The Curiosities of Star Death

The death of a star is one of the shortest 1, and yet most interesting stages in its life. In general, the sequence of events which take place as a star dies is defined by its mass2 and so this allows us to predict and mode, with reasonable accuracy, the death throes of any star whose mass we can measure. This research report will be focussing mainly on main sequence, red giant, white dwarf and neutron stars. But not too much black holes because they are boring.

Main Sequence Stars sources 1 and !"

The main part of a star#s like is spent as a main sequence star. In this stage the star merrily converts hydrogen to helium via the proton$ proton chain% and the &'( cycle), apart from that, it is quite dull and lasts for a very long time. *owever, the main sequence stage can teach us a lot about how a star will end its life. +s mentioned earlier, the nature of a star#s death is determined by its mass. ,uckily, many properties of main sequence stars are also determined by its mass. The best e-ample is colour. *eavier mass stars .burn/ quickly, and do not last nearly as long as lower mass stars. But because of this, they must release an awful lot of energy very quickly and so the light emitted will tend to be of a shorter wavelength, as 0lank#s 0ostulate 1, E = hf, shows us that higher frequency light has more energy. The converse is true for lower mass stars, these .burn/ at a slower rate and so release photons of lower energies, making them appear red. 2e can therefore use this relationship to estimate the masses of certain stars, by comparing their colours to a reference scale of other stars whose masses we have been able to calculate more accurately using other methods. +nyway, main sequence stars can only last so long as after a very long period of time, they start to collapse. This is because a star#s si3e is defined by the equilibrium between the pressure from the nuclear reactions in the core and the pressure e-erted from the gravitational pull of the star#s fabric. +s the fuel of hydrogen nuclei starts to get used up, the rate of reaction slows, resulting in a decrease in the temperature and pressure of the core. But this is not the whole story. The mass of the star remains roughly the same over its lifetime and so as the nuclear pressure decreases, the gravitational force on the nuclei at the centre of the star increases, resulting in an overall increase in rate of reaction and hence power output. 4o rather parado-ically, the older a star gets, the faster and brighter it burns.
1

The death of a star typically lasts for around a few million years, compared to the average lifespan of 10 billion years. 2 The chemical composition of the star will also have an effect on the process of collapse, especially the Red Giant stage, but seeing as the majority of stars in the universe are composed mainly of hydrogen, we have no evidence for, or need for, a different model for each uni ue mi! of elements within a star. " The #roton$proton chain dominates in medium si%ed stars such as the sun. &t involves the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei 'protons( into a deuterium nucleus, which fuses with another proton to form a tritium nucleus. The chain ends with two tritium nuclei fusing to form a helium nucleus. ) The *+, cycle is the process by which helium is formed from four protons, but uses a catalyst of carbon, nitrogen and o!ygen isotopes. This reaction releases more energy, but re uires a greater temperature and pressure to occur, so is only found in starts around "0- more massive than the sun, or greater. . ,r rather, the simplified version of #lan/0s #ostulate.

<nfortunately, there will eventually be a point when all the hydrogen in the immediate vicinity of the core is used up. +gain, this results in the gravitational pressure overwhelming the thermal core of the core, resulting in further contraction of the star. +s before, this results in a further increase in pressure and temperature of the core, but seeing as there is no hydrogen left to fuse, the star moves on to the red giant phase of life.

Red Giant Stars sources 1, !, 8 and ="

The red giant stage of a star is, in many ways, very similar to the main sequence epoch. But with a red giant, it is not 4tage (ne 5 *elium 6usion hydrogen which is being fused or the Triple +lpha 0rocess and it is not always helium which is being produced. +s ) the temperature and pressure *e 7 )*e 1 8Be of the star increases, further 8 Be 7 )*e 1 12& 7 2 fusion reactions become 12 possible. These further fusion & 7 )*e 1 19( 7 2 reactions occur in stages, whereby the reaction halts the 4tage Two 5 &arbon 6usion collapse of the star until all the new type of fuel has been used up. 2hen this happens, 12 & 7 12& 1 2):g 7 2 the core contracts again and 12 stops when it reaches the & 7 12& 1 20'e 7 )*e conditions required for a new 12 & 7 12& 1 19( 7 2 )*e stage of reactions and so on. 12 In all, there are four main C + 12C 23Mg + n stages of alternative fusion 5 12 C + 12C 23Na + p *elium, &arbon, (-ygen and 4ilicon fusion 5 and they occur in that order. 2ith each new 4tage Three 5 (-ygen stage, the star collapses 6usion further inwards, and with increasing rapidity because each new stage has less and 19 ( 7 19( 1 "24 7 2 less fuel to start with9. It is 19 also worth noting that each ( 7 19( 1 "10 7 p stage does not necessarily 19 ( 7 19( 1 "14 7 n stop entirely once the fuel in 19 the core runs out 5 the ( 7 19( 1 234i 7 )*e reaction may still go on in the 16 O + 16O 24Mg + 2 4He outer layers of the star 5 and this gives us an onion like configuration with layers of 4tage 6our 5 4ilicon 6usion different nuclear reactions occurring as you move outwards from the core. 23 4i 7 "24 1 .46e 7 )*e Therefore, in a star of around 21 solar masses, main

