Seafloor hydrothermal systems driven by the serpentinization

of peridotite
R. P. Lowell
1
and P. A. Rona
2
Received 20 November 2001; revised 1 April 2002; accepted 15 April 2002; published 12 June 2002.
[1] Heat balance models predict that heat released upon
serpentinization of peridotites can result in a wide range of
hydrothermal venting temperatures. Temperatures ranging from a
few to a few tens of C are likely. Temperatures ~300C may be
possible in conjunction with significant heat input from below, low
fluid flow rate (_10 kg/s), a high rate of serpentinization (_100
kg/s), or some combination of these factors. The volume of fresh
lithosphere accessible to serpentinization may limit the duration of
an episode of hydrothermal venting when the serpentinization rate
exceeds 10 kg/s. Hydrothermal venting driven by high rates of
serpentinization may occur episodically as new reaction surfaces
are made available by tectonic activity or crack propagation. Given
the uncertainty of several parameters, the current episode of
venting at the Lost City vent field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge may
range from ~10
2
to 10
4
years. INDEX TERMS: 3015 Marine
Geology and Geophysics: Heat flow (benthic) and hydrothermal
processes; 3210 Mathematical Geophysics: Modeling; 4832
Oceanography: Biological and Chemical: Hydrothermal systems
1. Introduction
[2] Serpentinization, which occurs upon reaction of ultramafic
rocks with seawater, is commonly observed in peridotites dredged
from the seafloor and in ophiolites [Bonatti, 1976; Nicholas, 1989;
Cannat, 1993] as well as in cores recovered by the ocean drilling
program [Gillis et al., 1993; Fruh-Green et al., 1996; Karson and
Lawrence, 1997]. This process yields distinctive chemical solu-
tions [Janecky and Seyfried, 1986; Wetzel and Shock, 2000; Kelley
et al., 2001] characterized by high pH and high ratios of abiogenic
CH
4
, H
2
, and Ca to Mn and other metals. Moreover, the reaction is
exothermic [Fyfe and Lonsdale, 1981; Macdonald and Fyfe, 1985],
and the heat released during serpentinization may drive hydro-
thermal flow [Rona et al., 1987; Barriga et al., 1998; Kelley et al.,
2001].
[3] Conditions conducive to serpentinization include a high
ratio of tectonic extension to magmatism, a low magma budget,
and high fracture/fault permeability that repeatedly facilitates
access of seawater to large volumes of upper mantle. Such
conditions generally occur at slow spreading ridges. Mounting
evidence indicates that fluids with signatures of serpentinization
reactions are common along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge [Charlou
et al., 1991; Rona et al., 1992; Charlou and Donval, 1993;
Bougault et al., 1998; Gracia et al., 2000]. High CH
4
and H
2
concentrations indicate the presence of these solutions in the
Logatchev (1445
/
N, 4458
/
W) and Rainbow (3614
/
N,
3354
/
W) high-temperature (350360C) hydrothermal fields
hosted in gabbros and serpentinized peridotites near the axis of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge [Krasnov et al., 1995; Donval et al., 1997;
Douville et al., 1997]; however, the hydrothermal fluids from these
two fields also exhibit constituents indicative of basalt-seawater
reactions.
[4] The recently discovered Lost City field is an end member
of a hydrothermal system driven by serpentinization reactions
[Kelley et al., 2001]. This field is located about 15 km west of
the eastern inner corner high of the Atlantis transform fault at
30N, where a detachment fault has exposed upper mantle
peridotites that are undergoing serpentinization, presumably iso-
lated from magmatic heat sources. The venting site is situated
~15 km west of the spreading axis on about 1.5 million years old
lithosphere [Cann et al., 1997; Blackman et al., 1998]. Serpenti-
nization-derived fluids are discharging at temperatures up to 75C
and precipitating calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide
chimneys, which have grown up to 60 m high [Kelley et al.,
2001].
[5] To better understand the role of serpentinization reactions in
driving hydrothermal flow in the oceanic crust, we develop a
simple heat balance model to estimate temperature and heat output
and to compare the role of serpentinization reactions with other
heat sources.
2. Heat Balance Model
[6] To quantify the effect of the serpentinization reactions on
hydrothermal output we construct simple heat balance equations.
We first assume that hydrothermal flow may be driven by a basal
conductive heat flux H (in Watts), corresponding to either a
background or a magmatic heat source. If this heat flux is entirely
transported by hydrothermal flow then
c
f
QT
1
= H (1)
where c
f
is the specific heat of the fluid, Q is the total mass flow
rate in kg/s, and T
1
is the difference between the temperature of
the hydrothermal fluid and the background temperature. We then
superimpose the total heat flux resulting from the latent heat of
serpentinization and recognize that this heat flux locally heats the
rock and results in an additional hydrothermal flow with
temperature T
2
, we write
c
f
QT
2
c
r
MT
2
= LM (2)
where c
r
is the specific heat of the rock, L is the latent heat of
reaction, and M is the rate of serpentinization in kg/s, respectively.
Combining equations (1) and (2) and solving for the total
temperature change T = T
1
+ T
2
yields
T =
LM
c
f
Q c
r
M

