The Family Tree of Stainless Steel

FIRST BRANCH Chromium Containing As we mentioned, to be a stainless, the iron base must contain at least 10.5% Cr. and the carbon content is less that 1%. These two things made stainless "Steel" totally different from mild "Steel." The basic stainless with 1 to 1!% chromium are called ""artensitic" #based on the structure$ and ha%e the following characteristics& Are magnetic Can be hardened by "heat treatment" 'a%e "(oor" welding characteristics

Common Uses: )nife blades Surgical instruments *asteners Shafts S(rings

Common Grades:

Stainless is designated by three different systems 1. "etallurgical structure + "artensitic . ,rade& -10 #most used$, - 0 #cutlery$, --0C #for %ery high hardness$ .. /nified 0umbering System /0S& S-1000, S- 000, S--00Second Branch Chromium Containing The second branch also contain 1 to 1!% chromium 1/T has a 23456 carbon le%el #less than 0. %$. Since the carbon is low, these grades ha%e a different metallurgical structure and are called "*erritic" stainless steels. They ha%e the following characteristics& Are magnetic CA003T be hardened by "heat treatment" #always used in the annealed or softened condition$ 4eldability is still (oor

Common Uses: Automoti%e e7haust and fuel lines Architectural trim Coo8ing utensils 1an8 %aults

Common grades: Stainless is designated by three different systems 1. "etallurgical structure + *erritic . ,rade& -09 #high tem(erature$, -.0 #most used$ .. /nified 0umbering System /0S& S-0900, S-.000 Third Branch Nic el Containing: 4hen nic8el is added and the chromium le%el is increased, the structure changes again and it is called "Austenitic" and they ha%e the following characteristics& Are 03T magnetic CA003T be hardened by "heat treatment" 1/T CA0 be hardened by cold wor8ing 'a%e the "15ST" corrosion resistance Can be easily welded 'a%e e7cellent cleanability and hygiene characteristics 'a%e e7ce(tional resistance to both high and low tem(erature

Common Uses: )itchen sin8s Architectural a((lications such as roofs and gutters, doors and windows, tubular frames *ood (rocessing e:ui(ment 6estaurant food (re(aration areas Chemical %essels 3%ens 'eat e7changers

Common Grades: Stainless is designated by three different systems 1. "etallurgical structure + Austenitic . ,rade& .0- #most used$, .10 #for high tem(erature$, .1; #for better corrosion resistance$, .1< #for best corrosion resistance$ .. /nified 0umbering System /0S& S.0-00, S.1000, S.1;00, S.1<00 #0ote chemistry and (ro(erties gi%en for .0- and .1;$ Some !imitations: Austenitic stainless steels ha%e some limitations& The ma7imum tem(erature under o7idi=ing conditions is 9 5>C #see heat resisting stainless steels$ They are suitable only for low concentrations of reducing acid #Su(er Austenitics are a%ailable for higher acid le%els$ ?n cer%ices and shielded areas, there might not be enough o7ygen to maintain the (assi%e o7ide film and cre%ice corrosion might occur #Su(er Austenitics, @u(le7 and Su(er *erritic are a%ailable in these situations$ Aery high le%els of halide ions, es(ecially the chloride ion can also brea8down the (assi%e surface film #Su(er Austenitics and @u(le7 are a%ailable to withstand these conditions$ Fourth Branch "u#le$ Stainless Steels 4hen the chromium content is high #1! to ;%$ and the nic8el content is low #to <%$, the resulting structure is called @u(le7. ?n addition most grades contain to .% molybdenum. This results in a structure that is a combination of both *erritic and Austenitic #hence the name @u(le7$, and ha%e the following characteristics&

'igh resistance to stress corrosion crac8ing ?ncreased resistance to chloride ion attac8 Aery weldable 'a%e higher tensile and yield strengths than Ausenitic or *erritic stainless steels

Common Uses: Sea water a((lications 'eat e7changers @esalination (lants *ood (ic8ling (lants

Common Grades: 1. "etallurgical structure + @u(le7 . ,rade& 05 .. /nified 0umbering System /0S& S.1!0.

