The effects of background music on health and well-being

Susan Hallam, Institute of Education, University of London

Introduction
Since the advent of recording techniques it has been possible for music to be played at any time, in any place, easily and cheaply. This has led to a proliferation of music in our lives. ommercial companies advise businesses on the best !ay to utili"e music to attract customers, maintain their interest, and encourage them to purchase more# music is used by a range of public services to manipulate behaviour and reduce an$iety or aggressive tendencies# !hile individuals use music to support a variety of activities in their lives, change their moods, and create particular ambiences in their homes. %usic utilised in these !ays has come to be referred to as &bac'ground music( distinguishing it from music !hich is actually listened to, although music !hich is being listened to or created by one person may be bac'ground music to another if s)he happens to be !ithin the same sound location.

The other difficulty in differentiating bac'ground music from other forms of music is the !ay that our attention focus can change from moment to moment. *t any one point in time the music in the bac'ground might be transformed into the foreground or vice versa +%adsen ,-./0. 1iven that these processes are internal it is impossible to establish !hether music is in the bac'ground or foreground for any individual at any point in time. Even !hen an individual appears to be actively listening to music they may not be focusing on the music but allo!ing their thoughts to stray else!here. This phenomenon has been e$plicitly articulated

in terms of listening and hearing, the latter seen as essentially passive, a form of reception, !hile the former involves concentration, focus or activity on the part of the listener. 2espite the difficulties in distinguishing clear theoretical underpinnings for !hat might constitute &pure( bac'ground music, in practice, there is a large literature devoted to e$amining the effects of music on behaviour and cognition, driven by a desire to understand the effect of playing music on the performance of an ongoing tas', e.g. studying, driving, e$ercising, shopping or eating. In this sense, and for the purpose of the follo!ing chapter, bac'ground music can be defined as the act of music being played !hen the music itself is not the main focus for attention. The present chapter !ill present evidence regarding the effects of bac'ground music defined in these terms on behaviour and cognition and !ill dra! conclusions !ith regard to the subsequent impact on general health and !ell being.

General responses to background music

Human beings respond to music in a variety of different !ays. 3esponses can be physiological, motor, intellectual, aesthetic, emotional, or related to changes in mood or arousal. 4o clear patterns have emerged relating to physiological measures, responses to specific elements of bac'ground music, and perceived musical e$perience. The relationships are comple$ +Salimpoor et al. 566-0, although generally music influences physiological arousal in the e$pected direction, i.e. e$citing music leads to increased arousal, calming music the reverse +*beles and hung ,--70. %usic has very po!erful effects on our moods and emotions. These responses, as those relating to arousal, are based on &pre8!ired( connections particularly related to the &primitive( elements of music, e.g. loudness, timbre, pitch and tempo +9eret" 56,6, see also chapter 5.0. Emotion may also be aroused !hen musical e$pectations are disconfirmed or delayed +%eyer ,-:70, and in response to particular

musical structures, e.g. shivers do!n the spine, laughter, tears and lump in the throat +Sloboda ,--,0.

9references and familiarity also affect our responses. ;avourite music has been sho!n to lo!er sub<ective feelings of tension !hatever its nature, although physiological responses may be in the e$pected direction +I!anaga and %oro'i ,---0. ognitions also play a mediating role. %usic may be lin'ed !ith particular e$periences in our lives evo'ing pleasant or distressing memories +3oba""a et al. ,--=0 and is also related to identity +%ac2onald et al. 566- 0 so e$posure to calming music in a genre !hich is alien to that identity may increase rather than reduce arousal. ;or these reasons quite different types of music can change mood in the same direction +;ield et al. ,--.0. ;ormal music training, perhaps because of its impact on identity, affects responses but there are no clear patterns relating to gender, age or social class +*beles and hung ,--70. The comple$ and interacting nature of the factors !hich influence responses means that it is difficult to predict the e$act effects of any particular piece of music on any individual although there do seem to be some general trends. These !ill be considered no! in relation to health and !ellbeing.