This list covers 1) and main reactions 5ue to the fact that most fusion reactions within a star start with twothe reactants finish with one which occur in a hydrogen deprived product.
4

main giant. ;eactions in italics denote

sequence lasts for around ! million years, helium fusion lasts around 9>>,>>> years, carbon fusion 9>> years, o-ygen fusion 9 months and finally silicon fusion lasts only 1 day. +s one might e-pect, not all stars complete all the stages seeing as new stages are initiated by the gravitational force e-erted by the star#s mass, and stars of insufficient mass will be forced to stop at some point in the middle !, as they will be unable to attain high enough temperatures and pressures needed for a new set of reactions. +lthough, regardless of the mass of the star, once Iron is formed from silicon, the nuclear reactions stop. This is because the Iron$19 nucleus is the most stable nucleus possible, having the highest possible nuclear binding energy, and so, cannot fuse with anything else 8 to form a more stable product 5 the key point of any fusion reaction. This leaves us with the question, what happens to those stars which complete silicon fusion and what happens to those who don#t, but to answer this, we must first understand the 0auli ?-clusion 0rinciple.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle source 2"

The 0auli ?-clusion 0rinciple is one of the key laws which defines our <niverse and has an important role in many stellar processes. The 0auli ?-clusion 0rinciple states that no two identical particles, with half integer spin= $ also known as fermions $, can occupy the same quantum state. 6or us, this is best thought of as stating that no two identical particles can be close to each other in space and have similar velocities. Therefore, if you bring lots of identical fermionic particles close together, such as electrons, they cannot all be slow moving, as one would e-pect if there was no ?-clusion 0rinciple, and therefore many are forced to have high velocities. +s you further compress them, more and more will be closer to each other in space, and so more particles are forced to move faster, due to the low velocities already being .filled up/ with other electrons. 6ast moving particles e-ert a pressure on their surroundings and this pressure is called degeneracy pressure. +s mentioned above, the ?-clusion 0rinciple is the driving force behind the final stages of star death 5 white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes.

White Dwarfs sources 1 and 9"

2hite @warfs are by far and away the most usual end product from the death of a star. 4tars with a mass of = solar masses or less will almost always end up as a white dwarf. + white dwarf is formed when the core of a red giant does not have sufficient mass to fuse silicon and sulphur to form iron, and so the outwards thermal pressure is overcome by the gravitational pressure of the star#s immense weight. This makes the star collapse e-tremely fast and in doing so, forces the atoms in the core close
6

The point when fusion reactions stop does vary between starts of different masses, but in general, stars under 7 solar masses usually only get to stage three and only stars with a mass greater than 7 solar masses reach stage four. 3 ,r rather, it can fuse with )8e to form .4+i, but the conditions for this reaction are not usually found in red giants and this reaction is usually only found in Type 1a 9upernova. 7 9pin is a uantum mechanical property all particles have and is a measure of their angular momentum, so is often compared to the particle spinning on an a!is for ease of use, if not understanding. Therefore, half integer spin would mean that if the particle :spun; 130 degrees on its a!is, it would be bac/ in its starting position. #articles with half integer spin are called <ermions and include protons, neutrons and electrons.

together. 4eeing as the outer atoms of atoms are composed of electrons, as they atoms get pressed close together, so do the electrons. +s we learnt in the previous section, as we compress electrons, they e-ert a pressure on their surroundings and this stiffens up the core, preventing further gravitational collapse. The outer layers of the star collide with this solid core and bounce back out, resulting in an enormous loss of mass which then goes off the form a nebula. 2hat is left is a small, compact and e-tremely hot ball of matter, usually composed mostly of carbon and o-ygen, held up by the 0auli ?-clusion 0rinciple 5 we call this mi-ture electron$degenerate matter. 2hite dwarfs have e-tremely high densities, as they can have up to 1.) solar masses packed into a volume roughly equal to that of ?arth. But they do have a limit, which, as one might have guessed, is 1.) solar masses. This is called the &handrasekhar ,imit and was defined by the Indian +strophysicist 4ubrahmanyan &handrasekhar in the 1=%>s. It is best not to delve into the mathematics, but the theory is simple enough. It was stated earlier that the more we compress fermions, the faster they move. This process continues until the velocity of the fermions approaches that of light, which obviously, cannot be surpassed. Therefore, if the core of a red giant e-ceeds the &handrasekhar ,imit, the electrons of the atoms in its core cannot move any faster and thus, the force of gravity once more gains the upper hand, the consequences of which shall be discussed fully in the formation of neutron stars.