Chemical Com#osition

Chemical Com#osition % #"a7 unless noted$ Stainless -10 C "n B S Si Cr 11.50+ 1..00 1;.00+ 1!.00 1!.00+ 0.00 1;.00+ 1!.00 .00+ ..00 0.<5 0i "o 0

0.15 1.00 0.0-0 0.0.0 0.500

-.0

0.1

1.00 0.0-0 0.0.0 1.000

.0-

0.0!

.00 0.0-5 0.0.0 1.000

!.00+ 10.50 10.00+ 1-.00 5.50+;.00 .00+ ..00 ..00+ ..50 0.1<

.1;

0.0!

.00 0.0-5 0.0.0 1.000

05

0.0

.00 0.0-5 0.0.0 1.000

Ho& is it made' Stainless steel is (roduced in an electric arc furnace where carbon electrodes contact recycled stainless scra( and %arious alloys of chromium #and nic8el, molybdenum etc. de(ending on the stainless ty(e$. A current is (assed through the electrode and the tem(erature increases to a (oint where the scra( and alloys melt. The molten material from the electric furnace is then transferred into an A3@ #Argon 37ygen @ecarboni=ation$ %essel, where the carbon le%els are reduced #remember stainless has a much lower carbon le%el than mild steel$ and the final alloy additions are made to ma8e the e7act chemistry. 57hibit 1 shows the (rocess from melting and casting either into ingots or continually cast into a slab or billet form. Then the material is hot rolled or forged into its final form. Some material recei%es cold rolling to further reduce the thic8ness as in sheets or drawn into smaller diameters as in rods and wire. "ost stainless steels recei%e a final annealing #a heat treatment that softens the structure$ and (ic8ling #an acid wash that remo%es furnace scale from annealing and hel(s (romote the (assi%e surface film that naturally occurs$.

!IF( C)C!( The fact that stainless steel has a great resistance to corrosion means that using stainless will result in a %ery long life com(ared to mild steel. Structures made from stainless steel will last many times the normal life #well o%er 100 years in most cases$. So, while stainless steel is (robably more e7(ensi%e to buy in the beginning ++ because it lasts a long time, it is usually chea(er in the long run because there is little or no maintenance and re(air costs. A0@, once the useful life is o%er, stainless steel is 100% 65CCC2A125. Scra( stainless steel is recharged into the electric furnaces for re+melting bac8 into stainless steel. Stainless steel is a true "full life cycle" material.

*echanical +ro#erties #Annealed condition$ Tensile Strength Cield Strength 5longation 'ardness

Stainless

8si

"Ba

8si

"Ba

-10 -.0 .0.1;

<0 <5 !!-

-!. 51< 5<9 5<9

-5 50 -

.10 .-5 90 90

5 5 55 50

1!0 1!5 1!0 1<9

5longation in " #50.!0 mm$ 'ardness in 6oc8well 1 Benefits Corrosion resistance ++lower alloyed grades resist corrosion in atmos(heric and (ure water en%ironments, while high+alloyed grades can resist corrosion in most acids, al8aline solutions, and chlorine bearing en%ironments, (ro(erties which are utili=ed in (rocess (lants. Fire , heat resistance ++s(ecial high chromium and nic8el+alloyed grades resist scaling and retain strength at high tem(eratures. Hygiene ++the easy cleaning ability of stainless ma8es it the first choice for strict hygiene conditions, such as hos(itals, 8itchens, abattoirs and other food (rocessing (lants. Aesthetic a##earance ++the bright, easily maintained surface of stainless steel (ro%ides a modern and attracti%e a((earance. Strength-to-&eight ad.antage ++the wor8+hardening (ro(erty of austenitic grades, that results in a significant strengthening of the material from cold+wor8ing alone, and the high strength du(le7 grades, allow reduced material thic8ness o%er con%entional grades, therefore cost sa%ings. (ase of fa/rication ++modern steel+ma8ing techni:ues mean that stainless can be cut, welded, formed, machined, and fabricated as readily as traditional steels.