Influences on individual responses to background music

>hile music, clearly, has the potential to have a positive impact on health and !ell8being impacting as it does on arousal and mood there are issues arising specific to the nature of bac'ground music. The first is !hether the individual has selected the music to be played or !hether it is imposed by others. Self8selection is li'ely to lead to a positive impact relating to the specific purpose for !hich it has been selected. Individuals display considerable meta8 cognitive s'ills in relation to music and its impact. They seem to 'no! ho! music can help to achieve the particular aim that they have set for themselves. ;or instance, assidy and

%ac2onald +566-0 found that performance and lived e$perience in a game8driving tas' !ere best !hen participants selected the bac'ground music for themselves. ?otsopoulou and Hallam +56,60 have sho!n that young people recognise the 'inds of studying tas's !here music !ill interfere !ith their success, 'no! !hat 'inds of music !ill support their learning, and turn music off if they feel that it is interfering. These s'ills seem to develop over time and are not evident in younger children !ho believe that they !or' better if they li'e the music even !here this is not the case +Hallam and 1od!in 56660. The evidence to date suggests that individuals have considerable s'ill in self8selecting bac'ground music to meet their particular needs at any specific time, including helping them to rela$, ma'ing a boring tas' less tedious, enhancing concentration for a difficult tas', or reinforcing a particular mood state, the latter not al!ays in a positive direction.

Secondly, music is closely related to identity +see %ac2onald et al. 566-0. %usic that is selected to be played in the bac'ground reflects that identity. Some music, through its lyrics, !hat 4orth and Hargreaves +566.0 refer to as &problem music(, can promote attitudes and behaviours !hich may not be in the best interests of the health and !ell8being of the individual !ho has selected the music, and perhaps more importantly those !ith !hom they interact, or !ho may be e$posed to the music, for instance younger siblings. Even !here music is not considered &problematic( it may be influential. ;or instance, there is evidence that the level of playing country music !ith its focus on problems commonly e$perienced in everyday life, for instance, relationship difficulties, alcohol abuse, and alienation from !or' may negatively impact on those !ho are suicidal. 3esearch in =- metropolitan boroughs in the US* found that !hen greater airtime !as devoted to country music there !as a higher suicide rate even !hen other factors !ere ta'en into account +Stac' and 1undlach ,--50.

Thirdly, bac'ground music can have indirect effects on health and !ell8being through the behaviour it can illicit. If bac'ground music influences the nature of our purchasing behaviour, or encourages us to spend more than !e can afford this could have an impact on our financial position, our lifestyle and, ultimately, health and !ellbeing.

;ourthly, if bac'ground music is imposed !hether in a public space, in an on8hold telephone situation, or at home it could, in some cases, cause e$treme distress. In a public or telephone situation the individual can ta'e action to remove him or herself from the situation but at home this is more problematic and can lead to legal action being ta'en to restrain the source. The type of music and !hether it is live or recorded is irrelevant here. lassical musicians practising can be as irritating as someone playing loud roc' music.

* large survey of people(s vie!s of bac'ground music played in public places in the U? found that @=A of the general public found it &annoying(, although @7A did not notice it. Blder people +=:8:= year olds0 !ere more disturbed +=:A0 than younger respondents +,:85: year olds0 +5,A0, as !ere those of higher socio8economic status +:,A0. The group for !hom it created real problems !ere the hard of hearing. Eighty si$ percent reported that it frequently dro!ned out speech and announcements, this being particularly problematic in restaurants. It also impacted on them in the home !hen played on radio and TC as people !ere spea'ing +4ational Bpinion 9oll, ,--.0. The playing of bac'ground music in public places also impacts on those !or'ing in those environments. * survey, carried out by the U? 4oise *ssociation +566/0 found that =6A of employees disli'ed it, 5.A tried to ignore it, and only /A actually li'ed it. Such is some people(s disli'e of bac'ground music that various pressure groups have been set up to lobby for its removal.

The previous t!o sections have considered issues relating to general and individual responses to bac'ground music. The follo!ing sections e$plore research focusing on the effects of bac' ground music on specific populations and in health situations !here the use of music has been sho!n to have an impact on !ellbeing.

