystal Silicon (mc-Si)
amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
-----------------------------------------------
Copper-Indium-Selenium (CIS)
Cadmium-Tellurium (CdTe)
Gallium-Arsenid (GaAs)
--------------------------------------------
Solar cells in research:
- organic solar cells
- electrolyte solar cells
26 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell
More than 95% of all the solar cells
produced worldwide are composed of
the semiconductor material Silicon
(Si).
27 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell
Today most Silicon cells are approximately 156 mm by 156 mm.
A transparent anti-reflection film protects the cell and decreases reflective
losses on the cell surface.
28 Photovoltaics I
PV- Si-Solar Cell
29 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
30 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
31 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
32 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
33 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
34 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
35 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
36 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
37 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
38 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
39 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
40 Photovoltaics I
PV- Solar Cell Production
41 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
42 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
Theoretical maximum levels of efficiency of various solar cells at STC
(standard test conditions, 1000 W/m, 25 C, AM 1.5)
Source: DGS
43 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
44 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Laboratory-record
Production-record
45 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
Higher Efficiency can be reached by:
Surface structuring to reduce reflection loss:
for example, construction of the cell surface in a pyramid structure, so that
incoming light hits the surface several times.
New materials:
for example, gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium telluride (CdTe) or copper
indium selenide (CuInSe).
Tandem or stacked cells:
in order to be able to use a wide spectrum of radiation, different semiconductor
materials, which are suited for different spectral ranges, will be arranged one on
top of the other.
Concentrator cells:
A higher light intensity will be focussed on the solar cells by the use of mirror and
lens systems. This system tracks the sun, always using direct radiation.
46 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
47 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
48 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
49 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
50 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Efficiency
51
PV- Cell Efficiency
52 Photovoltaics I
PV- I-V Characteristics
53 Photovoltaics I
PV- I-V Characteristics
PV Maximum Power Point
54 Photovoltaics I
PV- I-V Characteristics
55 Photovoltaics I
PV- Real Solar Cell Model
RP Resistor: material defects (faults in the cristall or contamination
RS Resistor: increasing resistance of materials, contacts, cables
Source: E.A.
Alsema a.o. 21st
PVSEC, Dresden,
2006
56 Photovoltaics I
PV- Energy Payback Time
Source: E.A. Alsema a.o. 21st PVSEC, Dresden,2006
57 Photovoltaics I
PV- Energy Payback Time
Source: E.A. Alsema a.o. 21st PVSEC, Dresden,2006
58 Photovoltaics I
PV- Energy Payback Time
Source: E.A. Alsema a.o. 21st PVSEC, Dresden,2006
59 Photovoltaics I
PV- Energy Payback Time
Source: E.A. Alsema a.o. 21st PVSEC, Dresden,2006
60 Photovoltaics I
PV- Energy Payback Time
Source: E.A. Alsema a.o. 21st PVSEC, Dresden,2006
61 Photovoltaics I
PV- Energy Payback Time
Allocation of the costs of a silicon solar cell
From wafer to the solar cell 22%
From crystal to the wafer 30%
From the sand
to the silicon
11%
From the silicon to the crystal
37%
Largest savings potential with the wafer production and processing
Alternative: Thin section solar cells
62 Photovoltaics I
PV- Cell Costs
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Photovoltaics II
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 13.06.2013
2 Photovoltaics II
Structure
PV-Energy Systems
PV- Research at LENA, Magdeburg
Tendencies PV
3 Photovoltaics II
PV- Energy Systems
PV modules
DC-AC inverter
PV System Components
4 Photovoltaics II
PV Modules
5 Photovoltaics II
Thinfilm-module (a-Si, pin-structure)
Thickness 0.12 mm, 200 Wp/kg (SANYO Electric Co.)
PV Modules
6 Photovoltaics II
PV Modules
7 Photovoltaics II
Field of PV modules (single-crystal-Si)
Area:
17,4 m
Power:
2,2 kW
p
PV Modules
8 Photovoltaics II
Area:
11,7 m
Power:
1,0 kW
p
Field of PV modules (CIS)
PV Modules
9 Photovoltaics II
PV System Concepts
S lav e 2
S lav e 1
M ast er
Mo d u lfe l de r
PV system using a central inverter
with master-slave-concept
10 Photovoltaics II
PV system with one inverter in
each string (string-concept)
PV System Concepts
11 Photovoltaics II
PV system with one inverter in each module
(module-concept, AC-PV-module)
PV System Concepts
12 Photovoltaics II
PV Inverter
Source:
SMA
Transformerless inverter Sunny Mini Central 6000 TL, SMA
13 Photovoltaics II
PV MPP-Tracking
14 Photovoltaics II
Modern PV inverter concept with MPP tracking without transformer
(Sunny Boy, SMA)
PV MPP-Tracking
15 Photovoltaics II
U, P
I
P > >> > 0
I > >> > 0
P < << < 0
I > >> > 0
P < << < 0
I < << < 0
P > >> > 0
I < << < 0
MPP
I
MPP
A
B
P
I dI
dP
dPdI
v
T
dt
d
dt
d

dt
PV MPP-Tracking
16 Photovoltaics II
PV Efficiency of DC-AC-Inverter
Output P
AC
/P
AC nom
SM
A
Efficiency SWR
2000
17 Photovoltaics II
PV Comparision of System
New teamwork concept of inverters in large PV plants (SMA)
18 Photovoltaics II
PV Costs
Allocation of the costs of a 1kW
peak
PV Device
(about 10m
2
surface, 5000-9000 per 1kW
peak
inclusive Installation and tax)
From the sand
to the solar cell 29%
From the solar cell
to the module 21%
From the module
to the solar plant 50%
19
2013 1.700 2.000net/kWp!
Photovoltaics II
PV Costs
20 Photovoltaics II
21
PV- Energy Systems
Photovoltaics II
PV PVSAT-Project
PVSAT (PhotoVoltaic - SATellite):
EU JOULE III project (GE, CH, NL, AT),
Test period had been started in May 2000
75 ground stations in Europe (33 in Germany)
Target:
Development of procedures and simulation-models for a remote
performance check of grid connected PV systems based on:
a data base of many PV system configuration data,
satellite images from METEOSAT and
a generic PV system model.
22
http://pvsat.de/
Photovoltaics II
comparison
feed-in energy
calculated energy
PV system model
irradiation model
PV system data
PV PVSAT-Project
23 Photovoltaics II
PV PVSAT Results
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Apr
00
Mai
00
Jun
00
Jul
00
Aug
00
Sep
00
Okt
00
Nov
00
Dez
00
Jan
01
Feb
01
Mrz
01
Apr
01
Mai
01
Jun
01
Jul
01
PVSAT, calculated
PV-plant LENA, measured
kWh
Monthly feed-in energy (meas. and calc.)
E
n
e
r
g
y
24
PV-Plant LENA, measured
PVSAT calculated
Photovoltaics II
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr
E
_
A
C
(
P
V
S
A
T
)

-

E
_
A
C
(
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
)




[
k
W
h
]
Device 1 Device 2
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr
E
_
A
C
(
P
V
S
A
T
)

-

E
_
A
C
(
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
)