Im#act resistance ++the austenitic microstructure of the .00 series (ro%ides high toughness, from ele%ated tem(eratures to far below free=ing, ma8ing these steels (articularly suited to cryogenic a((lications. !ong term .alue ++when the total life cycle costs are considered, stainless is often the least e7(ensi%e material o(tion

0elding Stainless Steel The stainless (ro(erties of stainless steels are (rimarily due to the (resence of chromium in :uantities greater than roughly 1 weight (ercent. This le%el of chromium is the minimum le%el of chromium to ensure a continuous stable layer of (rotecti%e chromium+rich o7ide forms on the surface. The ability to form chromium o7ide in the weld region must be maintained to ensure stainless (ro(erties of the weld region after welding. ?n commercial (ractice, howe%er, some stainless steels are sold containing as little as 9 weight (ercent chromium and will rust at ambient tem(eratures. Stainless steels are generally classified by their microstructure and are identified as ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, or du(le7 #austenitic and ferritic$. The microstructure significantly affects the weld (ro(erties and the choice of welding (rocedure used for these stainless steel alloys. ?n addition, a number of (reci(itation+hardenable #B'$ stainless steels e7ist. Breci(itation+hardenable stainless steels ha%e martensitic or austenitic microstructures. ?ron, carbon, chromium and nic8el are the (rimary elements found in stainless steels and significantly affect microstructure and welding. 3ther alloying elements are added to control microstructure or enhance material (ro(erties. These other alloys affect welding (ro(erties by changing the chromium or nic8el e:ui%alents and thereby changing the microstructure of the weld metal. ,enerally, 00 and .00 series alloys are mostly austenitic and -00 series alloys are ferritic or martensitic, but e7ce(tions e7ist. Stainless steels are subDect to se%eral forms of locali=ed corrosi%e attac8. The (re%ention of locali=ed corrosi%e attac8 is one of the concerns when selecting base metal, filler metal and welding (rocedures when fabricating com(onents from stainless steels. Stainless steels are subDect to weld metal and heat affected =one crac8ing, the formation of embrittling second (hases and concerns about ductile to brittle fracture transition. The (re%ention of crac8ing or the formation of embrittling microstructures is another main concern when welding or fabricating stainless steels. 0elding Austenitic Stainless Steels