The use of music to promote the health and wellbeing of children

9erhaps the most stri'ing e$ample of the po!er of music to impact on health comes from research on babies born prematurely. In comparison !ith groups not provided !ith bac'ground music, e$posed groups gain !eight, increase food inta'e and reduce their length of stay in hospital +e.g. assidy and Standley, ,--:0. These effects seem to be maintained across a range of variables including the gestational age of the infant, the volume of the music +!ithin certain parameters0, the means of delivery +in a free field or through earphones0 and the birth !eight of the infant +Standley, 56650. %usic also contributes to improving the occurrence of quiet sleep states, reduces the e$tent of crying and lo!ers mother an$iety. Improvement seems to occur on a daily basis indicating a cumulative effect +Lai et al., 56670.

If music is played by adults in the home, children may be passive recipients of it. This can lead to mar'ed changes in their behaviour. Several studies have sho!n that children of elementary school age e$hibit increased activity levels !hen e$posed to music +;urman, ,-/.0 and that fast e$citing music has the most dramatic effect !hich can be detrimental to good behaviour +3eiber, ,-7:# ;erguson et al., ,--=# Hallam and 1od!in, 56660. These effects seem to be particularly po!erful in children !ith emotional and behavioural difficulties. 3ela$ing quiet bac'ground music can improve behaviour and on8tas'

performance in these children +e.g. Dac'son and B!ens, ,---# Hallam and 9rice, ,--.0 and induces physiological changes including reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, pulse rate and temperature +Savan ,---0.

Use of music to reduce anxiety and increase well-being

* frequent use of bac'ground music in public places, by organisations and individuals is to manipulate arousal levels and moods. In a revie! of music(s use in hospitals, Standley +,--:0 identified reducing pain, an$iety or stress# enhancing the effects of anaesthetic )analgesic drugs or reducing their usage# and reducing the length of hospitalisation as the most common applications. %usic !as found to have a favourable impact on almost all of the medically Erelated conditions studied !ith children responding more positively than adults and infants and females more positively than males. Interestingly, behavioural and physiological measures tended to present more positive outcomes than patients( self8reports.

alming bac'ground music has been sho!n to have a direct impact on biological indicators of stress such as cortisol +e.g. ;laten et al. 56670 and blood pressure +e.g. Triller et al. 56670, in addition to perceived an$iety +9elletier 566=0, although the level of effectiveness depends on the type of stress, age, the !ay the music is used, musical preferences, and prior level of musical e$perience. 4umerous studies have indicated that music can help to alleviate stress in patients !aiting for treatment. ;or e$ample, oo'e et al. +566:0 found that listening to selected preferred music during the pre8operative !ait reduced an$iety in day surgery patients. %usic can also be effective during some treatments. ;or instance, children having casts fitted sho!ed less increase in heart rate compared !ith controls !hen music !as playing +Liu et al. 566/0. Similarly, an$iety relating to dental treatment can be reduced

through bac'ground music +Fare and 2undes 566=0. It can also assist in promoting rela$ation to aid recovery. ;or instance, there is a greater impact on reduction in heart rate, respiratory rate, myocardial o$ygen demand and an$iety follo!ing heart attac's !hen music is played in the recovery environment and these effects are maintained over a longer period of time +>hite ,---0.

Blder people report that music reduces an$iety and stress levels, increasing thresholds for pain endurance, reducing recovery and shortening convalescent periods after surgical procedures. >hile active music ma'ing plays a crucial role, listening to recorded music is also important providing &inner happiness, inner contentment and inner peace( +Hays and %inichiello 566:0.

Fac'ground music can also contribute to alleviating an$iety in pregnancy +e.g. Gang et al. 566-0 and stress in childbirth +for a revie! see %c?inney ,--60. %usic selected to be played by the mother can assist in cuing rhythmic breathing and rela$ation, prompt positive associations, and help focus attention on the music as a diversion from pain and hospital sounds +e.g. Hanser et al.,-.@0, although not all mothers find this use of music appealing +Sammons ,-.=0.

*lthough research is at an early stage, the ability of music to lo!er stress and increase feelings of !ell8being seems to be related to improved immune system functioning as measured by levels of salivary immunoglobulin *, an indicator of the ability of the respiratory system to fight off infection. >hile the most positive effects are related to live music, there is evidence that bac'ground music can also have an impact + harnets'i and Frennan ,--.0.