[
k
W
h
]
Device 1 Device 2
PV PVSAT Results
25 Photovoltaics II
Results:
The PVSAT procedure works satisfactory
(deviations < 10 kWh/kWp) for systems that:
have no technical failures
are well characterized
have no or correctly described shading situations
remainig problems in the irradiance processing
may be reduced by the use of the upcoming MSG
satellite with higher accuracy.
PV PVSAT Results
26 Photovoltaics II
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
OF GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
27
PV- Research at LENA, Magdeburg
Photovoltaics II
PV Systems and Parameters
28 Photovoltaics II
PV system 1
(sc-Si)
PV system
2 (mc-Si)
PV system 3
(CIS)
Location City of Magdeburg,
Campus of the Otto-von-Guericke-University
Geografical Position N 52.14, E 11.64, 72 m above sea level
Orientation South, 12to West, not influenced by
shading
Tilt angel 45
Number of modules,
Type
(Company)
20,
M 110-24
(Siemens)
20,
MSX 110
(Solarex)
(16) 14,
WS11007/75
(Wrth Solar)
Module efficiency
STC
[%] 12.66 10.02 10.29
Type of inverter SB 2000TL SB 2000TL SB 1100E
Module area A
m
[m] 17.37 21.96 10.21
Nom. Power P
mpp STC
[kWp] 2.2 2.2 1.05
29 Photovoltaics II
Y
Final yield: Y = f (G , t, A , , ) Final yield: Y
f
= f (G
m
, t, A
m
,
m
,
inv
)
Reference Yield: Y
f
= f (G
m
, t, A
m
,
mSTC
,)
Performance Ratio: PR = Y
f
/ Y
r
Performance Analysis and Results
30 Photovoltaics II
Final yield Y
f
as a function of reference yield Y
r
(hourly mean values plotted for more than three operation years)
Performance Analysis and Results
31 Photovoltaics II
DC voltages and currents of PV system 1
(15 minutes mean values, monitoring period 2003-2006)
Performance Analysis and Results
32 Photovoltaics II
DC voltages and currents of PV system 3
(15 minutes mean values, monitoring period 2003-2006)
Performance Analysis and Results
33 Photovoltaics II
DC voltages and currents of PV system 3
(15 minutes mean values, 7 modules per string)
Performance Analysis and Results
34 Photovoltaics II
Inverter efficiencies over the course of one day
Performance Analysis and Results
35 Photovoltaics II
Performance Ratio PR as function of the irradiance G
m
Performance Analysis and Results
36 Photovoltaics II
Yearly performance ratio PR of the PV systems
(2000 and 2002 not analyzed, PV system 3 installed in 2003)
Performance Analysis and Results
37 Photovoltaics II
The performance ratios of all analyzed PV systems are mainly in a small
range between 70 % and 80 %, when these systems are operating
properly.
No noticeable reduction of the performance was found during an
analyzed operating time of six years.
The reasons for the instable operation and the significantly lower value of
the PR of PV system 3 after installation were found by an analysis of the
inverter input voltage.
Because of the lower efficiency of the inverter in PV system 3 and its
shorter feed-in time over the course of a day the performance ratio of PV
system 3 is slightly lower than that of the other two systems.
Summary
38 Photovoltaics II
Tendencies in PV
39 Photovoltaics II
PV Building integrated PV
New exposition, Munich
(2 MWp, roof mounted PV-System)
40 Photovoltaics II
PV PV-Systems
Shading plant in Erfurt
41 Photovoltaics II
PV Systems
Radio transmitter of the Telekom
on the Inselsberg
(20 kWp, 11 Partial generators)
Source: FEG
42 Photovoltaics II
PV Price Learn Curve
Cumulative peak Power [GWp]
Price learn Curve of Si modules
Source: G. Willecke, ISF
43 Photovoltaics II
PV Energy Costs Scenarios in EU
Source: W. Sinke, Brussels,2006
44 Photovoltaics II
PV Large PV-Systems
Competiveness between eletricity generation cost PV
and eletricity price
Source: W. Hoffmann, EPIA
45 Photovoltaics II
PV Potential in Europe
46 Photovoltaics II
PV Energy Costs Scenarios in EU
PV electricity prices
*
compared with typical consumer electricity
prices (+1%/yr)
Break-even
boundary
* depreciation 25 yrs,real interest rate 4%, O&M cost 1%/yr, PR 0.75
(example)
2005
Source: W.
Sinke, Brussels,
2006
47 Photovoltaics II
PV electricity prices compared with expected consumer electricity
prices (+1%/yr)
Source: W.Sinke,
Brussels, 2006
PV Energy Costs Scenarios in EU
2010
48 Photovoltaics II
2015
Source:W.
Sinke,
Brussels, 2006
PV electricity prices compared with expected consumer electricity
prices (+1%/yr)
PV Energy Costs Scenarios in EU
49 Photovoltaics II
Source:
W.Sinke,
Brussels, 2006
PV electricity prices compared with expected consumer electricity
prices (+1%/yr)
PV Energy Costs Scenarios in EU
2020
50 Photovoltaics II
Source:
W.Sinke,
Brussels, 2006
PV electricity prices compared with expected consumer electricity prices (+1%/yr)
PV Energy Costs Scenarios
in EU
2030
51 Photovoltaics II
PV Large PV-Systems
52 Photovoltaics II
20 MWp PV power plant Solar Park Beneixama, Alicante, Spain,
(constructed in 2007)
PV Large PV-Systems
53 Photovoltaics II
250 kWp-PV plant
Kigali Solaire, Ruanda
Source: http://www.juwi.de
Prognosticated yield (entire) approx. 325,000 kWh/yr
Location: Mont Jali (2,000 m . NN)
Close one of the Rwandese capital Kigali
Avoided pollutants round 300 tons carbon dioxide (CO2)
per year
Module surface (entire) of 2,880 square meters
Number of modules approx. 4,000 pieces
Module manufacturer First Solar
Type FS-262 (64.5 Wp, thin film)
Number of inverters 34 pieces
Type of inverter 33 Stk. SMC 7000HV/1 Stk. SB2500
Inverter manufacturer SMA technology AG
Financing of public utilities Mainz AG
Operator of public utilities Mainz AG
Mode of operation feed into electricity network of the
national power supplier Electrogaz start-up June 2007
PV Large PV-Systems
54 Photovoltaics II
Source:
http://www.juwi.de
40 MWp-PV plant (planned 2009)
Energiepark Waldpolenz, Germany
PV Large PV-Systems
55 Photovoltaics II
Source: http://www.juwi.de
40 MWp-PV plant Energiepark Waldpolenz, Germany
Location former military airfield in Saxonia
04821 Brandis/04828 Bennewitz (Muldentalkreis)
Surface area for the solar park 110 hectares (corresponds to about 200 football fields)
Nominal power (total) approx. 40 MWp
Module surface (entire) approx. 400,000 m
Number of modules/type of module of approx. 550,000 modules/First Solar FS-265 etc. (Thin section
technology; produced among other things in Frankfurt/Oder)
Number of inverters/type > 30 stations of the type SMA SC 1000 MW
Sub-construction light metal construction Schletter GmbH (83527 Hague/Upper Bavaria)
Prognosticated yield (entire) approx. 40 million kilowatt-hours per year
(corresponds to the annual requirements of over 10.000 households)
Avoided pollutants round 25,000 tons carbon dioxide (CO2)
Investment volume approx. 130 millions
Financing own capital funds: in form of a solar fund
Outside capital: Loan that Saxonia LB
Mode of operation feed into electricity network of Envia
Remuneration 33.18 to 37.96 cent per a KW/H (depending upon date of start-up) Commencement of
construction/start-up March 2007 until December 2009 (in several sections) service life at least 20
years (presumably however 30 to 40 years)
PV Large PV-Systems
56 Photovoltaics II
PV Large PV-Systems
57 Photovoltaics II
PV Largest PV-Power Plants (2007)
Source:
http://www.pvresources.com
58 Photovoltaics II
PV Large PV-Systems
Source: http://www.pvresources.com
59 Photovoltaics II
Source: http://www.pvresources.com
PV Large PV-Systems
60 Photovoltaics II
Source: http://www.pvresources.com
PV Large PV-Systems
61 Photovoltaics II
Source: http://www.pvresources.com
PV Large PV-Systems
62 Photovoltaics II
Source: http://www.pvresources.com
PV Large PV-Systems
63 Photovoltaics II
PV German PV Market
Source: http://www.epia.org
64 Photovoltaics II
3
3
3
1
8
8
42
32
26
16
11 8 6 3 2 1
1
,
0
0
0
5
5
7
1
1
6
6
4
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
[
G
W
h
]
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
[
M
W
p
]
Electricity supply Installed capacity
Source: BMU publication "Renewable energy sources in figures - national and international development", Status: May 2006
Installed capacity and energy supply from
photovoltaic installations in Germany 1990 - 2005
PV Large PV-Systems
65 Photovoltaics II
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Biomass and others
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 20.06.2013
2 Biomass and others
Structure
Biomass
Geothermal Energy
Solar Thermal Energy
Tidal and marine currents
3
Biomass
Biomass and others
Biomass, what is it?
( )
2 2 2 2
O O H C O H CO SunEnergy
n n
+ = + +
The biomass are biological
materials that derive directly or
indirectly from chlorophyll
photosynthesis. Through the
chlorophyll photosynthesis the
plants convert the sun energy, the
water and the carbon dioxide
(CO2) into carbohydrate Cn(H2O)n
and oxygen.
Biomass and others 4
Biomass
Through the chlorophyll
photosynthesis the biomass
absorbs carbon dioxide
(CO2) and it releases the
carbon dioxide through the
combustion
Biomass and others 5
C 50%
O
2
43%
H
2
6%
(N
2
+K+P+S) 1%
The biomass is constituted by 50% Carbon, 43% Oxygen, 6% Hydrogen and
1% by Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorous and Sulfur
Biomass
Biomass and others 6
Biomass: Classification
Biomass and others 7
Biomass, Organic Waste
Source: Utilizzo delle biomasse per la produzione di energia elettrica , Camporeale, de Nigris
Biomass and others 8
Biomass, Energetic Culture
Source: Utilizzo delle biomasse per la produzione di energia elettrica , Camporeale, de Nigris
Biomass and others 9
Biomass, Main Technologies of
Energetic Conversion
Biomass and others 10
Biomass, Main Technologies of
Energetic Conversion
Biomass and others 11
Biomass, Combustion Technologies
The main technologies to burn biomass
are:
Stationary or Traveling grate combustors
Fluidized-bed combustors
Pulverized Combustors
Biomass and others 12
Biomass, Stationary grate Combustors
Biomass
Air
Advantages :
higher temperature than
other methodologies
(800-1400C), wood is
easy to use
Disadvantages :
lower thermal efficiency
than other
methodologies, high
emissions of NOx,
problems to burn some
kind of biomass
Source: European Biomass Industry Association
Biomass and others 13
Biomass, Pulverized combustors
The fuel (biomass or coal) is pre-
processed before being injected in
the burner. Generally the diameter of
the fuel is around 1 [mm].
Advantages: more homogenous
combustion, therefore a better
thermal efficiency and lower
emission.
Disadvantages: lower energy
density, higher volume of the burner
required.
Source: Kvaerner Power
Biomass and others 14
Biomass, Fluidized-bed combustors
The fuel is pulverized, the air is fed from
bottom and the fuel from the high part of
the boiler. The force due to the air
(kinetic force) balances the gravity force
of the pulverized fuel. The fuel is
suspended (fluidized) and it can totally
burn. The bed is composed of sand. The
sand is used to increase the thermal
inertia of the boiler.
Advantages: the thermal efficiency can
achieve the 90% and the emissions are
lower than the conventional grate
combustors because of the temperature
being lower.
Source: Kvaerner Power
Biomass and others 15
Biomass, direct co-firing
The biomass can be co-fired
with coal. It has to be pre-treated
as the coal (for example it has to
be pulverized).
The biomass can be mixed with
the coal or it can be burned
separately.
The most used technologies are
the fluidized-bed combustors.
Biomass and others 16
Biomass, parallel co-firing
Parallel co-firing is one
of the most used
technologies for
coupled heat and
power (CHP) industry
applications
Biomass and others 17
Biomass, indirect firing
The biomass is gasified and
then burnt in the boiler. The
process is more expensive,
but it gives the possibility to
use a wider variety of
biomass.
Advantages: high degree of
flue flexibility
Disadvantages: high
operational costs.
Biomass and others 18
Biomass, Main Technologies of
Energetic Conversion
Biomass and others 19
Biomass, Gasification
The gasification is a thermal-chemical process in which the biomass reacts
with the oxygen to produce CO and H
2
.
The gasification is different from the combustion. The combustion converts
the chemical energy into heat; while through the gasification the chemical
energy of a fuel is converted from a solid state into a gaseous state.
2 7 4 6 2 5 2 4 3 2 2 1 2 2 2
N a CH a CO a O H a CO a H a C a Heat O zH yN xO O CH + + + + + + = + + + +