H
c
f
Q
(3)
[7] Figure 1 shows T as a function of M for various values of
Q, for values of H ranging from 0 to 100 MW. The range of M
corresponds to a volume rate of serpentinization of 1 km
3
/10
6
y at
the low end (M = 0.1 kg/s) to 1 km
3
/10
2
y at the high end (M = 10
3
GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 29, NO. 11, 1531, 10.1029/2001GL014411, 2002
1
School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, USA.
2
Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences and Department of Geological
Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, USA.
Copyright 2002 by the American Geophysical Union.
0094-8276/02/2001GL014411
26 - 1
kg/s). The range of Q values corresponds to a high-temperature
(400C) heat output between 2.5 MW_ c
f
QT _ 2500 MWand a
low-temperature (10C) heat output between 0.04 MW_c
f
QT _
40 MW. The parameters used thus encompass essentially the entire
range of expected hydrothermal temperatures and heat outputs.
Although the latent heat may be somewhat different for different
serpentinization reactions, we use the value L = 2.5 10
5
J/kg
[Fyfe and Lonsdale, 1981].
[8] Figure 1a shows that for low values of Q the temperature
increase resulting from serpentinization can approach 250C,
provided M = 10
3
kg/s. For higher mass flow rates and lower rates
of serpentinization (i.e., 10
2
kg/s _Q _ 10
3
kg/s and 1 kg/s _M_
100 kg/s, respectively), T is at most a few tens of degrees Celsius.
Only exceptionally high rates of serpentinization ~10
3
kg/s would
give rise to a change in fluid temperature exceeding 100C. At the
serpentinization rate of ~0.1 kg/s suggested by Macdonald and
Fyfe [1985]; however, the latent heat release would not raise the
fluid temperature measurably above background.
[9] Figures 1b and 1c, correspond to possible regional back-
ground heat fluxes (at 1 m.y. crustal age, half-space cooling models
give a heat flux density of ~500 mW/m
2
[e.g., Fowler, 1990]).
Thus H = 0.5 MW corresponds to background heat flux being
extracted over 1 km
2
, whereas H = 5 MW may represent heat
extraction from a broader area or enhanced (magmatic?) heat flux
from below. Figure 1b and 1c show that if the rate of serpentiniza-
tion is less than 1 kg/s, the hydrothermal temperature is dominated
by the heat flux from below. At higher rates of serpentinization, the
effect of latent heat release is superimposed on the hydrothermal
temperature resulting from the basal heat flux. Figures 1b and 1c
indicate that in a near axis setting with flow rates of 10 to 100 kg/s,
the hydrothermal temperature will range from a few tens of degrees
Cto perhaps as much as 150C. The higher temperatures correspond
to the lower flow rates. In cases of rapid serpentinization (e.g.,
10
2
kg/s), lowflow rate (e.g., 10 kg/s), and high basal heat flux (e.g.,
5 MW) hydrothermal temperatures could reach more than 250C.
[10] Figure 1d corresponds to serpentinization superimposed
upon a high-temperature hydrothermal background typical of a
magmatic system. For such a system, which would typically