1iven the capacity of music to induce rela$ation it is not surprising that it has been sho!n to be able to induce and improve the quality of sleep. 9laying rela$ing bac'ground music for =: minutes at the sleep times of :th graders improved its quality +Tan 566=0, !hile !omen !ith sleep disorders over the age of /6 sho!ed decreased time to the onset of sleep, decreases in the number of night time disturbances and improvement in the sub<ective e$perience of sleep +Dohnson 566@0. These findings are supported by a recent meta8analysis of the impact of music8assisted rela$ation for sleep in adults and elders !ith and !ithout sleep problems +de4iet et al. 566-0. These findings seem to generali"e across cultures +e.g. 2eshmu'h et al. 566-0.

Background music in commercial environments

Unsurprisingly, there has been considerable research on the use of bac'ground music in commercial environments +see 4orth and Hargreaves 566. for a revie!0. The e$tent to !hich this impacts on health and !ell8being depends on !hether individuals are induced through music to behave in !ays that might be detrimental to them. ;or instance, %illiman +,-.50 found that !hen slo! music !as played in supermar'ets it led to customers shopping more slo!ly and spending more money. Slo! music played in a restaurant had a similar effect leading to slo!er eating and greater e$penditure +%illiman,-.70. The playing of certain types of music may affect !hat is bought. ;or e$ample, *reni and ?im +,--@0 played classical music and pop music in a !ine cellar. They found that although the t!o different types of music did not lead to customers buying any more !ine, classical music led to customers buying more e$pensive !ine. Similarly, providing the right &fit( of music to products can induce customers into entering shops +see 4orth and Hargreaves 566. for a revie!0, classical music tending to create an upmar'et feel +4orth et al. 56660. Bnce in the

shop customers are more li'ely to ma'e a purchase. %usic playing !hile on hold on the telephone can also sustain customer(s patience, rela$ing music being the most effective, perhaps because it causes the least offence to the ma<ority of people +4orth et al. ,---0. In all of these cases, the e$tent to !hich the induced behaviours impact on health and !ell8being depend on the nature of the products and services on offer and the e$tent to !hich they may promote unhealthy behaviours or encourage individuals to spend beyond their means. ;or instance, spending more in the supermar'et or restaurant might lead to health problems associated !ith being over!eight or drin'ing too much alcohol, !hile e$penditure on computer games may encourage sedentary behaviour. >hether this is actually the case in practice !ill, of course, depend on the influence of the many other factors !hich impinge on an individual(s behaviour.

Background music at work

Songs have long been utilised to support !or' related activities and the advent of recorded music in the 56th century increased the use of music in the !or'place to maintain morale, reduce boredom and fatigue, improve productivity and reduce errors. It is no co8incidence that this practice became !idespread during the 5nd >orld >ar. The FF (s %usic >hile Gou >or' programme continued long after the !ar effort giving an indication of ho! successful the cheerful, lively music !as in enhancing the moods and productivity of the !or'ers. Subsequent research has supported the effectiveness of music enhancing mood +for a revie! see 4orth and Hargreaves 566.0, although in some circumstances a positive mood can be detrimental to !or' performance. ;or instance, *u et al. +566@0 found that !hen music !as used to induce a positive mood in traders on financial mar'ets they lost money, perhaps because it induced ris' ta'ing, !hereas music that generated a neutral or negative mood led to profits.

Surveys have sho!n that many people en<oy !or' more !hen music is played +e.g. %usic >or's 566-0. The introduction of personalised systems of listening to music has facilitated the individualised selection of preferred music. * survey of employees( use of music on personal players in the office +Haa'e 56670 established that .6A listened to music at !or', on average for @7A of the time. %usic most often accompanied routine tas's !or'ing alone, !ord processing, !eb8surfing and emailing and !as reported to improve concentration and bloc' out un!anted noise. It also reduced stress, enhanced feelings of !ell8being and enhanced the ambience of the !or' place, providing a topic of conversation !ith !or' colleagues. ;or those doing lo!8demand tas's music relieved boredom. 2isadvantages included music being played too loudly and interfering !ith the !or' of others and communication !hen people !ere !earing headphones. There may be a role for the use of personal players in open plan offices !here the presence of general bac'ground noise is a particular problem, reducing performance and <ob satisfaction, and leading to increased stress and health problems +e.g. ?ne" and Hygge 5665# Evans and Dohnson 56660.