?deally, austenitic stainless steels e7hibit a single+(hase, the face+ centered cubic #fcc$ structure, that is maintained o%er a wide range of tem(eratures. This structure results from a balance of alloying additions, (rimarily nic8el, that stabili=e the austenite (hase from ele%ated to cryogenic tem(eratures. 1ecause these alloys are (redominantly single (hase, they can only be strengthened by solid+solution alloying or by wor8 hardening. Breci(itation+strengthened austenitic stainless steels will be discussed se(arately below. The austenitic stainless steels were de%elo(ed for use in both mild and se%ere corrosi%e conditions. Austenitic stainless steels are used at tem(eratures that range from cryogenic tem(eratures, where they e7hibit high toughness, to ele%ated tem(eratures, where they e7hibit good o7idation resistance. 1ecause the austenitic materials are nonmagnetic, they are sometimes used in a((lications where magnetic materials are not acce(table. The most common ty(es of austenitic stainless steels are the 00 and .00 series. 4ithin these two grades, the alloying additions %ary significantly. *urthermore, alloying additions and s(ecific alloy com(osition can ha%e a maDor effect on weldability and the as+welded microstructure. The .00 series of alloys ty(ically contain from ! to 0 weight (ercent 0i and from 1; to 5 weight (ercent Cr. A concern, when welding the austenitic stainless steels, is the susce(tibility to solidification and li:uation crac8ing. Crac8s can occur in %arious regions of the weld with different orientations, such as centerline crac8s, trans%erse crac8s, and microcrac8s in the underlying weld metal or adDacent heat+affected =one #'AE$. These crac8s are (rimarily due, to low+melting li:uid (hases, which allow boundaries to se(arate under the thermal and shrin8age stresses during weld solidification and cooling. 5%en with these crac8ing concerns, the austenitic stainless steels are generally considered the most weldable of the stainless steels. 1ecause of their (hysical (ro(erties, the welding beha%ior of austenitic stainless steels is different than the ferritic, martensitic, and du(le7 stainless steels. *or e7am(le, the thermal conducti%ity of austenitic alloys is roughly half that of ferritic alloys. Therefore, the weld heat in(ut that is re:uired to achie%e the same (enetration is reduced. ?n contrast, the coefficient of thermal e7(ansion of austenite is .0 to -0 (ercent greater than that of ferrite, which can result in increases in both distortion and residual stresses, due to welding. The molten weld (ool of the austenitic stainless steels is commonly more %iscous, or sluggish, than ferritic and martensitic alloys. This slows down the metal flow and wettability of welds in austenitic alloys, which may (romote lac8+of+fusion defects when (oor welding (rocedures are em(loyed. 0elding Ferritic Stainless Steels *erritic stainless steels com(rise a((ro7imately half of the -00 series stainless steels. These steels contain from 10.5 to .0 weight (ercent

chromium along with other alloying elements, (articularly molybdenum. *erritic stainless steels are noted for their stress+corrosion crac8ing #SCC$ resistance and good resistance to (itting and cre%ice corrosion in chloride en%ironments, but ha%e (oor toughness, es(ecially in the welded condition. ?deally, ferritic stainless steels ha%e the body+centered cubic #bcc$ crystal structure 8nown as ferrite at all tem(eratures below their melting tem(eratures. "any of these alloys are subDect to the (reci(itation of undesirable intermetallic (hases when e7(osed to certain tem(erature ranges. The higher+chromium alloys can be embrittled by (reci(itation of the tetragonal sigma (hase, which is based on the com(ound *eCr. "olybdenum (romotes formation of the com(le7 cubic chi (hase, which has a nominal com(osition of *e.;Cr1 "o10. 5mbrittlement increases with increasing chromium (lus molybdenum contents. ?t is generally agreed that the se%ere embrittlement which occurs u(on long+term e7(osure is due to the decom(osition of the iron+chromium ferrite (hase into a mi7ture of iron+rich al(ha and chromium+rich al(ha+(rime (hases. This embrittlement is often called "al(ha+(rime embrittlement." Additional reactions such as chromium carbide and nitride (reci(itation may (lay a significant role in the more ra(id, early stage !!5 F* embrittlement. The ferritic stainless steels ha%e higher yield strengths and lower ductilities than austenitic stainless steels. 2i8e carbon steels, and unli8e austenitic stainless steels, the ferritic stainless alloys e7hibit a transition from ductile+to+brittle beha%ior as the tem(erature is reduced, es(ecially in notched im(act tests. The ductile+to+brittle transition tem(erature #@1TT$ for the ultrahigh+(urity ferritic stainless steels is lower than that for standard ferritic stainless steels. ?t is ty(ically below room tem(erature for the ultrahigh+(urity ferritic stainless steels. 0ic8el additions lower the @1TT and there by slightly increase the thic8nesses associated with high toughness. 0e%ertheless, with or without nic8el, the ferritic stainless steels would need engineering re%iew for anything other than thin walled a((lications as they are (rone to brittle failure. 0elding *artensitic Stainless Steels "artensitic stainless steels are considered to be the most difficult of the stainless steel alloys to weld. 'igher carbon contents will (roduce greater hardness and, therefore, an increased susce(tibility to crac8ing. ?n addition to the (roblems that result from locali=ed stresses associated with the %olume change u(on martensitic transformation, the ris8 of crac8ing will increase when hydrogen from %arious sources is (resent in the weld metal. A com(lete and a((ro(riate welding (rocess is needed to (re%ent crac8ing and (roduce a sound weld. "artensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that (ossess a body+centered cubic #bcc$ or body+centered tetragonal