Gasification
Example
2 2 5 10 6
5 6
2
1
H CO O O H C + +
|
|

\
|
+
g
kJ
85 , 1
Biomass and others 20
Biomass, Gasification
Air Oxygen Steam
CO 14 34 27
CO
2
15 27 20
H
2
10 32 38
CH
4
4 5 12
N
2
57 2 3
Heat Low
Value
[MJ/kg]
4 9 11
Three different agents are used to
gasify the biomass: air, oxygen
and steam.
The gasification through the air is
the simplest way but the gas has a
low heat value because it contains
a big amount of nitrogen.
The gasification with oxygen
creates a gas with a higher heat
value: such gas is called syngas.
The steam is cheaper than the
oxygen and the gas has a higher
heat value.
Biomass and others 21
Biomass, Gasification process
1. Drying
2. Pyrolysis
3. Oxidation/
Reduction of
the Carbon
Biomass and others 22
Energetic applications of Biomass
Steam Turbine- Biomass at solid state
Gas Turbine- Biomass at gas state
Turbines use Organic Fluid- Biomass solid
state (usually)
Endothermic Engine- Biomass at liquid or gas
state
Stirling Engine- Biomass solid, liquid or gas
state
Biomass and others 23
Biomass, Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
Turboden Application (CHP)
Source: Turboden s.r.l.
Biomass and others 24
Biomass, Emissions
Emission [mg/Nm
3
]
Particulate Matter <100
SO
2
<15
NO
x
<100
CO <100
Organic Compounds <150
Ammonia <5
Chloro-Flouro <6
Biomass and others 25
Biomass, Emissions CO
2
Equivalent
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001
Emission (E) "Global Warming
Potential Factor (GWP)
CO2 1
N2O 296
CH4 23

=
i
i i eq
E GWP CO
2
Biomass and others 26
Biomass, Evaluation of the CO
2 eq.
Emission
(concerning the combustion
of wood for energy
industries)
Emission Factor [g/GJ]
CO
2
112,000
CH
4
30
N
2
O 4
CO
2 eq.
1,874
Source: IPCC 2006
Biomass and others 27
Biomass, Evaluation of CO
2 eq.
Emissions Example
The aim is to estimate the emissions (CO
2 eq
) of a power
plant that produces 100,000 MWh
el
and fires wood.
The electrical efficiency is supposed to be 30 %.
The amount of wood burnt (Primary Energy) is
computed through the energy balance equation:
el
EP
PE

