MODULE

ADIABATIC FLOW IN A DUCT WITH FRICTION

INTRODUCTION In incompressible flow !ro"#! $ %"c of cons $n cross sec ion$l $re$& !e fric ion onl' $ffec s !e press"re w!ic! %rops in !e %irec ion of flow( T!e )eloci ' in s"c! $ si "$ ion rem$ins cons $n $lon# !e %"c ( In compressible flow& !owe)er& fric ion $ffec s $ll of !e flow )$ri$bles i(e( !e c!$n#es in press"re c$"se c!$n#es in %ensi ' w!ic! le$%s o c!$n#es in )eloci '( Effec of Fric ion on M$c! n"mber $n% *ress"re in $ D"c

In some c$ses& !e effec s of )iscosi ' m$' be ne#li#ible o)er p$r of !e flow b" !en be )er' impor $n in o !er p$r s of !e flow( T!is is ill"s r$ e% in !e followin# fi#"re( Effec of Fric ion in Differen *or ions of Flow

In !e presen %isc"ssion consi%er$ ion will be #i)en o !e effec s of )iscosi ' on s e$%' #$s flows !ro"#! %"c s "n%er s"c! con%i ions !$ compressibili ' effec s $re impor $n ( In !e $n$l'ses #i)en in !e presen c!$p er i will be $ss"me% !$ !e flow is $%i$b$ ic& i(e(

!$ !e %"c is well ins"l$ e%( A en ion will& in !e presen c!$p er& m$inl' be res ric e% o flow in $ cons $n $re$ %"c $l !o"#! $ brief %isc"ssion of !e effec s of $re$ c!$n#e will be #i)en $ !e en% of !e c!$p er( A en ions will !ere be #i)en o !e effec s of w$ll fric ion on $%i$b$ ic flow !ro"#! $ %"c w!ose cross+sec ion$l $re$ %oes no c!$n#e( T!is 'pe of flow i(e( compressible $%i$b$ ic flow in $ cons $n $re$ %"c wi ! fric ion$l effec s& is ,nown $s -F$nno. flow( Consi%er !e momen "m b$l$nce for !e sm$ll por ion of !e %"c s!own in !e followin# fi#"re( Con rol /ol"me Use% in An$l'sis of Fric ion$l Flow in $ D"c (

Conser)$ ion of momen "m #i)es since s e$%' flow is bein# consi%ere%0

Here w is !e w$ll s!e$r s ress $n% C is !e perime er len# ! of !e %"c (

Ne1 consi%er !e m$ss conser)$ ion e2"$ ion( T!is #i)es0

!ence !e momen "m e2"$ ion res"l c$n be e1presse% $s0

I will be $ss"me% !$ !e !e$ r$nsfer !ro"#! !e %"c w$lls is ne#li#ible& i(e(& !$ !e flow is $%i$b$ ic( T!e ener#' e2"$ ion !erefore #i)es0

T!e e2"$ ion of s $ e #i)es0

Also0

from w!ic! i follows !$ 0

Combinin# $ll of !e $bo)e res"l s #i)es0

Also "sin#0

$n%0

T!e $bo)e e2"$ ion c$n be wri en $s0

3ince !e w$ll s!e$r s ress& !e )eloci ' $n% !e M$c! N"mber $re $lw$'s posi i)e& !e $bo)e e2"$ ion in%ic$ es !$ !e si#n of dM %epen%s on !e si#n of 45+M26( T!is e2"$ ion& !erefore& s!ows !$ if !e M$c! n"mber is less !$n one& fric ion c$"ses !e M$c! n"mber o incre$se w!ile if !e M$c! n"mber is #re$ er !$n one& fric ion c$"ses !e M$c! n"mber o %ecre$se( /iscosi '& !erefore& $lw$'s c$"ses !e M$c! n"mber o en% ow$r%s one( 3ince once $ M$c! n"mber of one is $ $ine%& c!$n#es in !e %owns re$m con%i ions c$nno effec !e "ps re$m flow& i follows !$ -c!o,in#. c$n occ"r $s $ res"l of fric ion( In #ener$l0 w!ere Re is !e Re'nol%s n"mber b$se% on !e me$n )eloci ' $n% !e !'%r$"lic %i$me er $n% is $ me$s"re of !e me$n !ei#! of !e w$ll ro"#!ness( T!e effec of M !$s been fo"n% o be sm$ll( T!erefore& for mos p"rposes& i is $%e2"$ e o $ss"me !$ 0