#bct$ crystal structure #martensitic$ in the hardened condition. They are ferromagnetic and hardenable by heat treatments. Their general resistance to corrosion is ade:uate for some corrosi%e en%ironments, but not as good as other stainless steels. The chromium content of these materials generally ranges from 11.5 to 1! weight (ercent, and their carbon content can be as high as 1. weight (ercent. The chromium and carbon contents are balanced to ensure a martensitic structure after hardening. "artensitic stainless steels are chosen for their good tensile strength, cree(, and fatigue strength (ro(erties, in combination with moderate corrosion resistance and heat resistance. The most commonly used alloy within this stainless steel family is ty(e -10, which contains about 1 weight (ercent chromium and 0.1 weight (ercent carbon to (ro%ide strength. "olybdenum can be added to im(ro%e mechanical (ro(erties or corrosion resistance. 0ic8el can be added for the same reasons. 4hen higher chromium le%els are used to im(ro%e corrosion resistance, nic8el also ser%es to maintain the desired microstructure and to (re%ent e7cessi%e free ferrite. The limitations on the alloy content re:uired to maintain the desired fully martensitic structure restrict the obtainable corrosion resistance to moderate le%els.

0elding "u#le$ Stainless Steels @u(le7 stainless steels are two (hase alloys based on the iron+chromium+ nic8el system. @u(le7 stainless steels usually com(rise a((ro7imately e:ual (ro(ortions of the body+centered cubic #bcc$ ferrite and face+ centered cubic #fcc$ austenite (hases in their microstructure and generally ha%e a low carbon content as well as, additions of molybdenum, nitrogen, tungsten, and co((er. Ty(ical chromium contents are 0 to .0 weight (ercent and nic8el contents are 5 to 10 weight (ercent. The s(ecific ad%antages offered by du(le7 stainless steels o%er con%entional .00 series stainless steels are strength, chloride stress+corrosion crac8ing resistance, and (itting corrosion resistance. @u(le7 stainless steels are used in the intermediate tem(erature ranges from ambient to se%eral hundred degrees *ahrenheit #de(ending on en%ironment$, where resistance to acids and a:ueous chlorides is re:uired. The weldability and welding characteristics of du(le7 stainless steels are better than those of ferritic stainless steels, but generally not as good as austenitic materials. A suitable welding (rocess is needed to obtain sound welds. @u(le7 stainless steel weldability is generally good, although it is not as forgi%ing as austenitic stainless steels. Control of heat in(ut is im(ortant. Solidification crac8ing and hydrogen crac8ing are concerns when welding du(le7 stainless steels, but not as significant for some other stainless steel alloys.