=
Primary
Energy
(Wood)
Electrical efficiency
Energy
produced
(Electricity)
Biomass and others 28
Biomass, Evaluation of CO
2 eq.
Emissions
Example
| |
| |
| |
| |
| | GJ
MWh
GJ
MWh
MWh
PE 000 , 200 , 1 6 . 3 333 , 333
30 . 0
000 , 100
= = =
The primary energy consumed is evaluated through the energy
balance equation
The CO
2 eq
is evaluated through the table of emission
factors
| | | |
(

= =
(

=
kWh
g
kg
GJ
kg
GJ CO
eq
488 . 22 800 , 248 , 2 874 . 1 000 , 200 , 1
2
Biomass and others 29
Biomass, Evaluation of CO
2 eq.
Emissions
comparison with other technologies
Power Plant
Technologies
Lifetime [Years] CO
2 eq
[g/kWh]
Avarage value
Hydropower 30-60 20
Coal power plant 35-40 800
Nuclear power plant 35-40 15
Natural Gas, Combined
Gas and Steam
20-30 400
Biomass 35-40 30
Wind On shore 20-40 30
PV 20-40 100
Source: European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan), November 2007
Biomass and others 30
Biomass, Estimation of the electricity
production costs (Levelized Unit Energy Cost)
| | ( ) { }
( ) ] 1 [
1
t
t
t
t
t
t t t
kWh
r E
r F M I
C

+
+ + +
=
I
t
-Investment costs at year
M
t
-Maintenance and
Operation costs at year t
F
t
-Fuel Costs at year t
r -discount rate
E
t
-Energy produced at year t
t -time
Biomass and others 31
Biomass, Estimation of the electricity
production costs (Levelized Unit Energy Cost)
Power [MW] 50
Investment Costs [/kW
e
] 1100
M&O Costs [/Year] 15000
Fuel price [/MWh] 50

el
34
Life time [Year] 25
Load factor [%] 0.85
Discount factor [%] 6
Example:
Biomass and others 32
Biomass, Estimation of the electricity
production costs (Levelized Unit Energy Cost)
| | | |
| | MWh PE
h MW
PE
000 , 095 , 1
34 . 0
8760 85 . 0 50
=

=
| |
| | ( )
| |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
(

+
+
=

MWh
C
h kW
MWh MWh
h kW
h
kW
C
el
el
kWh
PE PE
kWh

1 , 92
7746 000 , 50
000 , 095 , 1 / 50
7746 000 , 50
15000
06 . 0 1 06 . 0
06 . 0
7746
/ 1100
25
Power [MW] 50
Investment Costs [/kW
e
] 1100
M&O Costs [/Year] 15000
Fuel price [/MWh] 50

el
34
Life time [Year] 25
Load factor [%] 0.85
Discount factor [%] 6
Example:
Biomass and others 33
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source
Geothermal Energy
Biomass and others 34
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal
Energy is the
heat contained
within the earth
that generates
geological
phenomena on
an planetary
scale.
Biomass and others 35
Geothermal Energy, the first application
to produce electricity- Larderello, Italy
Biomass and others 36
1904
Geothermal Energy, total installed
electric power in the world
Source: Bertani R. Word Geothermal Generation in 2007,
Proceedings of the European Geothermal Congress 2007
Unteraching Germany 29 May-2 June 2007
Biomass and others 37
Geothermal Energy, total installed
electric power in the world
Source: Bertani R. Word Geothermal Generation in 2007, Proceedings of the European Geothermal Congress 2007 Unteraching Germany 29 May-2
June 2007
Biomass and others 38
Geothermal energy applications
Geothermal energy
applications is usually
divided in two categories:
electricity production
and direct use
For electricity generation
the temperature of the
geothermal fluid has to be
above 180C, while for
the direct use it is
generally around 80C
(but by application of large
radiator, heat pumps or
auxiliary boilers the
temperature of the
geothermal fluid may be a
few degree of ambient
temperature.
Source: Bertani Geothermal energy an overview on resources and potential
Biomass and others 39
Geothermal Energy, direct use
8.22%
3.93%
3.13%
34.80%
29.20%
21.62%
Heat pump
Bathing
Space-heating
Greenhauses
Acquaculture
Industrial processes
In the year 2006 in
Poland the total
installed power
(Geothermal Heat
Pumps) was 106 MW
th
Source: Lund et alii
Biomass and others 40
Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHP): estimated
number of unit and installed power
Source: Bertani Geothermal energy an overview on resources and potential
This technology is
based on the
(relatively) constant
ground or
groundwater
temperature which
ranges from 4C to
30C available
anywhere in the
world. GPH are used
for heating room,
cooling and domestic
hot water.
Biomass and others 41
Geothermal Energy, geothermal gradient
1 km x 1 km
3 km 100 C
7 km 220 C
The average of geothermal gradient is 2.5-
3C/100meters.
The modern technologies can drill the earth crust
over 10,000 meters.
If the temperature of the first meters below the earth
crust is 15 C (it is the annual average temperature
of the external air) then in depth of 3000 meters the
temperature is circa 100C.
Geothermal production weels are commonly more
than 2 km, but rearly much more than 3 km at the
present.
Biomass and others 42
Geothermal energy, Geothermal system
A geothermal system
is composed of three
main elements:
1. Heat Source
2. Reservoir
3. Fluid
The geothermal energy is
transferred from interior
towards the surface by
conduction.
Biomass and others 43
Estimated geothermal potential
Source: Bertani Geothermal energy an overview on resources and potential
Biomass and others 44
Geothermal energy,
temperature profile
Biomass and others 45
Geothermal energy,
hot dry rocks
If the hot rocks
are not
permeable it is
necessary to
fracture them.
Biomass and others 46
Geothermal energy, Classification
Biomass and others 47
Geothermal energy, Classification
Biomass and others 48
Geothermal energy,
Applications
Biomass and others 49
Geothermal energy,
Applications- Heat pump
W
Q
COP =
Biomass and others 50
District heating Reykjavic
Geothermal energy,
Applications- District heating
Biomass and others 51
Geothermal energy, Electricity application-
Conventional steam turbines (Back pressure)
Biomass and others 52
Geothermal energy, Electricity application-
Condensing steam turbine
Biomass and others 53
Geothermal energy, Electricity applications Binary plants
Biomass and others 54
Geothermal energy, other applications
Biomass and others 55
Geothermal Energy, other applications- CHP
Biomass and others 56
Solar Thermal Energy
Biomass and others 57
Solar thermal energy
Biomass and others 58
Solar thermal energy, Classification
Biomass and others 59
Active Open
Loop System
Solar thermal energy,
Heating application
Biomass and others 60
Solar thermal energy, flat collector
efficiency
Biomass and others 61
Solar energy, Cooling application-
Absorption system
Working fluid can be
either Ammonia-Water or
Water-Lithium Bromide
Biomass and others 62
Solar energy, Cooling application-
Absorption system
Biomass and others 63
Solar energy, Cooling application- Absorption system
Biomass and others 64
Solar energy, Electricity generation Kramer Juction
(California)
Biomass and others 65
Solar energy, Electricity generation
Archimede project Sicily (Italy)
Biomass and others 66
Solar energy, Electricity generation Archimede
project Sicily (Italy)
Biomass and others 67
Solar energy, Electricity generation
Tower systems
Biomass and others 68
Solar energy, Electricity generation Tower systems, Solar
Two Plant (California) 10 MWe
Biomass and others 69
Solar energy, Electricity generation
Biomass and others 70
Tidal and marine currents
Biomass and others 71
Tidal and marine currents
Biomass and others 72
Tidal and marine currents
Biomass and others 73
Tidal and marine currents, Kobold turbine
80 kW Messina (Sicily)
3
2
1
w A P =
air sea
865 =
Biomass and others 74
Tidal and marine currents
Since the tidal and marine current depend also on the
position of the moon and the sun, the energy produced
though marine currents can be predicable with low error.
The theoretical installable power in the word is over than
450 GW
Biomass and others 75
Renewable Energy Sources
Topic: Energy Storage
Speaker: Dr.-Ing. M. Heuer
Date: 27.06.2013
Lehrstuhl Elektrische Netze und Alternative Elektroenergiequellen
Energy Storage 2
Structure
Motivation for storage
Classification
Electrochemical Storage
Other Storage Systems
Energy Costs
Motivation
Energy Storage 3
4 Energy Storage
EU Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan)
European
Targets
2020
Reduction of
green-house
emissions
(20%)
Reduction of
primary
Energy (20%)
Increase of
renewable
energy (20%)
Background-SET Plan
5 Energy Storage
Wind 11 180 18 300
PV 3 125 14 665
Solar- 1,6* 1,8 5,5 4,6
H2O, L.S. 8,7 108 8,3 112
H2O, S.S 1,6 18 1,6 19
Tidal 0,8 10 1,1 16
Biomass 4,7 30 5,3 190
Bio-CHP 18 185 21 235
Sum 49,4 657,8 75,8 1542
SET-Plan 2020 2030
*) Import from Nord Africa
Plant E, % P, GW E, % P, GW
h
100
25
50
75
P, %
Pump storage Pump load
conventional
generation
Medium generation
from CHPs and renewable
generation 50 %
Maximal generation from CHPs and
renewable generation
Pump storage Pump load
100
25
50
75
-25
conventional
generation
Generation CHPs and RG Load management Storage
P, %
High Demand Situation
Low Demand Situation
UCTE 2009:
610 GW
Background-SET Plan
Consequences
6 Energy Storage
Background Balancing demand
and supply
To maintain electricity quality, balancing the demand and supply is essential. Middle load, usually supplied by
natural gas combined-cycle plants, can play an important role in balancing the demand and supply, and can also
serve as backup capacity in case of a renewable power supply shortfall. A much higher share of renewable power
with variable generation will raise a number of engineering issues in the future:
1) Short-term variation: variability on the scale of seconds or minutes will cause larger deviations of power system
frequency.
2) Hourly variation: variability on the scale of hours will increase the difficulty of hourly generation dispatch and unit
commitments, and influence the electricity trade between power systems.
3) Longer-term variation: variability on the scale of days or months, which influences the stable supply of wind
power.
7 Energy Storage
Source: International Energy Agency
In case of surplus, the
excess power is transferred
to other areas where it is
balanced by thermal power
plant (NGCC or CHP).
In case of deficit, thermal
power plants increase their
power capacity. The power
is then transferred in the
areas where deficit is.
Background Balancing demand
and supply from RES
8 Energy Storage
Background-effect of RES
generation on the electricity price
High RES generation
and low demand
negative electricity
price
Low wind generation
and high demand
high electricity price
9 Energy Storage
Background-effect of RES
generation on electricity price
Classification
Energy Storage 10
11 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems
Classification
12 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems
Classification
Source: Electricitystorage.org: Technologies and
applications. 2003
Source: Storage Technology Comparison: Application from:
NRCAN - State of Technologies, 2008
13 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems,
Technical Parameters
Source: IEA
*For CAES, the following efficiency
is usually used:
=
.