T!"s& f will be #i)en b' !e s$me e2"$ ions or c!$r s !$ $ppl' in low spee% %"c flow( A Moo%' C!$r !$ c$n be "se% o #i)e !e fric ion f$c or(

I c$n $lso be s!own "sin# !e $bo)e e2"$ ions !$ 0

$n%0

T!ese e2"$ ions c$n be "se% wi ! !e en rop' e2"$ ion o #i)e0

T!ese e2"$ ions s!ow !$ if M is less !$n 5& dT $n% dp $re ne#$ i)e w!ile if M is #re$ er !$n 5& dT $n% dp $re posi i)e( T!e en rop'& !owe)er& $lw$'s incre$ses& i(e(& ds is $lw$'s posi i)e( T!e $bo)e rel$ ions& !erefore& o#e !er in%ic$ e !$ in cons $n $re$ compressible %"c flow wi ! fric ion0

7 me$ns 2"$n i ' is incre$sin#& + me$ns i is %ecre$sin#( T!ese res"l s $re $lso s"mm$ri8e% in !e followin# fi#"re0

Effec of Fric ion on Flow /$ri$bles in $n A%i$b$ ic Flow in $ Cons $n Are$ D"c (

In e#r$ in# !e e2"$ ion for M $lon# !e %"c be ween wo poin s %is $nce l12 $p$r $n% $ss"min# !$ f c$n be $ss"me% cons $n !en #i)es0

For con)enience since M $lw$'s en%s o 5 !is is wri en $s0

w!ere0

C$rr'in# o" !e in e#r$ ion !en #i)es0

C!$n#es in !e fric ion f$c or $lon# !e %"c $re "s"$ll' sm$ll $n% c!$n#es in f !$)e been i#nore% in c$rr'in# o" !e in e#r$ ion( 3e in# M2 9 5 !en #i)es0

T!e e2"$ ions for !e press"re $n% emper$ "re )$ri$ ions c$n simil$rl' be in e#r$ e% o #i)e0

$n%0

From !e $bo)e e2"$ ions i follows !$ 0

/$l"es of !ese f"nc ions $re $)$il$ble in #r$p!s& in $bles $n% $re #i)en b' sof w$re( A 'pic$l c!$r & !is bein# for 9 5(: is #i)en in !e followin# fi#"re(

/$ri$ ion of Flow /$ri$bles in A%i$b$ ic Cons $n Are$ D"c Flow wi ! Fric ion(

These charts, tables or software can be used to find the changes in the values of the flow variables in ducts whose length is less than that required to give a Mach number of 1 by noting that if l12 is the actual duct length and if M1 and M2 are the Mach numbers at the beginning and end of the duct then:

In c$ses w!ere !e !'%r$"lic %i$me er of !e %"c or !e flow r$ e !ro"#! !e %"c !$s o be fo"n%& !e fric ion f$c or c$nno ini i$ll' be %irec l' fo"n% $n% $n i er$ i)e $ppro$c! !$s o be "se%( T!e inle M$c! n"mber is "s"$ll' ini i$ll' #"esse% $n% !e "n,nown %i$me er or flow r$ e is fo"n%( T!is )$l"e is "se% o fin% $n impro)e% )$l"e of !e M$c! n"mber $n% !e c$lc"l$ ion is repe$ e%( T!is is con in"e% "n il $ con)er#e% res"l is ob $ine%( Al !o"#! sop!is ic$ e% i er$ ion proce%"res c$n be "se%& $ s r$i#! +forw$r% proce%"re !$ in)ol)es ob $inin# sol" ions for $ series of #"esse% )$l"es of !e ini i$l M$c! n"mber $n% !en %e%"cin# !e correc ini i$l M$c! n"mber from !e res"l s so ob $ine% is "s"$ll' 2"i e $%e2"$ e( THE FANNO LINE T!e F$nno line !$s& in !e p$s & been "se% e1 ensi)el' in %escribin# !e c!$n#es !$ occ"r in $n $%i$b$ ic flow in $ %"c wi ! fric ion& s"c! flow& $s no e% before& bein# c$lle% F$nno flow( T!e F$nno line s!ows !e flow process on $ T+s or !+s %i$#r$m(