correspond to a ridge axis environment, simple heat balance
models yield fluid flow rates ~100 kg/s or greater [e.g. Lowell
and Germanovich, 2000]. The hydrothermal temperature is then
mainly determined by the basal heat flux even at the highest rates
of serpentinization.
[11] The Lost City vent field, situated on 1.5 m.y. old crust
15 km away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 30N, is currently
discharging fluids between 40 and 75C. Based on the results
depicted in Figure 1, this system may best correspond to the case in
which the rates of serpentinization and fluid flow both lie between
10 and 100 kg/s basal heat flux is low (Figure 1b). A serpentiniza-
tion rate of 10 kg/s occurring steadily over the 1.5 m.y old history
of lithosphere at this site would result in complete serpentinization
of a rock volume of ~150 km
3
. It seems likely therefore that
current venting activity in the system is younger than the 1.5 m.y.
old lithosphere on which it is situated. Because tectonic activity
may have opened regions of fresh rock for fluid access and
serpentinization reactions to occur, there may have been multiple
episodes of activity at Lost City vent field.
3. Discussion
[12] The temperature given by the heat balance model in
equation (3) represents the temperature at which the fluid leaves
the region of serpentinization. In a purely peridotite-hosted system
such as Lost City, the reaction zone may extend to the seafloor; but
in a system in which peridotite is overlain by basalts such as
Rainbow or Logatchev, the serpentinization reactions may be
occurring only at depth. Then equation (3) yields the discharge
temperature at the seafloor only if heat loss from the discharge
zone is negligible once the fluid leaves the region of serpentiniza-
tion.
[13] As the fluid passes through colder country rock after
leaving the region of serpentinization, some hydrothermal heat
can be lost by thermal conduction to the lower permeability rocks
adjacent to the discharge zone. The rate of lateral heat loss
decreases as the country rock is heated, however; and the discharge
zone becomes self-insulating [e.g., Bodvarsson and Lowell, 1972;
Lowell, 1975].
[14] Suppose the hydrothermal fluid in the discharge zone
enters the colder country rock with flow rate Q and temperature
T
i
and exits to the seafloor with the same flow rate at temperature
T
o
. If the far field temperature T
f
is assumed to be 0, the rate at
which heat is lost through wall area 2A can be approximated
simply by 2AlT
m
/d, where l is the rock thermal conductivity, T
m
=
(T
i
+ T
o
)/2 is the mean temperature of the fluid passing through the
discharge zone, and d is the lateral distance over which conduction
Figure 1. Hydrothermal fluid temperature upon leaving the reaction zone versus the rate of serpentinization in kg/s for various values of
mass flow rate Q. (a) No basal heat flux. (b) Basal heat flux is 0.5 MW. (c) Basal heat flux is 5 MW. (d) Basal heat flux is 100 MW.
26 - 2 LOWELL AND RONA: SERPENTINIZATION OF PERIDOTITE
occurs. Assuming cooling in a half-space, d =