.
Where Eff is
1.0 for natural gas
0.54 for NGCC
0,385 for simple GT
** Based on an interview for
manufactures
***Projected
****Estimated by RASMES
(Research Association of SMES,
Japan)
14 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems, Total
installed capacity World Wide
Technology Total installed Size ranges Potential application
Pumped Hydro 110 GW Up to 2.1 GW
load levelling
spinning reserve
CAES 477 MW 25 MW - 350 MW
peak shaving
spinning reserve
Batteries
100 W - 20 MW
integration with
renewables
load leveling
peak shaving
spinning reserve
power quality
Lead Acid 125 MW
Na-S ~ 200 MW
Redox 38 MW
Ni-Cd 26 MW
Flywheels kW scale Power Quality
SMES 10 - 100 MW Power Quality
Supercapacitors 7 - 10 MW Power Quality
Source: Lombardi et Alii
15 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems,
Pumped hydro Systems
Pumped hydro systems are today the most widely
applied energy storage technology, with about 110 GW
installed worldwide. The pump-turbine is the key
device. In periods of discharging (usually during
daytime), the system generates power just like a
conventional hydropower plant. In periods of charging
(usually during night), water is pumped from a lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir. In some designs, a
single machine operates as a turbine and as a as pump;
in other cases, two separate machines are installed.
Source: Hitachi ltd, 2008
16 Energy Storage
Pumped hydro systems are suitable for large capacity energy storage, as
described above, and have long lifetimes of over 40 years. Their efficiency is
approximately 70% as shown in the following equation.

0.92 0.98 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.70


c
: charging efficiency,

d
: discharging efficiency,

p
: pumping efficiency,

t
: turbine efficiency,

M
: motor efficiency of generator/motor,

G
: generator efficiency of generator/motor,
H: head, The difference in water elevation between the upper and lower
reservoirs
H
p
: loss head of water way in pumping operation,
H
t
: loss head of water way in turbine operation
The response time of
pumped hydro is several
minutes, which makes it
easy to provide power
conditioning. When a
generating unit is in
stand-by operation after
it starts operation and is
connected to the power
grid, it takes only about
60 seconds to transition
from zero to full
output. Pumped hydro
systems are suitable for
following short-cycle
power demand variation
Energy Storage Systems,
Pumped hydro Systems
17 Energy Storage
Generally, each pumped hydro plant consists of two to
eight pump turbine units. Worldwide, in 2007 the total
capacity of operating pump turbines was 96GW, with
20GW under construction and another 44GW in the
planning stage.
In the twenty years from 1970 to 1990, the total
capacity of operating pump turbine units worldwide
increased from 12 to 75GW, which means that an
average of 3GW per year of pump turbine capacity
was installed in this period.
Sources IEA, based on data Mc COY, report 2008 (2008)
Energy Storage Systems,
Pumped hydro Systems
18 Energy Storage
The energy density of the water in a pumped hydro
plant increases as the pump turbine head increases, as
shown in the following equation:
where
E is specific energy or energy density of water (J/kg),
P is power (W),
is water density (kg/m3),
V is volume of water (m3),
g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2),
H is pump turbine head (m).
Consequently, relatively small-volume water reservoirs
and relatively compact pump turbines are required for
high-head pumped hydro units, which have a large
amount of energy stored in the upper reservoir. This
feature of high-head pumped hydro has led to the use
of higher and larger pump turbines in order to make the
storage system more cost-effective.
Pdt
E gH
V
= =

Sources IEA, based on data Mc COY, report 2008 (2008)