The Fanno Line T!e m$1im"m en rop' poin on !e F$nno line is !e poin $ w!ic! !e M$c! n"mber is 5( T!e "pper por ion of !e c"r)e& w!ic! is $ssoci$ e% wi ! !i#!er )$l"es of T & $pplies in s"bsonic flow w!ile !e lower por ion of !e c"r)e& w!ic! is $ssoci$ e% wi ! lower )$l"es of T & $pplies in s"personic flow( 3ince& $s %isc"sse% before& !e en rop' $lw$'s incre$ses& !is $#$in s!ows !ow !e M$c! n"mber $lw$'s mo)es ow$r%s 5( FRICTIONAL FLOW IN A DUCT *RECEDED B; AN I3ENTRO*IC NO<<LE Consi%er !e c$se w!ere $ cons $n $re$ %"c is s"pplie% wi ! #$s w!ic! flows in o !e %"c !ro"#! $ no88le from $ l$r#e c!$mber( T!e %"c %isc!$r#es in o $no !er l$r#e c!$mber( I is "s"$ll' $%e2"$ e o $ss"me !$ fric ion effec s $re ne#li#ible in !e no88le( T!is is bec$"se !e no88le is "s"$ll' rel$ i)el' s!or $n% bec$"se !e flow is $cceler$ in# !ro"#! !e no88le( I will be $ss"me% !$ !e con%i ions in !e firs l$r#e c!$mber& i(e( !e

s $#n$ ion con%i ions "ps re$m of !e no88le& $re ,ep cons $n $n% !$ !e b$c, press"re in !e l$r#e c!$mber in o w!ic! !e %"c %isc!$r#es is )$rie%( T!e c$se w!ere !e %"c is prece%e% b' $ con)er#in# no88le will firs be consi%ere%( T!e flow si "$ ion consi%ere% in !is c$se is s!own in !e followin# fi#"re(

Convergent Nozzle Flow Situation. W!en !e b$c, press"re pb is e2"$l o !e s"ppl' c!$mber press"re !ere is& of co"rse& no flow !ro"#! !e %"c ( As !e b$c, press"re is %ecre$se%& !e m$ss flow r$ e !ro"#! !e %"c $n% !e M$c! n"mber $ !e %"c e1i incre$se& !e e1i pl$ne press"re pe bein# e2"$l o !e b$c, press"re pb ( T!is con in"es "n il Me re$c!es $ )$l"e of 5( F"r !er %ecre$ses in !e b$c, press"re !$)e no effec on !e flow in !e %"c & !e $%="s men from pe o pb in !is si "$ ion $,in# pl$ce !ro"#! e1p$nsion w$)es o" si%e !e %"c ( T!e m$ss flow r$ e is !"s limi e%& i(e( !e flow is -c!o,e%.& $s $ res"l of fric ion( T!e )$ri$ ion of !e m$ss flow r$ e wi ! b$c, press"re is ill"s r$ e% in !e followin# fi#"re(

Variation of Mass Flow

ate for Convergent Nozzle.