pat
_
, where a is
the thermal diffusivity of the rock and t is the time. Thus the heat
balance can be written
c
f
Q T
i
T
o
( ) = lA
T
o
T
i
( )

pat
_ (4)
If the fractional temperature retention T
o
/T
i
= f, the time needed for
f to exceed a certain value is determined from equation (4) by the
inequality
t _

2
c
2
f
pa
1 f
1 f

2
A
Q

2
(5)
[15] Figure 2 plots t as a function of Q for different values of
A, and for f = 0.9. The values l = 2.0 W (mC)
1
, c
f
= 4 10
3
J
(kgC)
1
, a = 10
6
m
2
s
1
were chosen for the material proper-
ties. Figure 2 shows that if A = 10
6
m
2
and Q = 10 kg/s, the
hydrothermal discharge temperature will be less than 90% of the
temperature calculated using equation (3) for ~8000 years,
whereas if A = 10
5
m
2
, the time needed is ~80 years. A wall
area of 10
6
m
2
implies a distance of 1 km above the zone of
serpentinization and a lateral distance of 1 km. As discussed
previously, the most likely scenario for the Lost City vent field to
have a temperature ~4075C is for both M and Q to range
between 10 and 100 kg/s, respectively. Thus, depending upon the
amount of conductive cooling undergone by the Lost City vent
fluids, the age of the circulation may range from ~10
2
to 10
4
years.
[16] The heat balance model of equation (3) also assumes that
all the heat released upon serpentinization is readily available for
transport by the hydrothermal system. This assumption requires
that interconnected fluid pathways occur throughout the reaction
zone and remain open as serpentinization occurs. Because serpen-
tinization is accompanied by a volume increase of up to 50%
[Coleman, 1971; OHanley, 1992], the reaction tends to seal
porosity.
[17] Suppose, however, that the main fluid flow occurs in
fractures distributed within the host rock and that serpentinization
occurs as fluid infiltrates into the host rock through a set of
microfractures oriented roughly perpendicular to the main crack
network. Then as serpentinization occurs, the volume expansion
could exert stresses that create new fracture surfaces allowing the
reaction to progress into the rock [Macdonald and Fyfe, 1985;
OHanley, 1992]. Such a process would result in the kernel
pattern observed in partially serpentinized rocks, in which a core of
unreacted peridotite is surrounded by a zone of serpentine with
cross-fractures extending from the serpentine to the host rock
[Figure 3; OHanley, 1992]. Serpentinization may thus be con-
trolled by diffusion of water from the main crack network into the
host rock as described by Macdonald and Fyfe [1985], or it may be
controlled by the rate of crack propagation into fresh rock. In either
case, physical processes that are not explicitly incorporated into the
present heat balance model could control the rate of serpentiniza-
tion and latent heat release. Moreover, as the serpentinization front
moves away from the main crack network the transport of latent
heat to the hydrothermal system becomes less and less efficient.
The likelihood that serpentinization of a volume of rock would
occur efficiently at a constant rate is therefore low. Consequently,
the temperature changes resulting from serpentinization given by
equation (3) are likely to be overestimates.
4. Conclusions
[18] Our model calculations indicate that exothermic serpenti-
nization reactions either separately or in concert with heat flux
from below can account for the heat to drive seafloor hydrothermal
systems with a wide range of venting temperatures. Serpentiniza-
tion reactions are likely to result in hydrothermal temperatures
ranging from a few to a few tens of degrees Celsius. Temperatures
~300C in peridotite-hosted systems may be possible in conjunc-
tion with significant heat input from below, low fluid flow rate
(_10 kg/s), a high rate of serpentinization (_100 kg/s), or some
combination of these factors. The volume of lithosphere fresh that
is accessible to serpentinization and drive local hydrothermal
venting may limit the duration of a hydrothermal episode when
the serpentinization rate exceeds 10 kg/s. High rates of serpenti-
nization may occur episodically as new reaction surfaces are made
available by tectonic activity or crack propagation. The tectonic
and magmatic history of a region may eventually be derived from
radiometric dating of hydrothermal precipitates energized by
serpentinization reactions (carbonates) and magmatic intrusions
(sulfides), respectively. Hydrothermal systems driven by exother-
mal serpentinization reactions and associated solutions are likely to
be a quantitatively significant component of hydrothermal output
of slow-spreading ocean ridges, which comprise more than half the
global ~60,000 km length of the ocean ridge system in the
Atlantic, Indian and Arctic oceans.
[19] Acknowledgments. We thank the reviewers and the associate
editor for comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. This work was
supported in part by NSF Grant OCE 9529954 to R.P.L.
Figure 2. Time for hydrothermal temperature to reach 90% of the
temperature of the fluid leaving the reaction zone after accounting
for lateral heat losses plotted against mass flow rate Q for different
values of heat loss area A.
Figure 3. Diagrammatic sketch showing propagation of cross-
fractures into a volume of peridotite and the resulting kernel pattern
[after OHanley, 1992].
LOWELL AND RONA: SERPENTINIZATION OF PERIDOTITE 26 - 3
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R. P. Lowell, School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia

Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA.
P. A. Rona, Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences and Department of
Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, USA.
26 - 4 LOWELL AND RONA: SERPENTINIZATION OF PERIDOTITE