>here personalised listening is allo!ed there have been significant improvements in performance, enhanced morale, and greater commitment to remain in post and, overall, a reduction in stress +Lesui' 566:# Bldham et al. ,--:0 although there are differences bet!een those !or'ing on simple or comple$ tas's +Bldham et al. ,--:0. >here !or' is simple and repetitive music reduces boredom but !here tas's are comple$ it can interfere !ith performance as might be e$pected on the basis of the Ger'es 2odson la! !hich suggests that internal arousal levels optimal for particular tas's vary according to tas' difficulty, the more comple$ the tas' the lo!er the optimal arousal level +Ger'es and 2odson ,-6.0.

Effects of background music in everyday life

3ecent studies of self8selected music listening in daily life report that the functions of music listening frequently relate to mood regulating strategies and the support a range of activities. +e.g. 2e4ora 5666# 4orth et al. 566=# Sloboda et al. 566,# Thayer et al. ,--=, Sloboda et al. 566-0. *s people listen to music that they li'e their feelings of !ell8being are usually enhanced +Duslin and Lau''a 566=0. Individuals apply metacognitive s'ills !hen selecting music for mood management, although there are individual differences, females tending to be more s'illed than males +Sloboda ,---# 4orth et al. 56660. These s'ills seem to develop through e$perience of choosing, listening and responding to different music and evaluating its impact on desired outcomes +Fatt83a!den and 2e4ora 566:0.

The generation of positive mood states may also increase altruism. >or'ing !ith children aged ,68,, years, Hallam et al. +56650 developed short !ritten scenarios !here the children could select a course of action !hich !as either altruistic or selfish. %ore altruistic intentions to!ards others !ere reported !hen calming, rela$ing music !as being played in the bac'ground as opposed to no8music or e$citing aggressive music. Similarly, 4orth et al. +566=0 either played pop music !hich students li'ed or highly comple$ computer music !hich elicited a good deal of annoyance in a gym. *s people left the gym they !ere as'ed to either sign a petition in support of a fictional sporting charity or distribute leaflets on behalf of the same charity. The pop music affected the distribution of leaflets in a positive manner, although it had no effect on signing the petition.

4ot all music generates positive effects on mood and behaviour. %usic may contribute to the development of identities !hich are anti8social in nature, although findings relating to the changes in attitudes to!ards violence and !omen follo!ing e$posure to particular types of

rap +;ried, ,--/0 and the relationships bet!een heavy metal music and suicidal thoughts +Scheel and >estefield, ,---# Stac' et al. ,--=0, anger +1o!ensmith and Floom ,--/0, and the increased acceptance of negative attitudes and violence to!ards !omen +La!rence and Doyner, ,--,0 are inconclusive. * study of the perceptions of listeners revealed that very fe! believed that music affected their actual behaviour +1ardstrom, ,---0. The direct effects of listening to particular types of music on violent behaviour depend on a range of comple$ factors and listening is unli'ely, of itself, to promote aggression, but for those already predisposed to violence, already holding the vie!s e$pressed in the music, it may offer support for particular actions.

>e also 'no! little about the impact these lyrics may have on the developing identities of those !ho are e$posed regularly from a young age or those !ho are portrayed negatively. urrently, a quarter of teenage girls in the U? suffer physical violence at the instigation of their boyfriend, !hile one third has suffered an un!anted se$ual act. The abuse tends not to be reported, partially through fear of the relationship ending, but also because it is seen as &normal( +Farter et al. 566-0. 3esearch needs to address not only !hether music affects the behaviour of perpetrators but also the acquiescence of their victims.