Ne1 consi%er !e c$se w!ere !e cons $n $re$ %"c is prece%e% b' $ con)er#en +%i)er#en no88le( A#$in w!en !e b$c, press"re pb is e2"$l o !e s"ppl' c!$mber press"re !ere is& of co"rse& no flow !ro"#! !e %"c ( As !e b$c, press"re is !en ini i$ll' %ecre$se%& !e M$c! n"mber incre$ses $ !e no88le !ro$ b" !en %ecre$ses $#$in in !e %i)er#en por ion of !e no88le& !e flow rem$inin# s"bsonic !ro"#!o" !e no88le( T!e M$c! n"mber !en incre$ses in !e cons $n $re$ %"c $s $ res"l of fric ion( As !e b$c, press"re is f"r !er %ecre$se%& one possibili ' is !$ !e M$c! n"mber will re$c! $ )$l"e of 5(> $ !e %"c e1i & i(e( !$ !e flow will c!o,e $ !e en% of !e %"c $s $ res"l of fric ion $n% !$ !e flow will rem$in s"bsonic in !e no88le no m$ er !ow low !e b$c, press"re #e s( T!is si "$ ion is e1$c l' !e s$me $s !$ w!ic! occ"rs wi ! $ con)er#en no88le( A more li,el' si "$ ion is& !owe)er& !$ !e s's em will be si8e% so !$ $s !e b$c, press"re is %ecre$se% !e M$c! n"mber $ !e no88le !ro$ will re$c! $ )$l"e of 5(> before !e M$c! n"mber $ !e %"c e1i re$c!es $ )$l"e of 5& i(e( !e no88le will c!o,e before c!o,in# occ"rs in !e %"c ( Once !e M$c! n"mber !$s re$c!e% $ )$l"e of 5(> $ !e no88le !ro$ & $ re#ion of s"personic flow %e)elops %owns re$m of !e !ro$ wi ! f"r !er %ecre$se in b$c, press"re( T!e re#ion of s"personic flow is ermin$ e% b' $ norm$l s!oc, w$)e( Bec$"se !ere is $ si#nific$n re#ion of s"bsonic flow ne$r !e w$ll !e effec s of !is s!oc, w$)e c$n be spre$% o" o)er $ si#nific$n len# ! of !e %"c in sm$ll %"c s( Howe)er& !e flow c$n "s"$ll' be $%e2"$ el' $n$l'8e% b' $ss"min# !$ $ con)en ion$l norm$l s!oc, w$)e occ"rs( As !e b$c, press"re is f"r !er %ecre$se%& !e s!oc, w$)e mo)es ow$r%s !e %"c e1i & e)en "$ll' re$c!in# !e e1i ( Once !e b$c, press"re !$s been re%"ce% o $ )$l"e $ w!ic! !e s!oc, w$)e is $ !e e1i pl$ne of !e %"c & f"r !er re%"c ions in !e b$c, press"re !$)e no effec on !e flow in !e %"c s's em& !e $%="s men from !e e1i pl$ne press"re o !e b$c, press"re $,in# pl$ce !ro"#! obli2"e s!oc, w$)es or e1p$nsion w$)es o" si%e !e %"c ( T!e c!$n#es in !e flow $n% !e m$ss flow r$ e wi ! b$c, press"re $re ill"s r$ e% in !e followin# wo fi#"res(

Variation of Flow !attern with "a#$ !ressure for Convergent%&ivergent Nozzle Flow Situation.

Variation of Mass Flow Flow Situation.

ate for Convergent% &ivergent Nozzle

Chapter 10

Rayleigh Flow
5>(5 INTRODUCTION In the chapter we consider the consequences of heat crossing the boundaries of a system To isolate the effects of heat transfer from the other ma!or factors we assume flow in a constant"area duct without friction #t first this may seem to be an unrealistic situation, but actually it is a good first appro$imation to many real problems, as most heat e$changers have constant"area flow passages It is also a simple and reasonably equivalent process for a constant"area combustion chamber %aturally, in these actual systems, frictional effects are present, and what we really are saying is the following: In systems where high rates of heat transfer occur, the entropy change caused by the heat transfer is much greater than that caused by friction, or dse<< dsi &10 1' Thus ds ( dse &10 )' and the frictional effects may be neglected There are obviously some flows for which this assumption is not reasonable and other methods must be used to obtain more accurate predictions for these systems *e first e$amine the general behavior of an arbitrary fluid and will again find that property variations follow different patterns in the subsonic and supersonic regimes The flowof a perfect gas is considered with the nowfamiliar end result of constructing a table This category of problem is called Rayleigh flow 5>(3 ANAL;3I3 FOR A ?ENERAL FLUID *e shall first consider the general behavior of an arbitrary fluid To isolate the effects of heat transfer we ma+e the following assumptions ,teady one"dimensional flow %egligible friction %o shaft wor+ %eglect potential Constant area dsi ( 0 ws - 0 dz - 0 dA - 0

*e proceed by applying the basic concepts of continuity, energy, and momentum .m- AV - const &) /0' but since the flow area is constant, this reduces to V - const &10 /'