Neutron Stars sources 1 and 1"

'eutron stars form when the core of a red giant e-ceeds 1.) solar masses1>, the &handrasekhar limit. (nce the star completes the final day of silicon fusion, the red giant undergoes one of the most spectacular processes in the <niverse. The entire red giant, which maybe be up to a billion kilometres in radius, suddenly and catastrophically collapses in on itself at speeds of up to 2>A that of light. @uring this process, every single atom in the star#s core is torn apart in a process known as photodisintegration11, undoing many millions, or even billions, of years of fusion reactions in a fraction of a second. In the course of this cataclysmic moment, huge amounts of gravitational potential energy is released, the sum total of which is up to ten times greater than all the energy liberated by fusion in the star#s entire lifetime. This is called a supernova, and a single one can easily outshine an entire gala-y. The enormous release of energy from the core blasts the outer layers of the red giant out into space, forming an enormous nebula. *owever, in the core, more interesting events are afoot. +s mentioned above, the core is now composed of a mi- of protons, neutrons and electrons, released by the photodisintegration of the previous components of the core. But, these particles are still under huge pressures thanks to the fantastic densities caused by the implosion 5 typical core densities are roughly that of the atomic nucleus 5 and are crushed closer together. 4eeing as the core#s mass e-ceeds the &handrasekhar limit, electron degeneracy pressure cannot hold the atoms apart and the collapse continues. +s the particles in the core get crushed together, the electrons start to bind with protons, in a process known as electron capture, to form a neutron and an electron$ neutrino which escapes the core with ease. This process continues until all
10 11

The total mass of the red giant usually e!ceeds 7 solar masses. &n photodisintegration, an e!tremely high energy gamma ray is absorbed by an atomic nucleus which then brea/s apart as its binding energy is overcome.

that is left is an e-tremely small and dense ball of neutrons, held apart by neutron degeneracy pressure which is stronger than electron degeneracy pressure, and thus, a neutron star is created. There is, as one might e-pect, a limit to the mass of a neutron star. It is called the Tolman$ (ppenheimer$Bolkoff limit and sets the upper mass limit for a neutron star at around % solar masses 5 beyond which gravity will overcome neutron degeneracy pressure, causing the star to collapse even further into a black hole12.

lac! "oles sources 1,% and ="

Black holes are the remnants which are left from the collapse of stars of e-tremely high masses. In a black hole, the star collapses so far in on itself that the density of matter within the core is high enough to prevent even light from escaping. 2e can use this fact to calculate the event hori3on of a black hole 5 the point at which gravity becomes strong enough to prevent light from escaping.

?Cravitational D C:1m2 E r
where C is the Cravitational constant, :1 and m2 are masses and r is the separation

?Finetic D mv2 E 2
where m is a mass and v is its velocity In a black hole, at the event hori3on, ? Cravitational D ?kinetic and the velocity is equal to the speed of light. 4o, for a black hole with a mass equal to that of the sun, we can work out the radius of its event hori3on thusG

C:1m2 E r D m2c2 E 2 2C:1 E c2 D r

0utting the numbers in, taking C to be 9.9!-1> $11, c to be %-1>8 and :1 to be 1.==-1>%>, we get

r D 2C:1 E c2"

r D 2 - 9.9!-1>$11 - 1.==-1>%> E %-1>8"2" D 2=)=.9m

4eeing as the equation shows us that the mass is directly proportional to the radius of a black hole, we can state that roughly, r D %:, where : is in solar masses and r is the radius of the event hori3on in kilometres. +part from this, there is not much else to say about the properties of black holes 5 in fact, black holes are one of the most simple constructs in the <niverse, possessing only two properties 5 spin 1% and mass. This is
12

9ome scientists believe that the star will instead form a uar/ star, held up by uar/ degeneracy pressure, but at the moment there is no concrete evidence or theory for such stars. 1" &n this case, spin refers not to the uantum property of particles, but instead to the actual rotation of the blac/ hole0s ergosphere = an area of space just outside the event hori%on in which space itself is

currently proving to be a bit of a headache for cosmologists seeing as it hints at a process in which all information about the entire composition of a star 5 lepton number, baryon number, charge, magnetic moment 5 are all eradicated and replaced by the two properties of mass and spin. (ne currently prevailing theory is that in the final stages of a star#s collapse, it .radiates/ all the e-cess information about its constituent#s, leaving behind a black hole. *owever, this process seems e-tremely counter$ intuitive and is not accepted by a most of the cosmological community. It seems what happens to particles as they form a black hole will no doubt be a pu33le tor scientists for years to come.