Current commercial grades of du(le7 stainless steels contain between and ; weight (ercent chromium, - to < weight (ercent nic8el, u( to -.5 weight (ercent molybdenum, as well as some co((er, tungsten, and nitrogen. "odifications to the alloy com(ositions ha%e been made to im(ro%e corrosion resistance, wor8ability, and weldability. ?n (articular, nitrogen additions ha%e been effecti%e in im(ro%ing (itting corrosion resistance and weldability. The (ro(erties of du(le7 stainless steels can be a((reciably affected by welding. @ue to the im(ortance of maintaining a balanced microstructure and a%oiding the formation of undesirable metallurgical (hases, the welding (rocedures must be (ro(erly s(ecified and controlled. ?f the welding (rocedure is im(ro(er and disru(ts the a((ro(riate microstructure, loss of material (ro(erties can occur. 1ecause these steels deri%e (ro(erties from both austenitic and ferritic (ortions of the structure, many of the single+(hase base material characteristics are also e%ident in du(le7 materials. Austenitic stainless steels ha%e good weldability and low+tem(erature toughness, whereas their chloride SCC resistance and strength are com(arati%ely (oor. *erritic stainless steels ha%e good resistance to chloride SCC but ha%e (oor toughness, es(ecially in the welded condition. A du(le7 microstructure with high ferrite content can therefore ha%e (oor low+ tem(erature notch toughness, whereas a structure with high austenite content can (ossess low strength and reduced resistance to chloride SCC. The high alloy content of du(le7 stainless steels also ma8es them susce(tible to the formation of intermetallic (hases from e7tended e7(osure to high tem(eratures. Significant intermetallic (reci(itation may lead to a loss of corrosion resistance and sometimes to a loss of toughness. @u(le7 stainless steels ha%e roughly e:ual (ro(ortions of austenite and ferrite, with ferrite being the matri7. The du(le7 stainless steels alloying additions are either austenite or ferrite formers. This is occurs by e7tending the tem(erature range o%er which the (hase is stable. Among the maDor alloying elements in du(le7 stainless steels chromium and molybdenum are ferrite formers, whereas nic8el, carbon, nitrogen, and co((er are austenite formers. Com(osition also (lays a maDor role in the corrosion resistance of du(le7 stainless steels. Bitting corrosion resistance can be ad%ersely affected. To determine the e7tent of (itting corrosion resistance offered by the material, a (itting resistance e:ui%alent is commonly used. 0elding +reci#itation-Hardena/le Stainless Steels Breci(itation+hardening #B'$ stainless steels are iron+chromium+nic8el alloys. They generally ha%e better corrosion resistance than martensitic stainless steels. The high tensile strengths of the B' stainless steels is due to (reci(itation hardening of a martensitic or austenitic matri7.

Co((er, aluminum, titanium, niobium #columbium$, and molybdenum are the (rimary elements added to these stainless steels to (romote (reci(itation hardening. Breci(itation+hardening stainless steels are commonly categori=ed into three ty(es martensitic, semiaustenitic, and austenitic based on their martensite start and finish #"s and "f$ tem(eratures and the resulting microstructures. The issues in%ol%ed in welding B' steels are different for each grou(. ?t is im(ortant to understand the microstructure of the (articular ty(e of alloy being welded. Some of the B' stainless steels solidify as (rimary ferrite and ha%e relati%ely good resistance to hot crac8ing. ?n other B' stainless steels, ferrite is not formed, and it is more difficult to weld these alloys without hot crac8ing. Ty#ical A##lications

T)+( .012

.0-G.0-2

.09G.09S .10G.10S

.1;G.1;2 .1<2

.1;Ti . 1

-09 --1

US( 2ightweight structural com(onents and (anels in trans(ort %ehicles. Architectural framewor8 and (anelling Coo8ware, sin8s, cutlery, catering e:ui(ment, hos(ital e:ui(ment, food H be%erage e:ui(ment, abattoir e:ui(ment, (harmaceutical e:ui(ment, cryogenic, (i(ewor8, tan8s and (rocess %essels for a large %ariety of corrosi%e li:uids. 'igh tem(erature o7idation #scaling$ resistance, good high tem(erature strength. *urnace (arts, muffles, radiant tubes Bi(ewor8s, tan8s, (rocess %essels for more aggressi%e corrosi%e li:uids and conditions in chemical, (etrochemical, (ul( and (a(er, (ollution control, hydro metallurgical and (etroleum industries. Com(onents re:uiring good ele%ated tem(erture strength e.g. su(er heaters, com(ensators, e7(ansion bellows. 5:ui(ment e7(osed to ele%ated tem(eratureGa:ueous corrosion cycles. #.1;Ti for more aggressi%e corrosi%e conditions$. Automoti%e e7haust (i(es, silencers and catalytic con%ertors Catalytic con%ertors for more arduous conditions than -09. 'eat e7changers, tubes, geysers