0rom our wor+ in Chapter 1 we +now that this constant is G, the mass velocity, and thus V - G - const &10 2' Ener#' *e start with ht1 3 q - ht) 3 ws &/ 11' which for no shaft wor+ becomes ht1 3 q - ht) &10 4' arning! This is the first ma!or flow category for which the total enthalpy has not been constant 5y now you have accumulated a store of +nowledge6all based on flows for which ht - constant 7$amine carefully any information that you retrieve from your memory ban+8 Momen "m *e nowproceed to apply the momentum equation to the control volume shown in 0igure 10 1 The ""component of the momentum equation for steady, one"dimensional flow is #$" - .m%gc& Vout"9 Vin"' &/ 2:'

0rom 0igure 10 1 we see that this becomes (1A 9 ()A - AV%gc&V) 9 V1' &10 :'

Canceling the area, we have (1 9 () - V%gc&V) 9 V1' - G%gc&V) 9 V1' )how that this can be written as ( 3 GV%gc - const &10 ;' &10 <'

#lternative forms of equation &10 <' are

#s an aside we might note that this is the same relation that holds across a standing normal shoc+ =ecall that for the normal shoc+: ( 3 V 2%gc - const &: 1' In both cases we are led to equivalent results since both analyses deal with constant area and assume negligible friction If we multiply equation &: 1' or &10 <' by the constant area, we obtain (A 3 &AV 'V%gc - const &10 10' or (A 3 m. V%gc - const &10 11' The constant in equation &10 11' is called the im(*lse f*nction or thr*st f*nction by various authors *e shall see a reason for these names when we study propulsion devices in Chapter 1) 0or now let us merely note that the thr*st f*nction remains constant for Rayleigh flow and across a normal shoc+ *e return now to equation &10 1,', which will plot as a straight line in the (>v plane &see 0igure 10 )' ,uch a line is called a Rayleigh line and represents flow at a particular mass velocity &G' If the fluid is +nown, one can also plot lines of constant temperature on the same diagram Typical isothermals can be obtained easily by assuming the perfect gas equation of state ,ome of these (v -const lines are also shown in 0igure 10 ) ?oes the information depicted by this plot ma+e sense@ %ormally, we would e$pect the effects of simple heating to increase the temperature and decrease the density This appears to be in agreement with a process from point 1 to point ) as mar+ed in 0igure 10 ) If we add more heat, we move farther along the =ayleigh line and the temperature increases more ,oon point / is reached where the temperature is a ma$imum Is this a limiting point of some sort@ Aave we reached some +ind of a cho+ed condition@ To answer these questions, we must turn elsewhere =ecall that the addition of heat causes the entropy of the fluid to increase since

Fi#"re 5>(@ =ayleigh line in (>v plane dse - q%- &/ 10' 0rom our basic assumption of negligible friction, ds ( dse &10 )' Thus it appears that the real limiting condition involves entropy &as usual' *e can continue to add heat until the fluid reaches a state of ma$imum entropy It might be that this point of ma$imum entropy is reached before the point of ma$imum temperature, in which case we would never be able to reach point / &of 0igure 10 )' *e must investigate the shape of constant entropy lines in the (>v diagram This can easily be done for the case of a perfect gas that will serve to illustrate the general trend $or a - - constant line. (v - R- - const ?ifferentiating yields ( dv 3 v d( - 0 and d(%dv - 9(%v $or an ) - constant line. (v/ - const ?ifferentiating yields v/ d( 3 (/ v/91 dv - 0 and d(%dv - 9(%v &10 1;' Comparing equations &10 12' and &10 1;' and noting that / is always greater than 1 0, we see that the isentropic line has the greater negative slope and thus these lines will plot as shown in 0igure 10 / &10 1:' &10 12' &10 14' &10 1/' &10 1)'

&#ctually, this should come as no great surprise since they were shown this way in 0igure 1 )B but did you really believe it then@'