Energy Storage Systems, Pumped
hydro Systems Energy density
19 Energy Storage
For new facilities, the current capital cost of pumped hydro is 2700-3300USD/kW (EPRI,
2009). As described above, pumped hydro storage is a mature technology with no experience
curve efficiency expectations. Operation and maintenance costs are approximately 90-
160USD/kW. The capital cost to upgrade facilities is 600-3000USD/kW.
Energy Storage Systems
Pumped hydro Systems Costs
20 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems, Sea
Water Pumped hydro Systems
A seawater pumped hydro
plant has the following
advantages:
1) It is comparatively easy to
find an appropriate location
for the plant because the vast
ocean is utilized as the lower
reservoir.
2) They can attain up to 80%
efficiency because of the
short waterway length, which
reduces the hydraulic losses
by 93% to 98%
COSTS COMPARATION
21 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems, Pumped hy-
dro Systems Underground reservoirs
For conventional pumped hydro
plants, both the upper and the
lower reservoirs are constructed
above ground. In contrast,
underground pumped hydro
systems are of two types:
1. fresh-water underground
pumped hydro systems that
utilize artificial underground
tunnels as the lower reservoir
and a natural lake as the
upper reservoir;
2. seawater underground
pumped hydro systems that
utilize artificial underground
tunnels as the lower reservoir
and the ocean as an upper
reservoir
22 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems Com-
pressed Air Storage System
A CAES system consists of compressor unit with a motor unit, gas turbine, and underground compressed
air storage in salt caverns. When charging, usually at night, the motor unit consumes power to compress and
store air in the underground chamber. The compressed air is usually cooled via a cooler unit. When
discharging, usually during daytime peak loads, the compressed air is supplied to a combustor in the gas
turbine to burn fuel. The combusted gas is expanded through the turbine, which drives the generator and
produces electric power.
charging discharging
23 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems Com-
pressed Air Storage Systems
CAES stores electrical energy
(pressurized air). During charging,
compressor unit compresses air into
the caverns, which are at a depth of
500-800m (pressure of 45-70 bars).
The efficiency of CAES, which uses a
gas turbine, is about 50%, which is
higher than a conventional gas turbine
cycle because the CAES is separated
by the compressor unit. Efficiency is
improved with the use of an advanced
gas turbine cycle. CAES units can
come on line within about 14
minutes. As natural gas is consumed
to operate the gas turbine, it is
accompanied by the production of
CO2.
To make the underground caverns used as air storage chambers, a large amount of water is injected into rock
salt deposits, dissolving the salt and creating large chambers at low cost. It takes about 1.5 to 2 years to
create caverns in this way. As they are most economically positioned near salt rock deposits, siting
opportunities for CAES systems are limited. On the other hand, above-ground air storage, in which
compressed air is stored in metal vessels or pipes, can also be used. Such systems allow CAES to be sited
almost anywhere and will make it a more attractive energy storage option.
24 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems, Com-
pressed Air Storage Systems
The storage efficiency of the CAES plants is reduced
by cooling the air before it enters the cavern and
reheating it prior to burning it with the fuel. In the
advanced adiabatic cycle, heat energy is extracted and
stored separately before the compressed air enters the
cavern. When energy is required by the grid, the
compressed air and heat energy are recombined, and
expanded through an air turbine. This adiabatic CAES
system benefits from higher storage efficiencies and,
notably, zero CO2 emissions. It is being developed
through the AA-CAES (Advanced Adiabatic
Compressed Air Energy Storage).
As for different approaches, a compressor with an
internal cooler and water atomization cooling (WAC)
might effectively reduce the power needed to drive the
compressor. This power depends on the density of air,
which is a function of air temperature. With an
intermediate cooler, the air temperature is decreased.
The WAC is a simple system that injects water mist of
10m particle size at the compressor inlet. The water
mist particles are vaporized through the compressor and
the air temperature is decreased by the heat of
vaporization.
State of the Art 25
Electrochemical Storage
26 Energy Storage
Electrochemical Energy
Storage Systems
Two electrodes (positive and negative)
Electrolyte
Membrane
The negative electrode releas-
es electrons (it is oxidized)
The positive electrode absorbs
electrons (it is reduced)
The negative electrode is oxidized

while the positive electrode is reduced



Both together form the cell reaction


+



+

+
27 Energy Storage
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems: equilibrium parameters
Enthalpy of
reaction H
Free
Enthalpy of
reaction G
Entropy of
reaction S
It describes the maximal heat
generation provided that the
chemical reaction is converted
100%into heat
It describes the maximal
chemical energy that can be
converted in electricity
It describes the reversible energy
loss or gained connected to
chemical or electrochemical
processes
=


The equilibrium cell voltage is given:

28 Energy Storage
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems: equilibrium parameters
Primary batteries are used just once
Secondary batteries may be use more times (rechargeable)
Source: Battery Technology Handbook
29 Energy Storage
Source: Battery Technology Handbook
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems: equilibrium parameters
30 Energy Storage
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems: kinetic parameters-
Influence of temperature
=