-.0

.C61

Sin8s, washtroughs, trim for domestic e:ui(ment, 8itchen and cafeteria utensils, cutlery. 3re cars, freight cars, bus chassis, bus frames, chutes, launders, buntons, con%eyor e:ui(ment and systems, tan8s. ,eneral material handling e:ui(ment (articularly wet sliding abrasion conditions. Structural a((lications in corrosi%e industries, ladders, wal8ways, cable rac8s

Facts A/out Stainless Conditions &hich fa.our use of stainless steel

Corrosi%e 5n%ironment Aery low #cryogenic$ tem(eratures (re%ent brittleness 'igh tem(eratures + (re%ent scale maintain strength 'igh strength %s mass 'ygienic conditions re:uired + easy cleanibility Aesthetic a((earance + no rust, thus no (aint necessary 0o contamination + (re%ents catalytic reactions @ischarge slideability from ho((ers 4et abrasion resistance 0on+magnetic (ro(erties of austenitic grades

1ey considerations in &or ing stainless steels

1N20 TH( *AT(RIA! )nowledge im(ro%es decision ma8ing, a%oids (roblems and sa%es costs 1N20 TH( GRA"( 2F *AT(RIA! Correct material selection is %ital + ris8 ta8ing is costly 1N20 TH( "(SIGN ,ood design ensures sa%ings for fabricator and user 1N20 SURFAC( FINISH(S ,ood finishes (erform well, loo8 good and (romote sales A++!) G22" H2US(1((+ING ,ood house8ee(ing sa%es rectification costs A++!) ACCURAT( I"(NTIFICATI2N 2ost identity can (ro%e costly A++!) +R2"UCTI2N +!ANNING Blanning sa%es costs and (romotes :uality A++!) 1N20!("G( 6emember that additional information if always a%ailable through SASS@A

2ther factors

Thermal conducti.ity All stainless steels ha%e a much lower conducti%ity than that of carbon #mild$ steel. #Blain chromium grades I+ 1G. and austenitic grades I+ 1G-$ This must be borne in mind for any o(eration which in%ol%es high tem(erature, e.g. effects during welding #control of heat in(ut$ longer times re:uired for heating to attain a uniform tem(erature for hot wor8ing ($#ansion coefficient Blain chromium grades ha%e an e7(ansion coefficient similar to carbon #mild$ steels, but that of the austenitic grades is I+ 1 1G times higher. The combination of high e7(ansion and low thermal conducti%ity means that (recautions must be ta8en to a%oid ad%erse effects, e.g. during welding use low heat in(ut, dissi(ate heat by use of co((er bac8ing bars and use ade:uate Digging. This factor must also be considered in com(onents, which use a mi7ture of materials, e.g. a heat e7changer with a mild steel shell and austenitic grade tubes. +assi.e film3#assi.ity Stainless steels rely on a %ery thin surface (assi%e film for their corrosion resistance. ?t is %ital to maintain and (reser%e the integrity of the (assi%e film.

A%oid mechanical damage and contamination 6e(air any affected areas #e.g. high tem(erature scale adDacent to a weld, mechanically damaged or ground areas$, by (assi%ation only or by both (ic8ling H (assi%ation 5nsure a constant and sufficient a%ailability of o7ygen at the surface of the stainless steel

Gailing3#ic u#3sei4ing Stainless Steels ha%e a tendency to gall, (ic8+u( or sei=e. To a%oid this ta8e (recautions such as *or surfaces e7(eriencing relati%e motion minimise the load, ensure no heat build u(, 8ee( free of grit or contaminants, use lubricants or surface coatings 3n threaded com(onents the threads must ha%e a high degree of surface finish, com(onents should ha%e an intermediate to free fit, a%oid o%er tor:ue and contamination of threads.