Fi#"re 5>(3 =ayleigh line in (>v plane *e now see that not only can we reach the point of ma$imum temperature, but more heat can be added to ta+e us beyond this point If desired, we can move &by heating' all the way to the ma$imum entropy point It may seem odd that in the region from point / to 2, we add heat to the system and its temperature decreases Cet us reflect further on the phenomenon occurring In a previous discussion we noted that the effects of heat addition are normally thought of as causing the fluid density to decrease This requires the velocity to increase since V - constant by continuity This velocity increase automatically boosts the +inetic energy of the fluid by a certain amount Thus the chain of events caused by heat addition forces a definite increase in +inetic energy ,ome of the heat that is added to the system is converted into this increase in +inetic energy of the fluid, with the heat energy in e$cess of this amount being available to increase the enthalpy of the fluid %oting that +inetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity, we realiDe that as higher velocities are reached, the addition of more heat is accompanied by much greater increases in +inetic energy 7ventually, we reach a point where all of the heat energy added is required for the +inetic energy increase #t this point there is no heat energy left over and the system is at a point of ma$imum enthalpy &ma$imum temperature for a perfect gas' 0urther addition of heat causes the +inetic energy to increase by an amount greater than the heat energy being added Thus, from this point on, the enthalpy must decrease to provide the proper energy balance Eerhaps the foregoing discussion would be more clear if the =ayleigh lines were plotted in the h>s plane 0or any given fluid this could easily be done, and the typical result is shown in 0igure 10 2, along with lines of constant pressure #ll points on

Fi#"re 5>(: =ayleigh line in h>s plane this =ayleigh line represent states with the same mass flow rate per unit area &mass velocity' and the same impulse &or thrust' function $or heat addition. the entro(y m*st increase and the flow moves to the right Thus it appears that the =ayleigh line, li+e the 0anno line, is divided into two distinct branches that are separated by a limiting point of ma$imum entropy *e have been discussing a familiar heating process along the upper branch *hat about the lower branch@ Mar+ two points along the lower branch and draw an arrow to indicate the proper movement for a heating process *hat is happening to the enthalpy@ The static pressure@ The density@ The velocity@ The stagnation pressure@ Fse the information available in the figures together with any equations that have been developed and fill in Table 10 1 with increases, decreases, or remains constant #s was the case for 0anno flow, notice that flow along the lower branch of a =ayleigh line appears to be a regime with which we are not very familiar The point of ma$imum entropy is some sort of a limiting point that separates these two flow regimes

Limi in# *oin CetGs start with the equation of a =ayleigh line in the form ( 3 G)Hgc - const ?ifferentiating gives us d( 3 G)Hgc &9d%)' - 0 Fpon introduction of equation &10 2', this becomes d(%d - G2% gc) - V )H gc Thus we have for an ar,itrary fluid that V ) - gcd(%d &10 )0' &10 11' &10 1a' &10 1<'

which is valid any(lace along the =ayleigh line %ow for a differential movement at the limit point of ma$imum entropy, ds - 0 or s - const Thus, at this point equation &10 )0' becomes V ) - gc&0(%0's-c &at the limit point' &10 )1' This is immediately recogniDed as sonic velocity The upper branch of the =ayleigh line, where property variations appear reasona,le, is seen to be a region of subsonic flow and the lower branch is for supersonic flow Ince again we notice that occurrences in supersonic flow are frequently contrary to our e$pectations #nother interesting fact can be shown to be true at the limit point 0rom equation &10 11' we have d( - V )Hgc& d' &10 ))' ?ifferentiating equation &10 2', we can show that d - 9dV%V &10 )/' Combining equations &10 ))' and &10 )/', we obtain d( - 9V%gcdV &10 )2' This can be introduced into the property relation - ds - dh > d(% &1 21' to obtain - ds - dh 3 V dV%gc &10 )4' #t the limit point where M - 1, ds - 0, and &10 )4' becomes 0 - dh 3 V dV%gc &at the limit point' &10 ):' If we neglect potentials, our definition of stagnation enthalpy is ht - h 3 V )H)gc &/ 1<' which when differentiated becomes dht - dh 3 V dV%gc &10 );' Therefore, comparing equations &10 ):' and &10 );', we see that equation &10 ):' really tells us that dht - 0 &at the limit point' &10 )<'

and thus the limit point is seen to be a point of ma$imum stagnation enthalpy This is easily confirmed by loo+ing at equation &10 4' The stagnation enthalpy increases as long as heat can be added #t the point of ma$imum entropy, no more heat can be added and thus ht must be a ma$imum at this location *e have not tal+ed very much of stagnation enthalpy e$cept to note that it is changing 0igure 10 4 shows the =ayleigh line &which represents the locus of static states' together with the corresponding stagnation reference lines =emember that for a perfect gas this h>s diagram is equivalent to a - >s diagram %otice that there are two stagnation curves, one for subsonic flow and the other for supersonic flow Jou might as+ how we +now that the supersonic stagnation curve is the top one *e can show this by starting with the differential form of the energy equation: q - ws 3 dht &/ )0'