What happens next#

sources 1,% and )"

*owever, all things come to an end and the same is true for stellar remnants. 2hite dwarfs cool down and form black dwarfs 1), or else they accrete enough mass through their gravitational fields to overcome the &handrasekhar limit and collapse again to form neutron stars. The same thing can occur for neutron stars, especially those orbiting another star in a binary configuration, and once they grow in mass beyond the Tolman$ (ppenheimer$Bolkoff limit, they will collapse into black holes. Civen enough time, it seems that every particle of matter will eventually end up inside a black hole due to accretion. But what happens to the black holes thenH This question was first answered by the British scientist @r 4teven *awking with his theorisation of *awking ;adiation. *awking ;adiation is created when one of an electron$positron pair, which are constantly popping into e-istence11 and then annihilating with one another, falls inside the event hori3on of a black hole and is promptly permanently separated from its partner. This means they cannot annihilate and so the other particle which did not fall into the black hole would seem to have appeared from nowhere. This is not allowed and so the particle which fell inside the black hole essentially annihilates a little bit of the black hole#s mass. +lthough the mass losses in this process are miniscule, it occurs all the time and never stops, so after a long enough period of time, even black holes will vanish. +nd so that is the final stage of star death 5 evaporation of a black hole into the nothingness of space, a rather sad end to one of the <niverse#s greatest wonders. There are of course, many more interesting stages along the way which I would have loved to have e-plained 5 pulsars, red supergiants, hypernova and the like, but in the interests of keeping the report succinct, these had to be dropped. ;egardless, the life cycle and evolution of stars is a fascinating process and I hope that I have done it Iustice.

dragged around the blac/ hole, resulting in severe distortions of space$time. 1) >ear in mind that this cooling ta/es so long that it is almost impossible that any blac/ holes currently e!ist in the ?niverse, but given enough time, white dwarfs will form blac/ dwarfs. 1. This process occurs in every volume of space when a :virtual; photon is used up in the creation of an electron$positron pair. This does not violate the conservation of matter@energy, seeing as an e!actly e ual uantity of matter and antimatter is created and then annihilated, re$releasing the original virtual photon. Airtual photons are photons which don0t classically e!ist, but still play a role in carrying forces.

+s this 6eynman diagram shows, a virtual photon the squiggly line" can suddenly create an electron$positron pair the black arrows" which then annihilate to reform the virtual photon. The backwards arrow is the positron, as a positron is essentially an electron going back in time.

References
oo! Sources
$% Mitchell e&el'an and Martin Rees( $))* + Gra,it-.s /atal 0ttraction (ne of my most useful sources, it contains e-tremely detailed descriptions of the e-act interactions within the different stages of star evolution and was useful for cross$checking other, less renowned sources. 1% Ton- "e- and Patric! Walters( 1223 + The New 4uantu' 5ni,erse &ontained much information on the 0auli ?-clusion 0rinciple and electron$positron creationEannihilation.

Scientific Papers
3% Claus 6iefer( $))* + Towards a /ull 4uantu' Theor- of "oles <sed for an in depth study of *awking ;adiation details. lac!

7% 0da' "elfer( 1223 + Do 8lac! holes radiate# <sed to aid initial understanding of hawking radiation as well as to cross$check with source three. 9% :% o'8aci( $))9 + The 'axi'u' 'ass of a neutron star +s the name suggests, I used this paper to aid in my understanding of the Tolman$(ppenheimer$Bolkoff limit. ;% Su8rah'an-an Chandrase!har( $)3$ + The Maxi'u' Mass of :deal White Dwarfs

<sed to consider ways to calculate the &handrasekhar limit, but in the end I settled for the simpler e-planation of .It#s too hard to e-plain properly, so accept it/. <% Paola Re8usco( "enri offin and Dou&las Pierce=Price , 122< + /usion in the 5ni,erse 4ome information on the different stages of a red giant, and the different fusion reactions in each stage.

:nternet Sources
*% Red Giant Reactions = http>??www%astroph-sicsspectator%co' In stars section of site, good lists of the different stages of reaction inside a red giant, and time lines. )% More Red Giant Reactions = http>??swadhwa%stor'pa&es%co' ,ecture 11 gives information which conforms with that from sources 1 and 8 about the reactions inside a red giant. &ross$checking sources 5 I cross$checked all sources with other relevant sources and the information I obtained was concordant, some sources went into more detail on certain topics, for e-ample source = went into intricate detail of some rare reactions in red giants, so I e-cluded the irrelevant bits in the aim of saving space in the report. :y main source was source 1, but seeing as it was partly written by the +stronomer ;oyal, I do not doubt its integrity.