Feyond its uses in changing mood and reinforcing identity music can be used to support other activities. ;or instance, it can support driving !here it increases concentration and prevents people falling asleep + ummings et al. 566,0, although it can decrease performance if it disrupts attention 2ibben and >illiamson 566/# Stutts et al. 566,0. Bverall, the effects depend on the nature and comple$ity of the driving conditions and the nature, speed and intensity of the music +see Sloboda et al. 566-0. %usic can also support e$ercise, not necessarily by improving performance per se but by distracting individuals from any

discomfort that they are e$periencing +e.g. ;erguson et al. ,--=# 9u<ol and Langefield ,---0. The evidence from studies of the music selected to accompany e$ercise has suggested that music of moderate or faster tempo is preferred for higher intensity e$ercise +?arageorghis et al. 5667# 566.0 supporting the notion that given choice music is selected to create the appropriate mood and arousal level for the activity to be underta'en, leading to more successful outcomes !hich in turn help to maintain self8esteem and enhance !ell8being. !onclusions The playing of music in the bac'ground is not ne!. %usic perceived as an art form to be revered and listened to in silence is a relatively recent phenomenon +1oehr 566/0. The development of recording techniques has made it possible to play music in a !ide variety of environments at little cost, !hile the introduction of personalised listening devices has provided individuals !ith the ability to listen to music of their choice !henever they !ish. %any clearly learn to utilise music in !ays !hich are beneficial to themselves, but others need support in developing the necessary meta8cognitive s'ills. >e 'no! relatively little about the !ays in !hich individuals acquire these s'ills and !hat factors might affect their acquisition. This is clearly an area for future research.

%usic has a very po!erful impact on arousal, emotions and moods and as a result can influence behaviour. The full implications of this are still emerging. >hile music can be used to positive effect to enhance health and !ell8being this is not al!ays the case, negative effects are frequently found !hen individuals do not have control of the music and it is a poor &fit( in relation to their self8perceptions and needs. >al'ing a!ay can resolve this in many situations but !here this is not possible individuals may e$perience considerable distress.

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Iwanaga$ 9$ and 9oroki$ C& +,---0. Sub<ective and 9hysiological 3esponses to %usic Stimuli ontrolled Bver *ctivity and 9reference, !ournal of Music #hera$y, <<</I 16$ 578 @.. (ackson$ (&T& and Awens$ (&2& +,---0 * stress management classroom tool for teachers of children !ith F2. 'ntervention in %chool and Clinic, :> -6$ /=8/.. (ohnson$ (&E& +566@0 The use of music to promote sleep in older !omen, !ournal of Community Health &ursing, -. 16$ 5/8@:. (uslin$ =&7& and 2aukka$ =& +566=0. E$pression, perception and induction of musical emotionsH * revie! and a questionnaire study of everyday listening. !ournal of &e. Music Research, ::$ 5,/85@.. +arageorghis$ !&I& (ones$ 2& and 2ow$ ,&!& +56670. 3elationship bet!een e$ercise, heart rate and music tempo preference. Research 5uarterly for "6ercise and %$ort, 77 -6$ 5=68 5==. +arageorghis$ !&I& (ones$ 2& and *tuart$ ,&=& +566.0 9sychological effects of music tempi during e$ercise. 'nternational !ournal of %$orts Medicine, -0 86$ 7,@8-. +otsopoulou$ #& and %allam$ *& +56,60 The perceived impact of playing music !hile studyingH age and cultural differences, "ducational %tudies, :4$ +ne@$ I&$ and %ygge$ *& +56650 Irrelevant speech and indoor lightingH Effects on cognitive performance and self reported affected. A$$lied Cognitive Psychology, 14$ /6-8/,.. 2ai$ %&$ !hen$ *&$ !hang$ '&$ %sieh$ 9&$ %uang$ %&$ and !hang$ *& +56670 3andomi"ed controlled trial of music during 'angaroo care on maternal state an$iety and preterm infants( responses. 'nternational !ournal of &ursing %tudies, ;:$ ,@-8,=7. 2awrence$ *& and (oyner$ ,&(& +,--,0. The effects of se$ually violent roc' music on males( acceptance of violence against !omen. Psychology of *omen 7uarterly, 1>$ =-87@. 2esuik$ T& +566:0 The effect of music listening on !or' performance. Psychology of Music, :: -6$ ,/@8,-,. 2iu$ "&)&$ 9ehta$ =&$ 'ortuna$ *&$ #rmstrong$ ,&G&$ !ooperman$ ,&"&$ Thompson$ G&%&$ and Gilmore$ #& +566/0 * randomi"ed prospective study of music therapy for reducing an$iety during cast room procedures. !ournal of Pediatric Ortho$aedics, -8 86$ .@,8.@@. 9ac,onald$ "&$ %argreaves$ ,&(&$ and 9iell$ ,& +566-0 %usical identities. In S. Hallam, I. ross J %. Thayer +eds0. O6ford Handbook of Music Psychology, 8B$fordH B$ford University 9ress0 +pp. =758=/60. 9adsen$ !&+& +,-./0. Fac'ground musicH ompetition for focus of attention. In .?. %adsen and .*. 9ric'ett +eds0. A$$lications of research in music behaviour, +The University of *labama 9ress, Tucaloosa, *l.0