Fi#"re 5>(A =ayleigh line in h>s plane &including stagnation curves' or q - dht &10 )1' Knowing that q - - dse &/ 10' and dse ( ds &10 )' we have for =ayleigh flow that dht - - dse - - ds &10 /0' or dht%ds - - &10 /1' %ote that equation &10 /1' gives the slope of the stagnation curve in terms of the static temperature

%ow draw a constant"entropy line on 0igure 10 4 This line will cross the subsonic branch of the &static' =ayleigh line at a higher temperature than where it crosses the supersonic branch Consequently, the slope of the subsonic stagnation reference curve will be greater than that of the supersonic stagnation curve ,ince both stagnation curves must come together at the point of ma$imum entropy, this means that the supersonic stagnation curve is a separate curve lying above the subsonic one In ,ection 10 ; we see another reason why this must be so In which direction does a cooling process move along the subsonic branch of the =ayleigh line@ #long the supersonic branch@ 0rom 0igure 10 4 it would appear that the stagnation pressure will increase during a cooling process This can be substantiated from the stagnation pressure>energy equation: d(%t 3 dse&-t 9 - ' 3 -t dsi 3 ws - 0 &/ )4' *ith the assumptions made for =ayleigh flow, this reduces to d(t%t 3 dse&-t 9 - ' - 0 &10 /)' %ow &-t 9 - ' is always positive Thus, the sign of d(t can be seen to depend only on dse 0or heating, dse 3B thus d(t 9. or (t decreases 0or cooling, dse 9B thus d(t 3. or (t increases In practice, the latter condition is difficult to achieve because the friction that is inevitably present introduces a greater drop in stagnation pressure than the rise created by the cooling process, *nless the cooling is done by vaporiDation of an in!ected liquid 5>(: WORBIN? ECUATION3 FOR *ERFECT ?A3E3 5y this time you should have a good idea of the property changes that are occurring in both subsonic and supersonic =ayleigh flow =emember that we can progress along a =ayleigh line in either direction, depending on whether the heat is being added to or removed from the system *e now proceed to develop relations between properties at arbitrary sections =ecall that we want these wor+ing equations to be e$pressed in terms of Mach numbers and the specific heat ratio To obtain e$plicit relations, we assume the fluid to be a perfect gas Momen "m *e start with the momentum equation developed in ,ection 10 / since this will lead directly to a pressure ratio: ( 3 GV%gc - const &10 <' or from &10 2' this can be written as ( 3 V )Hgc - const &10 //' ,ubstitute for density from the equation of state: - (%R&10 /2' and for the velocity from equations &2 1' and &2 11': V ) - M)a) - M)/gcR&10 /4'

)how that equation &10 //' becomes (&1 3 /M)' - const &10 /:' If we apply this between two arbitrary points, we have (1&1 3 /M )1 ' - ()&1 3 /M )) ' which can be solved for ()H(1 - 1 3 /M )1H1 3 /M ))

&10 /;' &10 /<'

Con in"i ' 0rom ,ection 10 / we have V - G - constant &10 2' #gain, if we introduce the perfect gas equation of state together with the definition of Mach number and sonic velocity, equation &10 2' can be e$pressed as ( M HL- - constant &10 /1' Ener#' 0rom ,ection 10 / we have ht1 3 q - ht) &10 4' 0or perfect gases we e$press enthalpy as h - c(&1 2<' which can also be applied to the stagnation conditions ht - c(-t &10 2<' Thus the energy equation can be written as c(-t1 3 q - c(-t) &10 21' 5>(A REFERENCE 3TATE ANDTHE RA;LEI?H TABLE The equations developed in ,ection 10 2 provide the means of predicting properties at one location if sufficient information is +nown concerning a =ayleigh flow system #lthough the relations are straightforward, their use is frequently cumbersome and thus we turn to techniques used previously that greatly simplify problem solution *e introduce still another reference state defined as before, in that the Mach n*m,er of *nity m*st ,e reached ,y some (artic*lar (rocess In this case we imagine that the =ayleigh flow is continued &i e , more heat is added' until the velocity reaches sonic 0igure 10 : shows a - >s diagram for subsonic =ayleigh flow with heat addition # s+etch of the physical system is also shown If we imagine that more heat is added, the entropy continues to increase and we will eventually reach the limiting point where sonic velocity e$ists The dashed lines show a hypothetical duct in which the additional heat transfer ta+es place #t the end we reach the reference point for Rayleigh flow