k= rate of chemical reactions


E
A
= activation energy
R=molar gas constant
T= Temperature
k
o
=constant
Arrhenius Equation
Performance Lithium Ion battery at different
temperature
Hotter the battery, the faster chemical reaction occurs
31 Energy Storage
however the unwanted chemical reaction occurs too. They will increase
the loss of battery life
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems: kinetic parameters-
Influence of temperature
32 Energy Storage
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems, influence of depth of
discharge on life time
Nickel Cadmium batteries are somewhat of
an exception to this. Subjecting the battery
to only partial discharges gives rise to the
so called memory effect (see below) which
can only be reversed by deep discharging.
Logarithmic relation between the
expected average cycles and the depth
of discharge (DoD)
Lifetime of batteries depends on the
total energy throughput that the active
chemical can tolerate
100% DoD 2 cycles at 50% DoD 10
cycles at 10% DoD 100 cycles at 1%
DoD
Restricting the DoD the cycle life of the
battery improve
33 Energy Storage
The number of cycles of batteries can
increase reducing the charging cut-off of
voltage
Reducing the cut-off it is avoid that the
battery reach its maximal stress point
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Systems, charging level and
voltage effect
Charging level Voltage effect
Irreversible chemical reaction
Increase
temperature and
pressure
Rupture or
explosion of the cell
More electric energy into the cell
Cell heat up Unwanted reaction
High energy Battery: Zebra Battery
Source: MES-dea
Neg. electrode: molten Sodium
(Na)
Pos. electrode: Nickel (Ni)
(discharge) or NiCl2 (charge)
Electrolyte: molten sodium
aluminchloride (NaAlCl4) (melting
point 157C)
Operation temperature between
270C-350C. At this
temperature the Na and NaAlCl4
are liquid the separator
separates the liquid Sodium from
molten NaAlCl4
Separator : -Al2O3 Beta-
Alumina ceramic
34 Energy Storage
The ohmic heater and fan for cooling are controlled by BMI
Plus and minus poles connected to main circuit breaker
BMI controls also the circuit breaker
BMI measures the voltage, the current, the SoC and
insulation resistance
BMI controls the charger
High energy Battery: Zebra Battery
35 Energy Storage
High energy Battery: Zebra
Battery applications
36 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery: NaS Battery
(Sodium-sulfate)
Neg. electrode: Sodium (Na)
Pos. electrode: Sulfur (S)
Electrolyte and Separator: -
Al2O3 Beta-Alumina ceramic
Operating temperature: 300-350C
Molten sodium donates electrons
to the circuit. Sodium is separated
from molten sulfur by beta alumina
solid electrolyte
Discharge
Source: Battery Technology Handbook
37 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery: NaS Battery,
cell design and module properties
Source: NGK
38 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery: NaS Battery,
voltage and temperature profiles
Source: NGK
Voltage and temperature during a peak shaving cycle
Increasing
temperature
Exothermic
reaction
Ohmic
heating
Discharge
Cooling
effect
Endo-
thermic
reaction
Ohmic
heating
Charge
39 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery: NaS Battery,
pulse power capability
Source: NGK, PQ 50 Module (rated power 50 kW)
Pulse Factor: ratio of maximum power
to rated power for stated duration
40 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery: NaS Battery,
discharge profiles for peak
shaving applications
Gradual increase
of the power
Constant power
plateau
Gradual decrease
of the power
A 100% DoD is possible!!!
360 kWh
430 kWh
Source: NGK
41 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery:
NaS Battery, life time
Source: NGK
42 Energy Storage
High Energy Battery: NaS
Battery, applications
Wind Farm
-Windpark Power: 51 [MW]
-NaS Batterie Power: 34 [MW]
-NaS Batterie Capacity 238 [MWh]
-Lifetime up to 15 Years, 300 Cicles pro Year
Source: NEDO
43 Energy Storage
Photovoltaic Plant- NaS Batterie
-PV Power: 5 [MW]
-NaS Batterie Power: 1.5 [MW]
-Nas Capacity:13.5 [MWh]
Source: NEDO
High Energy Battery: NaS
Battery, applications
44 Energy Storage
Energy Storage Systems NaS
Battery (high temperature)
Source: EPRI, Handbook for Energy Storage for Transmission or Distribution Applications
45 Energy Storage
Flow Battery, Vanadium-Redox
The total capital cost for vanadium -redox
systems is approximately 7000 8200 $/kW
(EPRI, 2009).
Flow electrolyte battery (flow battery)
Chemical energy stored in extern tanks
Electrolyte pumped through the reaction stacks
where the chemical energy is converted to
electricity (discharge phase) or the electricity is
converted in chemical energy (charge phase)
Electrolyte: mixture of Vanadium and sulfuric acid
Voltage cell: 1.2 Vdc
Stack: cells in series (higher voltage)
Power rating depends on battery stacks
Energy rating depends on the electrolyte
concentration and tank dimensions
46 Energy Storage
Flow Battery, Vanadium-Redox,
stacks, efficiency and lifetime
Source: EPRI-DOE 2009
Transformer
losses ~ 1-
2%
Power
Conversion
Systems
losses ~ 5%
Internal
battery
losses ~ 15-
20%
Pumping
losses ~ 5%
Overall efficiency:
70-75%
Life time over 14,000 cycles
Replacement of cells after 10 years
47 Energy Storage
Tanks
Stack
From zero to output to full output within full
milliseconds
For short voltage sag protection there is
sufficient electrolyte inside the stack to
respond without pump running
Response time
The VRB stacks, the plumbing systems and the tanks are composed by recycling plastic
materials, the electrolytic can be refurbished and reused. There are not toxics chemical that has to
be deposit at the end of the life time of the battery.
Flow Battery, Vanadium-Redox,
response time and environment
48 Energy Storage
Other Storage Systems
49 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES)
SMES
Some
materials
(superconduc
tors) carry
current with
no resistive
losses
Electric
current
produces
magnetic
fields
Magnetic
fields are a
form of pure
energy which
can be stored
The only conversion process is the conversion from
AC to DC
50 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES)
SMES
Superconducting
coil
Power Conversion
and control System
(PCS)
Refrigerator
51 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES),
components: coil and superconductor
Energy
Storable
Inductance
Superconductor
=
1
2

It depends on the size


and on the geometry
of the coil
In all SMES systems has
been used an alloy
Niobium-Titanium.
Operation temperature
point: -269C
Source:LBNL&LLNL
Superconductor made with
Niobium-Titanium (Nb-Ti)
52 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage (SMES), components:
coil and superconductor. Configuration of SMES
The major costs of SMES systems depend on the superconductor
optimal coil design most efficient use of materials.
SOLEINOIDAL CONFIGURATION
30 MJ SMES
1 MJ SMES
1 kWh=1kJ/s
Sources: Los Alamos National Laboratory
53 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES), compo-
nents: cryogenic refrigerator
Cryogenic
temperature
Cryogenic Temperature 4.5 K
(-269C) Helium as
working fluid (the only
material that is not solid at
that temperature)
Power to
refrigerate
Around 200-1000 Watt of
electric power to remove 1
Watt (thermal power) from
the 4.5 K environmental
Cryogenic refrigerator
Small cryogenic refrigerator (30
cm) and cold finger extension. It
can remove 5 W at 4.5 K (heat
generable in a micro SMES for
power quality applications)
54 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES), compo-
nents: Power Conversion System (PCS)
Current flows always in one direction!
PCS produces a
positive voltage
across the coil
increase of current
PCS produces a
negative voltage
current
decreases
CHARGE
DISCHARGE
55 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage (SMES), compo-
nents: Efficiency
There are continuous
resistive losses in
the PCS
Energy is needed to
operate the refrigera-
tor. For example a 3
MJ (3 MWac requires
13 kW)
Overall efficiency 90-95%
56 Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic En-
ergy Storage (SMES), components
In the charge process, electric energy is transformed to magnetic energy through the coil. In the discharge process, the
magnetic energy is transformed back to electric energy. Therefore, SMES systems are expected to have large energy
and power densities, high storage efficiency (>90%), and quick response time (near zero), because of the characteristics
of the superconducting coil. Other energy storage systems, such as pumped hydro or compressed air, have a substantial
time delay associated with converting stored mechanical energy back into electricity, as well as lower efficiency. SMES is
applicable to a wide range of capacity and end uses, including load leveling and grid stabilizing, as well as applications as
a power compensator and frequency regulator.
57 Energy Storage
Flywheels store energy in the form of the angular momentum of a
spinning mass, called a rotor. The work done to spin the mass is
stored in the form of kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy
stored in a spinning object is a function of its mass and rotational
velocity:
Where
E is the kinetic energy
I is the moment of inertia (with units of mass-distance
2
),
is the rotational velocity (with units of radians/time). The moment
of inertia is dependent on the mass and geometry of the spinning
object. It can be shown that for a solid disc rotating about its axis,
stored kinetic energy is described by the equation:
Where M is the mass of the disc, r is its radius, and v is the linear
velocity of the outer rim of the cylinder (approximated by r ).
Increasing the rim speed is more effective than increasing the mass
of the rotor in improving the energy capacity of a flywheel.
2
1
2
E I =
Flywheel storage systems
=
1
4