9c+inney$ !&%& +,--60 %usic therapy in obstetricsH a revie!. Music #hera$y Pers$ectives, 5$ :/876. 9eyer$ 2&B& +,-:70. "motion and meaning in music. + hicagoH University of hicago 9ress0 9illiman$ "&E& +,-.50. Using bac'ground music to affect the behaviour of supermar'et shoppers, !ournal of Marketing, ;4$ .78-,. 9illiman$ "&E& +,-.70. The influence of bac'ground music on the behaviour of restaurant patrons, !ournal of Consumer Research, 1:$ 5.785.-. 9usic )orks +566-0 3adio in the !or'placeH Increasing morale and productivity. www&musicworksforyou&com. *ccessed 6@86,8,6 7ational Apinion =oll +4B90 ,--.0 Muzak+ Music to .hose ears9 +LondonH 3oyal 4ational Institute for the 2eaf +34I200. 7orth$ #&!& and %argreaves ,&(& +566.0. #he social and a$$lied $sychology of music. +B$ford University 9ress, B$ford0 7orth$ #&!&$ %argreaves$ ,&(&$ and %argreaves$ (&(. +566=0. Uses of music in everyday life. Music Perce$tion, --$ =,8//. 7orth$ #&!&$ %argreaves$ ,&(& and 9c+endrick$ (& +,---0. The influence of in8store music on !ine selections. !ournal of A$$lied Psychology, 5; -6$ 5/,85/7. 7orth$ #&!&$ %argreaves$ ,&(& and 9c+endrick$ (& +56660. The effects of music on atmosphere and purchase intentions in a ban' and a bar. !ournal of A$$lied %ocial Psychology, :., ,:6=8,:55. 7orth$ #&!&$ %argreaves$ ,&(& and AB7eill$ *&#& +56660 The importance of music to adolescents, British !ournal of "ducational Psychology, 8.$ 5::85/5. 7orth$ #& !&$ Tarrant$ 9&$ and %argreaves$ ,& (& +566=0. The effects of music on helping behaviourH a field study. "nvironment and Behavior, :4$ 57785/:. Aldham$ G&$ !ummings$ #&$ 9ischel$ 2&$ *chmidtke$ (& and Dhou$ (& +,--:0. Listen !hile you !or'I Kuasi8e$perimental relations bet!een personal8stereo headset use and employee !or' responses. !ournal of A$$lied Psychology$ 5. >6$ :=/8:7=. =ere@$ I& -.1.6 To!ards a neurobiology of musical emotions. In 9.4. Duslin J D.*. Sloboda +eds0 Handbook of Music and "motion+ #heory, Research, A$$lications, +B$fordH B$ford University 9ress0. +pp. --8,570. =u?ol$ T&(& and 2angefield$ 9&E& +,---0. Influence of music on >ingate *naerobic Test performance, Perce$tual and Motor %kills, 55$ 5-585-7. "eiber$ 9& +,-7:0. The effect of music on the level of activity of children. Psychonomic %cience, :$ @5:8@57.