Fi#"re 5>(D The reference for =ayleigh flow The isentro(ic reference points have also been included on the - >s diagram to emphasiDe the fact that the =ayleigh reference is a completely different thermodynamic state from those encountered before #lso, we note that proceeding from either point 1 or point ) ,y Rayleigh flow will ultimately lead to the same state when Mach 1 is reached Thus we do not have to write 1 or ) but simply in the case of =ayleigh flow &=ecall that this was also true for 0anno flow Jou should also realiDe that the reference for =ayleigh flow has nothing to do with the reference used in 0anno flow ' %otice in 0igure 10 : that the various locations are not on a horiDontal line as they were for 0anno flow &see 0igure 1 4' *hy is this so@ In 0igure 10 : an e$ample of subsonic heating was given Consider a case of cooling in the s*(ersonic regime 0igure 10 ; shows such a physical duct Cocate points 1 and ) on the accompanying - >s diagram #lso show the hypothetical duct and the reference point on the physical system

5>(D A**LICATION3 The procedure for solving =ayleigh flow problems is quite similar to the approach used for 0anno flow e$cept that the tie between the two locations in =ayleigh flow is determined by heat transfer considerations rather than by duct friction The recommended steps are, therefore, as follows: 1 ,+etch the physical situation &including the hypothetical reference point' ) Cabel sections where conditions are +nown or desired / Cist all given information with units 2 ?etermine the un+nown Mach number 4 Calculate the additional properties desired Mariations on the procedure above are frequently involved at step 2, depending on what information is +nown 0or e$ample, the amount of heat transferred may be given and a prediction of the downstream Mach number might be desired In the other hand, one of the downstream properties may be +nown and we could be as+ed to compute the heat transfer In flow systems that involve a combination of =ayleigh flowand other phenomena &such as shoc+s, noDDles, etc ', a - >s diagram is sometimes a great aid to problem solution 5>(E THERMAL CHOBIN? DUE TO HEATIN? In ,ection 4 ; we discussed area cho+ing, and in ,ection 1 <, friction cho+ing In 0anno flow, recall that once sufficient duct was added, or the receiver pressure was lowered far enough, we reached a Mach number of unity at the end of the duct 0urther reduction of the receiver pressure could not affect conditions in the flow system The addition of any more duct caused the flowto move along a new0anno line at a reduced flow rate Jou might wish to review 0igure 1 11, which shows this physical situation along with the corresponding - >s diagram ,ubsonic =ayleigh flow is quite similar 0igure 10 11 shows a given duct fed by a large tan+ and converging noDDle Ince sufficient heat has been added, we reach Mach 1 at the end of the duct The - >s diagram for this is shown as path 1>)>/ This is called thermal cho+ing It is assumed that the receiver pressure is at (/ or below Fi#"re 5>(55 #ddition of more heat when cho+ed 10 < TA7=M#C CAIKI%N ?F7 TI A7#TI%N 3>3 =eduction of the receiver pressure below (/ would not affect the flow conditions inside the system Aowever, the addition of more heat will change these conditions %ow suppose that we add more heat to the system This would probably be done by increasing the heat transfer rate through the walls of the original duct Aowever, it is more convenient to indicate the additional heat transfer at the original rate in an e$tra piece of duct, as shown in 0igure 10 11 The only way that the system can reflect the required additional entropy change is to move to a new =ayleigh line at a decreased flow rate This is shown as path 1>)O>/O> 2 on the - >s diagram *hether or not the e$it velocity remains sonic depends on how much e$tra heat is added and on the receiver pressure imposed on the system #s a specific e$ample of cho+ed flow we return to the combustion chamber of 7$ample 10 2, which had the ma$imum amount of heat addition possible, assuming that the free"stream air flow entered the chamber with no change in velocity *e now consider what happens as more fuel &heat' is added