1
4

58 Energy Storage
Flywheel storage systems,
energy conversion, friction-los-
ses and thermal effects
Increase the
speed of the
flywheel
Decrease the
speed of fly-
wheel
C
h
a
r
g
e
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
Friction-
losses
Rotor-Surrounding environment
Rotor bearing and its supports
Thermal
effect
Losses transformed into heat increase
temperature flywheel
Solution
Heat is removed from the flywheel
Vacuum containment and magnetic bear are used
Cooling system may be used
59 Energy Storage
Flywheel storage systems,
components
Rotor
Bearings
Motor Generator
Power electronics
Controls and
instrumentations
Housing
A spinning mass that stores
energy as momentum
Pivot on which the rotor rests
A device that converts the stored
mechanical energy into electricity, or vice
versa
An inverter and rectifier that convert the raw electrical
power output of generator/motor into electrical power
with the appropriate voltage and frequency
Electronics which monitor and control the
flywheel to ensure the system operates
within designed parameters
Containment around the
flywheel system
Source: NASA Glen research center
60 Energy Storage
Flywheel storage systems,
components: rotor
Rotor
Low speed (up
to ~10,000
rpm)
Horizontal shaft Vertical shaft
High speed (up
to ~100,000
rpm)
Horizontal shaft Vertical shaft
Low speed horizontal shaft flywheel.
Source: Satcom power system
High speed vertical shaft flywheel.
Source: Satcom power system
61 Energy Storage
Flywheel storage systems,
components: bearings
Bearings
Mechanical
(for low speed
flywheel)
Reliable and
inexpensive
the largest frictional
Suffer of wear and
tear and produce
the largest frictional
forces
Magnetic
(for high speed
flywheel)
Eliminate the
frictional forces
Passive: magnetic
permanent
Active: controlled
magnetic fields
62 Energy Storage
Flywheel manufactures
Source: EPRI Handbook for energy storage for transmission and distribution applications
63 Energy Storage
Energy Costs
64 Energy Storage
Energy Storage economics,
capital costs
Source: ESA
65 Energy Storage
Energy Storage economics,
capital costs
66 Energy Storage
Energy Storage economics,
LUEC
Levelized Unit Energy Costs (LUEC)
( )
&
1 1
y
I r M O
LUEC
h E
r

| |
|
= +
|
+
\
I:investment costs [/kWh or /kW]
H: full load hours [MWh/year]
M&O: maintenance and operation costs [/MWh]
r: discount factor [%]
y: lifetime [years]
67 Energy Storage
Energy Storage economics,
storage costs
Load-levelling
Applications
Long term
Applications
Source: German Power Engineering Society (VDE-ETG)
68 Energy Storage
Comparaison for peak shaving
at middle-low voltage level
Source: German Power Engineering Society (VDE-ETG)
Energy Storage economics,
storage costs
69 Energy Storage
Modeling (case study)
City P
1
Industrial Zone P
2
Main Grid P
grid
=P
1
+P
2
City P
1
Industrial Zone P
2
Main Grid P
grid
=P
1
+P
2
Wind Farm 3*P
grid
70 Energy Storage
Modeling (case study)
How big should be the ESS in terms of Power [MW]?
How big should be the ESS in terms of Capacity
[MWh]?
Which technology should be chosen?
71 Energy Storage
Modeling (case study): analysis
of the profiles
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
18
1
5
2
2
2
9
3
6
4
3
5
0
5
7
6
4
7
1
7
8
8
5
9
2
9
9
1
0
6
1
1
3
1
2
0
1
2
7
1
3
4
1
4
1
1
4
8
1
5
5
1
6
2
P
o
w
e
r

[
M
W
]
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1
5
8
5
1
1
6
9
1
7
5
3
2
3
3
7
2
9
2
1
3
5
0
5
4
0
8
9
4
6
7
3
5
2
5
7
5
8
4
1
6
4
2
5
7
0
0
9
7
5
9
3
8
1
7
7
P
o
w
e
r

[
M
W
]
72 Energy Storage
Modeling (case study): analysis
of the profiles
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1
1
5
8
3
1
5
4
7
2
6
2
9
7
8
6
9
4
3
1
1
0
0
1
2
5
7
1
4
1
4
1
5
7
1
1
7
2
8
1
8
8
5
2
0
4
2
2
1
9
9
2
3
5
6
2
5
1
3
2
6
7
0
2
8
2
7
2
9
8
4
3
1
4
1
3
2
9
8
3
4
5
5
3
6
1
2
3
7
6
9
3
9
2
6
4
0
8
3
4
2
4
0
4
3
9
7
4
5
5
4
4
7
1
1
4
8
6
8
5
0
2
5
5
1
8
2
5
3
3
9
5
4
9
6
5
6
5
3
5
8
1
0
5
9
6
7
6
1
2
4
6
2
8
1
6
4
3
8
6
5
9
5
6
7
5
2
6
9
0
9
7
0
6
6
7
2
2
3
7
3
8
0
7
5
3
7
7
6
9
4
7
8
5
1
8
0
0
8
8
1
6
5
8
3
2
2
8
4
7
9
8
6
3
6
P
o
w
e
r

[
M
W
]
73 Energy Storage
Modeling (case study): analysis
of the profiles
8760 8760 8760
, , ,
1 1 1
bal wind i city i ind i
i i i
P P P P
= = =
| |
= +
|
\

-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
P
o
w
e
r

[
M
W
]
Network
capacity
Max
Max
storage
Power
74 Energy Storage
Modeling (case study): analysis
of the profiles
( )
,
max
storage bal i Network
P P P =
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
P
o
w
e
r
[
M
W
]
,
max( )
capacity balance AREA
Storage P =
Storage
Capacity
Storage
Power
75 Energy Storage
Choice of storage technology
76 Energy Storage
Storage Economics
Levelized Unit Energy Costs (LUEC)
( )
&
1 1
y
I r M O
LUEC
h E
r

| |
|
= +
|
+
\
I:investment costs [/kWh or /kW]
H: full load hours [MWh/year]
M&O: maintenance and operation costs [/MWh]
r: discount factor [%]
y: lifetime [years]
77 Energy Storage
Storage Economics, Case Study:
NaS battery
P
storage
=15 MW,(E
storage
= 120
MWh)
r = 0.06
y =15 years
E
charge,year
= 31500 [MWh]
INPUT
| |
| |
| | | |
( )
a r g ,
1 5
3 1 5 0 0
2 1 0 0
1 5

2 0 0 0 1 0 . 0 6
2 1 0 0
1 1 . 0 6

0 . 0 9 8 9 8
c h e y e a r
s t o r a g e
E
h h o u r s
P
L U E C
k W h
k W h M W h

= = =
(
( = =
(

( (
= =
( (

OUTPUT
78 Energy Storage
Storage Economics, Case Study:
NaS battery
79 Energy Storage
Financial, Net Present Value
What is the present value of 10,000 payable in 3 yars time if
the relevant interest rate is 4%?
( )
( )
| |
3
10000
1 8889
1.04
n
P F i

= + = =
80 Energy Storage
Financial, Net Present Value
Project A
P
storage
=15 [MW]
E
storage
=150 [MWh]
C
storage
=500 /kWh
Revenue= 10,000,000 /year
Life time project= 10 years
( )
1 1
n
j
j
j
R
NPV C
i =
=
+

Project B
P
storage
=15 [MW]
E
storage
=105 [MWh]
C
storage
=500 /kWh
Revenue= 10,000,000 /year
Life time project= 10 years
81 Energy Storage
Financial Net Present Value
Revenue interest PV
1 10.000.000,00 0,1 9090909,091
2 10.000.000,00 8264462,81
3 10.000.000,00 7513148,009
4 10.000.000,00 6830134,554
5 10.000.000,00 6209213,231
6 10.000.000,00 5644739,301
7 10.000.000,00 5131581,182
8 10.000.000,00 4665073,802
9 10.000.000,00 4240976,184
10 10.000.000,00 3855432,894
Total 61445671,06
Proj.A =75 M
Proj.B=52,5 M
NPV (A) =61.4 M- 75 M =-13
NPV(B)= 61.4 M -52,5 M= 8.9
82 Energy Storage

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