"oba@@a$ !& 9acaluso$ !&$ and ,BUrso$ /& +,--=0. Emotional 3eactions to music by gender, age and e$pertise, Perce$tual and Motor %kills, 80$ -@-8-==. *alimpoor$ /& 7., Benovoy$ 9&$ 2ongo$ G&$ !ooperstock$ (& "., and Datorre$ "& (. +566-0 The re!arding aspects of music listening are related to degree of emotional arousal. 9LoSB4e, ; 1.6$ e/=./. *ammons$ 2&7& +,-.=0 The use of music by !omen during childbirth. !ournal of &ursemid.ifery, -0$ 57785/6. *avan$ #& +,---0. The effect of bac'ground music on learning. Psychology of Music, -8 -6$ ,@.8,=7. *cheel$ +&"& and )estefield$ (&*& +,---0. Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidalityH an empirical investigation. Adolescence, :; 1:;6$ 5:@85/@. *loboda$ (& +,--,0. %usic structure and emotional responseH some empirical findings. Psychology of Music, 10 -6$ ,,68,56. *loboda$ (& #& +,---0. Everyday uses of music listeningH a preliminary study. In Su' >on Gi +ed0 Music, mind and science. +SeoulH >estern %usic Institute0 *loboda$ (&$ 2amont$ #&$ and Greasley$ #& +566-0 hoosing to hear musicH motivation, process, and effect. In S. Hallam, I. ross J %. Thayer +eds0, O6ford Handbook of Music Psychology, +B$fordH B$ford University 9ress0 +pp. =@,8==60. *loboda$ (&#&$ AE7eill$ *&#& and Ivaldi$ #& +566,0. ;unctions of music in everyday lifeH *n e$ploratory study using the E$perience Sampling %ethod. Musicae %cientiae, /$ -8@5. *tack$ *$ and Gundlach$ (& %. +,--50 The effect of country music on suicide. %ocial :orces, 81$ 5,,85,.. *tack$ *$ Gundlach$ (&$ and "eeves$ (&2& +,--=0. The Heavy %etal Subculture and Suicide, %uicide and )ife-threatening Behaviour, -; 16$ ,:85@. *tandley$ (&9& +,--:0 %usic as a therapeutic intervention in medical and dental treatmentH research and clinical applications. In T. >igram, F. Saperstone J 3.>est +eds0. The art and science of music therapyH a handboo'. +LanghorneH Har!ood0 +pp. @8550. *tandley$ (&9. +56650 * meta8analysis of the efficacy of music therapy for premature infants. !ournal of Pediatric &ursing, 18$ ,6/8,,@. *tevens$ +&9& +,--50 %y room88not theirsL * case study of music during childbirth. Australian College of Mid.ives 'nc !ournal, ;8<=, 5/8@6. *tutts$ (&!& "einfurt$ ,&)& *taplin 2 and "odgman$ E&# +566,0 #he role of driver distraction in traffic crashes. +>ashington, 2 H 3eport prepared for the *** foundation for traffic safety0

Tan$ 2&=& +566=0 The effects of bac'ground music on quality of sleep in elementary school children. !ournal of Music #hera$y, ;1 -6$ ,5.8,:6. Thayer, R.E., Newman, J.R., and McClain, T.M. (1994). Self-regulation of mood: Strategies for changing a bad mood, raising energy, and reducing tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 91092 . Triller$ 7& Er@en$ ,&$ ,ub$ *&$ =etrinic-=rimo@ic$ 9&$ and +osnik$ 9& +56670. %usic during bronchoscopic e$aminationH the physiological effectsH a randomi"ed trial, Res$iration, 8:$ -:8--. U? 4oise *ssociation +566/0 Gear of 4ational 4oise Strategy. +?entH U? 4oise *ssociation0 )hite$ (&9& +,---0 Effects of rela$ing music on cardiac autonomic balance and an$iety after acute myocardial infarction. American !ournal of Critical Care, 5 ;6$ 5568@6. )ilson$ *& +566@0 The effect of music on perceived atmosphere and purchase intentions in a restaurant. Psychology of Music, :1 16$ -@8,,5. Cang$ 9&$ 2i$ 2&$ Dhu$ %&$ #lexander$ I&9&$ 2iu$ *&$ Dhou$ )&$ and "en$ <& +566-0 %usic therapy to relieve an$iety in pregnant !omen on bedrestH * randomi"ed controlled trial. #he American !ournal of Maternal>Child &ursing, :; >6$ @,78@5@. Cerkes$ "&9& and ,odson$ (&,& +,-6.0. The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit8formation. !ournal of Com$arative &eurological Psychology, 15, =:-8=.5.